Embodiment and Image Schemas: Interpreting the Figurative Meanings of English Phrasal Verbs

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Article Embodiment and Image Schemas: Interpreting the Figurative Meanings of English Phrasal Verbs

Efthymia Tsaroucha School of Economics and Administrative Sciences, University of Thessaly, 38221 Volos, Greece; eﬁ[email protected]

Received: 3 December 2019; Accepted: 20 January 2020; Published: 22 January 2020

Abstract: The present article suggests that the figurative meanings of English phrasal verbs can be interpreted by means of image schemas. It is argued that image schemas reflect bodily experiences which constitute configurations of spatial perception. The article classifies image schemas and draws examples from English phrasal verbs. The article discusses how the semantics of the particle (which prototypically denotes space and motion) encourages various types of image schemas which can be extended into more abstract and metaphoric readings. The article investigates how English phrasal verbs of the form take plus particles encourage the image schemas of containment, the journey and its component parts, goal, path, proximity-distance, linkage-separation, front-back orientation, part-whole relationship and linear order. The article also argues for image schematic transformations.

Keywords: embodiment; image schemas; image schematic transformations; literal; non-literal; extension; English phrasal verbs

1. Introduction English phrasal verbs constitute one of the most difficult areas of English grammar as far as their teaching and learning is concerned (cf. Rudzka-Ostyn 2003). Foreign learners of English and even native speakers of English often find it challenging to use and/or interpret the correct phrasal verb within the appropriate context (cf. Tsaroucha 2018). Such difficulties are due to the special grammatical status of English phrasal verbs which derives from the verb plus particle composition (cf. Bolinger 1971; Jackendoff 2002). It is suggested that English phrasal verbs are idiomatic due to the unpredictability of their meanings, since their meanings are not the sum of their component parts (for example, blow over means ‘to pass’ or ‘to finish’) (cf. Tsaroucha 2018, Kohl-Dietrich et al. 2016). The present paper suggests that the figurative meanings of English phrasal verbs can be interpreted by means of image schemas. It is argued that English phrasal verbs should be studied as composite wholes due to the verb plus particle combination. The paper follows Tsaroucha(2018) approach to English phrasal verbs, stating that the grammatical category of English phrasal verbs is a special instance of composite structure since English phrasal verbs should be studied as unified constructions. This theory also suggests that within the composite whole of an English phrasal verb, the component particle fills and elaborates the component verb to a greater extent than the reverse could do. Moreover, the present paper suggests that the semantics of the particle encourage image schemas which have a referential basis, since they designate space and motion. It is stated that the figurative meanings of English phrasal verbs emerge due to the extension of the semantics of the particle from literal to more abstract senses. As far as the methodology is concerned, this paper investigates how the figurative meanings of the English phrasal verbs of the form component verb take plus component particle up, down, in/into, out, back, apart can be interpreted by means of different types of image schemas, namely containment, the journey and its component parts, goal, path, proximity-distance, linkage-separation, front-back

Languages 2020, 5, 6; doi:10.3390/languages5010006 www.mdpi.com/journal/languages Languages 2020, 5, 6 2 of 13 orientation, part-whole relationship and linear order. The aforementioned instances of English phrasal verbs were chosen because: (i) take is a highly polysemous verb, (ii) take denotes physical space, (iii) the particles up, down, in/into, out, back, apart prototypically designate space and motion (and later extend into more abstract and figurative senses), (iv) these phrasal verbs exhibit a high degree of frequency of use in everyday speech. The examples were retrieved from the following sources: Macmillan Dictionary (online source), Collins English Dictionary (online source), Merriam-Webster Dictionary (online source), Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (online source), The Free Dictionary (online source) and COCA (online source). The analysis shows that the figurative meanings of the English phrasal verbs of the form ‘take’ + particles can be interpreted by means of image schemas. It is suggested that the component particles up, down, in/into, out, back and apart designate spatial configurations arising from everyday bodily experiences. By means of embodiment, the semantics of the particle shift and are systematically extended to denote more abstract concepts.

2. Theoretical Framework on Image Schemas

2.1. Image Schemas as Gestalts According to Hampe(2005, pp. 1–2), image schemas are deﬁned as follows:

- Image schemas are directly meaningful (‘experiential’/‘embodied’), pre-conceptual structures, which arise from, or are grounded in, human recurrent bodily movements through space, perceptual interactions, and ways of manipulating objects. - Image schemas are highly schematic gestalts, which capture the structural contours of sensory-motor experience, integrating information from multiple modalities. - Image schemas exist as continuous and analogue patterns beneath conscious awareness, prior to and independently of other concepts. - As gestalts, image schemas are both internally structured, i.e., made up of very few related parts, and highly ﬂexible. This ﬂexibility becomes manifest in the numerous transformations they undergo in various experiential contexts, all of which are closely related to perceptual (gestalt) principles.

2.2. Image Schemas as Embodied Experiences Johnson(1987) suggested that image schemas constitute spatial pre-conceptual configurations arising from everyday bodily experiences. According to him, image schemas reflect the way humans perceive space; spatial perception constitutes a core tenet of humans’ interaction with the environment that further holds for the embodiment of meaning. Johnson (ibid: xiv) stated that an image schema could be defined as a “recurring, dynamic pattern [ ... ] that gives coherence and structure to our experience”. Therefore, image schemas are embodied as they emerge through our continuous interaction with the physical environment and, as a consequence, they are “constantly operating in our perception, bodily movement through space, and physical manipulation of objects” (ibid: 23). Moreover, Johnson(1987: xv) stated that embodied experience manifests itself at the cognitive level in terms of image schemas; hence, concepts like contact, balance, and source-path-goal are meaningful because they derive from and are linked to our interaction with other people and our environment. These embodied concepts are systematically extended to provide more abstract concepts and conceptual domains with structure (ibid: xv). The metaphorical projection from the concrete to the abstract enables the language user to understand physical experience in two ways: (i) our bodily movements and interactions in various physical domains of experience are structured (with image schemas) and (ii) that structure can be projected by metaphor onto abstract domains (ibid: xv). Lakoff (1987) and Johnson(1987) stated that many areas of experience are metaphorically structured by means of a rather small number of image schemas. Languages 2020, 5, 6 3 of 13

2.3. Image Schemas as Spatial Configurations Tyler and Evans(2005, p. 30) highlighted that image schemas constitute an attempt to understand conceptual structure or concepts, not only as propositional information but also as “[ ... ] redescriptions of spatio-physical external experience”. Even if a significant portion of the conceptual structure is external in origin, there is further evidence suggesting that “a portion of conceptual structure represents a redescription not of external preparatory experience, but rather of internal perceptory experience” (Grady 1997, Evans 2000 cited in Tyler and Evans 2005, p. 30). According to De Mendoza Ibáñez and Velasco(2002, p. 508), an image schema functions as “a source input space cued by the metaphorical expression whose basic structure and logic agrees with the structure and logic of generic space”. In their approach, image schemas are grouped into four types, namely (i) abandoned space (or container), (ii) path, (iii) contact and (iv) bodily orientations (up-down, front-back, center-periphery) (ibid: 507) Whenever an image schema is involved in an expression, “it provides the basic blueprint for the projection and combination of information from other Idealized Cognitive Models” (ibid: 508). Moreover, according to Taylor(2002, pp. 337–38), the most basic image schemas are: containment, a journey and its component parts, proximity-distance, linkage-separation, front-back orientation, part-whole relationship, linear order, up-down orientation, mass vs. multiplex conceptualizations. It should be noted that the present article adopts Taylor’s (ibid) classification of image schemas in order to argue for the cognitive grounding of English phrasal verbs. Finally, according to Ekberg(2003, p. 25), the structure of image schemas can be seen as a configuration of lexical meaning in the sense that the image-schematic structure constitutes the most abstract basis of the lexical meaning connected to a specific linguistic form. Due to their flexible but at the same time simple structure, image schemas serve as the basis for the meaning of whole categories of words (ibid: 25).

3. Interpreting English Phrasal Verbs by Means of Image Schemas An image schematic approach to English phrasal verbs suggests that the verb–particle combination reflects bodily experiences. Applying the aforementioned theoretical framework to the grammatical category of English phrasal verbs, it is argued that within the construct of an English phrasal verb, the particle denotes, at a primary level, physical concepts, namely space and motion. However, by means of cognitive processes such as metaphor and metonymy, the prototypical senses of the particle shift and extend into abstract senses. It should be noted that the present paper discusses the interpretation of the figurative meanings of English phrasal verbs which have a metaphoric basis (and not a metonymic one). For example, in (1) the component particle apart in the phrasal verb construct of take apart encourages the contact image schema. 1. One evening, some weeks later, l took the cube apart and could not get it back together again (online source: Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English). In (1), take apart means ‘to separate something into all its different parts’. The emergence of the contact image schema indicates that an entity (the cube) was taken apart by someone. In (2), the component particle apart in the phrasal verb construct of take apart prompts for the balance image schema. 2. He was not ill, he was not well. He had been taken apart, but not quite put back together again (online source: Corpus of Contemporary American English). In (2), take apart means ‘not to be in a good mood’. The emergence of the balance image schema indicates that a person is no longer emotionally or mentally well. Therefore, the loss of mental or emotional balance leads to the situation of ‘taking somebody apart’. Hence, the semantics of the particle apart shifts from the spatial denotation of ‘breaking contact’ and extend into the non-literal denotation of ‘losing mental balance’. Languages 2020, 5, 6 4 of 13

LanguagesThe 2019 following, 4, x FOR PEER parts REVIEW discuss how the English phrasal verbs of the form component verb4 oftake 13 plus component particles down, in, on, out, back and apart encourage various types of image schema. types of image schema to be discussed are: CONTAINMENT, THE JOURNEY AND ITS COMPONENT PARTS, The types of image schema to be discussed are: containment, the journey and its component parts, GOAL, PATH, PROXIMITY-DISTANCE, LINKAGE-SEPARATION, FRONT-BACK ORIENTATION, PART-WHOLE goal, path, proximity-distance, linkage-separation, front-back orientation, part-whole relationship RELATIONSHIP and LINEAR ORDER. and linear order.

3.1.3.1. The The CONTAINMENTcontainment Image Schema AsAs far far as as the CONTAINMENTcontainment imageimage schemaschema isis concerned,concerned, TaylorTaylor( 2002(2002,, p. p. 337)337) statedstated thatthat thisthis imageimage schema schema evokes, evokes, by by definition, deﬁnition, a a container container with with its its inside inside and and outside outside parts parts in in the the domain domain of ofa three-dimensionala three-dimensional space space (see (see Figure Figure 1).1). CaballeroCaballero ((2009,2009, pp.pp. 277–78) notednoted thatthat inin contemporarycontemporary architecturearchitecture a a three-dimensional space space can can be be achi achievedeved only only through through motion, motion, since since by by moving in in spacespace we we understand understand and and create create space; space; at at the the same same ti time,me, spatial spatial entities entities create create the the illusion illusion of of moving. moving. According to Caballero (ibid, pp. 278–79), 278–79), a a three-dimensional space indicates that: (i) (i) images images of of people or vehiclesvehicles areare running running along along spatial spatial entities, entities, (ii) (ii) entity entity constitutes constitutes itself itself a highly a highly dynamic dynamic term, term,(iii) ﬁctive (iii) fictive motion motion describes describe spatials scenesspatial involving scenes involving linear trajectors, linear trajectors, such as roads, such rivers,as roads, streets rivers, etc., streets(iv) metaphors etc., (iv) portraymetaphors the portray concepts the of co visualncepts perception of visual andperception motion. and motion.

Figure 1. The containment Image Schema. Figure 1. The CONTAINMENT Image Schema. Taylor(2002, p. 337) observed that the containment image schema is applied metaphorically Taylor (2002, p. 337) observed that the CONTAINMENT image schema is applied metaphorically to a large number of non-spatial domains since linguistic forms and emotions are conceptualized as to a large number of non-spatial domains since linguistic forms and emotions are conceptualized as containers (e.g., put ideas into words, the contents of an essay, empty words, be in love, fall in love). containers (e.g., put ideas into words, the contents of an essay, empty words, be in love, fall in love). As far as English phrasal verbs are concerned, it is suggested that the containment image schema As far as English phrasal verbs are concerned, it is suggested that the CONTAINMENT image conveys metaphoric meanings when it is used in sentences like (3) and (4) (see Figures2 and3). schema conveys metaphoric meanings when it is used in sentences like (3) and (4) (see Figures 2 and 3. She took him down during the trial. (= ‘She criticized and humiliated him with her arguments 3). during the trial’, ‘take down= to defeat someone’) (online source: Cambridge English Dictionary). 3. She took him down during the trial. (= ‘She criticized and humiliated him with her arguments 4. Don’t be taken in by their promises. (= to trick someone into believing something that is not during the trial’, ‘take down= to defeat someone’) (online source: Cambridge English Dictionary). true, ‘take in= to be deceived by sb’) (online source: Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English). 4. Don’t be taken in by their promises. (= to trick someone into believing something that is not true, ‘take in= to be deceived by sb’) (online source: Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).

Languages 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 Languages 2020, 5, 6 5 of 13 Languages 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13

Figure 2. The CONTAINMENT image schema: the case of take down. Figure 2. The containment image schema: the case of take down. Figure 2. The CONTAINMENT image schema: the case of take down.

Figure 3. containment take down. Figure 3. TheThe metaphorical metaphorical extension extension of of the the CONTAINMENT image schema: the case of take down. FiguresFigure3 3.and The4 metaphoricalillustrate how extension the containment of the CONTAINMENTimage image schema schema: is encouraged the case of take by down. the English Figures 3 and 4 illustrate how the CONTAINMENT image schema is encouraged by the English phrasal verb take down in the context: She took him down during the trial. The court (designated by phrasalFigures verb take3 and down 4 illustrate in the context: how the She CONTAINMENT took him down duringimage theschema trial. Theis encouraged court (designated by the byEnglish trial) trial) as physical space stands for the container. The two lawyers (designated by she and him) stand asphrasal physical verb space take downstands in for the the context: container. She took The him two down lawyers during (designated the trial. The by courtshe and (designated him) stand by for trial the) for the entities moving inside a container. The English phrasal verb take down is used metaphorically, entitiesas physical moving space inside stands a contaifor thener. container. The English The two phrasal lawyers verb (designated take down is by used she andmetaphorically, him) stand for since the since it denotes abstract motion regarding thoughts, ideas and arguments. Abstract motion concerns itentities denotes moving abstract inside motion a contai regardingner. The thoughts, English idphrasaleas and verb arguments. take down Abstra is usedct metaphorically,motion concerns since the the exchanging of communication during a trial. The encouraged conceptual metaphor is ideas are exchangingit denotes abstract of communication motion regarding during thoughts, a trial. Theideas encouraged and arguments. conceptual Abstra metaphorct motion isconcerns IDEAS ARE the motion. Ideas are triggered by trial and motion is triggered by take down. MOTIONexchanging. Ideas of arecommunication triggered by trialduring and amotion trial. Theis triggered encouraged by take conceptual down. metaphor is IDEAS ARE MOTION. Ideas are triggered by trial and motion is triggered by take down.

LanguagesLanguages 20192020,, 45,, x 6 FOR PEER REVIEW 66 of of 13 13

Figure 4. The goal Image Schema. Figure 4. The GOAL Image Schema. 3.2. The Journey and Its Component Parts Image Schema 3.2. The Journey and Its Component Parts Image Schema As far as the journey and its component parts image schema is concerned, Taylor(2002, p. 337) suggestedAs far thatas the it JOURNEY can be seen AND asITS a COMPONENT combination PARTS of other image sub-schemas, schema is concerned, such as path Taylor, origin (2002,and p. 337)destinations suggested. Thethat journeyit can be and seen its as componenta combination parts of imageother sub-schemas, schema denotes such possible as PATH obstacles, ORIGIN and and DESTINATIONSdetours on the. The way. JOURNEY The most ANDrepresentative ITS COMPONENT example PARTS image of this schema schema denotes concerns possible the concept obstacles of and life, detourswhich is on frequently the way. conceptualized The most representative as a journey exampl (ibid,e p. of 337). this schema concerns the concept of life, whichAccording is frequently to De conceptualized Mendoza Ib áasñez a journey and Velasco (ibid,( 2002p. 337).), the most important sub-schema of the journeyAccording and its to component De Mendoza parts Ibáñezimage and schema Velasco is (2002),path. Accordingthe most important to them, thesub-schema structure of of the the JOURNEYpath sub-schema AND ITS COMPONENT involves a source, PARTS aimage destination schema and is PATH a sequence. According of contiguous to them, locationsthe structure connecting of the PATHthe source sub-schema with the involves destination, a source, and a adestination direction toward and a sequence the destination of contiguous (ibid, pp. locations 510–11). connecting The path thesub-schema source with tells the us destination, that (i) in order and to a reachdirection the destinationtoward the alongdestination a path, (ibid, we must pp. 510–11). pass through The PATH each sub-schemaintermediate tells point, us that and (i) (ii) in the order further to reach along the the destination path one is, along the morea path, time we hasmust passed pass through since starting each intermediate(ibid, pp. 510–11). point, Theand present(ii) the further paper suggestsalong the that path the onepath is, thesub-schema more time can has be passed studied since as thestartinggoal (ibid,image pp. schema 510–11). (see The Figure present4), since paper in suggests many cases that the the reachingPATH sub-schema of a path can simultaneously be studied as means the GOAL the imagereaching schema of a goal. (see TheFigure reaching 4), since of ain goal many presupposes cases the reaching the passing of a of path different simultaneously intermediate means points. the reachingAs far of asa goal. English The phrasal reaching verbs of a are goal concerned, presuppo itses is suggestedthe passing that of different the journey intermediate and its component points. partsAsimage far as schema English along phrasal with verbs its sub-schemas are concerned, are triggeredit is suggested by the that semantics the JOURNEY of the AND particle, ITS COMPONENTwhich designate PARTS motion image andschema space. along Taking with into its sub-schema considerations are that triggered the journey by the and semantics its component of the particle,parts image which schema designate presupposes motion theand reaching space. Taking of a goal into or destination,consideration it is that argued the thatJOURNEY the semantics AND ITS COMPONENTof the component PARTS particleimage schema are more presupposes dominant thanthe reaching the semantics of a goal of theor destination, component it verb is argued within that the thecomposite semantics whole of the of ancomponent English phrasal particle verb. are more For example, dominant the than particle the semanticsout means of the the leaving component out of verba container within the (Rudzka-Ostyn composite whole 2003 ).of When an Engl theish particle phrasalout verb.is combined For example, with the a verbparticle like outtake means, physical the leavingmotion isout designated, of a container because (Rudzka-Ostynout prototypically 2003). denotesWhen the processes particle of out removing. is combined In (5), withtake a outverbmeans like take‘to make, physical a financial motion or is legal designated, arrangement because with out a bank prototypically or company,’ denotes and in processes (6), take out of meansremoving. ‘to arrange In (5), taketo get out something means ‘to omakefficially’. a financial or legal arrangement with a bank or company,’ and in (6), take out means5. ‘to Before arrange taking to get a loan something out, calculate officially’. your monthly outgoings (online source: Longman Dictionary of Contemporary5. Before taking English a loan). out, calculate your monthly outgoings (online source: Longman Dictionary of Contemporary6. I’m thinking English of). taking out a life insurance policy (online source: Longman Dictionary of Contemporary6. I’m thinking English ).of taking out a life insurance policy (online source: Longman Dictionary of ContemporaryDespite theEnglish fact).that out has different meanings in (5) and (6), in both examples out indicates the reachingDespite the of afact goal. that In out (5) hasout differentindicates meanings (i) the reaching in (5) and of a(6), goal in byboth means examples of making out indicates a financial the reachingarrangement of a withgoal. aIn bank (5) out or company,indicates (ii)(i) the pathreaching (or process)of a goal of by getting means money of making and (iii) a financial the path arrangement with a bank or company, (ii) the path (or process) of getting money and (iii) the path (or process) of calculating monthly outgoings. In (6) out indicates (i) a decision to have a life insurance

Languages 2020, 5, 6 7 of 13 Languages 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 13 policy(or process) (=source), of calculating (ii) the path monthly (or process) outgoings. of Invi (6)sitingout aindicates service (i)(=insurance a decision tocompany) have a life in insuranceorder to arrangepolicy (= asource), particular (ii) thepolicy path and (or (iii) process) the goal of visiting of arranging a service to (get=insurance something company) officially in order(=life insurance to arrange policy).a particular policy and (iii) the goal of arranging to get something oﬃcially (=life insurance policy).

3.3.3.3. The The Proximity-Distance Proximity-Distance and and the the Linkage-Separation Linkage-Separation Image Schemas TaylorTaylor( 2002(2002:: 337) 337) stated stated that thethatproximity the PROXIMITY-distance-DISTANCEimage schema image shares schema common shares characteristics common characteristicswith the containment with theimage CONTAINMENT schema in image the sense schema that in its the structure sense that is based its structure on spatial is based relations on spatial and is relationsfurther projected and is further onto non-spatial projected onto domains. non-spatial According domains. to him According (ibid, p. 337), to him the most(ibid, distinctive p. 337), the feature most distinctiveof the proximity feature-distance of the PROXIMITYimage schema-DISTANCE is the image degree schema of emotional is the degree involvement of emotional which, togetherinvolvement with which,the possibility together of with mutual the inﬂuence,possibility can of bemutual understood influence, in terms can be of proximityunderstood (e.g., in termsa close of friend, proximity a close (e.g.,advisor a etc.).close friend, He also a notedclose advisor that the etc.).linkage He -alsoseparation noted thatimage the schema LINKAGE shares-SEPARATION common image characteristics schema shareswith the commonproximity characteristics-distance image with schemathe PROXIMITY because-DISTANCE of the degree image ofschema emotional because involvement of the degree which of emotionalreﬂects either involvement the concept which of proximity reflects either (e.g., thekeep concept in touch of) or proximity distance (e.g.,(e.g., breakkeep in social touch/family) or distance ties etc.) (e.g.,(ibid, break p. 337). social/family ties etc.) (ibid, p. 337). AsAs far far as as English English phrasal phrasal verbs verbs are are conc concerned,erned, it it is is suggested suggested that that both both the the PROXIMITYproximity--DISTANCEdistance imageimage schema schema and and the the LINKAGElinkage--SEPARATIONseparation imageimage schemaschema embody the spatial properties of of the the componentcomponent particles particles which which extend extend into more abstra abstractct senses. The The concept concept of of emotional emotional involvement involvement licenseslicenses this this type type of of extension extension from from spatial spatial to to abstra abstractct senses. senses. Despite Despite their their spatial spatial senses, senses, the the concepts concepts ofof linkage, separation, proximity proximity and and distance communicate emotional emotional denotations denotations because because they they indicateindicate a a subject’s subject’s involvement involvement into into an an idea, idea, relation, relation, event, event, activity, activity, situation etc. In In (7), (7), the the English English phrasal verb take on means ‘to accept or undertake some task, burden, or responsibility’. 7.7. I’ve I’ve taken taken on on a a new new project project at at work work in in addition addition to to my my normal normal responsibilities responsibilities (online (online source: source: The Free Dictionary ). AccordingAccording toto Rudzka-Ostyn Rudzka-Ostyn(2003 (2003),), the particlethe particleon prototypically on prototypically denotes denotes contact. contact. In (7), however, In (7), however,the particle theon particleindicates on indicates that somebody that somebody is linked, is involvedlinked, involved or engaged or engaged with a particularwith a particular task or taskproject. or project. Figure5 Figureillustrates 5 illustrates the co-instantiation the co-instantiation of the proximity of the PROXIMITY-distance-andDISTANCElinkage and-separation LINKAGE- SEPARATIONimage schemas. image schemas.

FigureFigure 5. 5. TakeTake on; on;the theco-instantiation co-instantiation of the of PROXIMITY the proximity-DISTANCE-distance and theand LINKAGE the linkage-SEPARATION-separation image schemas.image schemas.

proximity distance linkage separation FigureFigure 5 illustrates the the co-instantiation co-instantiation of of the the PROXIMITY-DISTANCE- andand the the LINKAGE-SEPARATION- imageimage schemas schemas in in the the sentence sentence I’veI’ve taken taken on on a a new new project project at at work work in in addition addition to to my my normal normal responsibilities responsibilities. . These image schemas areare encouragedencouraged byby thethe English English phrasal phrasal verb verbtake take on on. The. The concept concept of of proximity proximity is is encouraged because the English phrasal verb take on designates the process where an individual is

Languages 2020, 5, 6 8 of 13 Languages 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13 encouraged because the English phrasal verb take on designates the process where an individual is getting involved in a particular activity; in the context I’ve taken on a new project at work in addition to getting involved in a particular activity; in the context I’ve taken on a new project at work in addition to my my normal responsibilities, ‘to take on a project’ means ‘to accept a project’. In the same context the normal responsibilities, ‘to take on a project’ means ‘to accept a project’. In the same context the concept concept of linkage is encouraged because take on denotes the process where an individual is having of linkage is encouraged because take on denotes the process where an individual is having contact contact with a particular task (‘to take on a project’ means ‘to accept a project’). with a particular task (‘to take on a project’ means ‘to accept a project’).

3.4. The FRONT-BACK ORIENTATION Image Schema 3.4. The front-back orientation Image Schema The FRONT-BACK ORIENTATION image schema constitutes the most representative schema of The front-back orientation image schema constitutes the most representative schema of embodied embodied meaning because it reflects—in terms of orientation—the structure of the human body. As meaning because it reﬂects—in terms of orientation—the structure of the human body. As Taylor(2002, Taylor (2002, p. 337) pointed out, the front of the human body is that side on which major sensory p. 337) pointed out, the front of the human body is that side on which major sensory organs, especially organs, especially the eyes and the heart are located. The concept of time is also dominant in this the eyes and the heart are located. The concept of time is also dominant in this image schema. What is image schema. What is normally positioned in front of an event is what happens before the event, normally positioned in front of an event is what happens before the event, and what is behind of an and what is behind of an event is what happens after the event (ibid, pp. 337–38). Taylor also claimed event is what happens after the event (ibid, pp. 337–38). Taylor also claimed the up-down orientation the UP-DOWN ORIENTATION image schema is similar with the FRONT-BACK ORIENTATION image schema image schema is similar with the front-back orientation image schema due to the concept of spatial due to the concept of spatial orientation which occurs in a gravitational field (ibid, p. 338). orientation which occurs in a gravitational ﬁeld (ibid, p. 338). In (8), the FRONT-BACK ORIENTATION image schema is triggered by the semantics of the In (8), the front-back orientation image schema is triggered by the semantics of the component component particle back within the construct of take back. particle back within the construct of take back. 8. I took the book back to the library (online source: The Free Dictionary). 8. I took the book back to the library (online source: The Free Dictionary). In (8), the semantics of the particle back has a literal meaning, because take back means ‘to move In (8), the semantics of the particle back has a literal meaning, because take back means something back in its previous location. In (9), take back has a non-literal meaning since it means ‘the to move something back in its previous location. In (9), take back has a non-literal meaning since it change of an attitude, to retract something stated, written, or done’. Therefore, in (9), the FRONT-BACK means ‘the change of an attitude, to retract something stated, written, or done’. Therefore, in (9), ORIENTATION image schema extends from the literal structure of the human body into more abstract the front-back orientation image schema extends from the literal structure of the human body into senses. more abstract senses. 9. What a terrible thing to say—I demand that you take it back (online source: The Free Dictionary). 9. What a terrible thing to say—I demand that you take it back (online source: The Free Dictionary).

3.5.3.5. The The PARTpart-WHOLEwhole relationshipRELATIONSHIP ImageImage SchemaSchema AccordingAccording to to TaylorTaylor ((2002,2002, p. 338), 338), the the PARTpart-WHOLE-whole RELATIONSHIP relationship imageimage schema schema (see (see Figure Figure 66)) indicatesindicates thatthat thethe whole whole consists consists of partsof parts arranged arranged in a speciﬁc in a specific conﬁguration. configuration. Therefore, Therefore, the separation the separationor rearrangement or rearrangement of the parts resultsof the parts in the results destruction in the of destruction the whole (e.g., of thesplit whole up, break (e.g., up, split come up, together break) up,(ibid, come p. together 338). ) (ibid, p. 338).

FigureFigure 6 6.. TheThe PARTpart--WHOLEwhole RELATIONSHIP relationship Image Schema.

Applying this image schema to the interpretation of English phrasal verbs, it is suggested that in (10) the component particle apart encourages the PART-WHOLE RELATIONSHIP image schema in the phrasal verb construct of take apart because apart reflects the separation of a whole. In (10), take apart

Languages 2020, 5, 6 9 of 13

Applying this image schema to the interpretation of English phrasal verbs, it is suggested that in Languages(10) the component2019, 4, x FOR particle PEER REVIEWapart encourages the part-whole relationship image schema in the phrasal9 of 13 verb construct of take apart because apart reﬂects the separation of a whole. In (10), take apart means ‘tomeans separate ‘to separate something something into the into diﬀerent the different parts that parts it is madethat it of’. is made In (11), of’. the In component (11), the component particle up particleencourages up encourages the part-whole the PART relationship-WHOLE RELATIONSHIPimage schema image in the schema phrasal verbin the construct phrasal ofverbtake construct up because of takeup communicates up because up thecommunicates activity of rearrangement. the activity of rearrangement. In (11), take up meansIn (11), ‘to take continue up means to discuss‘to continue or deal to discusswith an or idea, deal problem, with an oridea, suggestion’. problem, or suggestion’. 10. When When the the clock clock stopped, stopped, he took he took it apart it apart and found and found what was what wrong was wrong(online (onlinesource: source:Collins DictionaryCollins Dictionary). ). 11. She She fell fell silent, silent, and and her her brother brother took up the story (online source: MacmillanMacmillan Dictionary ).).

3.6. The The LINEARlinear ORDER order ImageImage Schema Schema

According to to Taylor ((2002:2002: 338),338), in thethe LINEARlinear ORDER order image schema, objects are are positioned in in a a one-dimensional line line in terms of their increasing distance from an observer. Applying this image schema to the interpretation of of English English phrasal phrasal verbs, verbs, it it is is suggested suggested that that the the LINEARlinear ORDER order image schema shares shares similar similar characteristics characteristics with with the the PROXIMITYproximity-DISTANCE-distance andand the the FRONTfront-BACK-back ORIENTATION orientation imageimage schema. Linearity Linearity expresses expresses proximity proximity and and di distancestance because because it it shows shows how how an observer views a figure. figure. 12. This This song song always always takes takes me me back back to to my my childhood (online source: MacmillanMacmillan Dictionary Dictionary).). InIn (12), (12), the the Engl Englishish phrasal phrasal verb verb taketake back back meansmeans ‘to ‘to remember’. remember’. The The LINEARlinear ORDER order imageimage schema schema (see FigureFigure7 7)) is is encouraged encouraged by by the the particle particleback back. On. On the the grounds grounds of linearity,of linearity, speakers speakers connect connecttake backtake backwith with the subjectthe subjectthis this song songand andchildhood childhood. In. In (12), (12), the the observer observer views views the the figure figure from from aa shortshort distance because he/she he/she is in a position to associate the the figu figurere with with something something else else (probably (probably with with a a particular particular situation) that happened in the past. Figure Figure 77 showsshows thatthat the concept of linearity is linked to proximity because the observer makes an association between a songsong andand his/her his/her childhoodchildhood.. Moreover, Moreover, the the image image schema of LINEARlinear ORDER order has a metaphoric reading in the context this song always takes takes me me back back to to my my childhood because the conceptual metaphor TIMEtime IS is MOTION motion is encouraged. The The English English phrasal phrasal verb verb take back indicatesindicates motionMOTIONin in the the source source domain domain and andchildhood childhoodindicates indicatestime TIMEin thein the target target domain domain of the of theevoked evoked conceptual conceptual metaphor. metaphor.

linear order FigureFigure 7. 7. TakeTake back; back; TheThe metaphoric reading of the LINEAR ORDER image schema.

Languages 2020, 5, 6 10 of 13

4. Image Schematic Transformations The present section argues for image schematic transformations and attempts to explain how the image schematic structure is altered by means of metaphor and metonymy. A review of the literature states that meaning variants of the same lexeme are (implicitly or explicitly) regarded as separate senses (cf. Lakoff 1987; Dewell 1994, 1997; Ekberg 1995). Image schematic transformations were studied by means of polysemy. For instance, Lakoff (1987) explained how the senses of the particle over prompt two different types of image schema. According to him, over prompts the path image schema in the context Sam walks over the bridge, as well as the end-point focus image schema in the context Sam lives over the bridge. According to Ekberg(2003, p. 29), image schemas can undergo transformations due to cognitively founded operations which change the structure of the schema in a non-arbitrary way. The following list of image schematic transformations is based on Ekberg(2003) approach. Ekberg’s (ibid) theory adopts ideas from various approaches concerning embodiment and image schematic transformations (cf. Lakoff 1987; Dewell 1994; Ekberg 1995, 1997, 2001).

- Multiplex/mass: A multiplex collection of objects can be construed as a continuous mass or as a one-dimensional entity. For example, He poured the peas or the juice out on the table. The multiplex-mass transformation is based on visual perception since a collection of objects (peas, juice) is perceived as a mass at a specific distance. - Multiplex TR/multiplex paths: A single reflexive trajector (TR) which moves in various directions can be construed as tracing a multiplex of paths covering the landmark (LM). This schema is linked to a schema with a multiplex TR covering the LM. For example, the guards were posted all over the hill, I walked all over the hill. - Segment profiling: An expression which designates a path refers to a profiled segment of a path (Dewell 1994). For example, he walked around the corner (around profiles a semicircular segment), the sun came up over the mountains (over profiles an upward trajectory) and Sam fell over the cliff (over profiles a downward trajectory). This transformation is an instance of a whole-for-part relationship and is based on humans’ ability to focus on something both visually and mentally. - Reflexive trajector: The relationship that holds between two separate entities, TR and LM, may be transformed into a relationship holding between different parts of the same entity, such as the TR. For example, he walked around the block, or he turned around. - Mental rotating: The mental rotating of an oriented path or axis has a direct counterpart in the physical manipulation of objects. An instance of this general operation is the transformation of a vertical axis into a horizontal axis, which is lexically manifested by the use of vertical expressions that refer to horizontal movements (e.g., He walked up and down the corridor)(Ekberg 1997).

Applying Ekberg(2003) theory to English phrasal verbs, it is suggested that in (13), take down triggers the multiplex/mass image schematic transformation. 13. They took down the points. (=they kept notes) In (13), the multiplex/mass image schematic transformation is based on visual perception, since a collection of objects (the points) is perceived as a mass at a specific distance (probably a board). In (14), take in prompts for the multiplex tr/multiplex paths image schematic transformation. 14. I’m not sure how much of his explanation she took in. (=to understand and remember something that you hear or read) In (14), a single tr (the speaker=she) is (mentally) moving in various directions (she is trying to process ideas). The tr can be construed as tracing a multiplex of paths such as different ideas, beliefs and arguments. The tr moves in multiple locations (abstract) within the lm. In (15), take in encourages the segment profiling image schematic transformation. 15. My dad took in the three homeless kittens. (=to adopt an animal) In (15), take in designates a the process of adopting animals (=path). Take in refers to a profiled segment of a path, since it profiles an inwards trajectory (=in). Languages 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 13

Languages 2020, 5, 6 11 of 13 In (15), take in designates a the process of adopting animals (=PATH). Take in refers to a profiled segment of a PATH, since it profiles an inwards trajectory (=in). InIn (16), (16), taketake apart encourages the REFLEXIVEreflexive trajectorTRAJECTOR( (trTR)) imageimage schematicschematic transformation. transformation. 16. The The fire fire took took the the house house apart. apart. (=to (=to destroy) destroy) InIn (16), (16), TRtr and LMlm are transformed into a relationship of holding between different different parts of the same entity (i.e., the TRtr). The The TRtr (the fire fire) is interrelated with thethe lmLM (the househouse).). InIn (17), (17), taketake off off licenseslicenses the the MENTALmental ROTATING rotating image schematic transforma transformationtion because the the figure figure (the plane ) moves both upwards and horizontally. 17. The The airplane airplane took took off. off.( (=to=to depart depart for for a a plane) plane) The aforementioned image schematic transformations highlight highlight the the dominance of spatial associations. AccordingAccording to toLangacker Langacker(1987 (1987,, p. 225), p. spatial225), associationsspatial associations instantiate instantiate the basic conceptualthe basic conceptualrelation of association.relation of association.Johnson(1987 Johnson) hypothesized (1987) hypothesized that if transformations that if transformations of image schemas of image are schemasanalogs of are spatial analogs operations, of spatial such operations, as manipulations such as ofmanipulations physical objects, of itphysical should beobjects, possible it should to predict be possiblewhich transformations to predict which a specific transformations schema may a specific undergo. schema Hence, may we couldundergo. assume Hence, that we the could image assume schema thatof spatial the image association schemamight of SPATIAL apply to ASSOCIATION a range of image might schematic apply transformations.to a range of image As Ekberg schematic(2003, transformations.p. 33) pointed out, As the Ekberg image (2003, schema p. 33) of spatialpointed associationout, the imagecan schema be seen of as SPATIAL a superordinate ASSOCIATION schema can “embracingbe seen as a varietysuperordinate of relational schema predicates “embracing encoded a variety as prepositions, of relational adverbs, predicates and verbs, encoded in turn as prepositions,based on various adverbs, subordinate and verbs, schemas”. in turn We based should on notevarious that subordinate the image schema schemas”. of spatial We should association note thatis similar the image with Hawkinsschema of(1994 SPATIAL, p. 339) ASSOCIATION ‘profilable is structure’ similar with which Hawkins’s is a primitive (1993, cognitive p. 339) ‘profilable structure structure’that exists which “innately is a inprimitive the human cognitive mind before structure the processthat exists begins “innately of acquiring in the human substantive mind information before the processin particular begins cognitive of acquiring domains”. substantive information in particular cognitive domains”. Finally, the image schema schema of of SPATIALspatial ASSOCIATION association doesdoes not underlie any specific specific lexical lexical concept, concept, but ratherrather generates generates the the image image schemas schemas which which structure structure lexical conceptslexical concepts (Ekberg 2003(Ekberg, p. 33). 2003, According p. 33). Accordingto Langacker to( 1987Langacker, p. 230), (1987, particles p. 230), (such particles as at, with, (such together, as at, with, between, together, near) constitutebetween, near lexemes) constitute which lexemesprototypically which denote prototypically spatial association; denote spatial at an abstract association; level, theseat an lexemesabstract are level, connected these tolexemes each other are connecteddue to the imageto each schema other due of spatial to the image association schema(Figure of SPATIAL8). ASSOCIATION (Figure 8).

Figure 8. The image schema of spatial association (reprinted from Langacker 1987). Figure 8. The image schema of SPATIAL ASSOCIATION (reprinted from Langacker 1987). As Figure8 illustrates, a and b are equal to Langacker(1987) tr and lm, whereas c is a As Figure 8 illustrates, A and B are equal to Langacker’s (1987) TR and LM, whereas C is a construed—primarily spatial—region which includes both a and b (Ekberg 2003, p. 33). For example, construed—primarily spatial—region which includes both A and B (Ekberg 2003, p. 33). For example, in (18), c is a region which includes a tr (he) and a lm (bridge). in (18), C is a region which includes a TR (he) and a LM (bridge). 18. He stood near the bridge. 18. He stood near the bridge. We could also assume that in (19), c (the cinema) is a region within the visual that includes A (he) We could also assume that in (19), C (the cinema) is a region within the visual that includes A (he) and B (Jane). and B (Jane). 19. He took Jane out to the cinema. 19. He took Jane out to the cinema. 5. Conclusions 5. Conclusions This article suggested that the meanings of English phrasal verbs could be interpreted by means of imageThis schemas.article suggested It was discussed that the meanings that image of schemas English embody phrasal bodilyverbs could experiences be interpreted since they by serve means as ofconﬁgurations image schemas. of spatial It was and discussed motional that concepts. image sc Ithemas was argued embody that, bodily within experiences the construct since of they an English serve

Languages 2020, 5, 6 12 of 13 phrasal verb, the semantics of the component particle encourage the emergence of image schemas. The article followed Taylor(2002) theory and attempted to explain how the ﬁgurative meanings of the English phrasal verbs of the form take plus particles could be interpreted by means of the image schemas of containment, the journey and its component parts, goal, path, proximity-distance, linkage-separation, front-back orientation, part-whole relationship and linear order. The article has also attempted to apply Ekberg(2003) theory concerning image schematic transformations to English phrasal verbs and discussed the transformations of the part-whole relationship, path and multiplex-mass image schemas.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Conﬂicts of Interest: The author declares no conﬂict of interest.

References

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