ERJ Research Journal Faculty of Engineering Menoufia University

ASSESSING CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) OF EARTHWORKS’ OPERATIONS DURING CONSTRUCTION Mahmoud A. Aboelhassan and Ibrahim H. Hashim Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Menoufia University, Shebin El-Kom, Egypt

ABSTRACT: Climate change became one of the most important issues facing the global community. Transportation is considered one of the major factors affecting on climate change specially road sector. This can be caused by emissions of ’ construction, use and maintenance. These emissions can be assessed by using environmental Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) approaches. The fundamental objective of this paper is to assess the emissions of earthworks during roads construction. A case study from Egypt was selected to perform this study. The paper presents the methodology that will be followed for developing tools for assessing carbon dioxide emissions (Co2) during earthwork construction of roads. The preliminary analysis confirmed the necessity of the classification of the construction activities in order to develop energy and emissions models. Further analysis looked at the differences between machines used in each activity and significant differences were found between the activities of work according to earthwork masses, leveling, compaction and transportation activities. This tool is very useful and can be used in the design stage to evaluate the Co2 emissions and compare between the different alternatives to select the most proper alternative from the environmental prospective. الملخص: اصبح التغير المناخى من اهم القضايا التى تواجه المجمتع العالمى. ويعتبر النقل أحد العوامل الرئيسية التي تؤثر على تغير المناخ خاصة قطاع الطرق. ويمكن أن ينجم ذلك عن انبعاثات انشاء الطرق واستخدامها وصيانتها. ويمكن تقييم هذه االنبعاثات باستخدام نهج تقييم دورة الحياة البيئية )LCA(. تم اختيار دراسة ة حال من مصر ألداء هذه الدراسة. وبناءا عليه فإن الهدف األساسي من هذا البحث هو تقييم انبعاثات ثانى اكسيد الكربون من االعمال الترابية النشاء الطرق. ويعرض البحث المنهجية التي سيتم اتباعها لتطوير أداة تقييم انبعاثات األعمال الترابية أثناء تشييد الطرق. وأكد التحليل األولي ضرورة تصنيف أنشطة البناء من أجل تطوير نماذج الطاقة واالنبعاثات. كما وجد ايضا ان هناك فروق بين اآلالت المستخدمة في كل نشاط من االنشطة المختلفة ، و اختالفات كبيرة بين أنشطة العمل مع كميات االتربة ، التسوية والدمك والنقل. ويعد االسلوب المقترح مفيد جدا ويمكن استخدامه في مرحلة التصميم لتقييم انبعاثات ثاني أكسيد الكربون والمفاضلة بين البدائل المختلفة للتصميم من المنظور البيئى. Keywords: Climate Change - Road Construction - Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) – Earthworks- Emission - Co2 1. INTRODUCTION Today, no sector can afford to ignore the ecological repercussions of its activities and the growing Currently, Egypt has many running engineering potential for enhancing positive, while reducing projects. Almost of these projects are classified under negative, impacts. As shown in Figure 1, the the transportation sector. Upgrade road network is transportation is the fourth source of energy related the most important issue to the stakeholders in Egypt. emissions or about 14% of total Green-House Gas The Central Agency for Public Mobilization and (GHG) emissions. Statistics (CAPMAS) announced that the road networks length in Egypt reached to 175,000 km in 2015/2016. So the transportation sector should have the responsibility to make significant strategies achieving eco-friendly techniques and technologies to face one of the most urgent environmental issues facing the global community, such as climate change resulting from human activities.

Engineering Research Journal, Vol. 41, No. 3 , July 2018, PP: 205-213 205 © Faculty of Engineering, MenoufiaUniversity, Egypt

Mahmoud A. Aboelhassan and Ibrahim H. Hashim “ASSESSING CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) … "

standard construction and maintenance practice in a country [3]. For most construction activities, emissions embodied in building materials during manufacture represent the largest proportion. When the quantities of these materials are known, it is simple to apply embodied carbon dioxide coefficients to arrive at a total emissions value for the activity. Most currently adopted methods use standard, academically derived data from the Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE) [4].

The embodied Co2 of construction activities emitted Figure (1) GHG emissions by sectors [1]. from three components as following: Alongside other industries, the road sector should 1- Manufacture of construction materials. develop an array of emission assessment tools, as part of this endeavor and as an effective way to help 2- Transporting construction materials, labors and translate into reality the low-carbon transportation plants to/from site. strategies to be decided by governments [2]. 3- Construction’s equipment during construction. The main aim of this research is to assess the Several previous studies were summarized as in the embodied Co2 emissions resulting from road following substance earthworks. These emissions were studied in relation  Hughes et al. [4], studied the carbon dioxide from to the fuel consumption of the construction’s road earthworks. According to their study, they machines. found that most construction materials have In order to accomplish the main goal of this work, the reasonably standardized production processes and following objectives were set: can use carbon dioxide coefficients to calculate • To review the relation between energy Co2 but the use of published coefficients is usually consumption and Co2 emission during road not appropriate when calculating for earthworks construction. operations. Co2 should be calculated by estimating • To select and collect the necessary geometric data, the machinery requirements for the necessary construction techniques, equipment used in movements, the fuel used by the machinery and the construction and construction activity data. subsequent Co2 emitted from combustion of fuel. • To present the methodology that will be followed  Hughes. [5], raised some issues with regards to the for developing tool that assesses earthworks use of the ICE data and Highways Agency Carbon emissions for the case study. Accounting Tool for , for and when • To estimate the fuel consumption and carbon calculating the Co2 of earthworks operations. It emissions. reports high Co2 figures associated with • To compere between the different alternatives to earthworks. The study gives a comparison (for the select the most proper alternative from the A421 Highway Improvement), between the environmental prospective. Highways Agency Carbon Accounting Tool which reported a carbon footprint of 82,660 ton attributed 3 2. LITERATURE REVIEW to 197,751 m of excavated clay and its earthworks Assessing emissions (related to the roads across its tool which reported a carbon footprint of 99 ton 3 life cycle) can be achieved by dividing this cycle to attributed to 197,751 m of clay. stages such as planning, design and  Ghazy et al. [6], listed some basic data about construction…etc. energy consumption rates of road construction There are several steps involved in road construction, machines as shown in Table 1. These rates were which contribute to the production and release of based on the Egyptian operating conditions. (GHG) emissions, beginning with site clearing, Table (1): Machinery energy Consumption [6]. preparation of the sub-, production of Machine Energy Consumption 2 construction materials (i.e. granular sub-base, base 80 liter /1000 m (Solar) course, surfacing), site delivery, construction works, Heavy vibratory roller 20 liter /1000 m2 (Solar) ongoing supervision, maintenance activities…etc. Rubber tire roller 20 liter /1000 m2 (Solar) The aggregate GHG emissions for each project Asphalt paver 40 liter /1000 m2 (Solar) (phase, section, alignment) can be calculated  Krantz. [7], studied the relationship between depending on equipment, local condition, and energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in road construction project and developed a model for Co2 emissions. The model had some important 206 Engineering Research Journal, Menoufiya University, Vol. 41, No. 3, July 2018 Mahmoud A. Aboelhassan and Ibrahim H. Hashim “ASSESSING CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) … "

knowledge that worth this research such as the (as shown in Figure 4, 5) will consist of the methodology of calculating the Co2 emissions and following: the schematic model for earthworks in road  Construction of three lanes with 3.5m width for construction projects as shown in Figure 2. each one, in addition to shoulder with 1.5m width.  Rehabilitation of the existing road, adding one more lane.

Figure (2) Model of the basic activities, flows and the machines [7]. Figure (4) typical cross section  Younes et al. [8], work on developing road’s LCA tool (EGY-LCA). Figure 3 shows the suggested framework of EGY-LCA tool; but the suggested framework did not include the earthworks; which are considered the first phase of road construction and this framework should be for the pavement operations (flexible pavement).

Figure (5) Earthwork operations from site.

Finally, the road will be divided road with 3 lanes in each direction. The case study focuses on the final part of this road as the embankments and earthworks operations are Figure (3) Suggested framework of EGY-LCA tool: being in construction. This part starts from station Construction phase [8]. 136+000.00 to station 143+521.83 with a length of Finally, because of the climate change issues, 7.521 km. The quantities and distances are being understanding the Co2 resulting from infrastructure obtained from the Civil 3D program and are the basis projects became progressively critical. It is key that for the calculations of fuel consumption. Total the Co2 related to the infrastructure project is earthworks’ quantities can be summarized in table 2. accurately evaluated to guarantee the components in Table (2): and fill quantities charge of the Co2 are distinguished and followed up on. Accurate modeling of the embodied Co2 of Length Cut Fill Base & Sub Base (Km) Volume Volume (m3) earthworks operations will ensure the correct amount 3 3 of Co attributed to the earthworks part of projects. (m ) (m ) 2 7.521 8,228.51 167,954.52 45,130 3. CASE STUDY This case study is a part of one of the running 4. METHODOLOGY The methodology depends on calculating fuel projects in Egypt. The case study is the development consumption of the construction equipment’s during of the Al Wahat- El Frafra existing road in the activities involved in the earthwork operations. The Western Desert of Egypt, which connects Bahariya earthworks’ activities divided to the following 3 Oasis and El- Frafra Oasis, this road is two-way, two- majors’ activities: lanes with 11 m width. The development of this road  Cutting and filling activities.

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 Levelling and compacting activities. W = Machine Working Hours; Q = Earthworks Quantity; and  Transportation activities. M = Machine Productivity; These activities, various sub-activities and equipment used in each project may change from project to 4.2. Levelling and Compacting Activities another because of differences between construction This part associates with machines that work with the materials, ground conditions, quantities of the surface of the road and could move masses such as earthworks and availability of construction and rollers. equipment. Figure 7 shows the proposed frame work used in calculating the fuel consumption of the machines that The calculations will be divided according to the 3 work with surfaces. major activates. This method can be used when it seems difficult to obtain the fuel consumption of the Fuel construction equipment used during construction. No. of Working Trips # Hours Consumption 4.1. Cutting and Filling Activities (hr.) Rate (Kg/hr.) Moving masses and loading haul vehicles are Trip Time considered primary usage for wheel loaders and (hr.) excavators. Figure 6 and Equations 1 show the Fuel proposed methodology used in calculating the fuel Consumption consumption for cutting and filling machines. (kg)

1- Area (m2) Combustion Co2 Transportation 2- Spreading/ Emission Factors Compaction (kg CO / kg fuel) Machine Speed Cut Area / Fill Area / (m/hr.) Embodied Carbon Borrow Bit Disposal Area Co2e (Kg)

Fuel Figure (7) Energy model frame work of Levelling & Machine’s Consumption Compacting activities Working Rate Hours (hr.) (kg/hr.) No. of trips is the number of compaction trips that achieve field density > 95% from the laboratory density. The working hours of leveling and compaction Fuel Consumption machines can be calculated from the Equation 1 (kg) 4.3. Transportation Activities This part associates with construction materials’ Combustion Co2 transportation. Figure 8 shows the proposed frame Emission Factors used in calculating the fuel consumption for the (kg Co / kg fuel) martial transportation. 2 The working hours of the dump truck can be calculated from the Equation 1. Embodied Carbon The cycle time of the transportation truck is the (Co e) (Kg) 2 summation of loading, unloading, traveling and return time. Figure (6) Energy model frame work of cutting and The cycle time’s fractions depend on the following: filling activities  The capacity (ton).  Loading machine rate (ton/hr.). The total working hours of cutting and filling  Distance (m). machines can be calculated from the Equation 1[9]  Transportation truck Speed (m/hr.).

Equation 1 where:

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Table (3): Load factors as a function of machine Masses (ton) type and power interval [7]. Articulated Truck Capacity (ton) 75-130 130-560 Machine type kW kW 0.58 0.58 Fuel Drill rig (diesel) 0.43 0.43 Working Consumption Cycle Excavator 0.40 0.40 Time (hr.) Hours (hr.) Rate (Kg/hr.) Backhoe 0.21 0.21 Wheel loader 0.48 0.48 0.59 0.59 Loading 4.4. Fuel Conversion to Embodied Emission Unloading When the total fuel consumption quantity of the Traveling construction machines and transportation vehicles are Return Fuel Consumption (kg) known, it can be translated to embodied emissions by applying fuel conversion coefficients. Emission factors for GHG Inventories contain a wide range of Combustion Co fuel conversion coefficients used for GHG emissions 1- Articulated 2 Truck Capacity Emission Factors estimation as shown in Table 4 [11]. (kg Co / kg fuel) (ton) 2 Table (4): Mobile combustion Co2 factors [11]. 2- Loading Machine Rate Fuel Type kg Co2 / Unit (ton/hr.) unit 3- Distance (m) Embodied Carbon Aviation Gasoline 8.31 gallon Co e (Kg) 4- Speed (m/hr.) 2 Biodiesel (100%) 9.45 gallon Compressed Natural 0.0545 scf (standard Figure (8) Energy model frame work of Gas cubic foot) transportation activities Diesel Fuel 10.21 gallon Ethane 4.05 gallon After getting machine’s working hours, the total fuel Ethanol (100%) 5.75 gallon consumption can be calculated from Equation 2 [7]: Jet Fuel (kerosene 9.75 gallon type)

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Equation2 This section presents the output date of the developed Where: tool and the conversion of fuel consumption to F.C = Fuel Consumption; carbon emissions during road construction W = Machine Working Hours; (specifically earthwork phase). PI = Machine’s Power Interval; Table 5 shows the construction machines used in the BF = Break Fuel Consumption Rate; and various construction activities and computed fuel LF = Load Factor consumption from the calculation tool. The detailed The power interval is depending on the machine’s engine type. The break fuel consumption rate of the calculations’ tables can be found in Annex 1. engine is depending on the power interval as follows:  BF (130-560 kW) = 254 g/kw.hr.  BF (75-130 kW) = 260 g/kw.hr. These values were derived from the emission inventory guidebook [10]. J. Krantz [7] listed load factors (LF) as a function of machine type and power interval as shown in Table 3.

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Table (5): Activities of the earthworks operation Figure 8 and 9 show the Co2 breakdown by the Location Activity Construction Fuel contribution from the machinery used and the Plant Consump- transportation of materials. tion (kg) Earth cut Earth Loosening / Loader 2,351 cut loading CAT 980 Earth fill Transport Articulated 2,295 Hauler A40 Earth fill Borrow Loading Loader 45,641 Bit CAT 980 To Transport Articulated 74,374 filling Hauler A40 Areas Earth fill Receiving Bulldozer 37,328 Figure (8) Co2 associated with case study CAT D7 Earth fill Levelling Motor 10,296 Grader Compacting Road Roller 145,831 16 tons Base & Sub-Base Crushing Loading Loader 13,140 Plant CAT 980 Road Transport Articulated 49,114 Line Hauler A40 fill Receiving Bulldozer 10,030 CAT D7 Final Leveling Motor 4,118 Grader Compacting Road Roller 58,332 16 tons

Table 6 shows the summary of the machines fuel consumption used in various construction activities. Figure (9) Co2 results of case study Where: From Figure 8, 9; it is noticed that Co2 from  The conversion factor for emission (Co2) is earthworks is the highest quantity because of the total 10.21 kg Co2/ gallon. From table (4) earthworks were fill. The filling operations such as  The density of fuel = 0.83 kg/litter [12]. receiving, spreading and compaction of filling  1 gallon= 3.78 litters. material take more time than cutting operations,  The fuel cost is 3.65 LE/ litter according to however Co2 from transportation is considered a mix the fuel prices in Egypt at the end of year of Co2 emitted from transporting earthwork and base 2017 which is mean 4.40 LE/ kg. & sub base materials. Table (6): summary of the machines fuel consumption Also, transportation Co2 is lower due to the fill Case Study material imported from borrowing bits close to the Fuel Fuel Emitted Fuel site, Consumption Consumption Co2 Cost The average distance between the borrow bit and (kg) (Gal) (Ton) (LE) road line was 5 km for earthworks. Earthwork 241,448 75,042 766 1,063,720 The average distance between the crashing plant and Base & 85,891 26,695 273 378,399 Sub-Base road line was 25 km for base & sub base. Transport 125,783 39,093 399 554,148 Total 440,598 136,938 1,398 1,996,267

Alternatives Study

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In this section there is a new alternative was set. The earthwork construction in Bahariya - El Frafra proposed option is the same horizontal alignment and road project is 1,438 Ton. has different vertical alignment. In this alternative, 3- It was found that road earthwork construction the design level is lower than the case study design causes the most of the emissions, with a level by 1 m. Table 7 summaries the earthwork contribution to the overall impact. Reduce the quantities. earthwork quantities will help decrease the Table (7): Summary of scenarios under consideration carbon emissions. Imported Exported 4- This tool can be used in the design stage after Cut Fill Options 3 3 material material calculating the total earthworks; finishing mass m m 3 3 m m haul diagram, and setting the construction Case 8,228 167,954 159,725 0 management plan (CMP). study 5- The developed tool’s structure is depending on Option 1 57,280 51,670 0 5,610 the type of the construction activity and the used plant in the construction process, this will allow users to choose the degree of detail assessment. Figure 10 shows the Co2 breakdown of the case study 6- The developed tool will be useful to the decision and propped option makers in Egypt to improve performance of road construction. It is necessary to concern the benefit provided by this kind of models that assessing the various designed alternatives of roads according to environment, time and Cost effective. 7- The developed tool could be a part of LCA tool which will be used for estimating the environmental impacts. It can be useful for various related studies in order to show the importance of using these tools to be applied widely. 7. RECOMMENDATION However, this study achieved its main objectives and Figure (10) Co2 results of case study. goals, there is always a chance to improve and From Figure 10, the case study and the proposed expand knowledge. There are many option, Co2 is the same for both during Construction recommendations and future research as follows: 1- It is recommended that further research should sub base and base layer; also Co2 from transportation is the same for both. be conducted on pavement operations during In the proposed option, Co2 is lower due to the road construction. And in other projects in decreasing in earthwork quantities which were different places in Egypt to adequate the study almost balanced, earthworks construction will be findings and be capable of estimating the GHG done in the road line and Co2 from transportation is emissions associated with road constructions. lower than the case study. 2- The developed methodology was conducted to 6. SUMMURY AND CONCLUSIONS estimate the Co2 emissions for roads earthwork This work aimed to estimate the carbon emission through construction phases only. So, future associated with road construction. A case study from research should be carried out to estimate the Egypt was selected. It was the development of the Al Co2 emissions through all stages of roads life Wahat- El Frafra existing road in the Western Desert cycle (design, construction, operating, of Egypt. From the detailed analysis of the collected maintenance and end of life). data, the research conclusions can be drawn as 3- It is recommended that optimizing the earthwork follows: quantities and transportation distances which can 1- Road construction has significant environmental be useful for reducing the Co2 emission. impacts because of the GHG emissions. 4- It is recommended that studying the replacement 2- Carbon dioxide (Co2) emissions are evaluated of natural martial with recycled and secondary in and calculated for a case study in Egypt, road embankments construction to reduce including raw materials acquisition, landfill pressures and quarrying demands. transportation, and construction processes. The total Co2 emission of the 7.521 km long

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5- It is recommended that studying processes of in Egypt". Journal of Earth Sciences and natural martial production such as aggregate , vol.6, no. 4, 2016, 377- crushing. 388. 6- It is recommended that studying the difference [9] Egyptian Code for urban and rural roads (EsP- between using static crusher and mobile crusher 104/8, 2008). plant to optimize the transportation distance. 7- It is recommended that searching for another [10] Emission Inventory Guidebook (EEA, 2005). EMEP/CORINAIR Emission Inventory Guidebook - source alternatives of energy instead of fuel such 2005. Technical report No 30 European Environment as electricity or natural gas for the crusher and Agency, Copenhagen Denmark the construction equipment. [11] United States Environmental Protection Agency 8. References (U.S. EPA) Center for Corporate Climate Leadership’s, (2015). "Factors for Greenhouse Gas [1] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Inventories". United States Environmental Protection (IPCC) (2014); EXIT based on global emissions from Agency.https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2 2010. Details about the sources included in these 015-12/documents/emission-factors_nov_2015.pdf estimates can be found in the contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of [12] The Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. "Diesel the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. fuel". Fuel value and price section. https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_fuel. greenhouse-gas-emissions-data

[2] Huang, Y., Hakim, B., & Zammataro, S. (2013). "Measuring the carbon footprint of road construction using CHANGER". International Journal of Pavement Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 6, 590–600, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2012.693180. [3] Egis, (2010). "Introduction to Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Road Construction and Rehabilitation. A Toolkit for Developing Countries". Sent to The World Bank. [4] Hughes, L., Phear, A., Nicholson, D., Pantelidou, H., Soga, K., & Guthrie, P. (2011). "Carbon dioxide from earthworks: a bottom-up approach". Proceedings of ICE Civil Engineering 164 May 2011 Pages 66–72 Paper 1000054. [5] Hughes, L. (2012). "Effects of alignment on CO2 emissions from the Construction and use phases of highway infrastructure". PhD. Thesis, Homerton College, University of Cambridge, Department of Engineering. [6] Ghazy, M., Abdallah A., Basiouny, M., & Saad, M. (2016). "Life Cycle Assessment of Flexible Pavement Construction". British Journal of Applied Science & Technology. 12(1): 1-17, Article no.BJAST.20620. ISSN: 2231-0843, NLM ID: 101664541. [7] Krantz, J. (2013). "An Earthworks Energy Model for Practical use in Road Construction". M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural resources engineering, Luleå University of Technology. Sweden [8] Younes, M., Huang, Y., & Hashim, I. (2016). "Towards an Integrated Tool of a Life Cycle Assessment for Construction of Asphalt Pavements

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Annex 1

Quantity Machine Machine PI BF Fuel capacity Construction working (machine Cons Location Activity power) LF Plant hours

(m3) (m3/hr.) (hr.) (kW) (kg/kWh) (kg) Earth cut Loosening / Loader CAT Earth cut 8228 100 82.28 250 0.45 0.254 2,351 loading 980 Articulated Fuel Consumption rate Earth fill 8228 60 Transport 138 2,295 Hauler A40 16.60 kg/hr. Earth fill Borrow Loader CAT 159725 100 Loading 1597 250 0.45 0.254 45,641 Bit 980 To filling Articulated Fuel Consumption rate 159725 35 Transport 4,480 74,374 Areas Hauler A40 16.60 kg/hr. Bulldozer CAT Earth fill 167954 120 Receiving 1399 175 .60 0.254 37,328 D7 167954 388 Leveling/ Motor Grader 432 159 0.59 0.254 10,296 Earth fill Road Roller 16 167954 19 Compacting 8846.5 110 0.59 0.254 145,831 tons Base & Sub-Base Crushing Loader CAT 45126 100 loading 452 250 0.45 0.254 13,140 Plant 980 Road Articulated Fuel Consumption rate 45126 15.25 Transport 3008 49,114 Line Hauler A40 16.60 kg/hr. Base & Bulldozer CAT Sub-Base 45126 120 Receiving 376 175 .60 .254 10,030 D7 fill Base & 45126 260 Leveling Motor Grader 174 159 .59 .254 4,118 Sub-Base Road Roller 16 45126 12.74 Compacting 3542 110 .59 .254 58,332 Final tons Note: 1- Machine capacities were obtained from filed 2- PI (machine power) (sources: Krantz, J. (2013). "An Earthworks Energy Model for Practical use in Road Construction". M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural resources engineering, Luleå University of Technology. Sweden)

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