The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Research Categories and (2) Data Types; These Are Described in Detail Table 1 in the Following Sections

Animal Advocacy in the Age of Information 1CHAPTER

Ché Green

Introduction It is a very sad thing that nowadays although technology can be instru- choose research priorities as well there is so little useless information. mental in helping to facilitate the as generate and share important —Oscar Wilde process. Information management information more effectively. systems are critically important he Humane Society of the both within individual organizations United States (HSUS) began and between groups with similar Why Do Animal Tits State of the Animals series purposes, such as those working for in 2001 with the ambitious but animal protection. In general, the Advocates Need necessary objective of evaluating scope of this chapter pertains to Research? the position of animals in society. shared information, with some em- Making a significant difference in Animal advocates no doubt agree phasis on data that are relevant to the lives of animals is predicated about the importance of the goal, the entire animal protection move- on the ability to access and inter- but accurately and consistently ment rather than proprietary or rel- pret reliable information about evaluating such a complex issue evant to a single organization. how society sees and uses them. requires substantial time and To assist the information man- Without access to accurate data to effort. In this chapter I propose to agement process, I have proposed determine effective campaign take an important step toward that an overall framework for categoriz- messaging and measure their per- vision by evaluating the informa- ing and prioritizing information formance, for instance, animal tion available to animal advocates and research for animal-advocacy advocates operate in a virtual vac- about the position of animals in purposes. The framework includes uum. Perhaps even more impor- society. The goal is to encourage “research categories” based on the tant, in most cases animal advo- and assist data collection and the different relationships between ani- cates do not engage in the be- development of information man- mals and humans and several “data havior they are trying to change in agement systems that allow animal types” for each category. I also pro- other people (the target audi- advocates to measure the impact vide more than fifty references to ence). For this reason and due to of their efforts on society and, good sources of information that other inherent biases, advocates most important, on efforts to im- may be used as starting points for simply cannot rely only on their prove the lives of animals. finding relevant data. I’ll use these own perception of why the target Information management involves and other sources to provide an audience thinks or behaves the the collection, creation, storage, overall assessment of the availabil- way it does. Similarly, they cannot distribution, and utilization of data ity of information by category and evaluate their impact on attitudes for a specific and defined purpose. data type. Finally, this chapter also and behavior using only their It is not simply a database or an includes a set of recommendations hunches and anecdotal evidence. intranet and, in fact, does not nec- for individual groups and the move- For many it has just been too long essarily involve technology at all, ment overall regarding how to since they have walked in the

1 suede shoes of those they hope will taxpayer funding of animal including primarily companion switch to pleather. research. The group says that animals, farmed animals, research, Information is the basis of in- in 2005 the U.S. government and wild and exotic animals. Any formed decision making. Indeed, gave $12 billion in funding for system designed to manage the no animal protection campaign or animal experimentation, an information must be comprehen- project should begin without first increase of nearly $7 billion sive (or nearly so) regarding the identifying and analyzing the avail- over ten years earlier. SAEN types of data and animal issues cov- able data on the topic or issue and, uses the research data to help ered and organized in mutually where the information is not avail- persuade policy makers that exclusive categories. able, collecting new data to sup- animal experiments are waste- Prioritization of the most neces- port critical decisions. Detailed and ful by combining them with sary and practical information is reliable data, obtained through re- details of duplicative research essential. For some animal protec- search, have played an important protocols from the NIH data- tion issues, there are very few data role in many successful animal- base (Budkie 2005). (e.g., the number of actual vegetari- related projects and campaigns; These are just a few instances ans and their motives), and it is nec- below are a few examples. where research-driven data have essary to carefully pick and choose • In New Hampshire P. Marsh, of been instrumental in helping ani- the most strategic areas for con- Solutions to Overpopulation of mals. Effective information man- ducting new research. For other ani- Pets, collected and analyzed agement can also help animal advo- mal issues, advocates have access to shelter intake and euthanasia cates level the playing field with significant information (e.g., demo- data to determine the state’s animal-related industries and cor- graphics of companion animal “own- primary sources of “surplus” porations, for which “data mining” ership”), in which case the priority animals: low-income residents. (involving a detailed quantitative may be to figure out where to begin Using these data, the group analysis about consumer traits, analyzing and interpreting the data. was able to create a publicly attitudes, and purchase behaviors) Once the initial framework is devel- funded and highly targeted is all the rage. Advocates may not oped (see the next section), an in- spay/neuter program for these have resources comparable to cor- formation management system can low-income individuals. Ongo- porations’ to devote to information help animal advocates understand ing research and tracking of management, but in this area a and keep track of which data are shelter data indicates that the small investment can reap signifi- known (and which aren’t). In all program led to a 77 percent cant rewards. In most cases it is cases animal advocates’ knowledge decline in the state’s euthana- inexpensive (although perhaps is much improved by having a con- sia rate over an eight-year time-consuming) to collect and tinuous historical perspective, so period (Marsh 2005). analyze all of the publicly available data collection must also be an • In New York City and Washing- data on an issue. When animal ad- ongoing effort. ton, D.C., The Fund for Ani- vocates need to collect primary mals conducted focus groups data because there is little or no with fur garment owners and existing research, a host of inex- A Proposed teenage females to test its anti- pensive and do-it-yourself research fur advertising. The qualitative methods can often be used. Framework research clearly showed that for Animal- two of the Fund’s prototype ads—one featuring a rabbit Knowing What Related Data and the other a chinchilla—did Information is a source of learning. not elicit nearly as much sym- Animal Advocates Unless it is organized, processed, pathy as ads featuring a young Need to Know and available to the right people in bobcat and a fox cub. The re- The breadth of information that is a format for decision making, how- sults were used to create a potentially useful to animal advo- ever, it is a burden, not a benefit more effective campaign with cates is nearly overwhelming. It (Pollard 2000). ads in Teen People and Seven- includes various types of animal A framework for organizing in- teen magazines (Green 2004). demographic and “usage” data, formation of value to animal ad- • Ohio-based Stop Animal Ex- “public opinion” data, consumer vocates must be comprehensive, ploitation Now (SAEN) con- behavior research, economic data, but it must also be as pragmatic ducts detailed audits of the and so on. Advocates need all of and useful as possible. In this National Institutes of Health these data and more for the full chapter, I recommend two general (NIH) database to estimate range of animal protection issues, bases for data classification: (1)

2 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 research categories and (2) data types; these are described in detail Table 1 in the following sections. I also briefly discuss the most likely Primary Research Categories sources of information for each and Data Types data type. The framework I suggest in this chapter is intention- Research Categories Data Types ally oversimplified to meet the Companion animals Animal demographics and usage data goals of practicality and compre- Farmed animals Attitudes/behavior about issues/advocates hensiveness, but it has the poten- Research animals Economic and financial support data tial for significantly more detail. Wild and exotic animals Other data not classified elsewhere In the future the framework can be defined in much more granular Other animals and issues terms, including multiple subcate- Animal advocacy gories for each research category and subtypes for each data type. to be companionship. In the category, with chickens, in turn, See the next section for selected United States, this research cat- making up the vast majority of ani- highlights by research category egory primarily includes dogs and mals slaughtered. Fish (and crus- and data type (Table l). cats kept as pets simply because taceans), historically composed of they represent the majority of such predominantly wild animals caught individuals in this country. How- in oceans, lakes, and streams, are Primary Research ever, the category also includes now increasingly being farmed for Categories other companion animals, such as food as ocean fish are dwindling in Because the eventual goal is to be birds, horses, rabbits, turtles, number. I also include fish caught able to evaluate the position of snakes, etc. The basis for this cate- in the wild in this category because (non-human) animals in (human) gory is companionship between the purpose is food production, in- society, my primary basis for organ- animal and human rather than cluding wild fish who are used pri- izing information is the type of species, but, of course, this does marily to feed farmed fish. Wild fish relationship between animal and not necessarily mean the relation- are increasingly being caught and human. Non-human animals are ship is a positive one for the ani- killed using industrial fishing tech- “used” by humans in countless mal. Animals typically considered niques (e.g., gillnets and driftnets). ways, but most of these interac- companions who are abused, neg- Farmed animals also include those tions fall within a few defined cate- lected, or otherwise not truly con- who are kept in various degrees of gories: animals as companions, ani- sidered “companions” by their confinement to produce items for mals as food and fiber (“farmed owners are still treated as such for human consumption, including animals”), animals used for re- categorization purposes. However, hens’ eggs and cows’ milk. Finally, search, and wild and exotic animals some issues bridge this category this category also includes animals used for entertainment and exhibi- and others, such as pets collected farmed for “fiber” or textile pur- tion purposes. Animals who do not by “Class B” dealers (so catego- poses, such as ranch-raised foxes clearly fit into one of these topical rized by the U.S. Department of and mink who are killed for their areas can be classified as “other Agriculture, or USDA, in the fed- fur coats, farmed sheep sheared for animals” for the sake of simplicity eral Animal Welfare Act as individ- their wool, and cows used to pro- (examples are given below). Finally, uals who negotiate or arrange for duce leather. a research category of significance the purchase, sale, or transport of to all animal advocates is, of animals in commerce), who then Research Animals course, information about them- sell them to research laboratories. The term “research animals” is selves and the impact that animal used for brevity and is not meant to advocacy is having on society’s atti- Farmed Animals diminish the intrinsic value of ani- tudes and behavior toward animals. The term “farmed animals” in- mals kept in laboratories and sub- cludes any animal raised and/or jected to experiments. This cate- Companion Animals killed to produce food or fiber (e.g., gory includes any animal used for For the purposes of this discussion, clothing) for humans. Animals experimentation, involving medical the term “companion animals” in- slaughtered for food in both indus- products or procedures, household cludes any animal whose primary trial and small establishments com- products, cosmetics, toxins and “purpose” for humans is deemed prise the majority of animals in this poisons, for behavior response re-

Animal Advocacy in the Age of Information 3 search, and in the classroom for dis- Other Animals and ment-wide strategies that allow ad- section purposes. The majority of Animals in General vocates to leverage their collective research animals in the United “Other animals” is simply a impact and measure their effective- States are mice, rats, birds, or pri- catchall research category for ani- ness. mates, but this category includes a mal-human relationships that do great diversity of species used for not clearly fit into the more spe- experiments. Research animals, cific research categories described Primary such as the beagle puppies used as above. For instance, horses used in test subjects (still fairly common) Data Types circuses may be included in this Organizing data according to the ani- may sometimes overlap with other category because they would mal-issue categories just described categories. Beagles in the United likely not be considered “wild” is an obvious starting point for ani- States are common pets, but for our or “exotic,” and they are typically mal advocates, but they should also purposes they are considered not used for companionship as well seek out and track different types of research animals. Similarly, ani- as performances. Opinion data data. The informational framework I mals experimented on for spe- referring to all animals in general, provide groups data into three broad cific purposes, such as university- such as “How important to you is categories: (1) animal usage and managed groups of farmed pigs, the humane treatment of ani- demographics; (2) attitudes and are also considered research animals,” where the species or type of behavior regarding issues and advo- mals because that is primarily how relationship is not mentioned, cates; and (3) economic and finan- they are being used in this instance. would be included here. Although cial support data. Additionally, a truly the vast majority of animal interac- Wild and Exotic Animals comprehensive understanding of the tions with human beings can be impact of animal protection efforts “Wild and exotic animals” include described by the previous cate- on the status of animals in human those who are used in circuses, gories, an “other” category is nec- society requires pulling together data rodeos, zoos, marine mammal essary for the information frame- from very diverse sources, such as parks, etc., as well as those who are work to be comprehensive. industries, governments, academic hunted, trapped, or killed for institutions, and fellow advocates. In “recreation” or as part of “resource Animal Advocacy general, animal advocates need to management” policies. This cat- Often overlooked or deprioritized base their knowledge management egory is unique in that some wild among animal advocates is re- on the most reliable data currently animals, including many endan- search about the animal-advocacy available and develop new sources of gered and threatened species, do movement, organizations, and indi- information whenever possible. not interact directly with humans vidual advocates. This research and, therefore, do not have a rela- category includes any individual Animal Usage and tionship with them. However, these or group working for the protec- Demographics Data animals are clearly affected ad- tion of animals, including those Perhaps the most important nu- versely by human activities through focused on single species of ani- merical measure of the position of habitat loss and other circum- mals or the most egregious forms animals in society is the number of stances, and they continue to be of of cruelty, as well as those elevating animals who suffer and are killed significant concern to animal and the status of all animals. It also for human purposes, what we call environmental advocates. One of includes local companion animal “usage data.” Usage data covers a the more difficult classifications shelters and rescue groups as well broad range of different types using this simple framework as a growing number of animal of information relating to the var- involves exotic animals kept as sanctuaries for farmed animals and ious animal protection issues or re- companions. This chapter consid- other species. Advocates often search categories described previ- ers these animals to be companion describe themselves as the “voice” ously. For instance, companion animals despite the fact that in of animals in human society. Re- animal “usage” includes the num- most cases they are not domesti- search data about the animal-advo- bers of animals in homes as well as cated. However, this classifica- cacy movement help to understand dogs born in puppy mills. Farmed tion—like all others presented in how strong that voice really is and animal usage data include the this chapter—is open to debate how well various target audiences number of cows slaughtered to pro- among those who are interested hear it. If information about animal duce beef as well the number of in further developing the infor- advocacy is produced, shared, and hens kept in constant confinement mation framework. used collaboratively among animal to produce eggs. Consistently col- advocates, it will create a strong lecting, tracking, and analyzing footing on which to build move- animal usage data—for all animals

4 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 and over the long term—is an Movement for farmed animal valuable when it relates to a spe- essential component of measuring slaughter data), but currently there cific target audience, such as high the animal protection movement’s is no comprehensive approach to school students or state legislators. success. More examples of usage information gathering across the Only by narrowing or “segmenting” data are provided later. breadth of animal protection issues. their target audience will animal It is useful to have a more Although precise data are not al- advocates be able to significantly detailed breakdown of which ani- ways attainable, related or periph- affect and measure changes in con- mals are used, what methods are eral information usually exists that sumer behavior. Despite the ubiq- used to house and “process” them, can still be helpful in establishing uity of animal consumption in the and other data. For example, baselines and identifying overall United States and elsewhere, ani- among companion animals it is trends. mal advocacy will not be effective important to know how many are using “mass marketing” tech- females and how many have been Consumer Behaviors niques (those that involve trying to spayed or neutered. With these and Attitudes about sell the same concept to all or most numbers one can better under- Issues and Advocates of the population, typically through stand the breeding potential of ani- The primary objective for most ani- mass media.) mals in homes (and shelters) and mal-advocacy campaigns and pro- It is also critically important for their contribution to companion grams is to effect some sort of be- animal advocates to accurately animal overpopulation. For farmed havior change in the target audi- measure and completely under- animals it is important to know ence, such as encouraging people stand the attitudes and opinions of how many animals are housed to neuter companion animals or those whom they are trying to using different types of confine- become vegetarians. “Consumer change. Conducting attitudinal ment systems, such as hens kept behaviors” include the full range of research is vital, because animal in “battery” cages, those in open actions, inactions, and reactions of advocates simply cannot trust barns, and those housed outdoors. a target group or individual, but for their own attitudes or opinions as Ideally, it is also helpful to have current purposes the term must be proxies of how the target audience data organized by animal demo- defined broadly. In the United thinks and feels. Except in rare cir- graphic groupings, including spe- States, the vast majority of people cumstances, they are not the peo- cies, age, gender, etc. “consume” animals in some way— ple they are trying to persuade to In general, animal usage data are either directly by owning, eating, or adopt new attitudes or behavior. most accurately tracked by the ani- wearing them, or indirectly by pur- Animal advocates can certainly mal use industries, as well as na- chasing products derived from ani- learn from their own experiences tional and local governments, but mals, tested on animals, etc. Other and changes in attitudes toward the data are often imperfect for ani- types of behaviors relevant to ani- animals, but in general they repre- mal protection purposes. For in- mal advocacy may be less “consum- sent a very small group of “innova- stance, the most complete data cover” oriented, such as the voting tors” of these opinions. Innovators, ering farmed animals slaughtered patterns of citizens and policymak- according to the “diffusions of in- in the United States are provided by ers, the decisions of corporate ex- novation theory,” are the first 2.5 USDA. USDA quantifies the num- ecutives, and the tactics of fellow percent of a population to adopt ber of animals living on farms and animal advocates. a new concept or idea (Rogers slaughtered in department in- Because nearly all elements of 1962). However, the interests and spected facilities, but the data are U.S. society “consume” animals in motivations that persuade the rest less than optimal for animal advo- some way, it may be tempting for of the population to be more com- cates. The quantity of farmed fish animal advocates to think of their passionate toward animals may be killed annually is reported in total target audience as the “general very different from those that per- pounds rather than in individual public.” Data measuring the behav- suaded animal advocates as innova- lives, to give just one example. Gov- ior of the public as a whole are tors. For this reason an increasing ernment data such as those pro- important for long-term tracking of number of animal protection vided by USDA may offer an excel- the animal protection movement’s groups are conducting outside lent starting point because they are impact on consumer choices. From opinion research to support their comprehensive and consistent, but an advocacy standpoint, however, campaigns and programs. extra effort is often needed to pro- the ill-defined and amorphous Reliable consumer behavior and duce meaningful data for advocacy “public” is not an actionable target opinion data are generally fairly purposes. Some animal-advocacy audience (Bishop 2004). Behavior sparse for most of the research cat- groups do track and analyze these research in support of effective ani- egories or issues described previ- data (e.g., the Farm Animal Reform mal advocacy is therefore most ously, making this is an essential

Animal Advocacy in the Age of Information 5 area of research for animal advo- It should be noted that, although begin to understand the move- cates in the future. In the short one can learn much from industry ment’s economics at a macro level. term, some opinion and behavior and government economic data, sig- data are available for certain ani- nificant expertise is typically re- Other Data Types mal issues from industry, academic, quired to analyze and make sense of Animal advocates must acknowl- and some animal-advocacy sources. the data. With such expertise, how- edge that the framework just For instance, the American Pet ever, economic data can be put to described is not exhaustive—al- Products Manufacturers Associa- very effective use. Financial data can though it strives to be as compre- tion (APPMA) produces the annual be used proactively or reactively, hensive as possible—and that judg- National Pet Owners Survey, which such as to dismantle the economic ments are necessary for some details the behavior of dog and cat arguments that industries use to types of information. For instance, “owners” (e.g., if they have spayed oppose legislative or other limita- academic research about the emo- or neutered their animals) as well tions on their practices to improve tions and cognitive abilities of ani- as owners of other companion ani- animal welfare. For example, some mals can help make the case to mals. Academic journals with a farm industry trade groups allege consumers, legislators, and others focus on social science often pro- that millions of dollars would be that animals are worthy of consid- vide behavioral research that may lost if legislation were to be passed eration. Such research does not fit be directly applicable or analogous requiring animal husbandry im- cleanly into this framework, to social marketing challenges in provements, but such claims are although it could be considered a animal advocacy. However, there is often based on specious data. Eco- component of or extension to ani- generally very little attitude or be- nomic data can be used to assess and mal demographic and usage data. havior research relative to the over- correct these claims and to make There are other exceptions as well. all importance of consumer behav- independent claims about the poten- If this general framework is to be ior and its impact on animals. tial financial benefits of improving used to develop a common infor- conditions for animals. More exam- mation management system for Economic and Financial ples appear later in this chapter. the animal protection movement, Support Data Equally important as measuring the research categories and data Similar to industry- and govern- the opposition’s financial health types should be defined in signifi- ment-based animal usage data, the and economic claims is tracking cantly more detail. Any such sys- financial success and impact of var- and analyzing public and private tem should be flexible enough to ious companies and industries can financial support for the animal allow for new categories and data be an important measure for ani- protection movement. Knowing if types to be added and modified as mal advocates. In the United these sources of funding are rising the information evolves. States, all publicly held companies or falling over time is an important are required to file quarterly and indicator of support from the pub- annual financial reports with the lic and other areas. It is also neces- State of the Data: U.S. Securities and Exchange Com- sary to understand the level of mission (SEC) that show their “working capital” available to the What We Know financial health in a sometimes animal protection movement, the Our knowledge is the amassed ambiguous, but relatively consis- growth of which is essential to ani- thought and experience of innu- tent manner. This information may mal advocates’ success. In the merable minds. be particularly useful when com- United States, where capitalism is —Ralph Waldo Emerson bined with a long-term corporate dominant and influence is often campaign, for instance, to measure bought and sold at both the federal It would be impossible to cover all the financial impact of boycotts and state levels, animal advocates of the existing data that are rele- and similar efforts, learn about are small fish, indeed. Knowing vant to animal advocates or that fit parent-subsidiary corporate rela- where financial support for animal into the informational framework tionships, and/or identify which protection is coming from and how described previously. We cannot be specific units of a company are per- to increase that support requires certain that we are aware of all forming well or doing poorly. The access to reliable data, something existing research kept by individual data may also be combined with that many larger organizations organizations, corporations, etc. government financial data (e.g., already do with their direct mail Indeed, it is very likely that signifi- the Agricultural Marketing Service programs. Sharing non-sensitive cantly more relevant research agency of USDA) to consistently financial data among organizations exists, but the information may be track the overall financial health of can also help animal advocates inaccessible to the broader move- industries that use animals. ment for any number of reasons.

6 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Companion Animals Table 2 Companion animals, as a topic of Relative Availability and Quality research, have received more attention than any of the other research of Data by Topic and Type categories included in this analysis. Animal Attitude and Financial The historical focus of the animal Demographics Consumer and Economic protection movement, particularly and Usage Data Behavior Data Data at the local level, has been the care Companion animals §|§and well-being of companion animals. On a national level, numer- Farmed animals §¢§ous organizations focus on com- Research animals ¢§§panion animal issues such as pet overpopulation. At least one U.S.- Wild and exotic animals ¢§¢based institution—the National Council on Pet Population Study Animal advocacy ¢¢§ and Policy—focuses exclusively on Symbols: | = Significant data available data collection for companion ani- § = Moderate data available mals. The council’s primary goal is ¢ = Little or no data available “to serve as a national collection point for gathering and evaluating That said, however, the assessment scribed previously, while informa- available pet population data and of available data and examples pro- tion is sparse or nonexistent for relevant materials” (http://www. vided in this chapter stem from five others. Table 2 provides a rough petpopulation.org, n.p.). These and years of work, including data col- assessment of the currently avail- other sources of information can be lection, organization, and analysis able information organized accord- extremely valuable when develop- across all of the research cate- ing to the framework from the ing campaigns to protect compan- gories and data types presented. previous section. ion animals. However, although The overall assessment of available there is more research on this issue information by research category than for some other research cate- and many of the sources are based Relative Availability gories, crucial gaps remain in the in part on a review of approxi- and Quality of Data available information. I examine mately three hundred references, more closely these gaps and the including primarily consumer be- by Topic and Type types of data that are most needed havior and opinion data (Humane I’ll now take a closer look at evalu- for more effective animal advocacy. Research Council [HRC] n.d.). ating the information available to This experience and access to animal advocates for each of the Demographic research data suggest that the research categories and data types and Usage Data information currently available to shown in Table 2. I cover a handful Basic demographic information for animal advocates is at the same of sources for each, and I shall try companion animals in households time overwhelming and inade- to include those that I consider (e.g., number of pets in the United quate. The data are overwhelming exemplary of the type of research States, species or breed, etc.) is in the sense that the amount of that is most needed for effective generally available from a variety of raw or unanalyzed information is animal advocacy. My purpose is not sources. However, many of the best plentiful for many research topics. to provide a “data dump,” but sources of data are industry-based, However, the information is often rather to demonstrate how some of and the research is motivated at unreliable or outdated, and much the more reliable data currently least in part by the desire to sell of it is impractical for animal- available fit into the research pet-related products. The data advocacy purposes. The availability framework I have described. The from these studies are typically of reliable and useful information sources listed may serve as a useful restricted (or available only at a is therefore generally inadequate starting point to locate further significant cost), and in many for most research areas of interest information by topic, and I provide cases they are too general for advo- to animal advocates. Of course, the references and Internet links when- cacy purposes. More specific usage amount of available data varies sig- ever they are available. data, such as the population and nificantly by research category. demographics of shelter animals, There is a large amount of data are less available. Nonetheless, ani- for some research categories de- mal advocates should make every

Animal Advocacy in the Age of Information 7 effort to analyze all available re- available, the findings are often too essential. For instance, trend data search and to generate new general (i.e., “public opinion”) or regarding the sales and profits of research where necessary in sup- otherwise insufficient for compan- “puppy mills” can help advocates port of campaign and program ion animal advocates. Similar to understand the impact of their development. Below are three demographic data, many of the efforts against such operations and good examples of companion ani- best sources of companion animal in favor of adopting rescued animal demographic and usage re- attitudinal and behavior research mals. Other industry-based finan- search currently available. are industry-based. However, an cial data are also potentially helpful • U.S. Pet Ownership and Demo- increasing number of animal pro- to advocates, such as the sales (in graphics Sourcebook (Ameri- tection groups are exploring these units or dollars or both) of choke can Veterinary Medical Associa- issues through surveys, interviews, collars for dogs. Perhaps more tion [AVMA] 2002). This study focus groups, etc., and some third- important to advocates is research focused on veterinary issues, party researchers occasionally re- about trends and sources of finan- based on a survey of fifty-four lease useful data into the public cial support for companion animal thousand U.S. households, is domain. Below are a few examples. programs, including donations to described by the AVMA as “the • State of the American Pet nonprofit groups for that purpose. largest, most statistically accu- (Purina Corporation 2001). Although this information exists rate and complete survey of the Survey of U.S. dog and cat within many individual organiza- pet owning public and pet pop- owners “to determine their tions for their own programs and ulation demographics.” knowledge, attitudes and be- donor bases, there are very few • “Characteristics of Shelter- haviors regarding pet health sources of research covering the Relinquished Animals and issues.” Strong emphasis on economics of companion animal Their Owners Compared with specific health matters, but advocacy in general. Here are a few Animals and Their Owners in the results also include some examples of financial research for U.S. Pet-Owning Households,” demographic data on compan- companion animal issues. by John C. New, Jr. (2000). This ion animals and their owners. • National Pet Owners Survey in-depth study included inter- • Cat Owner Study (The Hu- (American Pet Products Manu- views with people who relin- mane Society of the United facturers Association 2005– quished animals at twelve shel- States 2001a). Explores behav- 2006). This biannual survey ters in four U.S. regions and a ioral differences between own- from the pet products industry national survey; it found that ers who keep cats indoors and details the purchase habits, people relinquishing animals to those who keep them out- sources of ownership, and shelters were more likely to be doors, including motivations “lifestyle and media habits” of men and under age thirty-five. for and barriers to persuading pet owners. Although finan- • The Shelter Statistics Survey owners to keep cats indoors. cially focused, the study is also 1994–1997 (National Council • The Gallup Poll (Gallup Organi- a fairly reliable source for com- on Pet Population Study and Pol- zation 1990). Available from the panion animal and owner dem- icy 2004–2006). This survey of Roper Center’s iPoll database. ographic data. about a thousand shelters and Comprehensive (but outdated) • Public Funding for Spay/ sheltering organizations pro- study that identifies owners’ rea- Neuter (St. Arnaud n.d.). vides detailed “usage” data sons for having companion ani- Although not a data-driven regarding the sources and types mals, the sources from which study, this document describes of “surplus” companion animals they obtained them, including public funding for spay/neuter in U.S. shelters, although the “a pet shop, a professional programs and includes finan- data may be too outdated to breeder, an animal shelter, (and) cial details of several model reflect current information was he/she a stray that just programs located throughout about companion animal usage. appeared,” and also covering a the United States. It also pro- wide range of related behavior. vides one specific example of Attitudes and Consumer an analysis of companion ani- Behavior Data Financial and mal-related information from Attitudinal and consumer behavior Economic Data a financial perspective. data relating to companion ani- Companion animal advocates in • “An Interactive Model of Hu- mals are more complex and multi- general may be less interested in man and Companion Animal faceted than are basic demo- the financial and economic drivers Dynamics: The Ecology and graphic and usage data. Although of pet “usage,” but for some pro- Economics of Dog Overpopula- a reasonable amount of research is grams and campaigns, the data are tion and the Human Cost of

8 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Addressing the Problem.” This United States. However, because • Animal Death Statistics Re- technical paper provides a USDA is primarily charged with port (FARM 2004). The U.S.- model to understand the dy- conducting food safety inspections based farmed animal advocacy namics of dog overpopulation and helping farmers market their group FARM periodically ana- and various efforts to reduce products, the data may be less use- lyzes and publishes data from euthanasia of dogs in shelters. ful to animal advocates. For NASS. The 2004 report, The economic analysis found instance, although USDA accu- which covers data for all “land- that “a ‘no-kill’ society is an rately and consistently tracks based” animals, is one of the achievable goal at an accept- farmed animal usage and slaughter most comprehensive resources able human cost” (Frank data, details about the demograph- available from an animal advo- 2004, n.p.). ics, living conditions, and welfare cacy source. of farmed animals are much less • Commercial Slaughter Statis- Farmed Animals common. In other cases govern- tics (Compassion over Killing The data available for farmed ani- ment reports euphemize the treat- [COK] 2005). Similar to the mals are relatively limited comment and killing of animals, using FARM report described above, pared to those available for com- terms like “disposition” that may COK regularly summarizes the panion animals, in part because be confusing for advocates. Some “commercial slaughter” of all farmed animals are a more recent usage data for farmed animals are land-based farmed animals in focus for the animal protection available from the farming indus- the United States, most recently movement. The availability of data tries themselves, but typically the in 2005. COK also provides differs by specific topic, however, information is less detailed than direct links to USDA source doc- such as animals who are raised for are government data. Below are a uments for “livestock” and poul- their fur versus those who are few examples of available usage try slaughter statistics. raised for food. In the United data covering farmed animals. States, animals farmed for food • NASS Publications and Data- Attitudes and Consumer account for roughly 98 percent of bases, USDA/National Agricul- Behavior Data the animals “consumed” each tural Statistics Service (NASS). Unlike usage data, information year; the availability of reliable NASS is the USDA agency pri- about people’s attitudes toward data, however, is inadequate rela- marily responsible for collecting farmed animals and related con- tive to the importance of the issue. and publishing farmed animal sumer behaviors, such as vegetari- This is particularly true for attitu- data and statistics. Usage and anism and meat reduction, is actu- dinal and consumer behavior re- slaughter data are typically ally quite sparse. However, a search about farmed animals (and available by month, year, etc., growing focus among animal advo- related issues like vegetarianism and for most U.S. states. In cates on farmed animals and and veganism), although a signifi- some cases the data are raw or increasing concern about farmed cant number of farmed animal presented in a less useful format animal welfare among consumers is “usage” data are available from the for animal advocates, such as creating more interest in such re- U.S. government. Some research is slaughter data for farmed fish, search. Attitudinal and behavioral also available from farming-related which are provided in pounds. data are typically not available from industries and their trade associa- http://www.nass.usda.gov/ animal use industries, given the tions, but these groups, like many Data_and_Statistics/index.asp. potentially sensitive nature of such others that use animals for profit, • FAOSTAT and ProdSTAT Data- research regarding their practices appear to be increasingly protect- bases, United Nations Food and image in general. However, ing information for fear that it may and Agriculture Organization good sources of such information be used against them by animal (FAO). The FAO provides a may include academic research advocates, the media, etc. comprehensive database simi- studies, third-party research organi- lar to NASS, but for all coun- zations, and, occasionally, data from Demographic tries in the world; however, not government agencies. Another and Usage Data all countries report all farmed good source of attitude and behav- USDA and its various research animal data every year or in a ior data may be other animal advo- agencies are the primary source of consistent manner. The FAO cates who have conducted their own farmed animal usage data because databases are still an excellent research on farmed animals and are they require information from resource for international willing to share the information. companies under their purview, farmed animal campaigns. Here are a few examples of good which includes most animal farm- http://faostat.fao.org/site data and other resources covering ing and related businesses in the /568/default.aspx.

Animal Advocacy in the Age of Information 9 attitudes and behaviors relating to dated, the qualitative informa- • AMS Publications (USDA/Agri- farmed animals. tion may still be useful for fac- cultural Marketing Service • Farm Animal Welfare Con- tory farming campaigns. [AMS] n.d.). AMS is the USDA cerns: Consumers, Retailers agency primarily responsible and Producers, Welfare Quality Financial and for carrying out domestic and Project (European Union [EU] Economic Data international research and pro- 2005). The Welfare Quality The primary sources of financial and motional efforts for U.S. agri- research does not include the economic data regarding farmed cultural producers, including United States, but it does rep- animals are essentially the same as animal farmers. AMS provides resent one of the most com- the sources of usage data—govern- data by “commodity,” includ- prehensive analyses of atti- ment agencies and, occasionally, ing separate categories for tudes toward farmed animals advocates or animal-farming indus- dairy, poultry, and “livestock.” ever conducted. The research tries. Economic information cover- covers detailed opinions from ing overall farmed animal industries Research Animals consumers, retailers, and pro- is typically unavailable (or very For several reasons there is signifi- ducers about each species of expensive), although financial data cantly less information available farmed animal, for each EU for publicly owned companies are about animals used for research and country and in aggregate. available through the SEC. Below experimentation than there is for • “Pennsylvanian Voters Support are several examples of research cov- most other research categories. Effort to Outlaw ‘Foie Gras,’” ering farmed animal economic and Using animals for medical, cosmet- Farm Sanctuary (2006). This financial data. ics, and household product research media release includes results • ERS Publications and Databases is a primarily institutional activity from a survey of likely voters in (USDA/Economic Research Ser- conducted by governments, univer- Pennsylvania gauging attitudes vice [ERS] n.d.). ERS is the sities, and company laboratories. toward a possible ban on the USDA agency primarily responsi- However, because U.S. laws regulat- sale of foie gras (the livers of ble for collecting and publishing ing animal research do not cover force-fed ducks and geese), economic and trade research mice, rats, and birds (the vast that found that 80 percent about farmed animals. The data majority of research subjects), of the state’s voters agreed include industry- and “commod- detailed usage data are typically not with such a ban. http://www. ity-” level economic information available for most of the animals farmsanctuary.org/media/ for domestic U.S. markets and who fall within this category. pr_Pa_FG.htm. international farmed animal Because animal research is not • Vegetarianism in the United trade partners. directly a consumer issue (although States (HRC 2005). This report • 2006 Annual Financial Report it is indirectly; for instance, buying provides a meta-analysis of pub- (Tyson Foods, Inc. 2006). behaviors relating to “cruelty-free” licly available quantitative data Tyson Foods, a publicly held products), the industry that drives estimating the number of adult (New York Stock Exchange sym- it is generally less interested in the meat reducers, semivegetarians, bol: TSN) U.S. company, is the attitudes of consumers or in sharing vegetarians, and vegans in the largest farmed animal slaugh- its opinion research publicly. Some United States; it also includes terer in the world; detailed exceptions include data from ani- new findings from a national annual and quarterly financial mal protection and/or biomedical HRC study conducted in 2005. reports are available from the trade groups and, occasionally, The report is available to ani- SEC. third-party research organizations. mal and vegetarian advocates • Feeding the Factory Farm: by request. Implicit Subsidies to the Broil- Demographic • Knowledge of and Attitudes to- er Chicken Industry (Global and Usage Data ward Factory Farmed Animals Development and Environment Because the U.S. government regu- (The Humane Society of the Institute, Tufts University lates the use of research animals United States 1999). This qual- 2006). This research paper pro- and is a primary source of funding itative study explored aware- vides an in-depth analysis of for animal research, it is also the ness of and attitudes toward government financial data re- primary source of related informa- factory farms, the humane lating to farmed animal operation. However, government sources treatment of farmed animals, tions, in this case implicit sub- do not represent all animal re- and related issues among U.S. sidies paid to companies that search occurring in the United residents ages 25–55. Although breed and slaughter “broiler” States, and they are often limited the report is somewhat out- chickens. in the amount of detail they pro-

10 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 vide. As a result reliable data re- Attitudes and Consumer et al. were able to describe sev- garding the number of animals Behavior Data eral correlations, including used for experimentation in the Unlike basic usage and demo- that supporters of animal United States are very limited, and graphic information, research research are “more likely to be basic information, such as age, about public attitudes toward the male, masculine, conservative, gender, and species of research use of animals in research is avail- and less empathic than those animals, is generally unavailable. able, although much of it is gen- opposed to it” (Broida et al. Detailed information about the eral and/or outdated. In the 1993, 129–144). number of animals currently kept United States, animal research was • General Social Survey (GSS), in laboratories, how long they have a subject of significant controversy, National Opinion Research been there, and the specific proto- hence the greater media and pub- Council (NORC), multiple sur- cols to which they are subjected is lic attention in the 1980s and into vey waves since 1972. The GSS also quite rare except when gov- the 1990s. The result is a fairly sig- is described as being second ernment reporting requires disclo- nificant number of attitudinal data only to the U.S. census regard- sure. Below are a few examples of available from mostly academic ing social and attitudinal infor- the available research. and other relatively neutral third- mation about U.S. residents. Two • Computer Retrieval of Infor- party sources. However, the data past waves of the survey (1993 mation on Scientific Projects are often too general (e.g., “pub- and 1994) asked about attitudes (CRISP), National Institutes of lic” attitudes) to be of much prac- toward animal research, but atti- Health (NIH). http://crisp.cit. tical value for animal advocates. tudes toward other issues are nih.gov/. Updated weekly, Below are just a few examples of not addressed, and the infor- CRISP is a “searchable database the publicly available attitudinal mation may be less valuable of federally funded biomedical data for this research category. with the passage of time. research projects conducted • Public Attitudes toward Animal http://www.norc.org/projects/ at universities, hospitals, and Research: Some International gensoc1.asp. other research institutions.” It Comparisons (Chicago Acad- includes research animal usage emy of Sciences 1994) covers Financial and data and government grant basic attitudes toward animal Economic Data information for all research research from residents in fif- As with farmed animal data, the projects funded by CRISP. teen countries and includes sources of financial and economic • Research Animal Publications, differences by nationality, gen- information for research animals USDA/Animal Welfare Infor- der, and general scientific are primarily government agencies mation Center (AWIC). (http:// knowledge or literacy. and advocates as well as academic awic.nal.usda.gov/nal_ • Identifying Attitudes Related to groups. In general, however, eco- display/index.php?info Animal Testing in the United nomic data about the use of center=3&tax_level=1&tax_ States (Coalition for Con- research animals are very limited subject=169). AWIC is the sumer Information on Cosmet- except for disclosures of the use of USDA agency primarily ics 1996). This somewhat out- public funds, such as through the responsible for publishing dated study of about a NIH CRISP system mentioned ear- welfare-related information for thousand U.S. adults com- lier. Financial data are available for animals who are covered under pares attitudes and likely pur- publicly owned companies involved the Animal Welfare Act. The data chase behavior for cosmetic in animal research, but rarely is available are very limited, how- and household products tested such research the company’s sole ever, and most animals used for on or sourced from animals business, so relevant data may be research (including rats, mice, with products not tested on difficult to sort out. Below are ex- and birds) are not covered. animals. http://www.leaping amples of research covering eco- • 2002 Animals Used in Research bunny.org/pollresults.htm. nomic and financial data relating (Stop Animal Exploitation Now • Personality Differences between to animal research. 2002). This collection of statis- Pro- and Anti-Vivisectionists • Extramural Data and Award tics includes data from USDA (Broida et al. 1993). This older Trends, National Institutes of for all major species of research study examined attitudinal dif- Health (updated regularly). animals covered under the Ani- ferences between pro- and This resource provides detailed mal Welfare Act (excluding the anti-vivisectionists using stan- federal grant award data, in- majority of research animals: dard personality tests and a cluding current and long-term mice, rats, and birds). separate survey of opinions trends for average grant size, about animal research. Broida sources of funding, and type of

Animal Advocacy in the Age of Information 11 grant. http://grants.nih.gov/ Although there is currently no single ship survey to estimate the grants/award/. source of accurate estimates of ani- number of animals who are • An Audit of the 2005 National mals living in the wild, or on the dis- held captive in AZA-accredited Institutes of Health Funding of appearance of wildlife due to human facilities. However, this and Animal Experimentation (Bud- activities, there are some govern- most other sources do not kie 2005). This report provides ment and academic sources covering cover the many nonaccredited a detailed assessment of data endangered species. For wild or “roadside zoos” and similar ani- from the NIH CRISP data- exotic animals kept captive in zoos, mal exhibits in the United base to estimate taxpayer aquariums, circuses, rodeos, and States. http://www.aza.org/ funding of animal research similar facilities or exhibits, few data Newsroom/CurrentStatistics/. and demonstrate that signifi- are generally available. USDA is the • International Species Informa- cant money goes to funding regulatory entity charged with en- tion System (ISIS) (2006). duplicative research. http:// forcing laws to protect animals in ISIS is an international non- www.allcreatures.org/saen/ captivity and on exhibit, along with profit project whose primary articles-rep-anex2006.html. self-regulation by those involved in goal is creating software to • 2006 Annual Financial Report specialized trade associations. How- track and share demographic (Charles River Laboratories ever, none of these sources provides data for animals kept in zoos International, Inc. 2006). detailed or comprehensive informa- and aquariums worldwide. Charles River, a publicly held tion about the number of animals According to its website, “The (New York Stock Exchange kept in zoos, circuses, etc. Below are ISIS central database contains symbol: CRL) U.S. company a few of the available sources of wild information on 2 million ani- based in Boston, is one of the and exotic animal “usage” research. mals held in zoological institu- largest breeders of laboratory • U.S. Trapping Statistics, Ani- tions, and some animals in the animals in the world. http:// mal Protection Institute (API) wild.” https://app.isis.org/ secfilings.nyse.com/filing.php? (data are from 1986–2003). abstracts/abs.asp. doc=1&attach=ON&ipage= API contacted U.S. state 4029521. wildlife agencies and collected Attitudes and Consumer data about the numbers Behavior Data Wild and Exotic Animals of wild animals who are The availability of attitudinal and This category includes animals trapped in each state, then behavioral research about wild and who are hunted, trapped, used in combined those findings to exotic animals is highly dependent circuses and rodeos, exhibited in estimate the overall number on the specific topic of interest. zoos, etc., as well as animals in the of animals trapped in the There is a moderate amount of re- wild who may not interact directly United States, by species. search conducted about attitudes with people but are affected by http://www.bancrueltraps.com/ toward wildlife in general and in human activities. The research cov- b3_stats.php. specific situations (e.g., “manage- ering wild and exotic animals come • Threatened and Endangered ment” of Alaskan wolf populations), from a range of diverse sources, Animals Species System mostly from academic sources. Pub- but the information available is (TESS), U.S. Fish and Wildlife lic opinion polls commissioned by fairly limited. There is a sizable Service (FWS) (updated annu- animal protection groups or third- body of academic research cover- ally). The TESS database tracks party research organizations occa- ing wildlife science, but the kind of the number of animal species sionally address attitudes about the usage, attitudinal, and economic currently listed by the U.S. gov- use of animals in zoos and circuses, data discussed here are relatively ernment as threatened or but these studies are rare. Behav- hard to find for wild animals and endangered, but it does not ioral data such as details about the those exhibited for “entertain- include specific estimates for number and types of people attend- ment” purposes. any wild animal populations. ing zoos and circuses, and how http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/ those behaviors have changed over Demographic and Boxscore.do. time are not generally available. Usage Data • Number of Specimens in AZA Below are examples of publicly avail- Reliable demographic and usage Accredited Institutions (Ameri- able attitudinal data on wild and data for wildlife in general are essen- can Zoo and Aquarium Associa- exotic animals. tially nonexistent except in cases tion 2005). The primary indus- • Natural Resources and Outdoor where species are threatened or are try trade organization for major Recreation Research, Responsive approaching extinction or where spe- U.S.-based zoos and aquariums Management, Inc. (RMI). RMI is cific issues have been researched. conducts an annual member- a U.S. company that works

12 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 mostly with federal agencies, mals described previously, it stands the Endangered California state departments, trade groups, to reason that financial and eco- Least Tern” (Shwiff et al. and corporations involved in nomic data for wildlife are similarly 2005). This provides a detailed activities such as hunting, fish- limited. This is attributable in part analysis of the effects of ing, and trapping, as well as out- to the fact that wildlife-related changes in public funding for door recreational activities. RMI industries are small compared to the protection of the endan- provides a wealth of research most other animal use industries. gered California least tern. data on its website; however, only There is less publicly available The article shows that in- some of the data are released, information about their activities. creased public funding does often painting a picture of public The same is true of animals used in have a significant impact, with opinion or behavior that is of circuses, rodeos, and other ex- greater effects from reproduc- interest to RMI’s clients. http:// hibits, in part because these niche tion monitoring than “preda- responsivemanagement.com/. industries are already under signif- tor control.” http://www. • Roadside Wildlife Study (The icant scrutiny from animal advo- aphis.usda.gov/ws/nwrc/is/ Humane Society of the United cates. Zoos and aquariums may be 05pubs/shwiff051.pdf. States 2001b). This study eval- an exception, however, because uates the perceived impor- they are often managed by or in Animal Advocacy tance of highway-related partnership with local municipali- Having a separate research cate- wildlife mortality among ties, an arrangement that in many gory for “animal advocacy” under- licensed drivers, including pos- cases involves more stringent fi- scores the importance for advo- sible ways to influence drivers’ nancial reporting requirements. cates to evaluate data about their behaviors to protect wildlife Below are a few related examples. own actions and effectiveness, not from vehicle collisions. • Evaluating the Economic Im- just data about the animals they • Attitudes and Values of Wildlife pact of a Dove Season in Michi- are trying to protect. The effective- User Groups (Cornell Univer- gan (Garlit and Fearing 2006). ness of the animal protection sity, Human Dimensions Re- This report rebuts arguments movement can be measured in search Unit, Department of that reinstating the mourning countless ways, and there is no Natural Resources). The Cor- dove hunting season in Michi- doubt some disagreement about nell University’s Department gan would be a boon to the the relative importance of different of Natural Resources currently local economy, concluding in- metrics such as generating aware- makes available more than stead that the new season may ness versus changing behaviors. fifty mostly academic studies negatively affect state revenue However, most animal advocates on wildlife-related issues dat- due to increased management agree that they generally need ing back to 1978; most are costs and decreased income more information to better evalu- available for free or for the from non-hunting outdoor ate their efforts and understand cost of printing. http://www. activities. http://www.stop the impact they are having on the dnr.cornell.edu/hdru/pubs/ shootingdoves.org/files/MI_ status of animals in society. A wildattp.htm. Mourning_Dove_Econ_Paper_ diversity of data about animal • Attitudes, Knowledge, and Be- 062006.pdf. advocacy is potentially useful to haviors toward Wildlife as • “Single-Species versus Multiple- the advocates themselves, includ- Affected by Gender (Kellert Species Models: The Economic ing “usage” data (e.g., total mem- and Berry 1978). This very Implications” (Fleming and bership numbers), attitudinal data outdated study covers the dif- Alexander 2003). This fairly (e.g., respect for advocates), be- ferences between female and technical journal article expands havior data (e.g., total volunteer male attitudes about, knowl- on the traditionally used single- hours), and financial data (e.g., edge of, and behavior toward species model of conservational total donations over time). More wildlife, including activities economics to consider multiple examples follow. such as hunting and fishing. species and, in doing so, shows http://www.wildlife.org/ that the single-species model Demographic and publications/index.cfm?t undervalues the economic im- Usage Data name=bulletin. plications of other species for an My application of “demographic and overall ecosystem. usage data” throughout this chapter Financial and • “Ex Post Economic Analysis of does not easily translate to animal Economic Data Reproduction-Monitoring and advocacy as a research topic. How- Given the lack of demographic and Predator-Removal Variables ever, information about civic en- usage data for wild and exotic ani- Associated with Protection of gagement or membership in animal

Animal Advocacy in the Age of Information 13 protection organizations and about organizations from several questions about attitudes animal advocates in general may be studies before 1976. toward the animal protection considered a part of this category. movement and efforts to pre- Such information is not generally Attitudes and Consumer vent harm and cruelty toward available, but potentially useful data Behavior Data animals. http://network.best include estimates of the total num- The attitudes and behavior that friends.org/Campaigns/ ber of animal advocates in the are relevant to animal advocacy BFDay/KindnessIndex.aspx. United States and a detailed break- include the opinions and actions • The Gallup Poll (Gallup Orga- down of advocates’ demographics of advocates themselves as well as nization 2000). Available (e.g., age, gender, education level, the attitudes and actions of target from the Roper Center’s iPoll income, etc.). It behooves animal audiences toward such advocates. database, the Gallup Poll advocates to understand the Research describing the opinions occasionally includes animal- breadth and depth of their own of animal advocates is fairly un- related questions; in this case ranks and to evaluate their “recruit- common, partly because it is diffi- the poll asked about respon- ment” efforts over time. Below are a cult to obtain a representative dents’ support for the goals of few examples of such research, but sample of such a small group of various social justice move- the lack of recent and actionable people spread throughout the ments, including the “animal data in general indicates just how United States. However, there is rights movement.” Sev- little research has been conducted an increasing focus among ani- enty-two percent said they on this topic. mal-advocacy groups and others agreed with its goals, and 25 • “Caring about Blood, Flesh, on the “public opinion” of the ani- percent said they disagreed. and Pain: Women’s Standing in mal protection movement, includ- • Attitudes and Dispositional the Animal Protection Move- ing feelings about specific tactics Optimism of Animal Rights ment” (Munro 2001). This and the overall respect for or Demonstrators (Galvin and article includes a review of pre- credibility of advocates. Research Herzog 1998). This small-scale vious surveys of animal advo- can also provide useful data about and slightly outdated study cates to identify differences by the level of general interest in vol- measured the attitudes of gender and to describe any di- unteering for animal protection activists attending the 1996 vergence or convergence of organizations, or an estimate of march for the animals in Wash- the relationship between gen- the actual number of hours volun- ington, D.C., including their der and likelihood of being an teered over a given period. Below opinions about the goals of the animal advocate. are several examples of relevant animal rights movement and • Civic Involvement Survey, sources of attitudinal and behav- “optimism” about achieving American Association of Retired ioral data. those goals. http://psyeta. Persons (AARP) (1996). This • Humanitarian Youth Culture org/sa/sa6.1/GALVIN.html. somewhat outdated AARP Study (Label Networks 2006). study included a single ques- This recent study of U.S. Financial and tion about respondents’ self- youths ages 13–24 asked Economic Data reported membership in “envi- about their interest in volun- Financial data of relevance to ani- ronmental or animal pro- teering for national nonprofit mal advocates include donations tection groups,” with 13 per- organizations, including Peo- and other monetary gifts to animal cent replying “yes.” The sample for the Ethical Treatment protection groups, which provide ple included fifteen hundred of Animals (found to be the the working capital for the animal respondents divided evenly number one choice among protection movement. Such data between those over age fifty youths of all U.S. nonprofit are generally available for major and those under age fifty. organizations) and “the hu- U.S. nonprofit organizations due to http://www.ropercenter.ucon. mane society” as possible the federal government’s require- edu/ipoll.html. answers. http://69.93.14.237/ ments for financial disclosure. • Membership of U.S. Adults in humanitarian-study-2006.cfm. However, in-depth analyses of the Animal and Environmental Or- • The Kindness Index (Best existing data have been relatively ganizations (Kellert and Berry Friends Animal Society 2006). infrequent, and in general there is 1981) (data are from 1976). The Best Friends annual survey little sense of the long-term trends This study is outdated but pro- is primarily a measure of atti- in donations and other forms of vides an overview of member- tudes toward animal-related contributions to animal protection ship in animal protection policies among U.S. voters but efforts. Other relevant data include also includes several direct the funding available to organiza-

14 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 tions established to oppose animal advocates is considered sensitive investing in information that protection efforts, such as the or proprietary, as one might expect directly supports the most impor- many industry trade groups that given that it typically focuses on tant campaign decisions. work to discredit animal advo- the activities or programs of a sin- cates. Below are two examples of gle organization. Although that financial data of relevance to ani- trend will likely continue, a hand- Research mal advocacy. ful of collaborative research pro- • Distribution of Foundation jects in their early stages may serve Priorities for Grants by Subject Categories as possible models for sharing in- Organizations (Foundation Center n.d.). Mul- formation. For now, however, there The most valuable data for animal tiple years available. The Foun- is no movement-wide research advocates generally involve infor- dation Center regularly studies strategy, and developing a “road mation that supports specific deci- U.S. giving patterns and offers map” for all animal-advocacy re- sions about particular issues or summaries of research results search is essentially a new concept. campaigns. Similarly, most of the online, including a breakout of Developing such a road map for research conducted for advocacy “animals and wildlife.” Animal the entire movement is perhaps an purposes will be for specific organ- advocates may be most inter- overly ambitious goal, but here I izations and/or oriented around ested in the Foundation Giving take some early steps by making particular campaigns or programs. Trends report (see the “Gain recommendations about the types The suggested “research road Knowledge/Research Studies” of information that individual map” discussed in this section will section) or the general grants groups and the movement in gen- be different for every individual statistic page. eral should prioritize. animal protection organization, • Giving and Volunteering in the The needs of independent ani- because every group has unique United States 2001 (Inde- mal protection groups are different campaigns and, therefore, unique pendent Sector 2001). This from those of the overall move- informational requirements. It is report provides a comprehen- ment, and the research recommen- impossible to define the research sive review of donations and dations for each are unique as well. priorities of individual groups with- volunteerism in the United Below I offer several general guide- out a lengthy and involved process, States, but the free summary lines that may be helpful to individ- and I will not attempt to do so available online includes only ual animal-advocacy projects while here. However, the following five generalized data and does not acknowledging that research prior- general principles may provide break out animal protection ities are unique for each situation. guidance to animal advocates as a separate category. I also provide suggestions for regarding how to use research and movement-wide research priorities information management most and recommendations for increas- effectively for their individual cam- Research Road ing collaboration among animal paigns and programs. advocates and democratizing 1. Include research early in the Map: What We access to important information. planning process. Need to Know Most important, when choosing Whether an organization’s cam- research (and campaign) priori- paign planning process is formal To know, is to know that you know ties, animal advocates need to or informal, it is important to nothing. That is the meaning of true maintain focus on the bottom line, consider research priorities as knowledge. which is changing behavior and early as possible. Research is —Confucius attitudes to benefit animals. In all almost always recommended as cases, data collection should be in the first stage of any major plan- Most of the data available about support of this goal, including ning process, including the initial animal protection issues are pro- identifying where it is possible to stage, to decide which campaigns duced by nonadvocacy sources, create such change and how to go warrant major investment. For typically industries, governments, about doing so most effectively. instance, a community-based and academic institutions. How- Animal advocates are best served spay/neuter program should ever, a growing number of animal- by recognizing the importance of make every effort to collect advocacy groups are collecting and accurate and reliable information intake and adoption data from using their own data through both when planning and executing their local shelters before beginning primary research and in-depth campaigns. But I do acknowledge its program so that it can begin analysis of secondary data. Much of that advocates must also choose to understand the data’s impact the research conducted by animal research priorities judiciously by versus the baseline. Similarly, a

Animal Advocacy in the Age of Information 15 program designed to increase some cases, purchasing existing yourself research techniques. For vegetarianism among college stu- research reports created by large projects, such as ballot ini- dents should begin by seeking companies, third-party research tiatives or advertising campaigns out all available information organizations, etc. There are that may involve thousands of about how many students are several excellent sources of pub- hours and millions of dollars, pri- currently vegetarian, how many licly available opinion data, for mary research is almost always are interested in vegetarianism, instance, including the Roper warranted. In these cases the use etc. Effective campaign planning Center for Public Opinion of an outside research consultant and evaluation are driven by Research’s iPOLL database. usually makes sense because of access to reliable information, iPOLL contains nearly a half- the expertise he or she brings to and animal-advocacy organiza- million questions asked in pub- a project. Nonprofit organizations should consider their re- lic opinion surveys dating back tions are naturally more frugal, search needs as a first step in the to 1937 and offers free results but among for-profit corpora- planning process. on a limited basis to trial users tions it’s not unusual to spend 2. Identify and set clear research (for more information, see 10–20 percent of a total project needs and objectives. http://www.ropercenter.uconn. budget on preliminary research When incorporating their infor- edu/ipoll.html). Another source and follow-up evaluations. mational needs into campaign specific to animal issues and 5. Conduct regular evaluations of and program planning, animal including mostly attitudinal and research efforts. advocates must set very clear behavioral research is the HRC Just as animal advocates should research objectives to help dis- database, with references and continually evaluate the effective- tinguish between needs and brief descriptions of about three ness of their campaign and pro- desires. For the curious advo- hundred separate studies gram activities, they should also cate, there is no shortage of (http://member.humane evaluate the impact of their potentially interesting research research.org/db.php). Al- research efforts. Data collection questions for every animal pro- though existing information and and analysis are potentially useful tection issue and research cate- research data are generally fairly tools for every stage of a project, gory discussed here. But not all sparse for animal protection from planning through execution of this information is relevant to issues, a focused effort to seek and including evaluation. But the decisions that are critical to out available information almost research itself, like time and the campaign’s success, and the invariably yields at least some money spent directly on cam- challenge is to identify and pri- results. This secondary research paigns, should be demonstrated to oritize the most important can have a marked impact on have a reasonable return on invest- research needs. One useful improving early campaign plan- ment. By auditing their research approach is “backward market- ning decisions and increasing activities and regularly updating ing research,” which involves overall effectiveness. their research plans, animal advo- identifying a project’s desired 4. Make a proportional invest- cates can achieve a much better outcomes and impact and then ment in primary research. understanding of their overall working backward to identify For many situations involving ani- efforts. More generally, animal- the research that will be needed mal-advocacy campaigns, the advocacy groups should take a to achieve and measure that available secondary data are too holistic approach to information impact (Andreasen 2002). limited or outdated to support management within their organi- Whatever technique is used, ani- the decisions that need to be zations, so that answers to impor- mal advocates must identify the made. When the investment of tant research questions are avail- information that is most critical time and money in the campaign able when needed. For instance, to the success of each campaign is substantial, animal advocates many larger animal protection and then prioritize collecting should consider conducting pri- groups use intranets to communi- that data first and foremost. mary research. Making a “propor- cate with employees and share 3. Begin by examining secondary tional” investment in research information. However, there is sig- research. simply means ensuring that the nificant room for improvement to It is important to begin every focus on data collection and eval- realize the full potential of these research project with an exami- uation is commensurate with the technical tools to develop research nation of all available informa- importance of the campaign. For systems that are accessible to deci- tion on the topic at hand. This small projects or campaigns, sec- sion makers, employees, volun- may include a quick overview of ondary research may be suffi- teers, and other stakeholders. the publicly available data or, in cient, or advocates can use do-it-

16 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 animal advocates are investing their strategies to measure and improve Research Priorities time, energy, and financial re- animal advocates effectiveness. for the Movement sources appropriately. Collecting and sharing this base- Suggesting research priorities for Data collection for the overall line data can potentially serve as a the overall animal protection movement is, of course, different model for collaborative informa- movement is ambitious and re- from data collection for individual tion management. The following is quires addressing potentially un- animal-advocacy organizations. a short list of recommended prior- comfortable questions about the While the overall focus should still ities for the types of baseline data movement’s campaign priorities. be on research that is actionable, that should be collected, shared, For instance, applying a propor- there is also a need for the move- and regularly updated. tional sense of utilitarianism would ment to collect “baseline” infor- suggest that animal advocates mation for all of the categories and Animal Usage and focus almost exclusively on those data types discussed previously. Demographic Data animals who are dying and suffer- Such information may not be Baseline data are needed for all of ing in the greatest numbers. In the immediately useful for individual the animal protection issues or United States (and globally), this groups, but collecting it is none- research categories described ear- would clearly mean a focus on theless essential to the success of lier. Whenever the data are avail- farmed animals, especially chick- the animal protection movement. able, all baseline usage research ens and other poultry. However, Moreover, for each of the various should be broken down by species, the animal protection movement types of baseline data mentioned gender, and age of the animal. The generally is not guided by utilitar- in this section, it is valuable for most important baseline data will ian principles. And if advocates are advocates to have as much histori- be unique for each research cate- to become more utilitarian, as I cal and/or trend data as possible. gory, but several common areas suggest, then animal advocates Achieving widespread considera- are recommended as key priorities, must also face other challenges, tion of animals in public discourse including: (1) number of animals including how they define and and policy will be a long process. “used” (e.g., in shelters, on farms, measure animal suffering and how Animal advocates must take a sim- in laboratories, in zoos, etc.); (2) they evaluate the impact of their ilarly long-term view by making it a number of animals killed (e.g., advocacy efforts. priority to collect and analyze lon- euthanized, slaughtered, etc.); and Research priorities for the animal gitudinal data to identify impor- (3) the types of conditions in protection movement must be not tant changes and trends. In many which the animals are kept (e.g., only utilitarian but also focused on cases, where advocates are essen- isolated versus group housing; var- data that support achievable goals tially starting from scratch, this ious degrees of confinement, types with a reasonably high chance of means first identifying the most of experiments performed, etc.). success. For example, efforts to ban important measures of long-term relatively infrequent types of animal success for organizations and the Attitude and abuse, such as cockfighting or overall movement. Behavior Data “canned” hunts, have been success- Once the most important met- Collecting baseline attitudinal ful in most states and generally have rics are identified, advocates must and, especially, behavioral research strong public support. Research in commit to initiating new research is one of the relatively few times these areas can help identify ways that may involve many decades of when it makes sense to survey the to continue the existing momen- data collection and analysis to eval- general public. Although attitudes tum to marginalize the most egre- uate long-term changes in animal can be vague and/or defined amor- gious types of animal abuse. In gen- usage, attitudes, behavior, etc. Of phously over time, behavior lends eral, many different campaigns and course, this is not an easy under- itself to establishing baselines issues can benefit from more effec- taking, but by establishing base- because it can be measured more tive research. Information manage- line data for the most important consistently. My key recommenda- ment for the animal-advocacy move- and actionable animal protection tions include: (1) perceived impor- ment can be used to help improve issues, advocates can become tance of animal protection relative existing campaigns and priorities much more effective. Furthermore, to other issues (e.g., civil rights, and help identify effective advocacy if organizations also focus on cen- economic conditions, etc.); (2) strategies for the future. However, tralizing the creation and mainte- perceived credibility of and respect all animal-advocacy efforts, includ- nance of this baseline information, for animal advocates; (3) number ing research, must be planned and animal advocates can also begin to of people engaging in animal- prioritized according to the likely work from the same “playbook” related actions or behavior (e.g., benefit to animals to ensure that and create unified, research-driven “owning” animals as pets, eating

Animal Advocacy in the Age of Information 17 animal products, becoming vege- most valuable for their campaign. tarians, volunteering, voting on In this section, I take a similar but Collaborative animal issues, etc.); and (4) the broader approach to recommend- Information demographics, motivations, and ing above-baseline research priori- other details of people engaging in ties for the overall animal protec- Management Throughout this chapter I have those actions. tion movement, by research urged animal advocates to con- category. sider data collection and informa- Economic and The majority of research con- tion management to be key pri- Financial Data ducted for animal-advocacy pur- orities for their projects, organi- Baseline financial data that are of poses is and should be on behalf of zations, and the movement overall. most value to animal advocates are specific organizations or cam- To achieve this, however, animal probably those that describe finan- paigns, because such data are typ- advocates must also find ways to cial support for the movement, ically the most actionable. The share results with the broader ani- although the economic perform- specific research priorities for in- mal protection community. Simply ance of animal use industries is dividual organizations and their sharing and organizing the infor- also of interest. Following are my unique campaigns are probably mation currently held by individ- recommended research priorities best left to the campaign manual groups would dramatically for collecting baseline financial agers and issue experts to deter- increase access to data that most data: (1) total donations to animal mine. However, my experience col- organizations currently do not protection groups and causes (cur- lecting and analyzing data for all even know exist. Sharing research rently measured, but only in aggre- of the research categories de- data is particularly important for gate and by outside sources); (2) scribed previously suggests a list nonprofit organizations and social where available, a detailed break- of potential research priorities for movements, where valuable infor- down of financial support by each category and data type. mation can be leveraged for the source and by animal issue sup- Tables 3,4, and 5 include my over- benefit of the movement overall, in ported; and (3) financial perform- all recommended research priori- addition to individual campaigns. ance of the primary companies and ties using the same framework dis- Similarly, the financial constraints industries that use animals (e.g., cussed throughout this chapter. faced by animal advocates clearly income of the largest animal While I feel that these recommen- dictate that they need to avoid farms, research laboratories, pet dations are important by them- duplicating research efforts when- stores, etc.). selves, I provide them also because ever possible. Currently there is no Collecting baseline data such as they serve as examples of the types mechanism in place to know what those just described should be a of information that should be con- data have already been collected by top priority for the overall animal sidered and prioritized by animal other organizations. protection movement, but more advocates. In addition to sharing existing targeted “above-baseline” data are Note that I have intentionally sources of information with each equally as or even more important. kept the recommendations to a other, animal advocates should Because such above-baseline data handful for each research category also work to collaborate more fre- are generally unique for each and data type due to space limita- quently and more effectively on research category and data type tions. However, there are certainly generating new research data. Col- discussed in this chapter, there are other data that would be valuable laboration makes good financial truly an overwhelming number of for animal-advocacy purposes. Also sense, of course, but it also has the potential research priorities. The note that, although the recom- effect of helping to identify mutual solution, as mentioned earlier, is mended priorities are described in interests and opportunities to to narrow the focus of one’s re- general terms, such information is work together on campaigns and search (and overall advocacy most helpful to advocates when programs. By literally buying into efforts) to understand a specific focused by issue, audience, etc. My syndicated research projects issue or target audience and to presumption is that most of the (where multiple groups join to- yield actionable information that recommendations that follow will gether on a single research study helps produce the greatest impact be specific to a target audience, and share the findings), animal- for animals. While these things are community, issue, or tactic, but advocacy groups can save signifi- often difficult for animal advo- data collected at the national level cant money. But they also often cates to determine in advance, a may also be useful to advocates. achieve a common understanding systematic approach to research of the research topic and how to and strategic planning can help make effective use of the informa- them decide what information is

18 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 tion to improve conditions for ani- some groups are making efforts in • Establish research working mals. In most cases centralizing this area. Organizations like the groups. Animal advocates research data and investing in syn- HRC and others are purposefully should begin by working dicated studies will probably be building collections of research together to identify the most driven by the larger and better- data and other information, but important informational needs funded animal protection organi- these efforts are somewhat limited of the overall animal protection zations. Those groups should be compared to the immense task at movement and agree on priori- strongly encouraged to share their hand. A centralized information ties. One idea to facilitate col- research data with the entire ani- management system for storing laboration is to establish mal-advocacy community and and making accessible data from “working groups” for each ani- invest in new research with the multiple groups would need to be mal issue to identify mutual intent of making it generally avail- well planned and executed. Techni- research priorities and meth- able to fellow advocates. cally, however, such a system is ods of funding and collecting To facilitate sharing informa- fairly easy to achieve. the most essential information. tion and developing collaborative The bigger question is whether These research working groups research projects, animal advo- animal-advocacy groups (and their would need to include research cates should also invest in central- supporters) understand and ac- specialists, topical experts, and ized information systems that pro- knowledge the importance of reli- a diverse group of animal advo- vide access to important data. As able information enough to invest cates representing the various stated earlier, there is no single time and money to create and elements of the movement road map or research strategy for maintain such a system. Following (e.g., both national and local or the animal protection movement. are a few specific recommenda- grass-roots organizations). Similarly, there are no central tions that animal advocates should • Conduct syndicated studies. information repositories that in- consider to more effectively collab- Whenever it makes sense to do clude data of relevance or value to orate on research projects and so, animal advocates should col- animal-advocacy work, although share important data. laborate on data collection and

Table 3 Usage and Demographics Research Priorities, by Category Research Category Recommended Research Priorities

Companion animals • Number of animals currently in shelters, nationally and by community • Number of adoptions by shelter and for target communities • Number of healthy and adoptable animals euthanized • Number of animals spayed/neutered, nationally and by community • Primary sources of unwanted and “surplus” animals

Farmed animals • Number of animals slaughtered and/or kept confined on farms • Number of farms and types of operations, such as family vs. corporate • Number of animal deaths resulting from diseases, transport, etc. • Living conditions, such as type of housing, group or individual, etc. • Slaughter conditions, including handling and stunning processes

Research animals • Number of animals in laboratories, by species (including mice, rats, and birds) • Number of companies and institutions currently testing on animals • Types of experiments or protocols most frequently conducted • Living conditions such as type of housing, group or individual, etc. • Types of purposes or end products driving animal research

Wild and exotic animals • Numbers of animals in zoos, circuses, rodeos, and other exhibits • Conditions for exhibited animals, such as housing, travel schedules, etc. • Numbers and species of animals trapped, hunted, fished, etc. • Specifics regarding types of traps used, forms of hunting, etc.

Animal advocacy • Number of current members of animal protection groups • Number of current animal advocates, actual and self-reported • Analyses of the demographics of members and advocates vs. overall population • Analyses of time allocated to different animal protection issues

Animal Advocacy in the Age of Information 19 analysis. The benefits of form- ties to improve information leverage the impact for the ben- ing research syndicates (groups management within every ani- efit of animals. Ideally, this of organizations with similar mal-advocacy organization and would include investing in the objectives) are many, but they within the overall animal pro- technology needed to central- include primarily cost savings tection movement. Within or- ize storage of and access to rel- and greater unity. Identifying ganizations sharing informa- evant data and a willingness the critical research areas and tion this may be as simple as among organizations to share highest priorities for syndicated printing a list of the data and their information with like- studies could be the responsibil- research studies available to minded groups. ity of the research working employees or building an in- groups just described. Syndi- tranet research database. For cated research ideas could be the overall movement, deciding Summary and generated by the working what information is included in groups and posted for com- such a database and who re- Conclusions ments and/or commitments of ceives access to it may be more Knowing a great deal is not the funding from other advocates. difficult to determine. None- same as being smart; intelligence is • Centralize data storage and theless, greater sharing of in- not information alone but also judg- sharing. There are opportuni- formation is essential to fully

Table 4 Attitude and Behavior Research Priorities, by Category

Research Category Recommended Research Priorities

Companion animals • Number of people adopting vs. purchasing companion animals • Number of people who have spayed/ neutered their animals • Motivations and barriers to adopting vs. purchasing animals • Motivations for and causes of relinquishing animals to shelters • Motivations for and barriers to having animals spayed/neutered

Farmed animals • Awareness of farmed animal treatment, exemption from laws, etc. • Motivations for and barriers to greater concern for farmed animals • Number of people consuming animal-free foods and clothes • Motivations for and barriers to choosing animal-free foods and clothes • Willingness of consumers to pay more for less inhumane food products • Willingness of farmers to implement less inhumane systems

Research animals • Awareness of research animal treatment, exemption from laws, etc. • Motivations for and barriers to greater concern for research animals • Motivations for and barriers to choosing cruelty-free products • Number of people buying cruelty-free cosmetic and household products • Willingness of researchers to use non-animal alternatives • Willingness of policymakers to mandate use of non-animal alternatives

Wild and exotic animals • Awareness of conditions for animals in circuses, zoos, etc. • Number of people who attend zoos, circuses, rodeos, and other exhibits • Number of people who participate in fishing, hunting, trapping, etc. • Motivations for and barriers to engaging in activities that affect wild animals • Willingness of consumers to choose alternatives, such as animal-free circuses

Animal advocacy • Awareness of animal-advocacy organizations and their efforts • Identification of the most/least supportive groups within the population • Perceived credibility of and respect for animal advocates • Motivations for and barriers to giving to or volunteering for animal groups • Motivations and attitudes of animal advocates and their supporters

20 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 ment, the manner in which infor- will also base their research priori- tial for advocates to produce effec- mation is collected and used. ties and advocacy efforts on the spe- tive campaigns that achieve —Carl Sagan cific issue and/or target audience real change for animals. It is that yields the most benefit for ani- not enough just to know a great Animal advocates can apply to animals. Baseline data are essential for deal: animal advocates must mal-related information manage- providing context, but the most also be smart and use good judgment the old environmental activist useful and actionable data are local- ment when seeking out and apply- slogan, “think globally, act locally.” ized to the needs of a specific pro- ing that knowledge. By thinking globally, animal advo- gram or campaign. cates will learn to develop cam- For many animal protection paigns in the context of more and campaigns and for the movement General Resources, better information and to base in general, information is under- research priorities on the needs of used despite its importance for Databases, and the entire movement. Thinking evaluating effectiveness and un- Publications globally also involves prioritizing derstanding the influence of iPOLL Database. The Roper Cen- the collection of baseline and long- other factors on the status and ter for Public Opinion Re- term data, as discussed earlier in well-being of animals. The bottom search. University of Connecticut. the chapter. By acting locally, on line is that access to accurate http://www.ropercenter. the other hand, animal advocates and reliable information is essen- uconn.edu/ipoll.html.

Table 5 Economic and Financial Research Priorities, by Category

Research Category Recommended Research Priorities

Companion animals • Financial income and health of pet industries, breeders, stores, etc. • Money spent on companion animals, including health expenditures • Donations to companion animal groups and related issues • Analyses of the impact of reducing overpopulation on local economies • Analyses of different economic models for companion animal programs

Farmed animals • Financial income and health of animal-farming industries, companies, etc. • Money spent on vegan, vegetarian, and less inhumane animal products • Money spent on most inhumane products, such as veal or foie gras • Donations to farmed animal and vegetarian groups and related issues • Analyses of the economic consequences of industrialized animal farming • Analyses of government subsidies and international trade data

Research animals • Financial income and health of companies involved in animal research • Money spent on cruelty-free products compared with alternatives • Donations to anti-vivisection groups and related issues • Analyses of public and private funding for animal research • Analyses of financial gains or losses using non-animal alternatives

Wild and exotic animals • Financial health of industries related to hunting, fishing, zoos, circuses, etc. • Money spent on alternatives (e.g., non-animal circuses, wildlife watching) • Donations to wild and exotic animal groups and related issues • Analyses of the economic impact of limiting hunting and other activities

Animal advocacy • Total financial support or “working capital” available to advocates • Funding available to “opposition” groups, such as trade associations • Analyses of public and private funding for animal protection efforts • Analyses of the money allocated to various animal protection issues • Analyses to rebut the economic arguments of animal use industries

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Animal Advocacy in the Age of Information 23 The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ 2CHAPTER Insurance Companies

Larry Cunningham

This essay was originally published in the Connecticut Insurance Law Journal (Vol. ll, No. l, 2004–2005). The views expressed in this essay are the author’s own.

n spring 2003 I moved from Vir- Thankfully, the story ended hap- The insurance industry has pre- ginia to Texas to begin work as a pily for my dogs and me. After weeks judged entire breeds of dogs as Itenure-track faculty member at of calling nearly every insurance being “too risky,” instead of taking Texas Tech University School of Law. agent in Lubbock, I was able to a more reasonable dog-by-dog I brought my two dogs with me: Saffy obtain insurance through the Texas approach to risk assessment. (a four-year-old mixed breed whose Farm Bureau, an organization that Major veterinary and breed reg- parents were a fluffy red Chow Chow advocates for farmers and farming istry organizations have strongly 1 and a big black Labrador retriever) issues. Had it not been for the Farm opposed breed discrimination in and Semona (a two-year-old rot- Bureau, I would have found myself insurance. Authors of scientific tweiler). Neither Semona nor Saffy on the horns of a horrible dilemma: studies on dog bites have even has ever bitten anyone. Neither has whether to buy a home or give up argued against the use of their shown any aggressive tendencies. my dogs. Anyone who knows me can data to support breed-based deci- Both are extremely playful and confirm that this dilemma would sion-making by insurers and legis- friendly animals. have been easy to resolve; I would latures. Dog owners across the After I placed a bid on a house in have chosen my furry family mem- country have spoken out about the 2 Lubbock, Texas, I began the search bers over home ownership. Sadly, horrible choice they have been for homeowners’ insurance—a however, many Americans are find- forced to make between obtaining process that I thought would be ing themselves in similar positions insurance and keeping their dogs. straightforward and easy. Much to and are opting to give up their dogs There has existed a historic ten- 3 my surprise, dozens of insurance to animal shelters. sion between risk classification and companies denied my application Breed discrimination by insur- social policy. Classification and outright. The reason? Semona is a ance companies is on the rise in the insurability decisions are usually rottweiler and Saffy is half-Chow. United States. Insurers are refusing “actuarially justified”—that is, the Rottweilers and Chow Chows are on to write homeowners’ policies for insurance company has identified a the “blacklist” of dog breeds. Some people who own breeds that the statistical correlation between a insurance companies believe they, insurance industry considers to be characteristic and increased risk. along with pit bulls, huskies, Dober- dangerous. Their decisions are Actuarial justification is frequently man pinschers, and other specified based solely on the breed of the ani- cited by insurers as a reason to breeds, are more likely to bite mal, not the individual characteris- avoid social regulation. Insurers humans and, in turn, cause liability tics of the particular dog. Dog bites exist to make a profit for their claims to be brought against their are certainly a public health con- shareholders. They do so by mini- owners. Even mixed breeds, like my cern. However, the insurance indus- mizing risk, which, in turn, mini- half-Chow, Saffy, are blacklisted. try’s approach to the problem is mizes claims paid out. This practice is known by many dog based on faulty assumptions and Actuarial justification is only the owners as “breed discrimination.” improper use of dog-bite statistics. first step in determining the social

25 propriety of a proposed underwrit- My argument is quite simple: shows how the insurance industry ing mechanism. Social utility of the decisions regarding the provision, is a highly regulated industry that risky conduct must also be consid- rating, termination, or renewal of a subjects itself to legislative control ered. Statutes across the United homeowners’ insurance policy where, as here, the public is being States are replete with examples of should not be based on ownership harmed by underwriting decisions legislatures overruling actuarially or possession of a particular breed not driven by actuarial justifica- justified practices in favor of com- of dog unless there is evidence of tion. I also offer a number of alter- peting social policies. “Red-lining” dog-specific risk. Insurers would natives to breed discrimination. is a classic example. Actuaries iden- concededly be actuarially justified tified statistical correlations be- in charging higher premiums or tween living in certain neighbor- declining coverage for people who hoods and increased risk for claims own dogs that have unjustly bitten I. Dog Breed against homeowners’ policies. As a in the past. After all, the best pre- Discrimination result, insurance companies began dictor of future behavior is past be- Breed discrimination in insurance to refuse to write policies in these havior. Breed discrimination, as it is a recent phenomenon that was high-risk neighborhoods. The currently stands, is not actuarially preceded by the enactment of neighborhoods in question were justified because scientists have “breed-specific legislation” (BSL) often economically depressed and not been able to accurately deter- by some state legislatures and occupied by members of racial or mine whether certain breeds are municipalities. Both breed dis- ethnic minorities. Legislatures and inherently more dangerous, or, crimination and BSL are a per- courts stepped in to prohibit red- instead, whether a breed’s high ceived response to highly publi- lining, despite the actuarial justifi- population is making it appear cized attacks by certain breeds, cation for the practice.4 that the breed is more dangerous. particularly pit bulls. Breed discrimination is a differ- The consequences of breed dis- ent animal altogether. Even with- crimination could not be greater. out considering the high social Homeowners’ insurance is the Highly Publicized utility of pet ownership, insurers gatekeeper to homeownership. have been unable to demonstrate Without homeowners’ insurance, a Attacks by an actuarial justification for dis- buyer cannot get a mortgage. For Pit Bulls criminating based on breed. As most Americans, if a person can- In the 1980s there were a number the multidisciplinary Task Force not obtain a mortgage, he cannot of high-profile attacks on humans on Canine Aggression and Human- buy a home. by pit bulls. These attacks led to a Canine Interactions concluded, In Part I of this article, I give an near-hysterical reaction by mem- “[D]og bite statistics are not overview of the problem: dog breed bers of the communities that really statistics, and they do not discrimination by insurers, as well were affected by the attacks and give an accurate picture of dogs as a related problem of breed-spe- by the legislators who repre- that bite.”5 The popular notion cific legislation by some states. In sented them. that pit bulls and rottweilers are Part II, I analyze the major scien- In March 1984, pit bulls inherently more likely to bite is tific studies on dog bites, showing attacked Angie Hands, a nine-year- simply not supported by the avail- that no one has adequately proven old girl in Tijeras, New Mexico.7 able statistics. that some breeds are more inher- The dogs bit her right leg to the When the social utility of pets is ently dangerous than others. In bone, ripped flesh from her arms, added to the equation, breed dis- Part III, I show that breed discrim- and tore her ear in half.8 The child crimination becomes even more ination and breed-specific legisla- survived but had to undergo years unreasonable. Dogs and other do- tion are opposed by most veteri- of reconstructive surgery.9 She had mesticated animals provide im- nary and animal protection been attacked by her uncle’s four measurable joy and happiness to groups. Part IV demonstrates that pit bulls in between her bus stop the families that own them. Even insurers have been ignoring the and her home.10 The small commu- some components of the legal sys- unique and special role that pets nity of Tijeras, located outside of tem itself have evolved to recog- play in millions of American Albuquerque, responded with an nize pets as being more than mere homes. I draw upon not only the outright ban on pit bull owner- chattel.6 In addition, the failure to profoundly personal arguments ship.11 Dog owners challenged the obtain homeowners’ insurance is a advanced by myself and others, but law in court, but the law was death knell for homeownership— also the way in which the law itself upheld as a constitutional exercise no insurance, no mortgage; no is evolving by recognizing pets as of the town’s police power.12 mortgage, no house. more than mere property. Part V

26 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 The attack on Angie Hands fol- a breed that is commonly known as tion, and the vagueness doctrine.34 lowed a number of other pit bull a pit bull dog”20 is automatically a Plaintiffs have challenged BSL on attacks around the country. A four- “vicious dog.”21 “Vicious dogs” due process grounds by arguing year-old girl was killed in Oregon must be penned or tied up when on that there was no “rational relation- City, Oregon, when she fell into a their owners’ premises.22 If off- ship” to a legitimate legislative goal yard where a pit bull was chained.13 premises, they must be tethered, or purpose.35 Courts have ruled that Two pit bulls mutilated their owner caged, or muzzled.23 Owners must BSL is a rational response to a per- in Edgemere, Maryland.14 A re- obtain liability insurance to provide ceived problem of dog bites by cer- cent, widely publicized attack in coverage in the event of a bite.24 tain breeds.36 They have also San Francisco has also brought the BSL has also occurred at the local rejected plaintiffs’ arguments that issue of aggressive dogs to the fore- municipal level. Denver passed an the statutes and ordinances do not front of public attention. In Janu- outright ban on the ownership, pos- provide dog owners with sufficient ary 2001, Diana Whipple was session, keeping, control, mainte- notice and an opportunity to be mauled to death by two Presa nance, harboring, transportation, or heard, which are the requirements Canario dogs. The dogs were sale of pit bulls.25 A “pit bull” is for procedural due process.37 The owned by a pair of lawyers. Evi- defined as an American pit bull ter- Tijeras ordinance, for example, pro- dence at the owners’ murder trials rier, American Staffordshire terrier, vides that a pit bull may be de- showed that the dogs had tried to Staffordshire bull terrier, or any dog stroyed by the village only after a attack other people and animals displaying the majority of physical hearing to determine whether the in the past. Both defendants were traits of one of those breeds.26 This dog is, in fact, a pit bull.38 Plaintiffs convicted and served prison ordinance is in addition to Denver’s have also contended that BSL time.15 A subsequent civil lawsuit “dangerous dog” ordinance that reg- amounts to a taking without just brought by Ms. Whipple’s mother ulates “[a]ny dog with a known compensation. Courts have rejected was settled out-of-court.16 propensity or disposition to attack un- this argument, noting that personal provoked, to cause injury or to other- property is subject to regulation wise endanger the safety of humans under the police power of a state.39 “Breed-Specific or other domestic animals.”27 “Dan- Challenges based on vagueness have gerous dogs” must be confined while argued that identifying a dog’s breed Legislation” at home and must be leashed and is difficult.40 Most courts have found Highly publicized pit bull attacks muzzled while traveling.28 BSL to be sufficiently specific to in the 1980s led to knee-jerk reac- Not all states have followed the enable a reasonable dog owner to tions by many communities.17 BSL trend. Some legislatures have determine if his or her dog is covered Attacks led to editorials, which led prohibited BSL enacted by munici- by the particular statute.41 Plaintiffs to public outrage, which led to palities. Florida enacted a statute have also alleged that BSL violates swift and spontaneous legislative that permits localities to regulate equal protection by singling out pit action that was based on neither dogs “provided that no such regu- bulls but not other breeds.42 Courts good science nor good law. BSL lation is specific to breed.”29 Some have noted that pit bull ownership is began to emerge in the 1980s and legislators have attempted, with- not a “suspect classification,” and, early 1990s. These laws targeted out success, to repeal this anti-BSL therefore, BSL need only have some specific breeds for regulation or, in statute in response to several reasonable basis to be constitutional. some cases, outright bans. BSL is highly publicized attacks.30 Min- Courts have concluded that sufficient on the rise in the United States. nesota also has the following pro- evidence exists to support a finding States and municipalities across hibition against BSL: that pit bulls can be regulated by leg- the country have considered—and, A statutory or home rule char- islatures and municipalities.43 in some cases, enacted—breed- ter city, or a county, may not One significant decision found specific legislation designed to adopt an ordinance regulating BSL to be unconstitutional. In protect the public against dog dangerous or potentially dan- American Dog Owners Association, bites.18 Commonly, these statutes gerous dogs based solely on Inc. v. City of Lynn,44 the Massachu- and ordinances have banned, or the specific breed of the dog.31 setts Supreme Judicial Court up- placed restrictions on, pit bulls, Court challenges to BSL have held a trial court’s finding that the rottweilers, Doberman pinschers, been largely unsuccessful.32 Oppo- City of Lynn’s attempt to regulate Chow Chows, German shepherds, nents of BSL have brought lawsuits pit bulls was unconstitutional.45 and shar-peis.19 claiming the legislation is unconsti- The Court noted that it is particu- Ohio has aggressively targeted tutional because it violates due pro- larly problematic to determine a pit bulls for regulation. Ohio law cess (substantive and procedural), dog’s breed. The Court held, declares any dog that “[b]elongs to the Takings Clause,33 equal protec- [T]here is no scientific means,

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 27 by blood, enzyme, or other- lovers have a term for what the in- that there are alternatives to the wise, to determine whether a surance company did. They call it current practice and that it must dog belongs to a particular ‘breed discrimination’—arbitrarily stop.63 To achieve their goal, The breed, regardless of whether punishing all dogs of certain HSUS and the American Society “breed” is used in a formal breeds because some are vicious.”53 for the Prevention of Cruelty to An- sense or not.46 In the months that followed, sev- imals (ASPCA) have created a joint The Court upheld the trial court’s eral newspaper stories discussed grass-roots campaign designed to finding that animal-control officers the prevalence of breed discrimina- educate the insurance industry.64 had no real standards to identify pit tion and documented the effects bulls, in part because they had no this practice has had on families.54 The Insurance training in breed identification.47 These news reports replicate the Industry’s Defense of The ordinance included a ban on experience I had in trying to get Breed Discrimination mixed-breed dogs that contained homeowners’ insurance. Multiple Homeowners’ insurance protects a “any mixture” of pit bull.48 This pro- insurers denied coverage because policyholder in the event of finan- vision was likewise found to be un- of the dogs I owned. I literally cial loss. Most policies include two constitutional since it is scientifi- could not find a carrier in the Lub- provisions, property damage and cally “impossible to ascertain” bock market willing to write a pol- liability. Property damage provi- whether a dog is part pit bull.49 The icy for me until I stumbled upon sions protect the policyholder in ordinance was also unconstitutional the Farm Bureau on the advice of the event of fire, lightning, wind, because it tried to define “pit bull” one insurance broker who sympa- water, or hail damage, theft, and as including any breed where “com- thized with my plight. vandalism. Liability provisions pro- mon understanding and usage” dic- The practice of breed discrimina- tect the policyholder in the event tated that the dog was, in fact, a pit tion produces absurd results. Con- that a claim is made against a bull.50 The combination of these sider the case of Chris and Norm homeowner for negligence. Liabil- facts led the court to conclude that Craanen of San Antonio, Texas.55 ity coverage typically pays for bod- the statute was too vague to pass They own a twelve-year-old dog ily injury, medical payments, and constitutional muster.51 named Bukarus. He is a rottweiler, property damage that are sus- a breed often targeted for discrim- tained because of the negligence of ination by insurance companies. the property owner.65 Absent breed The Reaction Yet, Bukarus does not pose much of discrimination, most homeowners’ a threat: he is deaf, partially blind, insurance policies would cover in- of Insurers and has arthritis.56 Despite his bite- juries due to dog bites on the pre- While some communities and free history, his owners lost their mises between the amounts of states have responded to dog bites homeowners’ insurance.57 $100,000 and $300,000.66 In 1995 with breed-specific legislation de- Some of the most well-known in- the average policyholder paid $418 signed to regulate or outlaw cer- surers are engaging in breed dis- in homeowners’ insurance premi- tain breeds, insurance companies crimination.58 Some insurers have ums.67 By 2004 the average pre- have also reacted to the problem of outright bans on specific breeds,59 mium climbed to $608.68 dog bites in a breed-specific man- while others take a more realistic “Insurance is a business.”69 Insur- ner. Dubbed “breed discrimina- and logical dog-by-dog approach. ers must make profits in order to tion” by dog owners, insurance These decisions are predicated on continue in existence.70 Companies companies have started making insurers’ assessment of relative survive by minimizing risk, which coverage and renewal decisions risk.60 The “usual suspects” for reduces the likelihood of claims. based on one’s ownership of cer- breed discrimination are pit bulls, Some companies have decided that tain breeds of dog. rottweilers, German shepherds, certain breeds of dog are simply Doberman pinschers, Chow Chows, “too much of a risk” to insure.71 An A Rise in Breed 61 Discrimination wolf hybrids, and Presa Canarios. industry representative claims that The Humane Society of the the issue of dog bites “is a major During 2003 and 2004, the media United States (HSUS) has docu- concern for insurers.”72 brought breed discrimination to mented an increase in the number The industry defends its posi- light. The CBS Evening News with of people being denied insurance tion, in part, on a series of studies Dan Rather aired a story in June because they own certain breeds of from the Centers for Disease Con- 2003 that featured a family that dog.62 As a result, The HSUS has trol and Prevention (CDC), which had difficulty obtaining insurance started collecting data through the the industry claims as support for because they owned a dalmatian.52 Internet, in the hopes of eventually the proposition that certain breeds The report stated, “[A]nimal convincing the insurance industry have a propensity to bite.73 As I

28 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 demonstrate in Part II, however, the III defended breed discrimina- the industry’s reliance on the CDC tion on the basis that certain II. The Lack of studies is misplaced. Even the breeds cause more damage when Scientific Evidence authors of the CDC studies have and if they do bite.83 Ultimately, a Numerous scientific studies have stated that breed discrimination spokesperson for the III conceded, attempted to identify the number is wrong and is not supported by “[t]he industry isn’t positioned to of annual dog bites, the dogs most scientific evidence.74 determine which dogs should be likely to bite, the people most The industry has also pointed to deemed vicious....[W]e’re certainly likely to be bitten, and the circum- the large amount of money that not dog experts or veterinari- stances under which bites are most has been paid out in recent years ans.”84 This, however, has not likely to occur. Such studies have for dog-bite claims.75 The Insur- stopped many insurers from engag- not reached a uniform consensus ance Information Institute (III), a ing in breed discrimination. and have left us with more ques- trade group of the insurance indus- tions than answers. Even the stud- try, stated that in 2002 $345.5 mil- Some Exceptions ies that have attempted to report lion was paid out in dog-bite liabil- to the Rule? on breeds’ proclivity to bite have ity claims, up from $250 million in It appears that not all insurers cautioned that their research is 1995.76 The group argues that dog- have followed the breed discrimi- incomplete and should not be used bite lawsuits are on the rise and nation trend. DVM reported that to justify breed discrimination by juries are awarding larger claims.77 Nationwide Insurance changed its legislatures or insurers.90 It claims, therefore, the need to breed discrimination policy in curtail its risk. October 2003. While Nationwide The industry’s cost statistics are now insures all dog owners, it CDC Statistics misleading, however. The III states, specifically excludes dog bites from The CDC commissioned a number “[D]og bites now account for its liability coverage.85 of studies during the 1980s and almost one quarter of all home- State Farm’s national represen- 1990s to determine the scope and owner’s insurance liability claims tatives have repeatedly stated that nature of the problem of dog bites costing $345.5 million.”78 Some the company does not practice in the United States. perspective is in order. For breed discrimination.86 However, every $100 in premiums, insurers when I searched for homeowners’ spend $77 paying claims. Of that insurance in 2003, a State Farm Fatality Studies $77, the overwhelming majority agent in Lubbock refused to even Four separate studies attempted to ($72, or 93.5 percent) is spent take my application because of the chronicle the number of fatal dog on paying property damage breeds I owned. bites during the periods of claims. Liability claims only 1979–1988,91 1989–1994,92 1995– amount to $5, or 6.5 percent, of Other Instances of 1996,93 and 1997–1998.94 The total claims.79 Even then, dog Breed Discrimination studies were specifically limited to bites only constitute a percentage There are other examples where a fatal dog attacks because fatality of that figure. Put into perspec- person’s ownership of a particular statistics are easier to track.95 Non- tive, the money paid out in dog- breed of dog can have negative fatal bites were excluded from the bite claims is negligible when consequences. Families seeking to studies, although other scientists compared to the overall amount of adopt children can face roadblocks have attempted to use emergency money paid out for other types of if they own dogs that belong to cer- department reports and other claims. Damage due to lightning, tain breeds. In Massachusetts the sources to determine the number fire, and mold all individually Adoption and Foster Care Unit of of nonfatal bites per year.96 account for more claims payouts the Department of Social Services The authors combed three sets than all liability claims combined.80 will not place children in homes of sources in an attempt to deter- The insurance industry has not with certain breeds of dog.87 The mine the number of fatal dog bites been consistent in the reasons for state relied upon data provided by per year. First, they searched its defense of breed discrimination. the insurance industry when it NEXIS for news reports of dog bite- One report from the III’s website made its decision to discriminate related fatalities.97 Second, they seems to defend breed-specific based on breed.88 Some airlines used the National Center for responses based on the aggregate also practice breed discrimination Health Statistics’ (NCHS) single- claims paid81 and stories of several by prohibiting some dogs from fly- cause mortality tapes (SCMTs) to high-profile and tragic bites.82 ing, even though they are stored in identify deaths where the underly- However, in a statement to a cargo and in a closed carrier.89 ing cause was listed as a dog bite.98 newsletter of veterinary medicine, Finally, the authors supplemented

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 29 these reports with information col- ing period, 1997—1998, shows lected by The HSUS to help iden- that rottweilers caused ten fatal Nonfatality tify the breed of dog involved in bites per two-year period, while pit Studies each incident.99 From these three bulls caused six, and Saint Ber- The CDC fatality studies acknowl- sources, the authors tried to piece nards caused three.111 During the edged that, while death rates for together the number of people twenty-year study, ninety deaths dog bites do not appear to have who died each year in the United were excluded because the breed increased over time,121 nonfatal States from dog bites. was “unavailable.”112 bites were becoming more of a The authors concluded that dog The authors of the CDC studies public health problem.122 The CDC bites caused approximately seven acknowledged that the methods conducted a study of nonfatal dog deaths per year per hundred mil- they used in their studies had a bites in 2001.123 The study used lion people.100 They discerned no number of limitations. NEXIS, they data from the National Electronic identifiable trend that would indi- pointed out, was not designed for Injury Surveillance System-All In- cate an increase in the incidence scientific research. News reports jury Program (NEISS-AIP) to iden- of fatal bites over the years of the would only be flagged if their text tify the number of nonfatal dog studies.101 During the first report- contained certain keywords.113 bites during the 2001 calendar ing period (1979–1988), approxi- Further, reliance on NEXIS year. NEISS-AIP collects data from mately 70 percent of victims were assumes that newspapers accu- initial visits to emergency depart- under the age of ten.102 Males, rately reported the breed of dog ments (EDs) across the country.124 under the age of twenty-nine, were involved in a particular attack.114 NEISS-AIP data are drawn from a more likely than females to be vic- SCMTs have a one- to two-year lag nationally representative sample of tims.103 These findings as to age time, which means that some fatal- NEISS hospitals.125 The CDC ana- and gender were consistent ities may have been missed.115 The lyzed every case where “dog bite” throughout the study periods. authors believed that, on average, was listed as the external cause of Many of the fatal bites of children their methods only uncovered injury.126 involved horrific attacks on the very approximately 74 percent of dog- In total, NEISS-AIP data revealed young. A three-week-old girl was bite-related fatalities.116 that hospital EDs treated 6,106 killed in her crib by the family’s Even if one accepts the CDC sta- patients for dog-bite-related in- Chow Chow.104 A two-year-old boy in tistics as definitive on the subject, juries during 2001.127 Since the South Dakota wandered into a they have a number of other limita- NEISS-AIP data did not include neighbor’s yard, where he was tions in answering the question every hospital in the nation, the attacked and killed by two German of whether certain breeds are more authors used these data to extrap- shepherd-wolf hybrids.105 The elderly dangerous than others. First, the olate to the general population.128 were also victims of several fatal studies were limited to fatal dog They estimated that 368,245 peo- attacks. In March 1996 two rottweil- attacks.117 Second, the breed of ple were treated for dog-bite- ers killed an eighty-six-year-old Ten- the dog could not be accurately de- related injuries in 2001.129 The nessee woman. One month before termined in every case.118 Finally, largest cohort of victims was chil- the assault, the dogs had attacked the number of fatal attacks per dren between the ages of five and and injured the same woman.106 year is so low that it is problematic nine.130 Boys, under the age of In the twenty-year period of the to statistically extrapolate conclu- fourteen, were more likely than CDC studies, the breed responsible sions from the data. For example, girls to be seen in EDs for dog-bite- for the most number of bites has in the first two years of the study related injuries.131 changed.107 From 1979 to 1980, (1979–1980), Great Danes ac- The NEISS-AIP data included Great Danes caused the most num- counted for the most number of narratives for many of the attacks. ber of fatalities, with three deaths fatal bites (three).119 Four breeds, One case involved a four-year-old for the period. However, four however, followed closely behind who was bitten by a dog guarding breeds were tied with two deaths with two fatal bites each (pit bull, her puppies.132 Another involved a each: pit bulls, rottweilers, huskies, German shepherd, husky, and mal- three-year-old girl who was bitten and malamutes.108 In 1981 pit bulls amute).120 It would be statistically when she tried to take away a took over as the breed with the questionable to conclude that dog’s food.133 A thirty-four-year-old most number of fatal bites.109 Pit Great Danes were inherently more man was bitten while trying to bulls remained in that position dangerous than the other breeds, break up a dogfight. Some victims until 1993, when rottweilers began based on a net difference of only were bitten by their own dogs. A causing approximately ten fatal one fatality. twenty-seven-year-old woman was bites per two-year reporting bitten by her dog after he had period.110 The last available report- been hit by a car and became dis-

30 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 oriented.134 A seventy-five-year-old The study created a control (4,494,083 people) had been bitten woman was attacked while trying group of dogs to try to determine in the previous twelve months, and to prevent her dog from biting an whether certain characteristics 0.3 percent had sought medical emergency medical technician (such as breed) made a dog more attention.155 This shows that nonfa- (EMT) who was attempting to put likely to bite.144 Using a multivari- tal bites are a public health problem the woman in an ambulance.135 ate statistical analysis, the study that “is five orders of magnitude The Morbidity and Mortality concluded that biting dogs were greater” than fatal dog bites.156 The report describing the study does more likely than control dogs to study concluded that several factors not document the number of be German shepherds or Chow had no statistical significance on attacks per breed. This is likely due Chows, male, intact (not neu- the likelihood of being bitten: cen- to the fact that the ED reports did tered), and reside in a house with sus region, urbanicity, race/ethnic not specify the breed of dog. An one or more children.145 Denver group, and household income.157 attempt to determine the number had (and still has) a ban on pit The study did not attempt to corre- of bites per breed would depend on bulls, so it is not surprising that no late between the number of bites victims accurately self-reporting cases involved that breed.146 and the breed of dog. The authors the breed of the attacking dog.136 The authors acknowledged that acknowledged that the study relied The study had a number of limi- their results had several problems. on the self-reporting of data, which tations. First, the authors excluded First, they were only able to speak were not validated, and that they fatal dog bites. Second, the study to owners of approximately half of received a poor response rate (only only examined cases where the vic- the biting dogs. They excluded 56 percent of people responded to tim sought treatment in an ED. cases in which the victim did not the survey).158 Victims may have gone to other seek medical attention. In this health care providers, such as pri- respect, the authors believed that vate physicians or urgent-care cen- seeking medical attention was a Other Studies ters. Third, 26 percent of reports “surrogate” for “real bites.”147 The Other studies have attempted to doc- were missing an injury diagnosis. authors did not verify the breeds of ument the total number of dog bites Many cases had limited data on the the dogs involved, but, instead, and the number of bites per breed. circumstances of the attack or the “identified predominant breed as A study of ED visits for dog-bite identity of the dog involved.137 whatever breed the owner consid- injuries159 confirmed many of the Thus, the CDC’s estimates may be ered the dog.”148 Because of the conclusions of the previously dis- both overinclusive (“just cause” small number of bites per breed, cussed CDC study of ED visits.160 bites may have been included)138 the authors could not assess the The study noted that a lack of a na- and underinclusive (insofar as vic- statistical significance of breeds tional reporting system for dog- tims may have sought treatment at other than German shepherd and bite injuries makes gathering and other facilities). Chow Chow.149 analyzing data on the subject diffi- Another CDC study attempted to Another CDC study attempted to cult.161 The authors, in reviewing identify the incidence of dog bites determine the frequency of dog the literature on the subject, found in a particular locality: Denver, bites by conducting a random tele- that previous studies concluded Colorado.139 The authors examined phone survey of households.150 The that between 0.3 percent and 1.1 reports from the Denver Municipal authors used the Injury Control and percent of all ED visits are due to Animal Shelter in 1991.140 There Risk Survey (ICARIS), a random- dog-bite-related injuries.162 To were a total of 991 bites during the digit-dialing telephone survey.151 determine the true percentage, study period.141 However, only 178 They asked each adult respondent they collected data from the Na- were eligible for the study,142 as whether he (or his children) had tional Hospital Ambulatory Med- the authors excluded several cate- been bitten by a dog in the previous ical Care Survey (NHAMCS), a ran- gories of bites: bites involving twelve months and whether the vic- dom surveying instrument that is household members, attacks invol- tim had sought medical atten- used to calculate the number of ving multiple dogs, attacks before tion.152 Out of 5,328 completed in- ED visits per year.163 They esti- 1991, dogs who had been owned terviews, ninety-four adults and mated that between 1992 and for less than six months, cases in ninety-two children reported being 1994, 333,687 annual visits were which the owner did not live in bitten in the previous twelve made to EDs seeking medical Denver County, attacks where the months.153 Of these, twelve adults treatment for dog-bite-related owner’s phone number was not and twenty-six children sought med- injuries.164 This amounted to 0.4 listed on the report, and cases in ical care.154 From these data, the percent of all ED visits nation- which the victim did not receive authors extrapolated that 1.8 per- wide.165 Looking at the monetary medical treatment.143 cent of the American population cost of dog bites, they found that

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 31 the average cost for a dog-bite- dence rate must be higher than “systematic” in its approach.188 related ED visit was $274, result- that found in the study.177 Indeed, Pinckney and Kennedy con- ing in an annual cost of $102.4 Another survey178 in Pennsylva- ceded that their database was million.166 The study, however, did nia polled children in order to “incomplete” and “may not be not address the question of determine an overall bite rate from entirely reliable.”189 Their data whether certain breeds are particu- the perspective of bite victims.179 depended on newspaper reports, larly more dangerous than others. The survey, conducted in 1981, which may themselves be incom- This is partly due to the unavail- found that 46.1 percent of children plete or inaccurate. Thus, the ability of data through NHAMCS. reported that they had been bitten authors said their data required Moreover, the study most likely by a dog during their lifetime.180 “cautious interpretation.”190 An undercounted the number of non- The study concluded that example of such “cautious interpre- fatal dog bites because victims may [B]eing bitten by a dog is a tation” is represented by the have sought treatment from places rather common occurrence for authors’ observation that even other than EDs.167 children, especially those be- though German shepherds were Other studies have attempted to tween the ages of seven and involved in more fatalities than any examine the problem at a more twelve years, and the event is other breed in the study, such large localized level. A July 1991 greatly underestimated by offi- frequency could be reflective of the study168 found that dog bites were cial bite statistics.181 fact that German shepherds had responsible for 0.3 percent of all Nevertheless, the authors did not the highest AKC registration of any ED visits at The Children’s Hospi- attempt to catalog bites per breed.182 large breed.191 Hence, the use of tal of Philadelphia.169 Of those vis- Unfortunately, not all scientists AKC data to draw comparisons its, 77 percent involved cases have used statistically sound meth- between breeds is problematic,192 where the victim knew the biting ods to draw conclusions about the as demonstrated by the high num- dog.170 The study found one statis- relative dangerousness of breeds. ber of registrations for breeds such tically significant conclusion: more Two physicians, Lee E. Pinckney as German shepherds, and low pit bull injuries were the result of and Leslie A. Kennedy, from the number of registrations for a popu- unprovoked attacks as compared Department of Radiology at the lar breed, such as the pit bull.193 to such attacks by other breeds.171 University of Texas Southwestern William Winkler’s study194 in “Unfortunately, the absence of reli- Medical School and Children’s 1977 has also been criticized for able dog breed-specific population Medical Center, sent letters to the its lack of scientific method.195 His figures prevent[ed] the calculation editors of 245 major newspapers “study” involved compiling news of breed-specific injury rates.”172 requesting copies of all stories reports from eleven dog-bite-re- An October 1997 study tried to about dog-bite-related fatalities.183 lated fatalities from January 1974 determine the number of dog bites The number of fatalities reported through December 1975.196 From in Alleghany County, Pennsylvania by the responding newspapers be- these data, he made various con- (Pittsburgh), by using the “cap- tween March 1966 and June 1980 clusions about the breeds responsi- ture-recapture” method of statisti- totaled seventy-four.184 Of the sev- ble, finding that, “not unexpect- cal analysis.173 The authors found enty-four fatalities, sixteen were edly,” German shepherds were the that 790 dog bites were reported caused by German shepherds, nine breed most often responsible for to the Alleghany County Health by huskies, eight by Saint fatal dog attacks.197 Because Saint Department in 1993.174 Using the Bernards, six each by bull terriers Bernards were responsible for two capture-recapture method, along and Great Danes, and five by mala- deaths during this twenty-four- with log-linear modeling, the study mutes.185 The remaining dog-bite month period, he concluded, concluded that the number of un- fatalities were caused by a variety “[t]his relatively uncommon breed reported dog bites was 1,388 (with of breeds, including ten attacks by may be a greater hazard than a 95 percent confidence interval of mixed breeds and five attacks by others.”198 between 1,010 and 1,925).175 The dogs of unknown breeds.186 In A common thread running authors cautioned, however, that addition to acquiring bite fatality through several studies is the the self-reporting sources are prob- statistics from newspapers, the attempt to extrapolate conclusions lematic in that “whether or not a authors used American Kennel about breeds based on limited case is reported depends largely on Club (AKC) registration data to data. For example, an April 2000 the severity of the event and the compare the relative number of epidemiological study in Philadel- attitude, knowledge, or education fatalities per breed.187 phia used reports from the Depart- level of the victim.”176 Accordingly, The CDC authors criticized the ment of Health to conclude that the authors suggested that the Pinckney/Kennedy study as being between 1995 and 1997 there were actual Pittsburgh dog-bite inci- “primarily anecdotal” rather than approximately 5,390 bites.199 The

32 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 authors concluded that pit bulls, to bite without any evidence of in- population sizes, Breed Y would German shepherds, and rottweilers dividual dangerousness. be perceived to be the more combined were responsible for 59 dangerous breed on the basis of percent of bites each year.200 The the number of fatalities.207 authors felt comfortable drawing Numerators and Using the RDR normalizes the this conclusion despite the fact Denominators effect of a breed’s popularity, or that they could not determine the lack thereof. Dogs of popular breed in 74 percent of cases.201 in Dog-Bite breeds are going to bite more Statistics often simply because there are To date, no scientific study has more of them.208 A January 1997 The Unknown been able to resolve what I term to article warned that, as dalmatians be the problem of “numerators become more popular, people Origin of and denominators.” A person wish- should expect to see more bites Aggressiveness ing to determine whether certain from that breed.209 This is not to Despite all of the research and stud- breeds are more likely to bite than say that dalmatians are inherently ies on the subject, scientists and others must first determine the more dangerous than other breeds. veterinarians cannot state with cer- number of bites per breed (the Rather, an increase in their popula- tainty or confidence why certain numerator) and then compare that tion should also result in a propor- dogs are more aggressive than oth- number to the total number of tional increase in bites from that ers.202 It seems that a particular dogs of that breed in the general breed.210 Similarly, the Pinckney/ dog may be aggressive because of a population (the denominator). Kennedy study211 cautioned that, variety of factors.203 According to This can be expressed as a ratio: despite the fact that German shep- the American Veterinary Medical herds accounted for the most num- Number of Bites Association’s multidisciplinary Task Relative by Breed ber of deaths, their finding must Force on Canine Aggression and Dangerousness = be read in conjunction with the Ratio Total Population Human-Canine Interactions, “A of Breed popularity of the breed, as evi- dog’s tendency to bite depends on denced by AKC registrations of the at least five interacting factors: This ratio (RDR) allows for a same time period.212 heredity, early experience, later so- comparison between breeds. The The problem of numerators and cialization and training, health higher the RDR, the greater pro- denominators is that it is diffi- (medical and behavioral), and vic- clivity a particular breed has to cult—if not impossible—to accu- tim behavior.”204 bite. It allows for a comparison of rately determine the number of While breed (as an inherited “oranges to oranges” and “apples bites per breed and the number of characteristic) is one component to apples.” Otherwise, it is likely dogs in a particular breed. Without of predicting a dog’s dangerous- that highly popular breeds will an accurate count for either the ness, it is not the only factor.205 appear to be more dangerous, numerator or denominator, one There is no way to scientifically when in fact the number of bites is runs the risk of stigmatizing an determine whether a dog is likely reflective of the overall population entire breed as “overly dangerous” to bite in the future, any more of the particular breed. based on the breed’s absolute num- than psychologists can predict A study that tried to extrapolate ber of bites, instead of examining whether certain people will com- breed data from the previously dis- the breed’s number of bites rela- mit crimes of violence. The excep- cussed CDC studies agreed that tive to its overall population. tion to this rule is the axiom that the proper method for determin- the best predictor of future behaving a breed’s dangerousness was The Numerator Problem ior is past behavior. For this rea- the use of a comparative ratio: The principal problem in determin- son, many veterinary and scientific Ideally, breed-specific bite rates ing the total number of bites by groups support “dangerous dog would be calculated to compare a particular breed is that there is no laws” that target individual dogs breed and quantify the relative national reporting system for dog who have demonstrated a propen- dangerousness of each breed. bites.213 The CDC studies214 demon- sity to bite or attack innocent For example, 10 fatal attacks by strate that, while fatal dog bites are victims.206 The problem with BSL Breed X relative to a population easier to track than nonfatal bites, and breed discrimination is that of 10,000 X’s (1/1,000) imply a even the methodology used to legislatures and insurers have greater risk than 100 attacks by uncover fatalities misses approxi- attempted to prophylactically deter- Breed Y relative to a population mately 26 percent of cases.215 mine which breeds are most likely of 1,000,000 Y’s (0.1/1,000). Further, news accounts—on which Without consideration of the the CDC relied, in part, to deter-

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 33 mine the number of fatal dog bites lem then becomes how to deter- pit bulls. “Husky” refers to a class and the breeds involved—may be mine how many of those dogs be- of dogs, not any one particular biased toward reporting attacks by long to each breed. Determining breed. Siberian huskies, Alaskan certain breeds.216 the breed of one dog is difficult malamutes, and Samoyeds are all The numerator may also be enough.226 To take a census of all considered to belong to the biased against dogs who cause dogs and identify their breeds “husky” family, yet they are all dif- more damage, while ignoring would be an impossible task. ferent breeds.240 Similarly, there is breeds that bite more often but do Some scientists have suggested no AKC-standard breed called “pit not cause victims to seek emer- using AKC or municipal registra- bull.” “Pit bull” is a collective clas- gency treatment.217 If a dog bite tion data to determine the number sification of the American Stafford- does not cause serious injury, it is of dogs in a particular breed in a shire terrier, Staffordshire pit bull not likely that the victim would particular community.227 However, terrier, and bull terrier.241 seek medical treatment.218 This one study concluded that city reg- Scientists have not been able to then skews the results of studies istrations account for only 29.1 determine if victims of dog bites that use emergency department percent of all dogs.228 Further, can accurately report the breeds of visits to track the incidence of dog owners of breeds considered “dan- dogs that attacked them. Many sci- bites.219 “The problem with self- gerous” may be reluctant to regis- entists, particularly the CDC reporting sources is that whether ter their animals.229 This may be authors, have stated that misiden- or not a case is reported depends particularly true of dogs used for tification is a likely problem, espe- largely on the severity of the event illicit purposes, such as those cially under the stress of a dog and the attitude, knowledge, or ed- owned by drug dealers, dogfight- attack.242 Part of the problem may ucation level of the victim.”220 ers, and gang members.230 be that as a particular breed gets Studies that have used random AKC registration data is also a reputation for dangerousness, sampling221 are equally problem- problematic because the AKC only some victims jump to the conclu- atic because they, too, depend on registers purebred dogs231 and sion that they were bitten by a dog accurate self-reporting of their depends on owners taking the ini- of that breed.243 sample groups. The low response tiative to register their dogs.232 Even under ordinary, low-stress rates of these studies also lead to Mixed breeds, for which there are conditions, many people have diffi- questions about the accuracy of numerous combinations, are not culty identifying a dog’s breed. the results that are extrapolated to eligible for registration.233 Pit bulls For the average person any- the general population.222 are often registered with organiza- thing with prick ears and blue tions other than the AKC. If owners eyes automatically becomes a The Denominator do register them, they register “husky”....Any smooth coated Problem with the United Kennel Club or the brown dog, medium sized, and No one knows how many dogs are American Dog Breeders Associa- muscular becomes a “pit present in the United States at any tion.234 If a breed is undercounted bull”....Any tall dog becomes a one time. This should not be sur- in the denominator of the ratio, it Great Dane, fuzzy or hairy, and prising, as even the constitution- will make a breed appear more it’s a Chow Chow. If it’s black ally mandated223 decennial census dangerous than it actually is.235 and tan and heavy, it’s a rot- of human beings is known to un- tweiler, etc.244 dercount people.224 One survey of bite reports found Determining the true number, or The Problem that medium-size black and tan ani- even an accurate estimate, of dogs of Breeds mals were likely to be recorded as can be problematic. While many Breed is a human construct that is German shepherds. Stocky, short- dogs are kept as household pets,225 used to conveniently group dogs haired dogs were listed as pit bulls. others are used as service animals based on similar physical character- Media reports of pit bull attacks are or guard dogs; kept in animal shel- istics.236 There is no scientific test often accompanied by pictures of ters or animal stores; or simply to determine a dog’s breed.237 The boxers or pugs instead of American allowed to wander the streets as only way to determine a dog’s breed Staffordshire terriers.245 One enter- strays. The dog population is con- is to examine its heredity. This task taining website, called “Find the stantly changing and moving, is made possible but is expensive pit bull,” displays twenty-one pic- which makes obtaining an accurate and time-consuming,238 if a dog is tures of purebred dogs and chal- count difficult and expensive. registered with the AKC.239 lenges the user to identify the pit Even if it was possible to deter- As examples of the problem of bull among them.246 mine how many dogs exist in the defining and identifying breed, Even veterinarians and other country at any one time, the prob- consider the case of huskies and experts have difficulty determining

34 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 whether a particular dog belongs to rottweiler to be praised for defend- breed, and that it could be scientif- a particular breed.247 This was a cen- ing its owner. This is not the type of ically determined that certain tral concern of the Massachusetts bite that we should be trying to pre- breeds are inherently more danger- Supreme Judicial Court in Ameri- vent. It is also not the type of bite ous than others. What about the can Dog Owners Association v. City that is likely to lead to an insurance owners? Does this not excuse them of Lynn.248 The Court declared the claim. Similarly, if a dog is being from the responsibility to properly city of Lynn’s pit bull ordinance to physically tormented by a neighbor- train and care for their pets? be unconstitutional in part because hood child who is poking it in the The reality is that there is a wide the animal-control officers desig- eye, we would not deny that the dog spectrum of responsible pet owner- nated to enforce the ordinance used has an inherent right to defend ship. For some people, occasionally conflicting and subjective standards itself by growling, snarling, barking, providing food and water for a dog to determine and identify breed.249 or biting back.254 These are “just is considered sufficient. On the The problem of mixed breed cause” bites, bites in which the dog opposite end of the spectrum, complicates the issue even further. has a legitimate reason to defend some people spend thousands of In determining a relative danger- itself or its owners. dollars on luxuries such as pet ousness ratio, it is unclear how to It is possible that the statistics spas, advanced dog agility classes, count mixed breeds.250 Should they are being skewed because property and elaborate beds. Somewhere in be counted once per breed? Not at owners who wish to purchase the middle of the spectrum are all? Create a new category for each “guard dogs” may be self-selecting people who actively ensure that possible combination of breeds? certain breeds based on the popular their pets have food, water, and Aside from how to use the raw data notions of relative dangerousness. shelter; get exercise; are well on attacks by mixed breed, there is Guard dogs are trained to protect trained; and receive adequate vet- the additional problem of misiden- property by scaring away would-be erinary care.256 tification by laypeople.251 Victims intruders and, if necessary, to bite Unfortunately, a small percent- sometimes inadvertently report an actual trespasser. Owners who age of pet owners breed and use mixed-breed dogs as purebreds252 desire to have guard dogs may their pets for illicit purposes. They due to the heat of the moment and rationalize the purchase of one intentionally seek out vicious dogs their lack of training in identifying breed over another based on the who will attack and maim humans subtle breed characteristics. degree to which they subjectively and other animals.257 Dogfighting There is good reason to believe believe that the dog will be “mean” enthusiasts, gang members, and that the raw data being used to cal- or “scary.” This creates a self-fulfill- drug dealers will purposely select, culate relative dangerousness ing prophecy. The “scarier” a breed breed, and train dogs to be vicious. ratios are incomplete and inaccu- is considered by a community, the The purpose may be to intimidate rate. If the data being input into more likely a dog of that breed will rivals (in the case of gangs and the calculation are flawed, the re- be purchased for protection, used drug dealers), to defend illegal sults (claiming to show some for protection, and actually bite an drugs (in the case of drug dealers), breeds are more dangerous than intruder. This will skew the statis- or to make money (in the case of others) are equally flawed.253 tics in a way that purports to show promoters of dogfights).258 For that the particular breed is, in fact, some, having a vicious dog is sim- inherently more dangerous. ply a status symbol.259 In order to The Problem of Despite these concerns, it make dogs into vicious weapons, appears that the studies to date they use “revolting and painful “Just Cause” Bites have not excluded this category of techniques to bring the animals to Even if an accurate count could be bites from their datasets.255 This is the verge of bloodlust.”260 Drug obtained of the number of bites per a fatal flaw in the statistics, for it dealers in Philadelphia during the breed, there is the additional prob- confuses the issue between inher- 1980s had pit bulls named “Mur- lem of how to handle “just cause” ent dangerousness (due to breed) der, Hitler, and Scarface.”261 They bites in the resulting statistics. If and legitimate animal behavior. wore collars that concealed crack, the purpose is to determine which cocaine, and money.262 In Chicago, breeds are inherently more danger- gang members “brandish[ed] their ous, just by virtue of the breeds fierce pit bulls just as they would a themselves, then the statistics Breed Switching switchblade or a gun.”263 should exclude bites by the dog that by Bad Owners Current statistics do not take in- were justified. If a rottweiler bites Assume for the moment that an to consideration the degree to an intruder who is attacking the accurate relative dangerousness which the source of a dog’s aggres- homeowner, we would expect the ratio could be determined for each siveness is the torturous upbringing

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 35 described above, as opposed to the associated with the CDC and non- governments focus on individual dog’s breed.264 In those situations, CDC studies are inherent to the dogs and dog owners.277 the problem is clearly with the dog problem of trying to determine the The very scientists who have owner—not the dog itself or its number of bites per breed and the authored studies trying to deter- breed. These problem owners are number of dogs per breed. mine a link between breed and dangerous with any breed of dog.265 aggressiveness oppose breed dis- One solution would be for insur- crimination and BSL. In many ers to write policies that exclude of the CDC studies, the scientists injuries related to dogfighting. This III. The Widespread cautioned against using their in- would limit the claims paid out for Opposition to Breed complete data on attacks to make these high-risk animals, yet it would knee-jerk legislative or policy deci- leave potential plaintiffs without an Discrimination sions based solely on breed.278 adequate source of compensation. Breed discrimination by insurance They pointed to the lack of reliable This result might be a socially companies and breed-specific leg- data on bites per breed (the acceptable solution because of the islation by state and local gov- “numerator problem”) and the unclean hands of the “victims.” If ernments have attracted natio- absence of a reliable count of dogs dogfighting exclusions are incorpo- nal attention and outrage by vet- per breed (the “denominator prob- rated into standard homeowners’ erinarians, animal groups, and lem”).279 insurance contracts, the language dog owners. Animal groups have also opposed should be narrowly written to The American Veterinary Med- BSL and breed discrimination. The exclude only those bad faith actors ical Association’s Task Force on AKC has taken a strong stance who, as a matter of social policy, Canine Aggression concluded that against breed discrimination by in- should not be rewarded or compen- BSL and other breed-specific surance companies: sated for injuries attendant to an actions are “inappropriate and The American Kennel Club illegal activity. The key would be to ineffective.”270 The Task Force con- believes that insurance compa- write language that would still pro- sisted of a diverse coalition of vet- nies should determine cover- tect innocent passersby. erinarians, academics, physicians, age of a dog-owning household One of the arguments against insurers, representatives from ani- based on the dog’s deeds, not BSL is that once a breed becomes mal rights advocates, CDC scien- the dog’s breeds. If a dog is a banned, problem owners will sim- tists, and lawyers.271 The Task well-behaved member of the ply switch to another breed.266 In Force agreed that to properly de- household and the community, the 1930s, pit bulls were far from termine the relative dangerousness there is no reason to deny or considered a “vicious breed.” In of breeds, one must first determine cancel coverage. In fact, insur- fact, a pit bull named “Pete” the number of bites per breed and ance companies should con- starred in the Our Gang films of the total population of each breed. sider a dog an asset, a natural the time.267 Fifty years ago the As noted above,272 the accurate alarm system whose bark may Doberman was considered the calculation of both numbers is an deter intruders and prevent most vicious dog.268 During the immense challenge.273 potential theft.280 1980s the focus turned to pit The Task Force rejected the no- The AKC also issued this state- bulls.269 In short, today’s public tion that a dog’s breed is the sole ment concerning BSL: target may be tomorrow’s favorite determinant of dangerousness. The American Kennel Club pet, and vice versa. “[A] dog’s tendency to bite de- (AKC) strongly supports dan- pends on at least five interacting gerous-dog control. Dog-con- factors: heredity, early experience, trol legislation must be reason- Do the Insurance later socialization and training, able, non-discriminatory, and health (medical and behavioral), enforceable as detailed in the Companies Have and victim behavior.”274 They AKC Position Statement. Better Data? also pointed to the problems of To provide communities It is quite possible that one or mixed breeds, misidentification of with the most effective danger- more insurance companies have breeds, and shifting popularity of ous-dog control possible, laws their own proprietary data purport- breeds.275 The Task Force also ex- must not be breed specific. ing to show that one breed or pressed concern about making de- Instead of holding all dog own- another is disproportionately re- cisions based solely on breed, since ers accountable for their be- sponsible for bites. I am skeptical there is a lack of scientific means havior, breed specific laws that their data would be any better to identify breed.276 The Task Force place restrictions only on the than the CDC’s. The problems recommended, instead, that local owners of certain breeds of

36 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 dogs. If specific breeds are pression, reducing high blood pres- banned, owners of these The Growing sure, and addressing obesity.300 On breeds intent on using their Popularity of Pets the other hand, these effects must dogs for malicious purposes, Population be balanced against the negative such as dog fighting or crimi- health effects of dogs, such as bites A study estimated that in 1998 nal activities, will simply and the transmission of zoonotic there would be 53.6 million dogs change to another breed of diseases.301 When the positives are in the United States, a 2.1 percent dog and continue to jeopard- weighed against the negatives, at increase since 1991.288 Approxi- ize public safety.281 least one physician has concluded mately 34.3 percent of homes have In response to a perceived rise in that dogs probably are beneficial to one or more dogs.289 Dog owners breed discrimination, The HSUS human health.302 Some owners will are thus a significant portion of and the ASPCA developed a grass- forgo their own health in order to the United States population. roots campaign to educate the in- care for their pets—a demonstra- They are also a significant pool of surance industry.282 Both groups tion of how much pets mean to customers (actual and potential) oppose breed discrimination.283 some owners. “Most physicians are for insurers. Other groups that have spoken out familiar with at least one example against breed discrimination in- Spending of a person refusing hospitaliza- clude the American Veterinary tion...because there was no one To understand the scope and Medical Association, the American else in the home to care for their power of the pet-owning popula- Dog Owners Association, the West- pet.”303 tion, consider the amount of minster Kennel Club, and the The loss of a pet can have pro- money that is spent on pets each American Humane Association.284 found effects on an owner. A num- year. In 1998, Americans spent ber of organizations provide $11.1 billion on veterinary care bereavement support for people alone, a 61 percent increase from whose pets have died,304 and at 1991.290 There are more than 35 IV. The Unique least three greeting card compa- “pet vacation resorts” where dogs nies make sympathy cards specifi- and Special Role and cats can go to be pampered.291 cally for the loss of a pet.305 There are also more than 650 of Pets in Society Breed discrimination forces pet pet cemeteries in the United For at least twelve thousand years, owners to choose between their States, indicating the extent to the history of the domestic dog, homes and their dogs. Forcing which owners will go to memorial- Canis familiaris, has been inter- owners to make this choice repre- ize their pets.292 twined with that of human sents a significant misunderstand- beings.285 The law has generally Dogs: Members of ing of the role of pets in our soci- treated dogs as mere prop- ety. For some pet owners, giving up 286 the American Family erty —or worse, as nonprop- a pet is like losing a child, sibling, 287 Breed discrimination ignores the erty. As the popularity of dogs or spouse. as pets has grown, the law has reality that most pet owners con- responded in kind by recognizing sider their pets to be members of the importance of dogs, cats, and their immediate family.293 Indeed, The Consequences other pets. The insurance indus- this “coexistence has contributed try, by practicing breed discrimi- substantially to humans’ quality of of Breed nation, has failed to appreciate life.”294 Dogs were initially domesticated to be work animals, assist- Discrimination the unique and special role of When a dog bites, it can have lasting ing humans with farming, herding dogs to their owners and to soci- consequences for both the dog and livestock, and providing security at ety. This section is offered to pro- its owner’s family. When an insur- night.295 In time, dogs became vide some context for the implica- ance company refuses to insure or “four-legged members of the fam- tions of breed discrimination. renew a household based on a par- ily.”296 Some dogs provide assis- This is a problem that has the ticular breed of dog, it, too, can have tance to humans with disabili- potential for affecting a large seg- far-reaching consequences. ties.297 Service dogs serve as a ment of the population and for Most people do not respond tangible resource for people, not having damaging effects on the appropriately if their dog bites just a source of companionship.298 mental, physical, and emotional someone. Most punishment is too Dogs can have positive effects on health of people. severe and too late to be of any the health of their owners,299 such value to the dog in preventing as alleviating loneliness and de- future occurrences.306 The dog is

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 37 usually isolated from the family ticated animals (such as horses, and visitors. By limiting inter- Pets: More than cattle, and sheep) on the other action with humans, the dog Mere Property end, and dogs somewhere in be- does not learn how to deal with The problem of breed discrimina- tween.328 To the Sentell Court, people appropriately.307 Isolation tion should be viewed in light of dogs hold “their lives at the will of may also lead to inadequate med- modern developments in animal the legislature, and properly fall- ical care, which may in turn lead law, which is beginning to recognize ing within the police powers of the to serious health problems for that animals are more than mere several states.”329 The Court con- the dog.308 property. Until recently, the legal cluded, “It is purely within the Some owners abandon their status of animals was governed by discretion of the legislature to say dogs or euthanize them either out an 1897 Supreme Court case, how far dogs shall be recognized of frustration at not being able to Sentell v. New Orleans & C.R. Co.317 as property, and under what re- correct aggressive behavior or be- The case involved a Newfoundland strictions they shall be permitted cause an insurance company tells named Countess Lona who was to roam the streets.”330 them to do so in order to get killed by a railroad car.318 Her owner The question of the legal status homeowners’ insurance.309 When brought suit against the railroad for of dogs and other pets has recently BSL goes into effect or insurance negligence. The railroad defended been addressed by courts in the companies discriminate, it causes by relying on a statute that prohib- context of family disputes. Bennett some owners to purposely assume ited an owner from recovering for v. Bennett331 and Arrington v. a sheltered and low profile in the more than the declared value on the Arrington332 typify the majority community to avoid being caught animal’s registration form.319 An rule with respect to the “custody” with an unauthorized pet.310 Shel- owner whose dog was not registered of pets upon their owners’ divorce. ter drop-offs are common after could not recover anything for the In both cases, divorcing couples BSL goes into effect or insurers loss of or damage to the animal.320 sought both custody and visitation begin to discriminate based on Countess Lona’s owner brought of their dogs. In Bennett the trial breed.311 The humane society in suit, challenging the constitutional- court awarded legal custody of the Atchison, Kansas, reported a 40 ity of the law.321 dog, Roddy, to the husband, with percent increase in drop-offs of rot- The Supreme Court held that the the wife receiving every-other- tweilers because of breed discrimi- statute was constitutional as a valid weekend and holiday visitation nation.312 This is unfortunate be- exercise of the state’s police rights.333 Subsequent squabbling cause many shelters can only keep power.322 The Court declared that between the parties led the Court dogs a certain number of days dogs are a form of quasi-property to modify its order to have the par- before euthanizing them. Breed that is “imperfect or qualified” in ties swap custody of the dog every discrimination can have a chilling nature.323 The Court relied on the month.334 The appellate court effect on ownership of certain common law rule that dogs could reversed the trial court’s order and breeds,313 which means certain not constitute stolen property for affirmed the Sentell doctrine: breeds are not likely to be adopted purposes of larceny statutes.324 The “While a dog may be considered by and will have to be euthanized. common law held that wild animals many to be a member of the family, Breed discrimination will likely had no property value until killed under Florida law, animals are con- have an effect on homeownership or subdued.325 Domesticated ani- sidered to be personal property.”335 in states that permit this practice. mals, such as horses, cattle, sheep, The court found that the trial Homeowners’ insurance is the and other “work” animals, were court lacked authority to order vis- “gatekeeper” to homeownership. considered “perfect and complete” itation rights in mere property.336 Without homeowners’ insurance, property.326 Dogs fell in a third cat- The court in Arrington reached a person cannot get a mortgage. egory, that of “cats, monkeys, par- a similar conclusion. Arrington in- Without a mortgage, most people rots, singing birds, and similar ani- volved a custody dispute over Bon- cannot buy a house.314 An insured mals, kept for pleasure, curiosity, nie Lou, “a very fortunate little who chooses to lie about a dog’s or caprice.”327 The Court saw no dog with two humans to shower breed or the existence of a dog useful, social value for dogs, except upon her attentions and genuine altogether is committing policy for companionship, which the love frequently not received by fraud, running the risk of criminal Court dismissed as unsatisfactory human children from their prosecution315 and the complete for the establishment of a property divorced parents.”337 The trial cancellation of his or her policy.316 interest. Thus, the Court held that court had awarded custody of Bon- property interests in animals are on nie Lou to Mrs. Arrington. Mr. a continuum: wild animals (animals Arrington appealed, claiming he ferae naturae) on one end, domes- should have been appointed “man-

38 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 aging conservator” (primary York City civil court judge awarded tent with Sentell. The majority guardian) of Bonnie Lou.338 The $700 in damages to the owner of a went on to hold that the plaintiffs Court held that managing conser- deceased poodle. The dog had could recover only for the loss of vatorships were designed for hu- been euthanized by the defendant, value of prospective puppies but mans, not animals.339 The Court on instructions from the plain- only in the context of how much held, “A dog, for all its admirable tiff.346 “The plaintiff had arranged the animal itself would be worth and unique qualities, is not a for an elaborate funeral...includ- as breeding stock.356 human being and is not treated in ing a headstone, an epitaph, and A concurring judge took a the law as such....A dog is personal attendance by plaintiff’s two sis- broader view of damages in the property, ownership of which is ters and a friend.”347 When the case. He said the award for dam- recognized under the law.”340 plaintiff opened the casket, how- ages should be based on “the There is an indication that the ever, she saw the body of a dead intrinsic or special value of domes- legal status of dogs and other pets cat.348 She brought suit, alleging tic animals as companions and be- may be beginning to change. In that she had suffered emotional loved pets.”357 The market value Raymond v. Lachmann, the court distress as a result of the inci- was inadequate to compensate the had to determine the custody of a dent.349 The Court held that the plaintiffs for the full extent of their cat named Merlin.341 The defen- plaintiff was entitled to sue not loss.358 “It is common knowledge dant originally owned Merlin, but just for the market value of the among pet owners that the death left him for one and a half years dog (for conversion of her prop- of a beloved dog or cat...can be a with a former roommate, the plain- erty) but also for her mental great loss.”359 He called for the tiff.342 During that time, the plain- anguish and suffering in seeing acknowledgment of pets as a spe- tiff renamed him “Lovey” and grew the cat instead of her dog. The cial form of property360 based on to be quite attached to him.343 The Court stated: the relationship between humans trial and appellate courts both This court now overrules prior and their pets: held that Lovey should remain in precedent and holds that a pet Many people who love and the custody of the plaintiff, who is not just a thing but occupies admire dogs as family mem- had taken care of him for a lengthy a special place somewhere in bers do so because of the traits period of time. What is remarkable between a person and a piece that dogs often embody. These about this case is that the court of personal property....A pet is represent some of the best of used a “best interests of the cat” not an inanimate thing that human traits, including loy- standard to decide the issue. The just receives affection it also alty, trust, courage, playful- court discarded strict application returns it....To say that [the ness, and love. This cannot be of property law and in its place poodle] is a piece of personal said of inanimate property. At adopted a version of the “best property and no more is a re- the same time, dogs typically interests of the child” standard pudiation of our humanness. lack the worst human traits, from (human) family law. The This I cannot accept.350 including avarice, apathy, pet- court held: Dicta in other cases demon- tiness, and hatred....Losing a Cognizant of the cherished strate that courts are beginning to beloved pet is not the same as status accorded to pets in our rethink the concept that pets are losing an inanimate object, society, the strong emotions mere property. In Bueckner v. however cherished it may be. engendered by disputes of this Hamel,351 the Texas Court of Even an heirloom of great sen- nature, and the limited ability Appeals had to decide the amount timental value, if lost, does not of the courts to resolve them of damages to be awarded the constitute a loss comparable satisfactorily, on the record owner of then-deceased dogs, a to that of a living being. This presented, we think it best for dalmatian and an Australian shep- distinction applies even all concerned that, given his herd.352 The defendant shot the though the deceased living be- limited life expectancy, Lovey, dogs while they were chasing a ing is a nonhuman.361 who is now almost ten years deer.353 The plaintiffs brought suit Juries have been following this old, remain where he has lived, to recover damages for the loss of trend. In cases where harm had prospered, loved, and been their property, which the trial been done to pets, juries have been loved for the past four years.344 court found “had special value to awarding damages as high as Some courts have also recog- the Plaintiffs and were loved as $35,000. In contrast, the average nized that pets are more than pets by the Plaintiffs.”354 The award in the early 1990s was only a mere property in the context of majority concluded that “Texas few hundred dollars.362 tort awards. In Corso v. Crawford law recognizes a dog as personal Dog & Cat Hospital, Inc.,345 a New property”355—a holding consis-

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 39 poor risks or that they are simply The question then becomes V. Breed uninsurable.375 which factors an insurer may con- Discrimination In 1997 D.S. Hellman evaluated sider in making its underwriting the widespread practice of the decisions. Insurance is a highly Should Be Ended time of insurers in denying health, regulated industry. It does not Through Legislation life, and disability coverage to vic- operate in a regulatory vacuum, tims of domestic abuse.376 She pre- free to let the give-and-take of the or Administrative sented a compelling and detailed marketplace decide who gets in- analysis of the philosophical and surance, how much coverage they Regulation legal implications of this practice, get, and how much it will cost A central principle of insurance ultimately concluding that state them. There is social utility in law is that insurance companies legislatures should intervene and making insurance available to the operate at the pleasure of the prevent underwriting decisions highest number of people possi- states.363 “Indeed, the organiza- based on a customer’s history of ble.383 Insurance allows people to tion of an insurance company and domestic abuse.377 buy homes, afford health care, and the conduct of the business of writ- Hellman’s analysis started with drive automobiles.384 The high ing insurance is not a right but a the premise that insurers had been stakes and high social utility of privilege granted by the State sub- able to draw an actuarially justified insurance have historically justi- ject to the conditions imposed by conclusion that domestic abuse fied strict government regulation it to promote the public wel- victims were, from a statistical of the industry.385 fare.”364 The power to regulate in- standpoint, more likely than oth- All states require underwriting surance is so strong that a state ers to be victimized in the future decisions to be based on actuari- may take over the entire business and, thus, to result in claims ally sound data.386 In Maryland, of insurance if it decides it is in the against their insurers.378 Domestic for example, public interest to do so.365 abuse victims were a higher risk— An insurer or insurance pro- States have the power to regulate so high, the insurers concluded, ducer may not cancel or refuse insurers as an exercise of their po- that the insurance pool could not to underwrite or renew a partic- lice power.366 Although insurance bear to have them as a risk, no ular insurance risk or class of law is governed in part by contract matter how high the premium.379 risk for a reason based wholly or law,367 it is also quasi-public in na- Breed discrimination is an entirely partly on race, color, creed, sex, ture.368 States have the power not different problem altogether. or blindness of an applicant or just to regulate insurance con- There is a lack of statistically and policyholder or for any arbi- tracts, but also to declare the scientifically sound data to show trary, capricious, or unfairly terms and conditions of those con- that certain breeds are more dan- discriminatory reason.387 tracts and to impose additional gerous than others. Even if such Maryland law also provides that duties and obligations.369 On the data existed, a plausible case could underwriting must be accom- other hand, when a state does not be made that the breed of a fam- plished “by the application of stan- regulate a particular practice of the ily’s dog should not be used as a dards that are reasonably related insurance industry, companies are factor in underwriting. to the insurer’s economic and busi- free to contract as they see fit.370 ness purposes.”388 States regulate and legislate Actuarially justified underwrit- insurance on behalf of the public ing is not only the law, it is good interest. Regulations counterbal- Insurers’ Duty In making underwriting decisions, business. By accurately separating ance free market forces to protect insurers decide which of many out risks into “not insurable” and the public at large.371 Some states risks to insure in order to protect “insurable” (and, then, in turn, prohibit unfair and deceptive trade their fiscal solvency and profitabil- separating out insurable risks into practices.372 Some administra- ity.380 When an underwriter de- various risk classifications), actu- tively set rates.373 In determining cides not to insure a particular arially justified underwriting pro- whether a rate is reasonable, states risk, the would-be insured is left to motes efficiency and profit. Con- will look to see if the rate is based find insurance elsewhere. If no sumers are not allowed into the on “legitimate cost factors.”374 insurer will underwrite or accept insurance pool when the likelihood Some states require insurers to the risk, the result may be a cost- of loss is so high that inclusion of write policies for particular risks, shifting to society381 or the loss their risks threatens the viability even though the marketplace may of an economic opportunity to a of the pool itself.389 For those in- have determined such insureds are consumer.382 sureds allowed in the pool, actuarially justified underwriting pro-

40 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 motes efficiency by assigning low high that every insurer except the costs. A spokesperson for the III premiums to low-risk insureds and Farm Bureau declined to provide recently conceded, “[T]he industry high premiums to insureds more coverage. The dozen or so insurers isn’t positioned to determine which likely to have a claim.390 This cre- that I contacted in Lubbock who dogs should be deemed vicious.... ates a market incentive for low-risk declined to provide coverage lost [W]e’re certainly not dog experts or insureds to participate in the pool out on what would otherwise be a veterinarians.”405 Unless and until as opposed to engaging in adverse low-risk insured, simply because the industry can demonstrate that selection.391 Accurate risk classifi- they adhered to a hypothesis (rott- different breeds have different rela- cation also maximizes profits for weilers and Chow Chows are more tive dangerousness ratios with some the insurer. By eliminating the dangerous than other dogs) that degree of accuracy, breed discrimi- highest-risk insureds from the has not been scientifically proven. nation should be opposed by the pool, an insurer keeps premiums In my case, the insurer who used a general public, insurers themselves, low for the low-risk insureds who more actuarially sound rate classi- and regulators. remain. An insurer that does not fication structure (the Farm maintain its “classification edge” Bureau) benefited by offering a faces the potential of having its low-risk consumer a low-risk pre- low-risk insureds leave to join mium, thus gaining a market ad- Arguments other companies that are able to vantage over its competition.401 to Support charge lower premiums due to bet- I do not believe there exist suffi- ter risk classification decisions.392 cient data for an insurer to even Regulation in the The insurer is stuck with its high- justify a weak correlation between Public Interest risk insureds as well as the high- breed and bite risk. Insurers should The law is full of examples where risk insureds who migrate over work to minimize the risk of false “actuarially fair” factors have never- from the insurer’s competition.393 positives so as to “fine tune” their theless been prohibited in under- This means that the insurer is not risk classifications to the greatest writing because of overriding public maximizing its profitability. extent possible.402 Risk classifica- interests. Statistical correlation How much statistical correlation tions should be sufficiently refined between behavior and risk, there- is required for a rating factor to be so as not to be overbroad. Exclud- fore, is only the first step in a much “actuarially fair”? How legitimate ing all dogs would clearly be over- bigger, public policy analysis. Drive- do “legitimate cost factors” have broad and would come with high through deliveries,406 preexisting to be?394 Certainly, perfect 1:1 cor- social costs. Excluding some breeds medical conditions,407 civil rights,408 relation is not required.395 Thus, I is also unsound, based on my review and witness intimidation409 are all do not suggest that insurers must of the scientific literature.403 What examples of where otherwise actuar- be able to demonstrate that every I propose—and what the Task Force ially justified practices were prohib- Chow Chow will have an unjust bite on Canine Aggression and Human- ited by state legislatures and courts in its lifetime. Risk classification Canine Interactions proposed404— due to overriding interests in equal- necessarily will involve some “false is the refinement of breed-specific ity, health, and fairness. positives.”396 Otherwise, insurers actions by legislatures and insurers Part IV demonstrated the impor- would be very limited in the classi- to control and regulate “dangerous tance of dogs and other pets in fications they could use, there dogs.” Dangerous dogs are those society. Pets provide physical and would be insufficient stratification who have demonstrated (on an emotional benefits to humans and of the rate pool, and the dangers of individual, dog-by-dog basis) a pro- are not mere property. Even if moral hazard397 and adverse selec- pensity for violence. This would be breed discrimination were actuari- tion398 would increase dramati- actuarially fair because adequate ally justified, I think a plausible cally. On the other end of the spec- evidence exists that a dog with a argument would exist that the trum is the insurers’ position, that history of unjustified bites is likely practice should be regulated be- any correlation is sufficient.399 to be dangerous in the future. cause of the public interest in pro- This is not an economically viable As demonstrated in Part II, there tecting animal-human bonds. position for an insurer, since low- is insufficient evidence to support There is an additional, and risk insureds may be incorrectly the insurance industry’s argument arguably more important, social classified as high-risk customers, that certain breeds bite more often. value that is compromised by and high-risk insureds might be In other words, the current risk breed discrimination: homeowner- priced out altogether.400 For exam- classification (by breed) is too gen- ship. Most home buyers require ple, my ownership of a rottweiler eral and is generating too many homeowners’ insurance in order to and a half-Chow put me in an irra- false positives while at the same purchase a home. This require- tionally high-risk classification—so time having unnecessary social ment comes from mortgagors, who

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 41 require some protection in the and community-wide improvement. not likely to bite someone. Insur- event their security (the home For many families, homeownership ers still turned me away. They re- itself) is destroyed, damaged, or is the way to accumulate wealth for fused to write a policy with a dog- otherwise made unavailable for the future.417 Home equity can be bite exclusion in it. collection.410 As the Seventh Cir- borrowed against for emergencies, There are several good reasons cuit stated in NAACP v. American higher education, or retirement.418 why exclusions may not be good Family Mutual Insurance Co.,411 The family home is often the most public policy or wise business “No insurance, no loan; no loan, no significant component in an estate sense. Exclusions operate to the house; lack of insurance thus after a parent dies.419 detriment of third parties, those makes housing unavailable.”412 Breed discrimination should, would-be plaintiffs who are injured The issue in American Family was thus, be viewed in a larger social and need compensation for their a practice known as “red-lining” context. There is a high social cost loss. Exclusions would create where homeowners’ insurance when someone is denied homeown- pockets of plaintiffs who would, in companies were charging higher ers’ insurance: he is unable to buy effect, have no way to satisfy a rates, or declining to write insur- a home.420 The social harm in pre- judgment if they could prove liabil- ance altogether, based on geo- venting the dream of homeowner- ity. This is not an insignificant graphic location of insureds.413 ship must be weighed against the public policy, for the same reason The boundaries (“redlines”) that small risk of a dog-bite claim. that states require certain profes- defined the no-insurance zones fre- There are over fifty million dogs in sionals to have liability insur- quently fell along racial and socioe- the United States, yet only a few ance421 and drivers to carry mini- conomic lines, and the NAACP dogs have been responsible for bit- mum limits on their automobile brought suit alleging that this ing people. policies,422 to provide a source of practice was discriminatory and This is not a simple matter of de- recovery for third parties in the illegal. The Seventh Circuit held ciding to throw away the family event of a legitimate claim. If we that red-lining violated the Fair trampoline or forgo the purchase exclude dog bites or even those Housing Act, a statute passed by of an in-ground pool. Pets are not dog bites from breeds we can Congress to prohibit discrimina- mere property. To make people prove are the most dangerous, we tion in the housing market.414 choose between the family pet and would run the risk of creating a It is quite possible that red-lin- homeownership is unfair, unneces- special class of plaintiffs who ing was actuarially justified; that is, sary, and goes against an impor- would have no source of recovery. it may have in fact cost insurance tant social value: homeownership. Plaintiffs would have to turn to companies more to write policies other sources in order to have in certain areas than others. This, their basic medical needs met.423 however, did not end the inquiry How Else Exclusions are also bad for busi- for Congress or the Court of ness because they make insurance Appeals. The Seventh Circuit held Can Insurers less attractive to consumers. A per- that homeowners’ insurance is a Control Risk? son with cancer is a much higher service that has the power to make Let me assume for the moment risk than a healthy individual. If a homeownership available.415 If a that insurers could demonstrate health insurer began excluding plaintiff can demonstrate that an with some degree of actuarial con- coverage for cancer treatment, few application for homeowners’ insur- fidence that some breeds are more employers or individual consumers ance was rejected or unfairly rated likely to bite than others. Could would purchase that company’s on the basis of race or another pro- there be other ways of controlling insurance. My decision to try to hibited factor, the practice consti- this risk, short of outright denial bargain my way into the insurance tutes discrimination in housing.416 of coverage? risk pool by excluding dog bites Homeownership is a worthwhile from coverage was, in reality, public interest. People who own Exclusions pretty stupid. In the rare event their homes develop roots in a When I was shopping for homeown- that I was found liable for one of given community. A homeowner is ers’ insurance, one of the first my dogs biting someone, I would less likely to leave than is someone questions I asked insurers was be solely responsible for the judg- who is in a year-to-year or month- whether they would write a policy ment against me. I would lose to-month lease. The homeowner, with an exclusion for dog bites. I whatever equity I had in my house, therefore, has a personal invest- did this because I was desperate— my car, my savings, and I could ment in the well-being of the com- I needed insurance and I was will- have my wages garnished. In retro- munity. Homeownership provides ing to assume the risk that my spect, an exclusion would not have an incentive for civic involvement dogs were not dangerous and were been a good choice for me.

42 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Insure but Reclassify are more likely to have claims fact true and therefore see little Another option would be for insur- against them. Let’s be clear: this incentive to market themselves to ers to write policies for families is not what is going on right now. people they view as high-risk. For with “dangerous” breeds but The current practice of breed dis- these reasons, it is unlikely that charge them higher premiums. crimination is to differentiate the marketplace will correct itself Risk classification is an accepted among breeds, even though there to end breed discrimination. practice in the insurance indus- is no statistical evidence to prove try.424 By separating and grouping that certain breeds are more dan- Other Solutions people of similar risks, insurers gerous than others. This creates an Preventing law-abiding homeown- keep rates low for the desirable, artificial risk classification that ers from obtaining insurance is not low-risk insureds, and insure ade- charges owners of certain breeds the answer to the problem of dog quate resources in the event that more than others. bites. Better and more effective high-risk insureds cause a claim.425 If all dog owners were classified alternatives exist.429 I would have the same objection to at a higher rate than non-dog own- high-risk classification for owners ers, I think there would be a great Collect Better Data of certain breeds as I would for out- public outcry. Then the social value An initial first step would be to right refusals to insure, that is, the of dogs as pets—and as security improve surveillance and reporting lack of actuarial justification for alarms on four paws—would come of dog bites. Until accurate num- the practice of breed discrimina- to the forefront of the debate. bers for the numerator and denom- tion. Classifying certain dog own- inator in the relative dangerous- ers in a higher category is unfair Allow the Marketplace ness ratio can be ascertained, because it places those insureds in to Correct Itself insurers and governments will be an artificially higher rate bracket. If, as I conclude, there are no reli- without realistic data on which to This is economically inefficient, able data to support breed discrim- base meaningful decisions. The although perhaps more profitable ination, then there is a market of need for more accurate data col- for the insurer. consumers (owners of rottweilers, lection has been championed by Where I think risk classification pit bulls, etc.) being overcharged the very scientists who have tried could work is if insurers could or not served altogether. This cre- to calculate the scope of the dog- demonstrate—to the veterinary ates an economic inefficiency. An biting problem.430 In addition, and CDC communities with a suffi- insurer with good business judg- studies should be commissioned to cient degree of scientific cer- ment would seek to corner this determine if certain breeds, when tainty—that certain breeds, when underserved market by writing they do bite, cause more physical they do bite, cause more damage. policies with low-risk premiums. injury or damage.431 It is hypothesized, for example, There are a number of reasons that the jaw structure of pit bulls why the market is not correcting Enforce Existing Laws causes them to inflict more injury itself. The number and identity of Against Dogfighting than other breeds.426 This would people being affected by breed dis- and Dogs at Large 427 crimination is unknown. Without still be breed discrimination There are existing laws that, if these data it would be difficult for but, in my view, an acceptable form enforced more vigorously, could an insurer to market itself to those of risk classification...provided reduce the number of dog bites. consumers. Also at work is the fact there is a scientific/veterinary Dogfighting explains why some that insurers try to market them- basis for the conclusion. To date, dogs are vicious. This underground selves to the lowest-risk con- the studies in this area have fo- industry brings some dogs “to the sumers. Although these consumers cused on determining the number verge of bloodlust.”432 By shutting pay lower premiums, they are re- of bites per breed, not the amount down criminal organizations of ille- sponsible for fewer claims. Every of damage per bite. gitimate breeders, promoters, and insurer tries to maximize its num- I believe insurers would also be owners, local governments could ber of low-risk insureds while max- actuarially justified in classifying take a first step toward reducing imizing the number of high-risk homeowners based on whether or bites by dogs that have been pur- insureds who are serviced by its not they own a dog, period. One posely bred to be dangerous.433 The competitors.428 The insurance in- does not need to be an actuary to AKC and other groups support the dustry as a whole appears to be state that a dog owner is more use of existing laws to break up caught up in this breed discrimina- likely than a non-owner to have a dogfighting rings.434 tion hysteria. Individual companies bite claim against him. Insurers Many attacks appear to be caused may fear that the assumptions could simply classify all dog owners by strays or dogs who have been per- at a higher rate level because they behind breed discrimination are in

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 43 mitted to run off-leash.435 The provides due process protections Children must also be educated enforcement of existing laws against to the owner—requiring a hearing about dealing with dogs safely.455 At “dogs at-large” could reduce the by a judge and a finding of danger- least one study has demonstrated number of bites.436 While these laws ousness before a disposition is the effectiveness of public education exist in many places, they are not ordered.441 A dangerous animal is as a way to improve children’s behav- adequately enforced. one who, without just cause,442 ior around and toward dogs.456 The Owners are sometimes to blame bites or attacks a person, or a dog study, conducted in Australia, exam- for socializing a dog to be danger- who bites or attacks and causes ined the reactions of children, ages ous or for permitting it to get into serious injury or death to another seven to eight, to a dog that was tied situations where it can cause dog while the other dog is on the up in their playground.457 Half of the injury. Dogfighting, leash, and at- property or under the control of study group received a thirty-minute large laws address the root of the its owner.443 Oklahoma has a simi- classroom lesson seven to ten days problem, which is irresponsible dog lar statute that allows for height- before on how to safely approach ownership. A dog is just as good as ened regulation of animals and treat dogs.458 Researchers ob- his owner trains him to be. One declared dangerous by their served the reactions of the children problem dog can be seized and conduct,444 but prohibits local to the dog.459 The group that re- destroyed. One problem owner, governments from enacting breed- ceived the classroom instruction dis- however, can continually breed, specific legislation.445 played greater precautionary behav- adopt, or purchase dog after dog. “Most of the approximately 55 ior than did the control group. Replacing one dog with another, or million dogs in the United States While 79 percent of the control one breed with another, will not never bite or kill humans.”446 Dan- group hastily patted the dog and help to reduce the overall problem gerous-dog laws are narrowly tai- tried to excite it, only 9 percent of of owner irresponsibility.437 Exist- lored to address the real problem, the group that received instruction ing laws can and should be used to which is the small percentage of did so.460 address the behavior. the overall dog population that is responsible for bites, injuries, and Regulate Problem deaths.447 Dangerous-dog laws Conclusion Dogs with Existing exist in many states. Insurers could While dog bites are serious events “Dangerous Dog” Laws work with local governments to for those who are bitten, the dog- fund additional animal-control offi- bite problem is not the public Some dogs, as a result of socializa- cers or work with owners of dan- health crisis that the insurance tion (or lack thereof), bad tem- gerous dogs to help take steps to industry has made it out to be. perament, or genetics, demon- prevent future dangerous acts.448 Some perspective is in order. The strate that they are dangerous. number of fatalities due to dog They have a history of bites or Educate the Public, bites is very low when compared to attacks against people or other the number of people who die from animals.438 By regulating these Particularly Children, heart disease, cancer, accidents, individual dogs, municipalities can about Animal Behavior suicide, and diabetes. Likewise, focus their efforts on the specific Insurers and local governments nonfatal bites are responsible for a dogs likely to cause injuries in the could partner together to educate small number of injuries when com- future.439 Instead of targeting an the public about proper ways of pared to other accidental, uninten- entire breed, governments can socializing and approaching dogs. tional injuries. Falls (11.5 million), address the handful of dogs who Proper training is essential for a motor vehicle accidents (4.3 mil- are really the problem. family with a new dog.449 Public lion), drugs (3.3 million), sports There are existing laws that per- education about the importance (2.0 million), insect bites (1.7 mil- mit local governments to regulate, of neutering can reduce the inci- lion), bicycle accidents (1.4 mil- or in some cases seize and destroy, dence of dog bites450 because a lion), poisoning (.7 million), and dogs who have demonstrated a disproportionate number of bites knives (.6 million) all individually propensity to bite without just are caused by intact dogs.451 New outrank dog bites (.5 million) as cause. Michigan enacted a statute owners should also be educated public health problems.461 Simi- to permit local governments to about the steps in picking the larly, claims paid out by homeown- seize “dangerous animals” and right dog for a household.452 ers’ insurance companies for dog have them tattooed, insured, “[T]here is no all-around best bites are miniscule when compared fenced, sterilized, destroyed, “or breed.”453 Certain breeds will be to payouts for property damage. any other action appropriate to more compatible with certain Damage due to fire, water, wind, protect the public.”440 The statute types of families.454 and theft represents much larger

44 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 problems for homeowners’ insur- The science behind dog bites is lection that I have highlighted ance companies. inconclusive at best. Most of the here. The irony is that insurers who One way to eliminate the entire scientists authoring studies on dog are practicing breed discrimina- problem of dog bites would be to bites have acknowledged that their tion are turning away good cus- outlaw all dogs.462 Without dogs, data are incomplete and should not tomers who pay premiums. Leg- there would be no dog bites and be used to enact breed-specific legislative action to correct this no dog-bite-related insurance islation or to deny insurance to practice will benefit both families claims.463 While this would result in families with certain dogs. No study with dogs and the shareholders of an elimination of the perceived has accurately or completely deter- insurance companies. financial burden to insurers, it mined the number of bites per Legislative action in this area is would not be “practical, realistic, or breed, or the number of dogs per both appropriate and necessary. desirable” to the average layman, breed. Without these numbers, it is What happened to me is happening scientist, or dog owner.464 Unless we impossible to compare breeds on across the country to thousands of as a society are willing to disregard the basis of dangerousness. Insur- other families. To some insurers, the social and health benefits of ers who are making judgments dogs are mere property—like an dogs as pets, then we must be will- about certain breeds are doing so old can of paint that can be left ing to accept a certain number of without adequate scientific evi- behind when a family moves. The bites. While “[t]he dog bite problem dence. This is the Achilles’ heel of truth is that dogs are members of as a whole is not preventable, it is breed discrimination; by acting the American family and deserve to controllable.”465 Better alternatives without adequate evidence, the in- be treated as such. When families to breed discrimination exist, such surance industry has left itself open are forced to make the choice as education and enforcement of to regulation by the states. between owning a home and having existing dangerous dog laws. State regulation is necessary to a dog, some have no choice at all; With over 34 percent of house- correct this injustice in the mar- they must give up their beloved pet holds owning at least one dog as a ketplace. Insureds are being shut to an animal shelter. There are doc- pet, dogs have become valued four- out of entire markets because of umented increases in “shelter legged members of our society. To the near-hysteria that has gripped drop-offs” due to breed discrimina- the families that love them, pets the insurance industry. This is not tion. These animals cannot be are not mere chattel. Refusing to a new phenomenon for the indus- housed indefinitely, so many have write homeowners’ insurance poli- try. In the past insurers have cut to be euthanized. cies, therefore, should be a nar- benefits and denied applications The social cost to families is too rowly curtailed remedy, limited to for insurance based on fiscal cost- much to ride on incomplete statis- those families that own dogs who benefit analyses that have had col- tics and hunches by insurance have proven to be dangerous to life lateral social and health conse- executives. Legislative action is or property. The insurance industry quences. It was more costly to necessary. Luckily, many state leg- has chosen to paint with a very keep new mothers in the hospital islators have become aware of this broad brush. Breed discrimination for forty-eight hours. Our society problem and have taken steps to is an overreaction, an attempt to came to the recognition, however, end breed discrimination. Pennsyl- solve a small problem by prejudg- that discharging new mothers and vania enacted a statute prohibiting ing all dogs of certain breeds as their newborns within six hours of breed discrimination, which states likely to be dangerous in the future. delivery was against public policy. the following: When insurers develop under- Legislatures stepped in to correct No liability policy or surety writing standards and decide which the injustice in the marketplace, bond issued pursuant to this risks to insure, they have a respon- knowing full well that it would cost act or any other act may pro- sibility to the public interest. In- the industry more money. The hibit coverage from any spe- surers do not contract with con- same should be done here. cific breed of dog.466 sumers in a vacuum. A long history To the insurance industry, breed New York is considering legisla- of state regulation of the industry discrimination reflects a belief that tion that would outlaw breed dis- serves as a backdrop for this issue. denying coverage to families with crimination as well. Bill 6761 Underwriting decisions should be certain breeds of dogs will save would prohibit insurers from refus- the product of reason, not specula- them money. Insurers have not ing to issue or renew, canceling, or tion. In other words, if insurers are produced scientific proof that dogs charging or imposing an increased going to engage in breed discrimi- of certain breeds bite more often premium or rate for owning a dog nation, they better have hard sci- or cause more damage. The evi- of a specific breed.467 A New Hamp- ence to back up their practice. dence simply does not exist be- shire bill would prohibit nonre- cause of the problems of data col- newal or cancellation of a policy

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 45 “based solely on the insured own- breedspecific.html (accessed June, 2004). 38Ibid. 19 39 468 Ibid. See, for example, ibid., 361–63. ing a certain breed of dog.” 20Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 955.11(a)(1)(B) 40See, for example, Hearn v. City of Over- Other states should follow suit and (4)(a)(iii) (West 2004). land Park, 772 P.2d 758, 762–65 (Kan. 1989). enact legislation or administrative 21Ibid. § 955.11. For a general discussion 41See, for example, ibid. of Ohio’s regulation of pit bulls, See Paula 42See, for example, ibid., 766. regulations to prohibit the prac- Lynn Wilson, Note, “A.M. Sub. H.B. 352: An 43See, for example, ibid. tice of breed discrimination. Overview—Dogs Under Control,” University 44533 N.E.2d 642 (Mass. 1989). of Dayton Law Review 13 (1988), 297. 45The ordinance prohibited the sale of pit 22Ohio Revised Code Annotated § bulls and required the registration of any pit Notes 955.22(C) (West 2004). bulls within city limits. Ibid., 644. Transporta- 1The Farm Bureau provides a number of 23Ibid. § 955.22(D)(2). tion of pit bulls was permitted only if they were services to its members, including insurance 24Ibid. § 955.22(E). muzzled and leashed. Even then, they could and banking. See Texas Farm Bureau, 25Denver, Colorado, Revised Municipal only be transported to a veterinarian. Ibid. http://www.txfb.org (accessed July 7, 2004). Code § 8-55(a) (2003). The ordinance pro- 46Ibid., 644. For further discussion of the 2On the other hand, renting would not vides several exceptions, including a grandfa- problem of identifying dogs by breed, see infra necessarily have been an easy task either. ther clause, possession by animal shelters or Part II. Many landlords prohibit certain breeds from humane societies, public exhibition, or trans- 47American Dog Owners Association, Inc., living on their property or forbid dogs alto- portation through the city. Ibid. § 8-55(c). 533 N.E.2d, 644. gether. Obtaining renters’ insurance would 26Ibid. § 8-55(b)(2). For an analysis of the 48Ibid., 646. also have been difficult because of breed dis- problem of defining “pit bull,” see infra notes 49Ibid. crimination by insurance companies. 240–241 and accompanying text. 50Ibid. 3See infra Part IV. for a discussion of the 27Ibid. § 8-52(a)(1). 51Ibid. The purpose of this article is not to effects of breed discrimination. 28Ibid. § 8-52(c)-(d). address the constitutionality of BSL, but rather 4See 42 U.S.C. §§ 3601-31 (2003); Mich. 29Fla. Stat. Ann. § 767.14 (West 2003). to focus on the insurance aspect of breed dis- Comp. Laws § 37.2302 (2001); N.J. Stat. Ann. 30See Grey, supra note 17, 418. crimination. For further discussion of BSL, see §§ 10:5-4, 10:5-9.1 (2002); see also NAACP v. 31Minn. Stat. Ann. § 347.51(8) (West 2004). Linda S. Weiss, “Breed-Specific Legislation in the American Family Mutual Insurance Company, 32See generally Russell G. Donaldson, United States,” Animal Legal and Historical Web 978 F.2d 287, 297-98 (7th Cir. 1992) (Fair Annotation, “Validity and Construction of Center (2001), http://www.animallaw.info/ Housing Act is applicable to allegations of Statute, Ordinance or Regulation Applying to articles/aruslweiss2001.htm (accessed June racially discriminatory red-lining). Specific Dog Breeds, Such as ‘pit bulls’ or 8, 2004); Randall Lockwood, “Humane Con- 5American Veterinary Medical Association, ‘Bull Terriers,’” 80 American Law Reports 4th cerns About Dangerous Dog Laws,” University Task Force on Canine Aggression and Human- 70 (2004). For discussion and background on of Dayton Law Review 13 (1988), 267; Grey, Canine Interactions, “A Community Approach challenges to BSL, see Thorne, supra note 17; supra note 17; Ohio Valley Dog Owners, Inc., to Dog Bite Prevention,” Journal of the Ameri- Lynn Marmer, Comment, “The New Breed of “OVDO Is Opposed to Breed-Specific Bans” can Veterinary Medicine Association 218 Municipal Dog Control Laws: Are They Consti- (2003), http://www.canismajor.com/orgs/ (2001), 1732, 1733 (hereinafter Task Force). tutional?” University of Cincinnati Law ovdo/bslho.html (hereinafter OVDO); Cindy 6See Richard Willing, (2000). “Under Law, Review 53 (1984), 1067; Heather K. Pratt, Andrist, Note, “Is There (and Should There Pets Are Becoming Almost Human,” USA Comment, “Canine Profiling: Does Breed-Spe- Be) Any ‘Bite’ Left in Georgia’s ‘First Bite’ Today (Sept. 13, 2000), 1A. cific Legislation Take a Bite Out of Canine Rule?” Georgia Law Review 34 (2000), 1343; 7Fred Bayles, “Pit Bullterriers: Too Fierce Crime?” Pennsylvania State Law Review 108 Marmer, supra note 32, at 1067; Pratt, supra to Live? Call for Ban Follow Maimings, (2004), 855. note 32, at 855; Sullivan, supra note 34, 279; Death,” The Record (Dec. 30, 1985), B16. Cases in which courts have upheld the con- Diane Blackman, “Practicality of Breed 8Ibid. stitutionality of BSL include: Vanater v. Vil- Specific Legislation in Reducing or Eliminat- 9Ibid. lage of South Point, 717 F. Supp. 1236 (S.D. ing Dog Attacks on Humans and Dogs,” 10Ibid. Ohio 1989); Colorado Dog Fanciers, Inc. v. http://www.dog-play.com/pitbull.html (accessed 11Ibid. City and County of Denver, 820 P.2d 644 July 14, 2003). 12Garcia v. Vill. of Tijeras, 767 P.2d 355, (Colo. 1991) (en banc); State v. Peters, 534 52“Insurance Industry Discriminates 362 (N.M. Ct. App. 1988). So. 2d 760 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1988); Hearn Against Dogs,” CBS News: Evening News with 13Bayles, supra note 7, B16. v. City of Overland Park, 772 P.2d 758, 766 Dan Rather (CBS television broadcast, June 3, 14Ibid. (Kan. 1989); Garcia v. Village of Tijeras, 767 2003), available at 2003 WL 5212276. 15Bob Egelko, “Appeal for Murder Rap in P.2d 355 (N.M. Ct. App. 1988); State v. Ander- 53Ibid. Dog-Maul Case/Attorney General Says Judge son, 566 N.E.2d 1224 (Ohio 1991); State v. 54See, for example, Jeff Bertolucci, “Man’s Had No Right to Let Knoller Off So Easy,” San Robinson, 541 N.E.2d 1092 (Ohio Ct. App. Best Friend but Insurers’ Foe; Their Assembly Francisco Chronicle (April 12, 2003), A15. 1989); American Dog Owners Association v. Bill Has Failed, But Dog Lovers Continue to 16Kenneth Phillips, “Diane Whipple Case,” City of Yakima, 777 P.2d 1046 (Wash. 1989) Rail Against Breed Discrimination,” Los Ange- http://www.dogbitelaw.com/PAGES/ (en banc). les Times (June 6, 2004), K1 (discussing fail- Whipple.html (accessed Jan. 8, 2004). The Massachusetts Supreme Judicial ure of Bill AB 2399, prohibiting breed discrim- 17Karyn Grey, Note, “Breed-Specific Legis- Court, however, found a pit bull ban in Lynn, ination but allowing a higher premium and lation Revisited: Canine Racism or the Answer Massachusetts, to be unconstitutional. Ameri- requiring a discount for canines that pass an to Florida’s Dog Control Problems?,” Nova can Dog Owners Association, Inc. v. City of obedience test); Vincent J. Schodolski, “‘Bad’ Law Review 27 (2003), 415, 417 (describing Lynn, 533 N.E.2d 642, 646 (Mass. 1989). Dogs Put Costly Bite on Insurers, Homeown- a series of dog attacks in Florida); see Julie A. 33U.S. Constitution, amendment V. ers,” Chicago Tribune (May 17, 2004), 1; Jeff Thorne, Note, “If Spot Bites the Neighbor, 34Sallyanne K. Sullivan, “Banning the Pit Bertolucci, “Is Nothing Private? Home Insur- Should Dick and Jane Go to Jail?” Syracuse Bull: Why Breed-Specific Legislation Is Con- ers Ask About Everything from Rover to Law Review 39 (1988), 1445, 1445 (assert- stitutional,” University of Dayton Law Review Rolexes. And the Answers Matter,” Los Angeles ing that media attention fueled public out- 13 (1988), 279, 280–93. Times (May 9, 2004), K1; Allan Woods, “Rot- rage against pit bulls); see generally Jeffrey J. 35See, for example, Garcia, 767 P.2d at tweilers, Pit Bulls New Insurance Liability,” Sacks et al., “Fatal Dog Attacks, 1989–1994,” 358. Since dog ownership is not a “fundamen- National Post (March 26, 2004), A3; Michele Pediatrics 97 (June 1996), 891 (hereinafter tal right,” BSL need only meet the “rational Derus, “Dog Bites Giving Insurers Pause,” Mil- CDC 1989–1994). relationship” test to be constitutional. Sulli- waukee Journal and Sentinel (Feb. 29, 2004), 18For a list of communities that have van, supra note 34, 281. 1F; Gloria Campisi, “Beware of Dog When adopted or are considering BSL, see Jan 36See, for example, Garcia, 767 P.2d at Seeking Insurance; Some Firms Have ‘Bad Cooper, “Breed Specific Legislation,” 358–62. Breed’ Lists,” Philadelphia Daily News (Oct. 7, http://www.rott-n-chatter.com/rottweilers/laws/ 37See, for example, ibid., 361. 2003), 14; Ryan Slight, “Liability Factor Can

46 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Hurt Homeowners,” Springfield News-Leader (accessed July 5, 2004). See Sodergren, supra troversy,” Anthrozoös 1 (1987), 2, 4 (damage (Sept. 28, 2003), 6A; William Sweet, “Insurers note 59. caused by pit bulls is generally more severe in Doghouse with Some Pet Owners,” Spring- 64Davis, supra note 58. due to the attack behavior of the breed). field Union-News (Aug. 19, 2003), A01; Purva 65Insurance Information Institute, “Home- 84Davis, supra note 58, 36 (quoting Ale- Patel, “A Bite to the Pocket, Home Insurers owners Insurance,” http://www.iii.org/media/ jandra Soto, spokesperson for the III). Often Charge Higher Premiums Because of facts/statsbyissue/homeowners/ (accessed 85Ibid., 38. This policy of exclusion is Dogs,” Sun-Sentinel (Ft. Lauderdale, Florida) June 11, 2004) (hereinafter III, Homeowners not without problems, as it leaves plaintiffs (Aug. 12, 2003), 1D; Charles Toutant, “Insur- Insurance). without a remedy if a dog bite does occur ers Attempt to Leash Dog-Bite Claims: Small- 66Insurance Information Institute, “Dog and subjects a homeowner to loss of the home Scale Nuisance Litigation Turning Into Big Bite Liability,” http://www.iii.org/media/ and bankruptcy. Kenneth Phillips, “Breed Business,” Connecticut Law Tribune 29 (Aug. hottopics/insurance/dogbite/ (accessed June Specific Laws, Regulations and Bans,” avail- 11, 2003), 8; Jim Spencer, “Homeowners 11, 2004) (hereinafter III, Dog Bite Liability). able at http://www.dogbitelaw.com/PAGES/ Insurance Rules Not for the Dogs,” Daily Press 67III, Homeowners Insurance, supra note breedlaws.html (accessed July 21, 2003) (Virginia) (Jan. 10, 2003), C1. 65. (Phillips is a lawyer and expert on dog-bite Breed discrimination is not confined to 68III, Dog Bite Liability, supra note 66. The law). Litigation over exclusions can be costly American insurers, either. Reports have also insurance industry points to rising construc- and lengthy and can lead to uncertainty in come from Canada describing the practice tion costs and natural disasters, such as wind the marketplace. there by Canadian insurance companies. “Cal- and hail, as principal causes for the rise in pre- 86See Davis, supra note 58, 36 (“We don’t gary Man Denied Home Insurance Renewal miums. Ibid. discriminate or deny coverage based on breed Due to the Type of Dogs He Has,” Canadian 69Davis, supra note 58, 36 (quoting Ale- of dog.”); McMahon, supra note 55; Hattaway, Press (March 25, 2004), available at 2004 WL jandra Soto, spokesperson for the Insurance supra note 70 (author works for State Farm). 74118306; “Some Insurance Companies Information Institute, a trade group of the 87Franco Ordonez, “Pet Peeve: A New State Won’t Cover You if You Own Certain Dogs,” insurance industry). Regulation Prohibiting Owners of Some Dog CTV News-PM (CTV television broadcast, 70Dan Hattaway, “Dogs and Insurance,” Breeds From Adopting Draws Fire,” Boston March 24, 2004), available at 2004 WL Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Globe (Jan. 15, 2003), B1. 60848476. Association 210 (April 15, 1997), 1143. 88Ibid. 55See Patrick McMahon, “Dog Owners’ 71Sodergren, supra note 59. 89Phillips, supra note 85. New Policy: Bite Back,” USA Today (May 20, 72III, Dog Bite Liability, supra note 66. 90Infra Part III. 2003), 03a. 73Nationwide Insurance stated to USA 91Jeffrey J. Sacks et al., “Dog Bite-Related 56Ibid. Today that it relies on CDC data to support its Fatalities From 1979 Through 1988,” Journal 57Ibid. I wonder if breed discrimination is breed-specific policies. McMahon, supra note of the American Medical Association 262 encouraging homeowners, who are in a situa- 55, 03a. (1989), 1489 (hereinafter CDC 1979–1988). tion like mine or the Craanens’, to engage in 74Infra Part II. 92CDC 1989–1994, supra note 17. policy fraud by lying about their pet’s breed or 75III, Dog Bite Liability, supra note 66. 93Centers for Disease Control, “Dog Bite by hiding the dog altogether. In Mutual Bene- 76Ibid. One insurance company, State Related Fatalities—United States, 1995–1996,” fit Insurance Co. v. Lorence, No. 02-1734, Farm Fire and Casualty Co., reported that in Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 46 2003 WL 1354845 (4th Cir. Mar. 20, 2003), 1995 it paid out $70 million on eleven thou- (1997), 463 (1997) (hereinafter CDC homeowners lied on their insurance applica- sand claims. That year, it insured a total of five 1995–1996). tion about owning dogs. One of their dogs (a million dog-owning homes. See Hattaway, 94Jeffrey J. Sacks et al., “Breeds of Dogs pit bull) subsequently attacked a mother and supra note 70, 1144. Involved in Fatal Human Attacks in the United her son, resulting in a claim against the 77III, Dog Bite Liability, supra note 66. States Between 1979 and 1998,” Journal of homeowners’ insurance. The insurer brought 78Ibid. (emphasis added). the American Medical Association 217 (2000), suit against the owners, seeking a declaratory 79III, Homeowners Insurance, supra 836 (hereinafter CDC 1979–1998). judgment that it was not required to defend note 65. 95Ibid., 838. the claim because of the misrepresentation. 80Ibid. A plausible argument could be 96See infra Part II. Ibid., *596. The courts, however, declined to made that dog bites are a preventable risk, in 97CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91, 1489. exercise jurisdiction and instead deferred to a way that damage due to fire, mold, and theft 98Ibid. The NCHS uses reports from hospi- ongoing proceedings before the Maryland are not. Property damage claims are the result tals and other sources to classify deaths. Insurance Administration. Ibid., 597. The of true accidents—unforeseeable acts for There is a category of deaths just for dog owners had filed a complaint with the MIA which insurers have little to no control over. bites: “E906.0.” National Center for Health alleging that the insurance company’s prac- Dog bites are one small way in which insurers Statistics et al., International Classification of tice of breed discrimination is against Mary- can try to minimize risk. Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification land law. Ibid., 596–597. In reality, big-ticket risks can be con- (2003), http://ww.eicd.com. 58Stephanie Davis, “ASPCA/HSUS Cam- trolled. Insurers could decide, for example, 99CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91, 1489. paign Tackles Insurance Industry,” DVM: The not to insure a home unless it has smoke The HSUS reports are particularly detailed Newspaper Magazine of Veterinarian Medicine detectors. This would provide an incentive for and are believed to be the most accurate in 34 (November 2003), 1. (“Some household people to install smoke detectors, which determining the true breed of a biting dog. name insurance companies either have can- would, in turn, reduce the number of fire- CDC 1989–1994, supra note 17, 891. HSUS celed or refused to write homeowners’ poli- related claims. Insurers could also justify staff reviewed police reports, animal control cies for individuals with certain dog breeds.”) refusing to write policies for homes where reports, statements by dog owners and vic- 59See Brian Sodergren, “Insurance Compa- there is a high risk of wind or hail damage. tims, and photographs. Ibid. nies Unfairly Target Specific Dog Breeds,” Any risk is controllable, but only to the extent 100CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91, 1490; http://www.hsus.org/ace/18624 (accessed that the insurance market can bear the loss of CDC 1989–1994, supra note 17, 892. June 11, 2004) (perceived increase in the this business. 101CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91, 1490. number of claims, or risk, exists for people 81As shown, supra, while the industry’s 102Ibid. Between 1989 and 1994, that fig- who own certain breeds of dogs). aggregate figures may sound “scary,” they ure had dropped to 56.9 percent. CDC 60See infra Part I. for the insurance indus- misstate the scope of the dog-bite problem in 1989–1994, supra note 17, 892. From 1995 try’s arguments in favor of breed discrimina- the larger context of total claims paid. through 1996, that number climbed to 80 tion. 82III, Dog Bite Liability, supra note 66. percent. CDC 1995–1996, supra note 93, 61Davis, supra note 58. 83Davis, supra note 58, 36 (“We just know 463. From 1997 through 1998, the number 62Sodergren, supra note 59. that certain breeds, when they do attack, tend settled at 70 percent. CDC 1979–1998, supra 63Dog owners wishing to report incidents to cause a lot more damage when they do bite, note 94, 837. of breed discrimination to The HSUS can do not because they bite most often.”); Randall Victims were often elderly, suggesting that, so at the following website: http://files.hsus.org/ Lockwood and Kate Rindy, “Are ‘Pit Bulls’ Dif- “The main victims of fatal dog bites were the web-files/PDF/insurance_incident_form.pdf ferent? An Analysis of the Pit Bull Terrier Con- very young and very old, those least able to

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 47 protect themselves.” CDC 1979–1988, supra the last two digits. They called numbers until 180Ibid., 317. The survey included children note 91, 1492. an eligible control dog was found. in preschool to twelfth grade. 103CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91, 1490. 145Ibid., 915. 181Ibid., 319. The study went on to find 104CDC 1995–1996, supra note 93, 463. 146Ibid., 914; see also supra notes 25–28 that children’s attitudes toward dogs were not 105Ibid. and accompanying text. affected by being bitten: “Children appear to 106Ibid. 147Gershman, supra note 139, 916. accept being bitten by dogs much as they do 107CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, 839. 148Ibid., 914. other accidents such as falling off a bike. The Sacks/Sinclair study attempted to piece 149Ibid., 916. Being bitten had little influence on their lik- together the data on attacks by breed from 150Jeffrey J. Sacks, Marcie-jo Kresnow, and ing for dogs.” the previous three studies as well as new data Barbara Houston, “Dog Bites: How Big a Prob- 182See Ibid., 317–320. from 1997 and 1998. Ibid., 837. lem?” Injury Prevention 2 (1996), 52 (two of 183Lee E. Pinckney and Leslie A. Kennedy, 108CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91. the three scientists who conducted the survey “Traumatic Deaths From Dog Attacks in the 109Ibid. were with the CDC at the time). United States,” Pediatrics 69 (1982), 193. 110CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, 837. 151Ibid., 52. Only 48 percent of the newspapers responded. 111Ibid. 152Ibid. 184Ibid. 112Ibid. This accounted for approximately 153Ibid. 185Ibid., 194. 28 percent of the deaths during the study 154Ibid. 186Ibid. period. 155Ibid., 53. 187Ibid. 113CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91, 1492. 156Ibid. 188CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91, 1489. 114Ibid., 1489. For further discussion of 157Ibid. 189Pinckney and Kennedy, supra note 183, the problem of breed misidentification, see 158Ibid. 195. infra Part II. 159Harold B. Weiss, Deborah L. Friedman, 190Ibid. 115CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91, 1492. and Jeffrey H. Coben, “Incidence of Dog Bite 191Ibid. 116CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, 838. Injuries Treated in Emergency Departments,” 192See infra Part II. 117Ibid. (Fatal attacks are easier to track Journal of the American Medical Association 193See Pinckney and Kennedy, supra note than nonfatal bites because fatal attacks 279 (1998), 51. 183, 195. result in SCMT coding and are more likely to 160CDC Nonfatal, supra note 123. 194William G. Winkler, “Human Deaths be reported by the news media). 161Weiss, supra note 159, 51. Induced by Dog Bites, United States, 1974–75,” 118CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91, 1492. 162Ibid. Public Health Report 92 (1977), 425. 119Ibid., 1491. 163Ibid., 52. 195The CDC authors criticized the Winkler 120Ibid. 164Ibid. study as being “anecdotal” rather than “sys- 121See supra note 101 and accompanying 165Ibid. temic.” CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91, 1489. text. 166Ibid., 53. The conclusions about the 196Winkler, supra note 194. 122CDC 1989–1994, supra note 17, 894. monetary impact of dog bites were confirmed 197Ibid., 428. They estimated that, in 1994, 1.8 percent of by a CDC study in 1999. See Kyran P. Quinlan 198Ibid. the population was bitten by a dog and 0.3 and Jeffrey J. Sacks, “Hospitalization for Dog 199Jason W. Stull and Robert R. Hodge, “An percent of the U.S. population sought some Bite Injuries,” Journal of the American Med- Analysis of Reported Dog Bites: Reporting medical care for a dog bite. ical Association 281 (1999), 232. A sample of Issues and the Impact of Unowned Animals,” 123Centers for Disease Control, “Nonfatal 904 hospitals in seventeen states found that Journal of Environmental Health 62 (2000), 17. Dog Bites-Related Injuries Treated in Hospital 5,991 hospital discharges in 1994 were the 200Ibid., 19. Emergency Departments—United States, result of dog bite injuries. The average length 201Ibid. The authors were truthful when 2001,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report of stay was 3.6 days, costing a total of $164.9 they stated, “[f]or cases in which breed was 52 (July 4, 2003) 605 (hereinafter CDC million in direct care per year. given, pit bulls, German shepherds, and rot- Nonfatal). 167In this respect, it suffers from many of tweilers combined were responsible for over 124Ibid. The NEISS-AIP is operated by the the same flaws as the CDC nonfatal bite study 59 percent of bites each year.” Nevertheless, U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. discussed supra in Part II.A.2. as a lawyer, I am concerned by scientists draw- 125Ibid. 168Jeffrey R. Avner and M. Douglas Baker, ing this conclusion. Such statements can be 126Ibid. Deaths were excluded from the “Dog Bites in Urban Children,” Pediatrics 88 taken out of context and used by the insur- study. (1991), 55. ance industry and legislatures to justify breed 127Ibid. 169Ibid., 56. discrimination and BSL when such actions are 128Ibid. 170Ibid. Consequently, the authors con- not supported by statistics. 129Ibid. cluded that in such cases the patient’s accu- 202Lockwood and Rindy, supra note 83, 7 130Ibid. racy of breed identification should be high. (“The genetics of canine aggression are still 131Ibid. Ibid., 57. I disagree with this conclusion. Just poorly understood...”). 132Ibid., 607. because Little Johnnie knows Spot from the 203Ibid. 133Ibid. neighborhood does not necessarily mean that 204Task Force, supra note 5, 1736, (citing 134Ibid. Johnnie knows with any certainty what breed J.C. Wright, “Canine Aggression Toward Peo- 135Ibid. Spot is. ple: Bite Scenarios and Prevention,” Veteri- 136See infra Part II. 171Ibid, 56. nary Clinics of North America: Small Animal 137CDC Nonfatal, supra note 123. 172Ibid., 57. Practice 21 (1991), 299. 138See infra Part II. for a discussion of what 173Yue-Fang Chang et al., “Dog Bite Inci- 205Lockwood and Rindy, supra note 83, 7 I call “just cause” bites. dence in the City of Pittsburgh: A Capture- (discussing the factors that can lead a dog to 139Kenneth A. Gershman, Jeffrey J. Sacks, Recapture Approach,” American Journal of be aggressive). and John C. Wright, “Which Dogs Bite? A Public Health 87 (1997), 1703. 206See infra Part V. for a discussion of dan- Case-Control Study of Risk Factors,” Pedi- 174Ibid., 1703. gerous dogs laws as an alternative to BSL and atrics 93 (1994), 913. Two of the three 175Ibid., 1703–1704. breed discrimination. authors, Gershman and Sacks, were with the 176Ibid., 1704. 207CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, 838. CDC at the time. 177Ibid. At the time of the study, Sacks and Gilchrist 140Ibid., 913. 178Alan M. Beck and Barbara A. Jones, were with the CDC’s National Center for 141Ibid., 914. “Unreported Dog Bites in Children,” Public Injury and Control, Division of Unintentional 142Ibid. Health Report 100 (1985), 315. Injury Prevention; Sinclair and Lockwood 143Ibid., 913. 179The authors described previous studies were with The HSUS; and Golab was with the 144Ibid. To create a control group, the as relying principally on official reports of American Veterinary Medical Association. authors used the first five digits of a biting- bites. Ibid., 316. This resulted in significant 208Task Force, supra note 5, 1733. dog owner’s phone number and randomized underreporting of bites. 209“Dalmatian Popularity May Spur

48 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Increase in Bites, HSUS Says,” DVM: The judge found that there is no scientific means, 276Ibid. Newsmagazine of Veterinary Medicine (Jan. by blood, enzyme, or otherwise, to determine 277Ibid., 1733. 1997), 40. whether a dog belongs to a particular breed, 278CDC 1989–1994, supra note 17, 894 210The CDC authors noted, “[c]onsidering regardless of whether ‘breed’ is used in a for- (“Although several breeds appear over-repre- American Kennel Club registration data for mal sense or not.”) Professor Templeton sented in the population of animals involved rottweilers in parallel with fatality data for described one study in which two American in fatal attacks, this representation fluctuates that breed indicates that as the breed has Staffordshire terriers were compared with a over time. Thus, it may be unproductive to soared in popularity, so have rottweiler-related whippet. The profile of one of the terriers view this as a problem that is unique to any deaths.” CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, more closely matched the whippet than the one breed”); CDC 1995–1996, supra note 93 838–839. other terrier. (“Although some breeds were disproportion- 211Pinckney, supra note 183. 238CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, 839. ately represented in the fatal attacks 212Id. at 195. 239However, only some dogs have their described in this report, the representation of 213Weiss, supra note 159, 51. “AKC papers.” See supra notes 231–233 and breeds changes over time. As a result, target- 214Supra Part II.A. accompanying text. ing a specific breed may be unproductive; a 215CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, 838. 240Katharine Dokken, “Dog Bite Statistics: more effective approach may be to target 216Ibid. Bad Logic,” http://www.thedogplace.com/library/ chronically irresponsible dog owners”); CDC 217Task Force, supra note 5, 1733. articles156.htm (accessed June 1, 2004). Nonfatal, supra note 94 (arguing for regula- 218Ibid. 241OVDO, supra note 51; American Dog tion of individual dogs over BSL). 219See supra notes 137–138 and 167 and Owners Association, Inc., 533 N.E.2d at 644. 279CDC Nonfatal, supra note 123; Lock- accompanying text. 242Wright, supra note 228, 301; Task wood and Rindy, supra note 83, 2 (describing 220Chang, supra note 173, 1704. Force, supra note 5, 1733; Gershman, supra BSL as “controversial” and attributing the 221See supra notes 150–158 and accompa- note 139, 916. problem to a lack of “good data” for the nying text. 243CDC 1979—1988, supra note 91, numerator and denominator). 222Ibid. 1492. 280American Kennel Club, “Canine Legisla- 223U.S. Constitution, art. I, § 2, cl. 3. 244Dokken, supra note 240. tion Position Statements,” http://www.akc.org/ 224Department of Commerce v. United 245Lockwood and Rindy, supra note 83, 2. love/dip/legislate/canleg.cfm (accessed July States House of Representatives, 525 U.S. 316, 246“Find the Pitbull,” http://www.pitbulls 2003). 322 (1999). ontheweb.com/petbull/findpit.html (accessed 281American Kennel Club, “American Ken- 225One study estimated that as of 1998 June 1, 2004) (“Breed misidentification is a nel Club Statement on Dangerous Dogs,” http:// approximately 34.3 million homes had dogs scary thing in a time breed specific legislation www.akc.org/love/dip/legislate/dangerous.cf and a total of 53.6 million dogs in the United is growing....Pit [B]ull dogs are often blamed m (accessed June 8, 2004). States being kept as pets. See J. Karl Wise and for dog attacks that may very well have been 282Davis, supra note 58, 1. Jih-Jing Yang, “Dog and Cat Ownership, caused by another breed”). 283Ibid. 1991–1998,” Journal of the American Veteri- 247CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, 838 284Weiss, supra note 51; Lockwood, supra nary Medical Association 204(8) (1994), (“even experts may disagree on the breed of a note 51, 276. 1166, 1166–67. particular dog”). 285Weiss et al., supra note 159, 51; Task 226Supra Part II. 248533 N.E.2d 642 (Mass. 1989). Force, supra note 5, 1733. In contrast, the 227See, for example, Pinckney, supra note 249Ibid., 644. domestic cat has been with us for only about 183; Winkler, supra note 194. The Winkler and 250CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, 838 four thousand years. Gina Spadafori and Paul Pinckney/Kennedy studies were also criticized (stating that it is unclear how to count D. Pion, Cats for Dummies, 2d ed. Hoboken, by Sacks et al. for taking a more anecdotal, attacks by mixed-breed dogs). N.J.: For Dummies, 2000, 14. rather than systematic, approach to determin- 251Ibid., 839. 286See infra Part IV. ing the relative dangerousness of breeds. See 252Task Force, supra note 5, 1736. 287Ibid. CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91, 1489. 253Dokken, supra note 240 (“To go by sta- 288Wise and Yang, supra note 225. 228John C. Wright, “Canine Aggression tistics alone assumes that the majority of dog 289Ibid. toward People: Bite Scenarios and Preven- bites are reported and that the majority of 290Willing, supra note 6. tion,” Veterinary Clinics of North America: breeds identified are correct”). 291Ibid. Small Animal Practice 21(2) (1991), 299, 301. 254There is reason to believe that incidents 292Ibid. 229CDC 1979—1998, supra note 94, 839. of “just cause” bites are not uncommon. The 293Task Force, supra note 5, 1739. 230David Brand, “Time Bombs on Legs,” CDC described a series of incidents where 294Ibid., 1733. Time (July 27, 1987), 60. Call me cynical, but nonfatal dog bites that involved “just cause.” 295Ibid., 1739. I cannot envision drug dealers or gang mem- Stated conversely, these are bites where the 296Ibid. bers registering their dogs with the local human “victim” is to blame. CDC Nonfatal, 297Susan D. Semmel, Comment, “When municipality or the AKC. supra note 123. Pigs Fly, They Go First Class: Service Animals 231American Kennel Club, “Register a Dog,” 255Dokken, supra note 240. in the Twenty-First Century,” Barry Law http://www.akc.org/registration/registeradog.cfm 256Task Force, supra note 5, 1742. Review 3 (2002), 39. (accessed July 9, 2004). 257Brand, supra note 230. 298Ibid., 44. 232While there were approximately fifty- 258Ibid. 299CDC 1995–1996, supra note 93, 466 seven million dogs in the United States in 259See, for example, ibid. (“Dogs provide many health and social benefits”). 1990, only twelve million were registered with 260Ibid. 300David T. Allen, “Effects of Dogs on the AKC. Mark Derr, “The Politics of Dogs,” 261Ibid. Human Health,” Journal of the American Vet- Atlantic Monthly (March 1990), 49, 50. 262Ibid. erinary Medical Association 210(8) (1997), 233See ibid. 263Brand, supra note 230. 1136, 1138. 234Lockwood & Rindy, supra note 83, 3. 264Lockwood and Rindy, supra note 83, 3. 301Ibid. 235Ibid. 265Ibid. 302Ibid. 236Derr, supra note 232, 51. 266OVDO, supra note 51. 303Task Force, supra note 5, 1740. 237Ibid., 52 (discussing interview with Joe 267Brand, supra note 230, 60. 304See, for example, “In Memory of Pets,” W. Templeton, professor of veterinary pathol- 268Ibid. http://www.in-memory-of-pets.com/ (accessed ogy and genetics at Texas A&M University, in 269Ibid. July 21, 2004); Association for Pet Loss and which Professor Templeton stated that scien- 270Task Force, supra note 5, 1736. Bereavement, http://www.aplb.org/ (accessed tists cannot distinguish between breeds by 271Ibid., 1732. July 21, 2004). using genetic fingerprinting or examining 272See supra Part II. 305Willing, supra note 6. chromosomes); American Dog Owners Asso- 273Task Force, supra note 5, 1736. 306Wayne Hunthausen, “Effects of Aggres- ciation, Inc. v. City of Lynn, 533 N.E.2d 642, 274Ibid. sive Behavior on Canine Welfare,” Journal of 644 (Mass. 1989) (“After trial, the [trial] 275Ibid. the American Veterinary Medical Association

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 49 (1997), 1134. 354Ibid. One court has stated, “Such regulation, 307Ibid. 355Ibid. even down to ‘the minutest particular in the 308Ibid., 1135. 356Ibid., 371. interest of the public,’ has never been ques- 309Ibid. 357Ibid., 373 (J. Andell concurring). tioned.” Blue Cross & Blue Shield, 674 N.E.2d, 310Ibid. 358Ibid. 1126 (quoting People v. Formosa, 30 N.E. 492 311Sodergren, supra note 59; McMahon, 359Ibid., 376. [N.Y. 1892]). supra note 17, 03a. 360Ibid., 377. 370Greer v. Aetna Life Insurance, 142 So. 312Sodergren, supra note 59. 361Ibid., 377–378. 393, 395 (Ala. 1932) (“The generally recog- 313Ibid. 362Willing, supra note 290. nized rule is that ‘in the absence of statutory 314See infra Part V. 363Blue Cross & Blue Shield of Central New prohibitions discriminations or rebating as to 315Robert R. Googins, “Fraud and the York, Inc. v. McCall, 674 N.E.2d 1124, 1126 premiums is not illegal’”). In Greer, the state Incontestable Clause: A Modest Proposal for (N.Y. 1996) (hereinafter Blue Cross & Blue complained that Aetna’s policy of not charg- Change,” Connecticut Insurance Law Journal Shield). For further discussion of insurance as ing higher premiums for mortgage insurance 2 51 (1996), 69 n. 86. a “privilege” instead of a “right,” see 43, for older people (who pose a greater risk) in 3162 Couch on Insurance § 31:10 (3d ed. American Jurisprudence 2d ed., Title Insur- essence discriminated against the young. 2004). ance (2004) § 23. “The organization of an Ibid., 394–395. Since state law did not pro- 317Sentell v. New Orleans & C.R. Co., 166 insurance company and the conduct of the hibit discrimination based on age or life U.S. 693 (1897). business of writing insurance is not a right expectancy, the Alabama Supreme Court held 318Ibid. but a privilege granted by the state, subject to that the insurance company did not do any- 319Ibid. the conditions imposed by it.” Ibid. § 24. thing illegal. 320Ibid. Regulation of the insurance industry is pri- 371Blue Cross & Blue Shield, 674 N.E.2d, 321Ibid., 694. marily a power of states, not the federal gov- 1126 (stating that the conduct of insurance 322Ibid., 696. ernment. 43 American Jurisprudence 2d ed., companies is subject to conditions imposed 323Ibid., 694. (2004) §§ 29, 30. The McCarran-Ferguson by the state to promote public welfare). 324Ibid. The Court noted, however, the Act, 15 U.S.C. §§ 1011–1015, declared that 37244 C.J.S. Insurance § 45 (1993). dogs can be considered property for purposes regulation of insurers by the states was in the 373Ibid. § 66 (“The rates charged by insur- of the tort of conversion. public interest. 43 American Jurisprudence ance companies must not deviate from those 325Ibid. 2d ed., (2004) § 30. McCarran-Ferguson cre- established by state authority. Rates may not 326Ibid. ates a reverse preemption system where the be unreasonable, excessive, inadequate, or 327Ibid. power to regulate is vested in the states, not discriminatory”). In states where rates are 328Ibid., 694–695. the federal government. Ibid. However, plans regulated, insurers bear the burden of proving 329Ibid. The Court’s distinction among created under the Employee Retirement the reasonableness of their rates. Ibid. § full, incomplete, and no status is interesting, Income Security Act (ERISA) are still subject 69(b). Legislatures can prohibit discrimina- but ultimately irrelevant, as the Court held to joint federal-state regulation. John Han- tion against insureds of the same “class.” that even if dogs were considered complete cock Mutual Life Insurance Co. v. Harris Trust Ibid. § 64. Some states provide a private cause property, they (like all forms of property) are & Savings Bank, 510 U.S. 86 (1993) (“We are of action to enable insureds to recover for subject to the police power of the state. satisfied that Congress did not order the unfair trade practices or violations of rate reg- 330Ibid., 696 unqualified deferral to state law that Hancock ulations. Ibid. § 45. 331Bennett v. Bennett, 655 So. 2d 109 (Fla. both advocates and attributes to the federal 37443 American Jurisprudence 2d ed., § 43 Dist. Ct. App. 1995). lawmakers. Instead, we hold, ERISA leaves (2003). 332Arrington v. Arrington, 613 S.W.2d 565 room for complementary or dual federal and 375Ibid. § 25. Most states require insurers (Tex. App. 1981). state regulation, and calls for federal to contribute to an “assigned risk plan” that 333Bennett, 655 So. 2d at 110. supremacy when the two regimes cannot be writes “high-risk” policies for drivers who can- 334Ibid. harmonized or accommodated”). not get insurance in the free market, often 335Ibid. 364Blue Cross & Blue Shield, 674 N.E.2d, because of DWI convictions. See, for example, 336Ibid. 1126. Texas Insurance Code Annotated art. 21.81 337Arrington, 613 S.W.2d at 569. 36543 American Jurisprudence 2d ed., (2004–2005). 338Ibid. In Texas family law a “managing (2003) § 25. 376Deborah S. Hellman, “Is Actuarially Fair conservator has the right to establish the 366Bekken v. Equitable Life Assurance Soci- Insurance Pricing Actually Fair?: A Case Study child’s residence and has primary custody of ety, 293 N.W. 200, 211 (N.D. 1940); 43 Amer- in Insuring Battered Women,” 32 Harvard the child. A possessory conservator typically ican Jurisprudence 2d ed., (2003) §§ 24, 25. Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Law Review has visitation rights under terms and condi- 367Bekken, 293 N.W., 209. (1997), 355. tions set by the court.” In re V.L.K., 24 S.W.3d 368Ibid., 210. 377Ibid., 410. 338, 340 n.1 (Tex. 2000) (citations omitted); 369Ibid., 211. (“It will be noted that the 378Ibid., 356, 377–378. see generally Texas Family Code Annual State, under its police power, in the interest 379See ibid., 358. (2004) §§ 153.132, 153.371, 153.192. of the general welfare, may regulate not only 380Deborah A. Stone, “The Rhetoric of 339Arrington, 613 S.W.2d at 569. the business of insurance in a general way, but Insurance Law: The Debate over AIDS Testing,” 340Ibid. it may, also, regulate contracts of insurance, Law and Social Inquiry 15 (1990), 385, 388. 341Raymond v. Lachmann, 264 A.D.2d and in a large measure prescribe the terms 381If a person cannot obtain health insur- 340 (N.Y. App. Div. 1999). and conditions of such contracts, and it may ance, his or her health care costs shift to the 342Ibid. impose duties and obligations incident to the public (through Medicare or Medicaid) or to 343Ibid. relation created by the contract or the nego- hospitals, which may be required to treat 344Ibid., 341. tiations for a contract different from those every patient regardless of the ability to pay. 345Corso v. Crawford Dog & Cat Hospital, arising or existing under other contracts, and In the latter case, the costs are likewise Inc., 97 Misc.2d 530 (NY. Civ. Ct., Queens it may prohibit the parties from altering such shifted to the public because hospitals must County 1979). duties or obligations.”). In Bekken, the North increase costs for paying customers (and their 346Ibid. Dakota Supreme Court had to decide whether insurers) in order to make up for their losses 347Ibid. a beneficiary of a life insurance policy could from their nonpaying customers. Ibid., 390. 348Ibid., 530–31. enforce the policy even though the insurance 382In the case of breed discrimination, the 349Ibid., 531. company had not acted promptly in writing latter results. If I had not been able to secure 350Ibid. the policy before the deceased died. The insurance with the Farm Bureau, I would have 351Bueckner v. Hamel, 886 S.W.2d 368, Court held that the insurance company had lost out on a significant economic opportu- 370 (Tex. App. 1994). breached its duty to act promptly on the nity—the ability to purchase a house. See 352Ibid., 370. deceased’s application and ordered the com- infra Part V.B. for a discussion of insurance as 353Ibid. pany to pay the beneficiary. Ibid., 218. gatekeeper to homeownership. In the alterna-

50 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 tive, I could have given up my dogs, which pools altogether, unless administrators pro- insureds. They are people likely to need addi- likewise would have been a significant loss of vide financial incentives for them to remain in tional care in the future. The market happiness and opportunity. the pools. Ibid., 375–376. responded by charging higher rates for people 383See Stone, supra note 380, 386 (stating 399See Hellman, supra note 376, 380. with preexisting medical conditions or flat- that insurance is the primary mode people 400See Ibid., 380–381. out rejecting them for coverage. The result provide for needs not affordable through nor- 401Ibid. was that many people found themselves with- mal work income). 402Ibid., 380 (noting that “statistical dis- out insurance when they switched insurers. 384Brian J. Glenn, “The Shifting Rhetoric crimination is justified when the social utility, See Grey, supra note 17, 421 (insurers are of Insurance Denial,” Law and Society Review including the cost to the insurer of employing given wide latitude to refuse to cover certain 34 (2000), 779, 782. a particular classification, could not be high-risk customers, absent state legislation 385Lee R. Russ and Thomas F. Segalla, increased by further refinement of the classifi- or regulation to the contrary). Some states Couch on Insurance, 3d ed. (1995) § 2, 1. cation,” a view expressed by Steven Meitzen in responded by passing legislation prohibiting 386Sonia M. Suter, “Disentangling Privacy “The Ethics of Statistical Discrimination,” insurers from refusing to provide coverage From Property: Toward a Deeper Understand- Social Theory and Practice 17 [1991], 23, 26). based on preexisting medical conditions. Con- ing of Genetic Privacy,” George Washington 403Frederick Schauer argues that BSL and necticut requires health insurers to provide Law Review 72 (2004), 737, 795 (“All states breed discrimination are justified practices. coverage for preexisting conditions if the per- require underwriting decisions to be actuari- Frederick F. Schauer, Profiles, Probabilities, son was previously covered by his or her pre- ally, or rationally, based; they cannot be arbi- and Stereotypes (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard ceding plan. Connecticut General Statutes trary. Insurers must engage in good-faith University Press, 2003), 55–78. Schauer starts Annotated §§ 38a-476 (West 2004). practices in deciding whether to underwrite, with the premise that there is a statistical cor- 408Legislatures have acted to protect con- at what rate, and for what conditions.”); 43 relation between pit bulls and unprovoked sumers from discrimination on the basis of American Jurisprudence 2d ed., § 43 (2003) bites. Ibid., 55 (“Looking at what evidence we race, color, national origin, gender, and other (underwriting and rate setting may take into have, it turns out that the generalizations protected classes. Maryland, for example, has account only legitimate cost factors). To some underlying pit bull restrictions do indeed have a relatively far-reaching statute prohibiting extent, this requirement is based on a prohi- the kind of empirical support that distin- discrimination in underwriting based on race, bition of unfair trade practices, as enumer- guishes them from purely spurious generaliza- color, creed, sex, blindness, or for any arbi- ated in the model Unfair Trade Practices Act, tions”). He then goes on to argue that BSL trary or capricious reason. Maryland Code developed by the National Association of and breed discrimination, while both underin- Annotated, Insurance § 27-501 (2004). Insurance Commissioners. See Unfair Trade clusive and overbroad, are justifiable from the States have enjoined insurers from charg- Practices Act (National Association of Insur- perspective of statistical correlation and the ing higher automobile insurance rates to men ance Commissioners, 2001) (hereinafter need to protect people from dangerous even though actuarial statistics show that UTPA). The NAIC, a nongovernmental organi- events. Ibid., 59. As I have demonstrated, how- women are a lower risk. For example, in Hart- zation of insurance regulators, drafted this ever, the correlation between breed and dan- ford Accident and Indemnity Company v. model act to regulate unfair trade practices in gerousness is weak at best. See supra Part II. Insurance Commissioner, 482 A.2d 542 (Pa. the insurance industry. Most states have Schauer’s citation for his proposition is sev- 1984), the Pennsylvania Supreme Court held adopted UTPA in some form or another. See eral of the CDC studies that have been dis- that the practice of charging different rates Stone, supra note 380, 392; Richard J. Wirth, cussed in this article. Schauer, supra, at 59 based on gender violated the state’s statute, “My Customer’s Keeper: The Search for a Uni- n.7; see supra Part II. Yet, these very studies which prohibited “unfairly discriminatory” versal Suitability Standard in the Sale of Life cautioned that their data were incomplete rates. Ibid., 549. The Court looked to the pur- Insurance,” New England Law Review 24 and that it would not be statistically sound to poses of the act and insurance regulation in (2002), 47, 79. make generalizations about breeds. See supra general: to promote the public welfare. Ibid., 387Maryland Code Annotated - Insurance Parts II & III. 547. The Court held, “[P]ublic policy consid- (2000)§ 27-501(a)(1) (emphasis added). 404Task Force, supra note 5, 1737. erations require more adequate justification 388Ibid. § 27-501(a)(2). 405Davis, supra note 58, 36 (quoting Ale- for rating factors than simple statistical corre- 389Tom Baker, “Containing the Promise of jandra Soto, spokesperson for the III). lation with loss.” Ibid., 548 (quoting National Insurance: Adverse Selection and Risk Classi- 406The practice of “drive-through deliver- Association of Insurance Commissioners, fication,” Connecticut Insurance Law Journal ies” required doctors to discharge new moth- Report of the Rates and Rating Procedures 9 (2002/2003), 371, 377. ers within hours after giving birth. Vicki Task Force of the Automobile Insurance (D3) 390Otherwise insurers would run a risk of Lawrence MacDougall, “Medical Gender Bias Subcommittee, November 1978, 5–6 [foot- low-risk consumers being priced out of the and Managed Care,” Oklahoma City Univer- notes omitted]). market and only high-risk insureds remaining, sity Law Review 27 (2002), 781, 882, A Michigan court declared unlawful the a danger known as the “death spiral.” See 892–894. States responded by passing laws practice of refusing to write automobile insur- Peter Siegelman, “Adverse Selection in Insur- requiring insurance companies to allow new ance for adults under twenty-one unless they ance Markets: An Exaggerated Threat,” Yale mothers to stay in the hospital for a minimum resided with parents. Detroit Automobile Inter- Law Journal 113 (2004), 1223, 1224. period of time. Elizabeth C. Price, “The Evolu- Insurance Exchange v. Commissioner of 391Baker, supra note 389, 373. tion of Health Care Decision-Making: The Insurance, 326 N.W.2d 444, 445 (Mich. Ct. 392Kenneth S. Abraham, Distributing Risk: Political Paradigm and Beyond,” Tennessee App. 1982). The Court found that this prac- Insurance, Legal Theory, and Public Policy Law Review 65 (1998), 619, 626. Connecti- tice violated the state’s unfair trade practices (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, cut, for example, passed a law that required law, which permitted refusing to insure a 1986), 67–68. insurance companies to pay for forty-eight group “only if the cost is unreasonable.” Ibid., 393Baker, supra note 389, at 377. hours of inpatient care following vaginal deliv- 447. The Court affirmed a central notion of 394See, for example, 43 American Jurispru- eries and ninety-six hours following caesarian insurance law that the free market is not the dence 2d ed., (2003) § 43. deliveries. Connecticut General Statutes Anno- sole determinant of insurance rates. The 395Hellman, supra note 376, 380. tated §§ 38a-503c, 38a-530c (West 2004). court stated, “The mere fact that one group is 396Ibid., 378. Congress, using its power to regulate ERISA- more expensive to insure than another does 397Moral hazard is the change in incen- based insurance policies, followed suit by not preclude fixing a reasonable rate.” tives that can result because an individual is passing the Newborns’ and Mothers’ Health Plaintiffs have also relied on federal law for protected by an insurance contract. Baker, Protection Act of 1996, which included the relief against discrimination in the provision supra note 389, 373. Insureds without a suffi- 48-/96-hour rule that had been adopted by of homeowners’ insurance. In National Fair cient personal investment in a particular several states. Newborns’ and Mothers’ Health Housing Alliance, Inc. v. Prudential Insurance risk—through co-insurance, for example— Protection Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-204, Company of America, 208 F. Supp. 2d 46 may be more likely to engage in the risky con- 110 Stat. 2874, 2935 (codified at 29 U.S.C. §§ (D.D.C. 2002), a U.S. district judge held that duct in a negligent manner. 1185[a][1][A][i]-[ii][2004]). discrimination by a homeowners’ insurance 398Adverse selection is the tendency for 407Customers with preexisting medical company on the basis of race, color, religion, low-risk insureds to drop out of insurance conditions represent a high-risk class of sex, handicap, familial status, or national ori-

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 51 gin was made illegal by the Fair Housing Act laborative endeavors among animal groups, gerous occurrences from happening in the and implementing regulations from HUD. governments, and insurers. At least one first place. Schauer’s analysis, however, fails Ibid., 55–56. insurer, State Farm, has publicly stated its to recognize that dogs are different. Speed 409At least one court has stated, as a mat- willingness to find proactive solutions to the limits come at a small social cost—drivers ter of public policy, that insurers may not problem of dog bites. See Hattaway, supra who can drive safely at faster speed limits are engage in witness intimidation. In L’Orange v. note 70. forced to get to their destinations later than Medical Protective Company, 394 F.2d 57 (6th 430See, for example, Sacks et al., supra they would have had the speed limits not Cir. 1968), an insurance company cancelled a note 150, 53; CDC 1979–1998, supra note existed. This is a small social cost that comes dentist’s malpractice policy after he testified 94, 840; Winkler, supra note 194, 425. with a more significant, larger societal benefit against another dentist who was insured by 431Some scientists have suggested that (saving many lives). See Philip Shuchman, “It the same company. Ibid., 59. The court some breeds are more dangerous because, Isn’t That the Tort Lawyers Are So Right, It’s acknowledged that insurance policies are when they do bite, their jaw structure and Just That the Tort Reformers Are So Wrong,” treated as voluntary contracts, but noted that other physical characteristics cause them to Rutgers Law Review 49 (1997), 485, 523 (20 they are also subject to public policy con- inflict more pain and physical injury. See percent increase in highway fatalities after cerns. Ibid. In this diversity-of-citizenship Lockwood and Rindy, supra note 83, 36. states given permission by the federal govern- case, the Court looked to the law of Ohio and 432Brand, supra note 230, 60. ment to raise speed limits to 65). Similarly, an found that the defendant-insurer had violated 433Sacks et al., supra note 150, 53 (sup- unlicensed or untrained person practicing law Ohio’s public policy against witness intimida- porting enforcement of existing laws to regu- or medicine has an almost 100 percent cer- tion. The Court noted the need for expert tes- late dangerous dogs and dog fighting); CDC tainty of causing damage to clients or timony, the existence of statutes against 1979–1998, supra note 94, 840 (urging law- patients. The social cost of not regulating intimidating witnesses from testifying, and makers to focus on problem owners, not dogs those practices would be significantly high. the potential chilling effect of the defendant’s or breeds); CDC 1989–1994, supra note 17, Although the dog population is around fifty behavior, and awarded judgment to the den- 894 (same). million, see supra notes 288–289 and accom- tist. Ibid., 61–63. 434American Kennel Club, “American Ken- panying text, only a handful of those dogs will 410Of course, if a person can purchase the nel Club Statement on Dangerous Dogs,” bite a person. Fatalities for dog bites have hov- house through cash on hand, then securing a http:// www.akc.org/love/dip/legislate/dan- ered around seven per hundred million people mortgage is unnecessary and obtaining home- gerous.cfm (accessed Nov. 6, 2004). per year. See supra Part II.A.1. Yet, the social owners’ insurance is “optional.” A prudent 435CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, 840. cost of having forward-looking regulations— homebuyer would nevertheless purchase 436See CDC 1989–1994, supra note 17, such as BSL and breed discrimination— homeowners’ insurance to protect his or her 894; CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, 840. comes at a very high cost to families that own investment in the event of catastrophic loss. 437CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, 840 dogs, particularly those that are seeking to 411978 F.2d 287 (7th Cir. 1992). (“[P]roblem behaviors [of dogs and owners] purchase a home. See supra Part IV. Further, 412Ibid., 297. have preceded attacks in a great many cases individualized, dangerous-dog prosecutions 413Ibid., 290. and should be sufficient evidence for preemp- do have a prophylactic effect. Like tort law, 414Ibid, 298. tive action”). dangerous-dog laws indirectly encourage own- 415Ibid., 297–298. 438I would exclude from this category “just ers to take reasonable steps to prevent 416Ibid., 290–291. cause” bites, discussed supra at Part II.F. injuries. In this respect, dangerous-dog laws 417David H. Harris, Jr., “Using the Law to 439CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, 840. can serve as a deterrence against negligent or Break Discriminatory Barriers to Fair Lending 440Michigan Compiled Laws §§ 287.321, intentional misdeeds. for Home Ownership,” North Carolina Central 287.322 (2004). 449See Benjamin L. Hart and Lynette A. Law Journal 22 (1996), 101. 441Ibid. § 287.322. Hart, “Selecting, Raising, and Caring for Dogs 418Ibid. 442Ibid. § 287.321(a). The law provides a to Avoid Problem Aggression,” Journal of the 419Ibid. number of exceptions to the definition of dan- American Veterinary Medical Association 210 420Unless, of course, he is independently gerous. An animal is not dangerous if: (1) the (1997),1129, 1131. wealthy and does not need a mortgage. “victim” was a trespasser or provoked or tor- 450Ibid. (neutering can reduce aggression). 421Kansas physicians are required to carry mented the dog; or (2) the animal was pro- 451See Gershman et al., supra note 139, malpractice insurance. Kansas Statute Anno- tecting a person or livestock. 914 (finding a statistically significant relation- tated §§ 40-3402 (2000); State ex rel. Schnei- 443Ibid. § 287.321. ship between number of bites and intact dogs). der v. Liggett, 557 P.2d 221 (Kan. 1978) 444Oklahoma Statutes title 4, §§ 44, 47 452Hart and Hart, supra note 449, 1130. (upholding Kansas’s mandatory, state-run mal- (2004). 453Ibid. practice insurance program). Oregon requires 445Ibid. § 46(b). 454Ibid. An aggressive dog, for example, attorneys to carry malpractice insurance. Ore- 446CDC 1995-1996, supra note 93, 466. might do well with an assertive family. gon Revised Statutes § 9.080(2)(a) (2003). 447See CDC 1989–1994, supra note 17, 455This conclusion has been supported by 422See, for example, New York Insurance 894-8995 (“[I]t is important to recognize several scientists. CDC 1989–1994, supra Law § 5303 (McKinney 2003) (New York’s that most of the 52 million dogs in this coun- note 17, 894 (calling for education of bite vic- assigned risk plan). try never bite or kill anyone”). tims and children); Sacks et al., supra note 423Hospitals, Medicare and Medicaid, and 448Frederick Schauer argues that a system 150, 53 (education programs needed on dog health insurers would thus bear the cost for of individualized determination of dangerous- behavior); CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, treatment. See Stone, supra note 380, 394 ness—that myself and others propose—is 840 (education needed for children); Gersh- (making a similar argument regarding unsound. Schauer, supra note 403, 69–72. He man, supra note 139, 916 (suggesting educa- human diseases). states that such a system comes at a high tion programs for children as a method to 424See ibid., 392. social cost, since the State responds only after reduce bites and other attacks); CDC 425Baker, supra note 389, 376–378. a dangerous dog attacks. He cites several 1995–1996, supra note 93, 466 (discussing 426See Lockwood and Rindy, supra note 83. examples, including the speed limit on high- public education as a strategy towards reduc- 427In this respect, the use of the term “dis- ways, to show that BSL and breed discrimina- ing bites); Task Force, supra note 5, 1739 crimination” is a bit of a misnomer. All forms tion are simply forms of acceptable, forward- (education is key); Hunthausen, supra note of risk classification are acts of discrimination looking regulation. While some drivers might 306, 1135 (public education a necessary com- in a literal sense. See Hellman, supra note be better than others, the State has set a max- ponent of bite prevention). Education is also 376, 378 (“Because all insurer classifications imum speed limit regardless of driver ability. supported by the AKC. American Kennel Club, are ‘discrimination,’ understood non-pejora- This is a forward-looking or prophylactic “American Kennel Club Statement on Danger- tively, one must ask why use of this classifica- attempt to prevent accidents, death, and ous Dogs,” http://www.akc.org/love/dip/ tion is ‘plain, old fashioned,’ ‘profoundly injury before they happen. He also points to legislate/dangerous.cfm (accessed June 8, unjust[,] and wrong[ful]’ discrimination”). the regulation of doctors and lawyers as an 2004). Other groups support heightened 428Baker, supra note 389, 377. example of how society legitimately controls efforts to teach responsible dog ownership 429These are alternatives that could be col- behavior in advance in order to prevent dan- and dog safety. OVDO, supra note 51. Educa-

52 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 tion is also supported by the insurance indus- infectious, compared to 20 percent of dog try. Hattaway, supra note 70, 1144 (“I believe bites; cat teeth can penetrate more deeply that the insurance industry has a role in pro- and transmit bacteria more easily). In spite of moting responsible pet ownership, including these data, however, the insurance industry education, to help reduce this national prob- has not tried to outlaw cats as pets. Why not? lem”); III, Dog Bite Liability, supra note 66 464Beaver, supra note 461, 1148. (recommending that homeowners educate 465Ibid. their children not to approach a sleeping or 466Pennsylvania Consolidated Statutes eating dog). Annotated 3 § 459-507-A(d) (West 2004). 456Simon Chapman, et al., “Preventing 467A.B. 6761, 2003-2004 Sess. (N.Y. 2003). Dog Bites in Children: Randomised Con- 468H.B. 174, 2003 Sess. (N.H. 2003). trolled Trial of an Educational Intervention,” British Medical Journal 320 (2000), 1512–1513. Children are more likely than adults to be the victims of dog bites. CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91, 1490 (70 percent of fatal dog bites were in children under ten years old); Sacks and Kresnow, supra note 150, 52–53 (children account for approximately half of all people who seek medical attention for dog bites); CDC 1979–1998, supra note 94, 836 (most victims of fatal dog bites are children); CDC 1995–1996, supra note 93, 463 (80 percent of fatality victims were children); CDC Nonfatal, supra note 123 (children between five and nine years old are most likely to be victims of nonfatal dog bites). Some have speculated that children are more likely to be victims than adults because of their small stature and inability to defend themselves. See CDC 1979–1988, supra note 91, 1492 (young and old are most at risk to be victims of fatal dog attacks). 457Ibid., 1512. 458Ibid. 459See ibid. 460Ibid., 1513. 461Daniel M. Sosin et al., “Causes of Non- fatal Injuries in the United States, 1986,” Accident Analysis and Prevention 24(6) (1992), 685, 686. 462Bonnie V. Beaver, “Human-Canine Interactions: A Summary of Perspectives,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 210(8) (1997), 1148, 1148. 463That would, I suppose, lead more people to get cats as pets. However, there is evidence to suggest that cat bites are more dangerous than dog bites because of the high rate of infection associated with them. See Los Angeles County Animal Care & Control, “Cat Bites,” http://animalcontrol.co.la.ca.us/html/ pages/poetownerinfo/Catbite.htm (accessed June 9, 2004) (one million cat bites are reported each year in the United States; cat bites can be especially dangerous for children, the elderly, or those with suppressed immune systems); Cynthia B. Whitney, “Ouch!—More Than You Ever Wanted to Know About Cat Bites,” http://www.thecatsite.com/cat_snips/ snips.php?a=bites (accessed June 8, 2004) (reporting that 80 percent of cat bites get infected and that one out of 170 people will be bitten by cats each year); NBC11.com, “Cat Bites Can Be Deadly: Woman Hospital- ized After Bite,” http://www.nbc11.com/ print/2191468/detail.html? (accessed May 9, 2003) (describing the ordeal of a woman who had a “brush with death” after being bitten by her cat; she required hospitalization for a week); Sound Medicine, “Dog versus cat bites,” http://www.soundmedicine.iu.edu/ archive/2002/quiz/animalBites.html (accessed July 27, 2002) (50 percent of cat bites are

The Case Against Dog Breed Discrimination by Homeowners’ Insurance Companies 53 Free-Roaming Dogs in Developing Countries: The Benefits of 3CHAPTER Capture, Neuter, and Return Programs Jennifer Jackman and Andrew Rowan

Introduction s a result of human popula- zoonotic diseases (Beck 2000; costly and more effective in rabies tion growth, poor waste Reece 2005). Additional social prevention. A meeting of WHO A disposal management, problems with free-roaming dogs Asia experts concluded, the absence of responsible dog include road accidents, fighting, Rabies control in dogs remains ownership policies, and height- noise, bitten children, fecal con- the only long-term, cost-effec- ened awareness of animal welfare tamination, spread of rubbish, and tive means of eliminating or and disease issues, increased atten- uncontrolled breeding. preventing most human cases. tion is being given to the problem Public health and animal protec- Human public health preven- of free-roaming dogs. The population advocates share an interest in tive measures should be paral- tion of dogs worldwide may be as reducing dog population growth, leled by programmes for dog high as 500 million (Hsu, Severing- improving the health of dog popu- rabies control. (WHO 2001) haus, and Serpell 2003). Dog-to- lations, and increasing responsible Still, high levels of dog popula- human population densities vary dog ownership. Approaches to free- tion turnover make it difficult to from 2.2 dogs/hundred people in roaming dog population manage- maintain vaccination coverage at urban Zambia (DeBalogh, Wan- ment have changed over the past threshold levels. A new consensus deler, and Meslin 1993), to 15.8 twenty years. Until recently, cap- is emerging that rabies vaccination dogs/hundred people in rural Tan- ture and kill policies prevailed as programs are not sustainable with- zania (Cleaveland et al. 2003), to the primary dog-control method. out sterilization, although some 21.3 dogs/hundred people in Kat- While even today removal of dogs animal groups remain concerned mandu, Nepal (Kato et al. 2003), continues to be a component of about the appropriateness of re- and to more than 30 dogs/hun- dog control in some countries, the turning sterilized animals to com- dred people in white communities World Health Organization (WHO), munity streets. in South Africa (Odendaal 1994) leading researchers, and animal Vaccination, habitat control, and and rural villages in Mexico (Ori- protection groups have condemned responsible pet ownership, includ- huela and Solano 1995) (Table 1). dog removal policies as ineffective ing sterilization, are now replacing Free-roaming dog populations and cruel. the capture-and-kill focus of dog have emerged as both animal wel- The 1990s saw a significant ex- control. In 1992 WHO and the fare and public health problems in pansion in the availability of post World Society for the Protection of developing countries. Free-roam- exposure treatment for dog bites Animals (WSPA) issued guidelines ing dogs face high mortality, mal- and in public awareness of the for dog population management nutrition, starvation, disease, and need to seek treatment. Postexpo- that recommended dog population abuse; account for 99 percent of sure treatment dramatically re- surveys; adoption of national legis- cases of rabies transmission world- duced rabies deaths; however, lation to regulate registration, vac- wide (WHO 2004); and are associ- treatment costs soared. Dog-vacci- cination, identification, sales, and ated with more than sixty other nation campaigns have proved less breeding; public education, subsi-

55 dized neutering; and improve- programs seek to limit population view of animal welfare and public ments in veterinary education to growth and improve dog welfare. health problems associated with include early gonadectomy (Leney Widespread adoption of CNR pro- free-roaming dog populations and 2002). grams for dogs, along with changes strategies to resolve these prob- More recently animal protection in human behavior and environ- lems. Placing CNR programs in the organizations have launched cap- ment, offers a sustainable remedy context of earlier dog and rabies ture, neuter, and return (CNR) pro- for both disease and animal welfare control methods, the chapter ex- grams. Modeled on trap, neuter, problems posed by free-roaming plores CNR’s potential to over- and release (TNR) programs for dogs in developing countries. come some of the shortcomings of cats in the United States, these This chapter provides an over- earlier approaches and to improve

Table 1 Dog Populations in Developing Countries, Number of Dogs per Hundred People

Country Dogs/100 People Source All Urban Rural

Argentina—La Pampa 18.30 18.3 Larrieu, Alvarez, and Cavagion (1990)

Bolivia—Santa Cruz 25.00 Widdowson et al. (2000)

Indonesia 6.25 WHO (1998a)

Bali 19.20 Peacock (2005a)

Kenya—Machakos District 13.00 13.0 Kitala et al. (2001)

Mexico—Miacatlan 33.60 33.6 Orihuela and Solano (1995)

Mexico 14.30– WHO (1998a) 16.70

Mexico—Hermasillo 12.50 12.5 Eng et al. (1993)

Nepal—Katmandu 21.30 21.3 Kato et al. (2003)

Peru—Pacoraos 16.70 16.7 Moro et al. (2005)

Philippines—Sorsogo Province 26.30 Childs et al. (1998)

South Africa 10.00 Odendaal (1994)

Asian/Colored 13.00 Odendaal (1994)

Black Urban 6.70 6.7 Odendaal (1994)

Black Rural 15.00 15.0 Odendaal (1994)

White 35.00 Odendaal (1994)

S. Africa—Soweto 8.10 8.1 McCrindle et al. (1999)

S. Africa—Maboloka 9.00 9.0 Rautenbach, Boomker, and DeVilliers (1991)

Sri Lanka—Mirgawa 17.50 17.5 Matter and Daniels (2000)

Tanzania—Serengeti District 15.80 15.8 Cleaveland et al. (2003)

Thailand 14.90 Mitmoonpitak, Tepsumethanon, and Wilde (1998)

Zambia 14.90 2.2 14.9 DeBalogh, Wandeler, and Meslin (1993)

Zimbabwe 15.40 Brooks (1990)

56 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 animal welfare, reduce dog popula- Dogs living with humans may be dogs, and feral dogs (Reece 2005). tion growth, and prevent the classified into three or four cate- Based on their level of reliance on spread of rabies and other canine- gories: pets, community dogs, humans for food, shelter, and care, transmitted diseases. Constraints strays, and ferals. In developed dogs are fully dependent (restricted and current debates on current countries the majority of dogs are dogs), semidependent (family dogs implementation of CNR programs pets (i.e., they are allowed in the and neighborhood/community are also examined. house, given names, regarded as dogs), or not dependent (feral/stray part of the family, and never eaten). dogs). Those dogs that are not pets are Increasingly, researchers agree Functions and either stray animals or true ferals that most dog populations depend (a very small percentage). Except at some level on referral house- Dynamics of in some traditional communities holds (Leney and Remfry 2000). Dog Populations (e.g., Native American), there are Only a small proportion of dogs in no community dogs. South America, Asia, and Africa in Developing In most developing countries, rely on markets, slaughterhouses, Countries the main function of dogs is to pro- dumps, and restaurants as their Cultural differences in views of dog tect property. Dogs in Soweto, sole sources of food (Leney and ownership and the role of dogs in South Africa, are used primarily to Remfry 2000; Reece 2005). An society influence the prevalence of guard livestock and property and estimated 10 percent of dogs are dogs, the condition of free-roaming to hunt (McCrindle et al. 1999). In not associated with particular dogs, and dog-control policies. In Machakos District, Kenya, 99 per- households (Bogel and Meslin some developing countries, dogs cent of households say that guard 1990). A Zimbabwe study con- are revered. In Bali, for example, duty is their dogs’ primary func- cluded that all dogs are at least dogs are an important part of tion (Kitala et al. 2001). In Zim- semidependent on people and that mythology, are treated with rever- babwe 60 percent view dogs as none is completely “ownerless” ence, and are given ceremonial guards, and 73.1 percent see dogs (Butler 2000). In Chad, ownerless food offerings (Peacock 2005a). In as a deterrent to wildlife that they dogs comprise only 1.1–10.6 per- Bali and many other developing perceive as pests, such as ele- cent of owned dogs (Kayali et al. countries, cultural traditions pro- phants, baboons, lions, and leop- 2003). A 1999 survey in Bangkok hibit or oppose euthanasia, and the ards (Butler 2000). In fact, in found that 20 percent of dogs are development of a network of shel- Africa increases in dog populations ownerless (WHO 2001). ters is impractical. Dogs may also may reflect heightened security Dogs without a referral house- be a status symbol for upper-in- concerns (Cleaveland 1998). In hold have the lowest reproductive come families in some countries New Providence, Bahamas, security and pup survival rates. These unas- (Reece 2005). The health and is also the main reason for keeping sociated dogs “do not play a signif- psychological benefits of canine dogs for 50.4 percent of house- icant role in the reproductivity of companionship have been amply holds (Fielding and Plumridge this population” (Bogel and Meslin documented in both developing 2005). In the Thungsong District 1990, 282). Instead, free-roaming and industrialized countries (Beck of Thailand, 83 percent of house- dog populations are maintained by 2000). In still other countries and holds keep dogs as guard animals recruitment from owned popula- cultural settings, particularly in (Kongkaew et al. 2004). In Miacat- tions (Boitsni et al. 1995; Leney some Muslim societies, dogs are lan, Mexico, 65 percent of house- and Remfry 2000; Matter and reviled and are less visible. For holds reported having a dog for Daniels 2000; Fielding, Samuels, example, it has been estimated that security reasons (Orihuela and and Mather 2002). there are fewer than a hundred Solano 1995). Association of dogs with particu- thousand dogs in all of Cairo, a Patterns of dog ownership in lar neighborhoods or individual Muslim metropolitan area of eleven many developing countries differ households determines the extent million plus (E. Hilby, personal from those in the United States to which these animals are deemed communication with A.N.R., 2006). and other industrialized nations. In to be accessible to vaccination and These numbers would give a dog developing countries most dogs are sterilization programs. Unreach- density of 0.09 dogs per hundred community dogs who are affiliated able strays had been assumed to people—by far the lowest density with neighborhoods rather than represent 30–70 percent of the ever recorded (Table 1). Finally, in with individual owners. WHO char- dog population (Cleaveland et al. some countries, dogs are consid- acterizes dogs in developing coun- 2006). However, in Katmandu Val- ered to be food (Reece 2005). tries as restricted dogs, semire- ley, Nepal, 86–97 percent percent stricted family dogs, neighborhood of dogs are accessible (Bogel and

Free-Roaming Dogs in Developing Countries: The Benefits of Capture, Neuter, and Return Programs 57 Joshi 1990). Researchers in stud- 23 percent suffered from Demodex their risk of predation (Matter and ies around the world have con- canis (Rodriquez-Vivas et al. 2003). Daniels 2000). Because of high firmed that at most 15 percent of In a rural community in South mortality rates, dog populations are dogs may be inaccessible to vacci- Africa, 51 percent of the dogs had a skewed toward younger dogs. In the nation (Cleaveland et al. 2006). serious clinical condition; of this Machakos District, Kenya, half of Nonetheless, the majority of population 10 percent were acutely the dogs are less than one year old dogs in developing countries face ill and half were chronically ill (Kitala et al. 2001). few restrictions on their move- (Rautenbach, Boomker, and DeVil- Dogs receive little veterinary care ments. In Machakos, Kenya, 69 liers 1991). Because of their unde- in developing countries, which con- percent of dogs are never re- veloped immune systems, puppies tributes to the spread of disease and stricted (Kitala et al. 2001). In the are particularly susceptible to dis- high mortality among dogs. Only Thungsong District of Thailand, eases (Robinson 2000). Free-roam- 40.5 percent of households sur- 74 percent of dogs are allowed to ing dogs constantly face starvation, veyed in Zimbabwe said they would roam freely (Kongkaew et al. malnutrition, and dehydration take their dogs to the veterinarian if 2004). In New Providence, Ba- (Matter and Daniels 2000; HSI they were ill; 12.8 percent would try hamas, 73 percent of households 2001). Dogs also are poisoned, to cure their dogs with traditional keep their dogs outside, and 43 harassed by people, and hit by vehi- medicine; and the remainder would percent of households allow at cles (HSI 2001; Hargreaves 2002). seek no treatment (Butler 2000). least one dog to roam (Fielding Dogs contract rabies. The length Dogs who are allowed to roam are and Plumridge 2005). of time between a dog being even less likely to receive veterinary While most dogs may depend on exposed to rabies and exhibiting care. Restricted adult dogs in New a particular household or neigh- symptoms is two to eight weeks Providence are more likely to be borhood, the resources provided at (Wandeler and Bingham 2000), at spayed than are those kept outside “home” sites are often insufficient. which time he becomes aggressive (Fielding and Plumridge 2005). The Most dogs roam to forage for food and seeks other animals to bite health of fenced dogs is much bet- since they are not fed daily by own- (Wandeler and Bingham 2000). ter than that of free-roaming dogs, ers (McCrindle et al. 1999; Kitala Dogs die from rabies within two to since the former are not exposed to et al. 2001; Fielding, Mather, and three days from the onset of symp- fighting and communicable dis- Isaacs 2005). Owners also allow toms. In addition to dog rabies eases (Fielding, Mather, and Isaacs dogs loose because they believe deaths, the fear of rabies has re- 2005). In Thailand researchers unrestricted dogs can better pro- sulted in the inhumane killing of found that dogs kept in the house tect property (Fielding, Mather, dogs who are unfamiliar or who are are more likely to be vaccinated and Isaacs 2005). suspected of having rabies (Cleave- than are those who are allowed to land et al. 2006). roam freely (Kongkaew et al. 2004). As a result free-roaming dogs Female dogs are less likely to be The Welfare of have high rates of mortality. The life vaccinated, sterilized, or licensed expectancy of dogs in Zimbabwe than are males. Only 15 percent of Free-Roaming Dogs communal lands is 1.1 years (Butler male dogs—but no female dogs—in Free-roaming dog populations suf- 2000); 71.7 percent of dogs died in the Machaskos District, Kenya, are fer from extremely poor welfare. their first year. Of households with sterilized (Kitala et al. 2001). Of The New Providence, Bahamas, ani- dogs in the Machakos District, male dogs 35 percent are vacci- mal control unit’s visual inspection Kenya, 67 percent reported that a nated, compared with only 20 per- of dogs indicated that 70 percent dog had died recently and a replace- cent of females. In Zimbabwe, only are suffering from disease (Field- ment was being sought (Kitala et al. 0.7 percent of females are spayed, ing, Mather, and Isaacs 2005). 2001). In New Providence 35 per- compared with 16.3 percent of male Echinococcus, toxocara, par- cent of the dog population is lost dogs who are neutered (Butler vovirus, heartworm, leptospirosis, each year (Fielding and Plumridge 2000). In Bali only 11 percent of fe- and venereal tumors are among the 2005). Of households surveyed in male dogs are neutered, compared diseases that plague free-roaming Bali, 31 percent had a dog die in the with 44 percent of males (Mar- dogs (Boitsni et al. 1995; HSI previous year. Very few dogs die of gawani and Robertson 1995). Ex- 2001; Fielding, Mather, and Isaacs old age (Butler 2000); nutritional, ceptions to this trend are New Prov- 2005). Many dogs have infectious parasite, and disease problems idence, where similar sterilization skin diseases, such as mange, along account for high mortality rates, rates are reported for female and with secondary bacterial infections. especially in puppies (Matter and male dogs (Fielding and Plumridge A study in Mexico found that 34 Daniels 2000). Pups also are often 2005), and Thailand, where female percent of stray dogs had mites and left unattended, which increases dogs have a higher sterilization rate

58 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 than do males (Kongkaew et al. 2004). In addition, in New Provi- Figure 1 dence more male dogs (59 percent) Rabies Deaths in Asia than female dogs (41 percent) are licensed (Fielding, Mather, and Number of human rabies deaths per country, Asia, 2004 Isaacs 2005). Female dogs also have shorter life spans. Higher female mortality is related to lower levels of care provided to female dogs. Female dogs are more likely to be abandoned (Fielding, Mather, and Isaacs 2005) and are killed as puppies to avoid pregnancies (Boitsni et al. 1995; Matter and Daniels 2000). People also dispose of female dogs in estrus to disband groups of male 0 dogs (Matter and Daniels 2000). In 1–100 101–1000 the Machakos District, Kenya, the 1001–10,000 > 10,000 life expectancy of male dogs is 3.5 years; for female dogs it is 2.4 years (Kitala et al. 2001). The median Source: WHO (2007). age of dogs in New Providence is 1.5 years for females and three the physical consequences of re- utes one person dies from rabies, years for males (Fielding, Mather peated pregnancies, lactation, and and three hundred are exposed to and Isaacs 2005). competition for food, overpopula- the disease (Rupprecht, Hanlon, In most developing countries, tion of dogs results in human soci- and Hemachudha 2002). Rup- preferences for male dogs and ety devaluing them. Dogs who can precht, Hanlon, and Hemachudha higher mortality of female dogs re- be obtained for little or no cost are (2002, 327) state, “[f]rom a global sult in sex-based population imbal- at the greatest risk of abandon- health perspective...rabies is the ances (Matter and Daniels 2000). ment (Hsu, Severinghaus, and Ser- most important viral zoonosis.” In Istanbul, Turkey, there are 6.8 pell 2003). As Thorton (1992, Ninety-nine percent of rabies male dogs for every female dog 660) has stated, “Not allowing the deaths take place in developing (WHO 1998b). In Thailand the excess [in companion animals] is countries (WHO 2004). Fifty-six ratio of male to female dogs is 2:1 the only effective way to address percent of rabies deaths are in Asia (Kongkaew et al. 2004). Of dogs their welfare.” and 44 percent in Africa. Rabies kept in Bali, 85 percent were male mortality ranges from 0.001 per (Margawani and Robertson 1995). hundred thousand in the United When it responded to the post- Human Health States to eighteen per hundred tsunami disaster that hit Sri Lanka thousand in Ethiopia, with mortal- in 2004, Humane Society Inter- Risks and Free- ity levels of 0.01 in South Africa, national (HSI) veterinary relief Roaming Dogs 0.47 in Thailand and Vietnam, 0.57 teams found that male dogs out- in Sri Lanka, 1.75 in Bangalesh, and numbered females by 3:1. Rabies 2–4 in India (Haupt 1999) (Figure Preferences for male dogs are Free-roaming dogs who suffer from 1). Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan related to the belief that they make disease and overpopulation pose are among the countries with the better guard dogs (Kitala et al. risks of zoonoses, contact injuries, highest incidence of rabies (WHO 2001). Owners also want to avoid and environmental pollution to 2001), and half of all human rabies responsibility for dogs in estrus or human populations (Beck 2000). deaths occur in India (WHO 1996). for litters (Margawani and Robert- Rabies is the most lethal of canine Dogs are the main rabies vector son 1995; Hsu, Severinghaus, and transmitted diseases. Despite the in Africa and Asia (WHO 2001), and Serpell 2003). In addition, people development of a rabies vaccine younger dogs pose a greater bite choose male dogs more often as more than a hundred years ago, and rabies risk. A study in Thailand pets (Boitsni et al. 1995). WHO (2004) reports that half of found that 62 percent of rabid dogs Overpopulation itself is a welfare the world’s human population is at examined are younger than one problem for dogs. In addition to risk for rabies. Every fifteen min- year old (Mitmoonpitak, Wilde, and

Free-Roaming Dogs in Developing Countries: The Benefits of Capture, Neuter, and Return Programs 59 Tepsumetanon 1997). U.S. studies other parts of Asia, and 23,705 in they have increased in others. The have found that younger dogs are Africa. rabies situation in Sri Lanka wors- more likely to bite and their bites Eighty-four percent of rabies ened after the 2004 tsunami be- are more severe (Wright 1991). deaths are in rural areas (WHO cause of increases in the number of Male dogs are responsible for 2004). In India there are an esti- ownerless dogs (Dodet 2006). The 59–70 percent of bites (Wright mated 2.49 deaths per hundred Philippines also has seen an in- 1991). The rabies virus is more thousand people in rural areas, crease in rabies deaths (WHO prevalent in male dogs, and the sex compared with 0.37 deaths per 2004). of the dog is identified as a risk fac- hundred thousand people in urban Difficulties in controlling the tor in Bolivia (Widdowson et al. areas. In Africa there are 3.60 spread of rabies have been associ- 2000). Differences in bite rates and deaths per hundred thousand in ated with the migration of people rabies fatalities between female rural areas, compared with 2.00 and dogs from infected areas. and male dogs likely stem from the per hundred thousand in urban WHO (2004) attributes the spread fact that canine aggression is hor- areas (Knobel et al. 2005). of rabies to the growth of dog pop- monally related (Lockwood 1995). Poverty is also associated with ulations in sub-Saharan Africa Unneutered males have particularly rabies vulnerability. An Indian sur- associated with human population high bite rates (Lockwood 1995). vey involving twenty-one medical growth and movement. Movement A study of medical records at colleges found that 87.6 percent of of infected animals into new areas Centro de Salud in Mexico found adults who died of rabies between produces outbreaks (Rupprecht, that 65 percent of bite victims 1992 and 2001 were poor (Sudar- Hanlon, and Hemachudha 2002). were bitten at their residence, 32 shan 2005). The risk of canine percent in public locations, and 2 rabies in Mexico is greater in lower- Other Canine- percent at their workplace (Eng et income areas (Eng et al. 1993). Transmitted Diseases al. 1993). Nolan (2006) noted that Poor children also face great risk. Free-roaming dogs are associated domestic dogs cause more serious Children under the age of fifteen with a variety of other bacterial, bites than do feral dogs. These comprise 40–60 percent of rabies viral, and parasitic infections that data confirm U.S. studies that have victims (WHO 2001). Half of the may pose a risk to humans. found that dogs owned by neigh- world’s malnourished children live Echinococcosis and toxocariasis are bors have the highest victim rate in rabies-endemic areas (Sampath among the most prevalent of these and that bites by stray dogs are et al. 2005). health hazards (Chomel and Arzt over-reported (Beck 2000). At the same time, rabies is 100 2000; Overgaauw and van Knapen Some estimate that only 3 percent percent preventable for both hu- 2000) and often occur in low- of rabies deaths are reported in de- mans and dogs. Deaths occur when income areas (Rubel et al. 2003). veloping countries (Knobel et al. dog bites go unreported, unrecog- Echinococcosis (hydatid disease) 2005). Rabies is underreported be- nized, untreated, or are discovered is a common parasitic infection in cause patients seek treatment from too late (WHO 2001). The lack of dogs in developing countries that traditional healers, causes of death awareness about rabies among the results from improper livestock are often not reported to central public, health practitioners, and slaughter practices (Jiminez et al. authorities, and rabies may be unrec- authorities; the shortage of rabies 2002; Seimenis 2003; Reece 2005). ognizable to medical staff without immunoglobulins and funding for Sheep, goats, camels, cattle, pigs, laboratory confirmation (Cleaveland modern vaccine; and the lack of pri- and horses serve as intermediate et al. 2002). An Indian household ority given to canine rabies control hosts (Meslin et al. 2000). Dogs con- survey found that only 36.4 percent have undermined rabies-prevention tract echinococcosis by consuming of residents said they would visit a efforts (Dodet 2006). the offal of infected livestock near doctor if they were bitten by a dog As a result of improvements in slaughterhouses or areas of home (Singh and Choudary 2005). postexposure treatment (Mitmoon- slaughter. Young dogs (ages three to To compensate for underreport- pitak, Wilde, and Tepsumetanon twenty-five months) and female ing of rabies, some researchers use 1997), rabies deaths did decline in dogs are more likely to be infected dog bite statistics to predict num- the 1980s and 1990s. Ten million with echinococcosis (Moro et al. bers of rabies deaths. Using a dog- people currently receive postexpo- 2005). In endemic areas, 1–40 per- bite probability model, 55,270 sure treatment each year (WHO cent of cattle, 1–80 percent of deaths per year or 1.38 deaths per 2002). Predicted deaths worldwide sheep, and 0.2–50 percent of dogs hundred thousand people are pre- without postexposure treatment may be infected (Meslin et al. 2000). dicted (Knobel et al. 2005). These would be 327,160 (Knobel et al. The disease spreads to humans fatalities include 19,713 deaths in 2005). While rabies cases have de- through ingestion of dog feces. In India, 2,336 in China, 9,489 in clined in some areas of the world, humans the disease develops in the

60 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 some claim that free-roaming dogs Table 2 may prey upon livestock, Boitsni et al. (1995) concluded that feral Levels of Dog and Human dogs actually pose little threat to Echinococcosis in Selected domestic animals. A study of the Developing Countries relationship between dogs and wild carnivores in Zimbabwe found that Percentage the small body weight and group of Dogs Humans/ size of dogs make them poor pred- Place Infected 100,000 Source ators (Butler, du Toit, and Bing- Algeria 9.4–12.0 2.26 Seimenis (2003) ham 2004). However, others have China— 82.3 80.00 Jenkins, Romig, and expressed concern that stray dogs North Central Xinjiang Thompason (2005) may harm civet populations in Hong Kong (Dahmer 2002) and Egypt 3.0–10.0 4.29 Seimenis (2003) iguanas, giant tortoises, and flight- Morocco 35.0–48.4 5.20–7.10 Seimenis (2003) less cormorants in the Galapagos Islands (Matter and Daniels 2000). Peru—Pacaraos District 51.0 Not available Moro et al. (2005) The disease risk of free-roaming Tunisia 30.0–68.0 1.50–2.05 Seimenis (2003) dogs to livestock and wildlife is of greater concern. WHO (1996) esti- Uruguay—La Poloma 20.0 Not available Cohen (1998) mates that 25,000–27,000 domestic production animals contract liver (70 percent), lungs (20 per- pen 2000). Puppies often acquire rabies as a result of exposure to cent), or elsewhere in the body (10 the disease through their mothers. dogs or other rabies vectors. While percent) (Jenkins, Romig, and Toxocara eggs do not become infec- dogs pose little predation threat to Thompason 2005). Echinococcosis tious until three weeks to several African wildlife, leopards, lions, can cause serious illness or death. months after their introduction to and hyenas do prey on dogs. Wild The disease is most prevalent in the environment (Overgaauw and carnivore predation on dogs cre- the Middle East and North Africa van Knapen 2000); infectious eggs ates the risk of disease transmis- (Sadjadi 2006), Western and Central can survive up to a year. The disease sion for rabies, distemper, and par- Asia (Jenkins, Romig, and Thompa- is transmitted through contami- vovirus (Butler, du Toit, and son 2005), the Mediterranean nated soil and unwashed hands. Bingham 2004). Wild dog popula- (Jiminez et al. 2002; Seimenis Children ages one to three are espe- tions were reduced by one-third as 2003), and sheep-rearing areas in cially susceptible to exposure. a result of rabies outbreaks in Tan- South America and Australia (Meslin Improved hygiene, public educa- zania and Kenya (Cleaveland et al. 2000) (Table 2). The highest tion, removal of feces, enhanced 1998). Increased vaccination, espe- prevalence of echincoccosis is found health of animals, and reduction in cially along preserve boundaries, in Tibetan populations in Sichuan free-roaming dog populations can reduction of dog populations Province, China (Li et al. 2005). In significantly reduce disease trans- through birth control, and im- endemic areas, 2–20 people per hun- mission of both echinococcosis and provements in waste disposal dred thousand contract echinococ- toxocariasis from dogs to humans would reduce transmission of ca- cosis (Meslin et al. 2000). In hyper- (Rubel et al. 2003). Reduction in nine rabies to wild animals (Butler, endemic areas, up to 12 percent may the proportion of puppies in the du Toit, and Bingham 2004). be infected. population also helps to control tox- Toxocara canis is a common dog ocariasis spread (Rubel et al. 2003). roundworm that is spread indirectly Predecessors to through dog feces. Analysis of dog fecal samples revealed toxocara in- Free-Roaming Capture, Neuter, fection rates of 36 percent in Preto- and Return ria, South Africa; 19 percent in Jor- Dogs: Risks to dan; 13.5 percent in Santiago, Livestock and Capture and Kill Chile; and 10.5 percent in La Plata, The capture and killing of stray Buenos Aires (Rubel et al. 2003). Wildlife dogs has been the dominant strat- Free-roaming dogs also may pre- Dog infection rates range from 3.5 egy to reduce dog populations and sent predation and disease risks to percent in adults to 79 percent in dog zoonoses. In the late 1980s, both livestock and wildlife. While puppies (Overgaauw and van Kna- lethal dog-control programs were

Free-Roaming Dogs in Developing Countries: The Benefits of Capture, Neuter, and Return Programs 61 challenged on both ethical and effi- 1990). Capture and kill programs reductions in vaccine costs, intra- ciency grounds. Mass removal remove vaccinated dogs from the dermal regimens, and administra- strategies have been criticized population who are then replaced tion of immunoglobulin at injec- because they fail to discriminate by unvaccinated dogs (Cleaveland tion locations, all have resulted in between owned and stray dogs and et al. 2006). According to Cleave- some progress in rabies prevention use cruel methods of removal. land et al. (2006, 45), in Asia (WHO 2001; Wilde, Khaw- Dogs frequently are captured using Dog elimination programmes, plod, and Khamoltham 2005; and nooses and chains, kept in vehicles may, in fact, be counter-pro- Lumlertdacha et al. 2006). The without food and water for hours ductive and reduce the propor- shift in most countries from the or days, then electrocuted, gassed, tion of immunized individuals Semple vaccine (a vaccine, pre- or drowned (Reece 2005). in a population, because some pared in the brains of adult sheep, For example, culls of dogs vaccinated dogs are killed and that induces severe and long-term occurred in China 2003–2006 in community response to dog side effects such as allergic en- response to increases in rabies elimination campaigns is gen- cephalomyelitis) to cell culture deaths. China has the second high- erally to buy new puppies or vaccine also has improved treat- est rate of death and illness from adopt free-roaming (unvacci- ment (WHO 2004). To further re- rabies in the world. From 2001 to nated) dogs. duce rabies risks, preexposure vac- 2004, the number of rabies deaths Capture and kill programs do lit- cination is now recommended for more than tripled, from 854 to tle to reduce the size of dog popu- at-risk groups such as young chil- 2651 (Tang et al. 2005). lations. Lethal dog population dren and people who work with ani- The upsurge in rabies deaths in control strategies require the elim- mals (WHO 2001; Wilde, Khaw- China has been attributed to in- ination of 50–80 percent of dogs a plod, and Khamoltham 2005; creases in dog populations, an year (WHO 1989), which is neither Dodet 2006). extremely low rabies vaccination financially possible nor ethically However, progress in rabies pre- rate of only 3 percent, and inade- acceptable in most countries (Rup- vention is at a standstill; no new quate postexposure treatment precht, Hanlon, and Hemachudha Asian country has eradicated (Tang et al. 2005; Zhang et al. 2002). Most catch and kill pro- rabies in recent decades (Wilde, 2005). With a dog-human ratio of grams remove only 3–5 percent of Khawplod, and Khamoltham 2005). 1:9, the dog population in China dogs per year (Bogel and Meslin Canine rabies remains endemic in has grown to between 80 and 200 1990). While WHO initially sup- India, Pakistan, Vietnam, Thailand, million (Tang et al. 2005). In the ported the culling of stray dogs, it the Philippines, and most Afri- four southwestern provinces with now concedes that removal of dogs can countries. most of the recent rabies cases, 70 does not significantly reduce dog percent of households have one or populations or the spread of rabies Canine Rabies more dogs (Zhang et al. 2005). In (WHO 2001). Vaccination Campaigns China dogs are the vectors in The culling of dogs also gener- Most experts agree that dog-vacci- 85–95 percent of rabies cases. ates hostility toward dog-control nation campaigns are a more cost- In 2006 in southwestern China, officials, which undermines coop- effective approach to rabies pre- government officials killed 50,000 eration with rabies canine vaccina- vention than is postexposure dogs in five days in one province tion efforts (Cleaveland et al. treatment alone (Cleaveland 1998; in an effort to end a rabies out- 2006). In addition, killing of stray Kitala et al. 2001, 2003; Wilde, break. Dogs who were not killed dogs negatively affects tourism Khawplod, and Khamoltham by their owners as ordered by the (Leney and Remfry 2000). 2005). Canine-vaccination pro- government were beaten to death. grams cost 25–56 percent of pos- Both vaccinated and unvaccinated Postexposure texposure treatments (Bogel and and owned and unowned dogs Rabies Treatment Meslin 1990). According to WHO were killed. The number of people receiving (2001, 4), Rather than reducing rabies postexposure treatment has in- Rabies control in dogs remains risk, the culling of dogs in coun- creased dramatically over the past the only long-term, cost-effec- tries increases population turnover decade. For example, the number tive means of eliminating or and movement, which, in turn, of people who received postexpo- preventing most human cases. facilitate disease transmission. Fol- sure treatment in Thailand Human public health preven- lowing the elimination of dogs, climbed from 93,641 in 1991 to tive measures should be paral- new dogs repopulate the areas 350,535 in 2001 (Lumlertdacha et leled by programmes for dog through compensatory breeding al. 2006). Improved public aware- rabies control. and migration (Bogel and Meslin ness of the need for treatment,

62 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Based on epidemiological re- paigns and improved postexposure vaccination points were registered search, researchers estimate that treatment (Organizacion Panamer- and vaccinated for rabies, distem- 70 percent vaccination coverage icana 2005). In 1983 the Pan Amer- per, and parvovirus free of charge. will prevent rabies outbreaks ican Health Organization (PAHO) Colored plastic collars were placed (Coleman and Dye 1996; Coyne et and WHO set 2005 as the target on treated dogs. Vaccination cover- al. 2001; WHO 2002; Cleaveland et date for elimination of canine age was assessed at each of four al. 2003). In the field the level of rabies (PAHO and WHO 2005). phases through household surveys, coverage at which protection has Each year forty-four million dogs in observation of dogs, and number of been achieved has varied. For the region are vaccinated (Orga- rabies doses used in proportion to example, in Korea 30–40 percent nizacion Panamericana 2005). dog population. Researchers also coverage has eliminated rabies In many areas 80 percent coverage collected data from hospitals on (Cleaveland et al. 2003). However, has been achieved quickly (WHO rabies and dog bite incidences at even with 56–80 percent coverage, 2004). As a result of these efforts, each stage. Vaccination coverage of rabies remains endemic in Mexico. human rabies cases dropped by 91 60–70 percent of dogs in this area Average dog-vaccination coverage percent and dog rabies cases of Tanzania has provided sufficient is currently only 9.7 percent in dropped by 93 percent between protection from canine rabies Asia and 10.3 percent in Africa 1982 and 2003. Panama, Costa (Cleaveland et al. 2003). (Knobel et al. 2005). With commu- Rica, Chile, Uruguay, most of Ar- Similar mass rabies vaccination nity participation Bogel and Meslin gentina, and southern Brazil have campaigns have been held else- (1990) believe that 70–75 percent been rabies free for more than ten where in Africa and in Asia (Perry of dogs populations are accessible years (Organizacion Panamericana et al. 1995). In Nairobi central to rabies vaccination campaigns. 2005). point vaccination sites were WHO (2004) recommends that The Latin American experience opened for five days and supple- vaccination campaigns use only in- also makes clear the need to sus- mented with door-to-door coverage activated vaccine, that all staff in- tain vaccination programs. After during the last three days of the volved receive preexposure vaccina- twenty-five years without rabies in campaign. In Nepal vaccination tion, and that dogs be registered to Argentina, outbreaks occurred in campaigns achieved 75–80 percent provide permanent identification two provinces in 2004 (PAHO and coverage and involved public edu- of those who have been vaccinated. WHO 2005). Rabies outbreaks also cation, household surveys, central Rabies surveillance and dog popula- occurred that year in Bolivia and vaccination points for nineteen tion surveys are urged to measure in the state of Zulia in Venezuela. days, and teams that went door-to- population size, turnover, growth, Political commitment, financial door in areas where vaccination sources of ownerless dogs, degree of support for canine rabies-control levels were insufficient (Bogel and supervision of owned dogs, and dis- programs, surveillance and dog Joshi 1990). Mass vaccination tribution and accessibility of dogs population ecology data, and coor- campaigns have improved atti- to be vaccinated (Kitala et al. dination are necessary to sustain tudes toward animals and animal 2001). Dog density and frequency rabies prevention in Latin America welfare (Cleaveland et al. 2006). of immunization campaigns influ- (WHO 2001). With canine rabies Although dog-vaccination cam- ence vaccination coverage success under some control, bat transmis- paigns are more cost-effective than (Cleaveland et al. 2003). sion of rabies has become Latin postexposure treatment, countries WHO (2004) advocates cam- America’s new challenge (Organi- may experience a decline in rabies paigns that begin in one area and zacion Panamericana 2005). without a concomitant decrease in expand to cover larger areas, coun- Targeted mass dog-vaccination demand for postexposure treat- try-wide campaigns, or campaigns campaigns in Africa have achieved ment (Cleaveland et al. 2003). For in geographically separate hot some success as well. In rural north- example, in Tunisia and Thailand spots followed by expanded cover- western Tanzania, the first cam- rabies cases in dogs and humans age (WHO 2001). WHO also sup- paign reduced rabies incidence by declined significantly; however, ports free dog immunization. 70 percent (Cleaveland et al. 2003), postexposure treatments remained Dog-vaccination campaigns along and a second campaign reduced the at the same level or increased. Dog national borders also are recom- disease by 97 percent. In Tanzania rabies may need to be virtually mended to provide an “immunity advertisements through primary eliminated before demand for post- belt” (WHO 2001). schools and meetings with commu- exposure treatment decreases Many Latin American countries nity leaders took place before the (Cleaveland et al. 2003). have had success in controlling the vaccination campaign. A central Oral vaccine as a supplement to spread of rabies through mass vaccination point was set up in each current parenteral vaccination canine rabies vaccination cam- village, and all dogs brought to the campaigns is viewed as an addi-

Free-Roaming Dogs in Developing Countries: The Benefits of Capture, Neuter, and Return Programs 63 tional strategy to increase vaccina- Wilde, Khawplod, and Khamoltham will improve vaccination coverage. tion coverage (Cleaveland 1998; 2005; Bauhloul et al. 2006; Cleave- In Mexico puppies are vaccinated at WHO 2004; Denduangboripant et land et al. 2006). Few dogs live one month as a part of rabies-con- al. 2005). Trials of this drug, devel- long enough for booster vaccina- trol efforts (WHO 1998a). oped initially to control rabies in tions (Mitmoonpitak 1997). Subse- While researchers identify mass wild animal populations, were as of quent migration of unvaccinated canine rabies vaccination as the 2006 underway on bait delivery, dogs to areas from which dogs have most effective and affordable safety for target and nontarget ani- been removed further reduces vac- rabies-control strategy, they mals, safety for dogs under ten cination coverage. acknowledge that vaccination cam- weeks, and possible virus excretion Other barriers to dog vaccination paigns often are not adequate to in dog saliva (WHO 1998a,b). include lack of sustainable human maintain a 70–75 percent vaccina- Results that far showed no adverse and financial resources, inaccessi- tion coverage because of the high effects on target or nontarget bility of a large fraction of dogs, turnover of dogs (Kitala et al. species (WHO 2004). Making baits low-quality and high-cost vaccine, 2001). However, many reports on available to owners in central loca- lack of public awareness or collabo- mass rabies vaccination and dog tions, placing baits in select loca- ration among agriculture and population issues in Africa ignore tions, door-to-door delivery, and health departments, poor immune (Dodet 2006) or dismiss (Kitala et giving baits to dogs in the street response, and movement of human al. 2001) sterilization, particularly have been suggested as oral vac- and dog populations (Perry et al. of female dogs. According to Kitala cine distribution strategies (Cleave- 1995; Cleaveland 1998; WHO et al. (2001, 228), “The spaying of land 1998; WHO 1998; Wandeler 2001; Adeyemi et al. 2005; bitches is a specialized feature and and Bingham 2000). WHO (2001) Bauhloul et al. 2006; Lodmell et conceivably out of reach for most has endorsed oral immunization al. 2006; Lumlertdacha et al. 2006). rural poor.” However, with the help for dogs. To achieve and maintain ade- of international animal protection Despite widespread agreement quate vaccination coverage, suc- organizations, sterilization com- about the ineffectiveness of stray cessive vaccination campaigns are bined with vaccination has been dog removal to control rabies necessary. Mass vaccination cam- instituted in some communities transmission and limit population paigns need an initial two-year with very interesting outcomes. growth, some countries such as Sri phase to achieve 75 percent cover- Lanka have continued to combine age (Bogel and Meslin 1990). mass vaccination campaigns with Annual vaccination of 50 percent Capture, Neuter, removal of dogs. Because of their of dogs for four years is necessary perceived inaccessibility for par- to consolidate the 75 percent cov- and Return/ enteral vaccination, stray dogs are erage, along with surveillance and Release eliminated by capture and killing vaccination at borders and points in mobile vehicles with gas cham- of entry for international travelers. Public Health and bers (Matter et al. 2000). As a part Some researchers suggest that vac- Animal Welfare Benefits of the immunization campaign in cination campaigns should be con- Mass vaccination campaigns and im- Sri Lanka, twelve vaccination ducted every six to eight months provements in postexposure treat- points were set up (Matter et al. because of high population turn- ment have significantly reduced dog 2000). The campaign was an- over (Cleaveland 1998). WHO and human rabies cases. Vaccination nounced through posters and a (2004) also supports more fre- campaigns also have demonstrated loudspeaker on a vehicle, and sta- quent vaccination campaigns community support for dog treat- pled collars made it possible to where population turnover is par- ment programs, the accessibility of identify vaccinated dogs by geo- ticularly high. free-roaming dogs for vaccination graphic area. Dogs under three Excluding young puppies from and other treatments, and impor- months were excluded from the vaccination programs is another tant techniques for reaching dogs. campaign. In Sri Lanka 492,000 obstacle to rabies prevention. Capture, neuter, and return/release dogs are vaccinated annually, but Despite the fact that young dogs are (CNR) programs directly confront coverage remains below 70 percent most involved in rabies transmis- the problem of high turnover of dog (WHO 1996; Matter et al. 2000). sion, puppies under three months populations, which mitigates against High population turnover for are rarely vaccinated during cam- extensive rabies vaccination cover- dogs as a result of dog removal and paigns. Perry (1995), Cleaveland age and dog population control. mortality undermines the success (1998), WHO (2004), and Bauhloul CNR programs have as their goal of mass vaccination programs et al. (2006) maintain that includ- the stabilization—not elimina- (Cleaveland 1998; WHO 2001; ing puppies under three months tion—of street dog populations and

64 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 the control of rabies transmission dogs to fill ecological niches left nancy can improve animal health, (Help in Suffering 2003). CNR for vacant by dog losses. Return of making the animal less vulnerable dogs in developing countries has sterilized dogs to their home terri- to predation, reductions in food been modeled on trap, neuter, and tories prevents a “vacuum effect” supply, bad weather, and other chal- return (TNR) programs for feral cat of attracting new dogs to unoccu- lenges. In addition, sterilization colonies in the United States (HSI pied territories (Leney and Remfry minimizes risks of some debilitat- 2002). For TNR programs, people 2000). Return of dogs to the terri- ing and fatal diseases. who put out food for stray and feral tories from which they were cap- TNR programs for feral cats colonies trap cats and bring them tured also diminishes the stress highlight some of these benefits. to a veterinary facility, where the and vulnerability of the returned Mean feral cat colony size de- cats are sterilized and vaccinated dogs after surgery. These programs creased from 7 to 5.1 after Florida for rabies and other diseases. The reduce the number of puppies in spay-and-neuter programs (Cen- cats are ear-tipped to identify them the population, who are at the tonze and Levy 2002). Neutering as having been sterilized and then greatest risk for transmission of of free-roaming cats improved body returned to the colony. Cats who rabies and other diseases. Similar weight, body condition, and life test positive for feline leukemia to vaccination programs, a 70 per- span (Scott et al. 2002; Levy, Gale, virus (FeLV) or other diseases that cent sterilization rate is necessary and Gale 2003). Eighty-two per- are not treatable are euthanized to stabilize dog populations. Some cent of feral cat colony caretakers humanely. Kittens more than seven argue that dog overpopulation will observe that spaying and neutering weeks old are removed from the continue to be a problem until the has improved the quality of cats’ colonies, sterilized, socialized, and proportion of breeding females is lives (Centonze and Levy 2002). placed for adoption. The cats are less than 20 percent (Fielding and Scott et al. (2002, 212) conclude, usually returned to caretakers on Plumridge 2005). Like TNR pro- “in addition to halting reproduc- the same day as surgery and then grams, CNR programs have strong tion, neutering may have other may be kept overnight before being public support where catch and kill effects that, combined, improve the returned to their colonies. In TNR programs do not (Leney 2002). welfare of feral and free-roaming treated feral cat colonies continue CNR programs also have pressed cats.” to be managed and monitored. for changes in waste disposal. As Contraceptive trials involving The TNR management of cats Help in Suffering (2003, n.p.) wild animals further document has been viewed as more effective notes, “The overall, ultimate an- improved body condition and re- than euthanasia because it allows swer to street dog population con- duced mortality as a result of tem- cats to continue to “occupy envi- trol is to control the availability of porary or permanent sterilization. ronmental niches” that otherwise edible wastes.” Waste disposal is a Pregnancy prevention with the would be filled by unvaccinated major factor in free-roaming dog immunocontraceptive porcine and unsterilized cats (Hughes, populations and bite incidences. zona pellucide (PZP) enhanced the Slater, and Haller 2002). In this In New Providence 25 percent of body condition of female deer way TNR colonies provide “a sub- garbage discarded each week was (Kirkpatrick 1996, 2005; McShea stantial barrier of vaccinated indi- edible (Fielding, Mather, and et al. 1997; Rutberg 2005). The viduals against disease” (Slater Isaacs 2005). In Nepal stray dogs health of wild horses on Assa- and Shain 2005, 46). TNR also are able to feed at garbage dumps teague Island, Virginia, also im- encourages colony feeders to par- that line the streets and frequent proved as a result of the PZP con- ticipate in feral cat management the makeshift slaughter facilities traceptive program (Turner and and, if done properly, leads to a in Katmandhu where offal is dis- Kirkpatrick 2002). Before PZP in- decline in the colony size. TNR has posed of. In Japan, where there is troduction, the mortality rate was been endorsed by the American no loose garbage, stray dog popula- greater than 10 percent for adult Veterinary Medical Association and tions are lower (Kato et al. 2003). horses and 3 percent for foals. most leading animal protection Central to the success of CNR With the contraceptive program, organizations. TNR also has won programs are improvements in the adult mortality decreased to less the support of caretakers of feral health, longevity, and behavior of than 4 percent and foal mortality cat colonies who oppose euthana- free-roaming dogs in addition to to about 1 percent (Turner and sia of healthy cats and are needed reductions in population growth. Kirkpatrick 2002). The mean age to implement TNR programs. For many years researchers have re- at death of mares that have not By controlling population growth ported the health benefits of sterili- been contracepted is 6.4 years, and reducing dog mortality, CNR zation and contraception. Repeated whereas it jumps to 19.9 years in programs discourage migration pregnancies can physically stress mares who have been contracepted and compensatory breeding of animals, while the absence of preg- for three or more years (J. Kirk-

Free-Roaming Dogs in Developing Countries: The Benefits of Capture, Neuter, and Return Programs 65 patrick, personal communication dogs. Spayed female dogs in one use of local and visiting veterinari- with A.N.R., n.d. 2005). study gained an additional year over ans, target populations, and sterili- Dogs derive other health bene- intact female dogs (Michell 1998). zation levels. Table 3 provides an fits from sterilization in addition to In this study, longevity differences overview of selected CNR programs. fewer pregnancies. Spayed and between neutered and intact male neutered dogs do not face the risk dogs were insignificant. However, India of ovarian, mammary, and prostate another study found removal of With an estimated population of diseases and disorders (Kustritz testis increases the life expectancy twenty-four million dogs, India has 2002). Cancer is less likely in both of male dogs (Waters, Shen, and been the site of pioneering CNR female and male dogs after sterili- Glickman 2000). Neutered dogs in programs. ABC (Animal Birth Con- zation (Michell 1998, 1999). The New Providence, The Bahamas, trol) programs were introduced fol- cancer risk of female dogs who were found to live longer than did lowing WHO and WSPA’s publica- have been spayed declines even intact dogs as a result of a reduction of Guidelines for Dog Man- more significantly than it does for tion in sexually transmitted dis- agement, which addressed the inef- male dogs. Castration reduces the eases, exposure to disease, and fectiveness of capture and kill as a duration of chronic bacterial pro- stress of mating and fighting (Field- dog-control strategy. According to statitis infection in male dogs ing, Mather, and Isaacs 2005). WHO (2004, 54), the goal of ABC (Cowan et al. 1991). In addition, CNR programs also have the programs is to “reduce dog popula- all CNR programs provide a range capacity to produce behavioral tion turnover as well as the number of treatments for parasites, nutri- changes in dogs that limit bite and of dogs susceptible to rabies and tional deficiencies, and other disease risk. In TNR programs limit aspects of male dog behavior health problems as well as vaccina- caretakers report that feral cats (such as dispersal and fighting) that tion and sterilization. were friendlier, less aggressive, and facilitate the spread of rabies.” Several studies have examined less likely to roam after they were ABC programs in India were the relative benefits of early gonad- sterilized (Scott et al. 2002). Ster- launched in response to the use of ectomy. Comparing spay and neuter ilization also reduces roaming and strychnine poisoning and electro- for shelter dogs at twelve weeks, aggressive behavior in male dogs cution as the dominant animal-con- twelve to twenty-three weeks, and (Lockwood 1995). Fewer escaping trol strategies (Help in Suffering more than twenty-four weeks of age, behaviors have been reported after 2003). In 1992 New Delhi’s court Howe (1997) found fewer minor gonadectomy (Spain, Scarlett, and required that ABC programs re- complications for earlier proce- Houpt 2004). Fewer females in place cruel and ineffective methods dures and no difference in major heat also reduces fighting and of dog control (Help in Suffering complications. Another study con- pack formation (Help in Suffering 2003). A pilot program by Help in cluded that the benefits of early 2003; Nolan 2006). For 60 percent Suffering (HIS) in 1994 and 1995 gonadectomy outweigh the risks of dogs in one study, castration demonstrated the effectiveness of (Spain, Scarlett, and Houpt 2004). reduced urine marking, roaming, CNR in several Jaipur districts. The While some researchers have sug- and mounting, and one-third of program then expanded to all of gested that urinary incontinence dogs showed significant decreases Jaipur. ABC programs have begun may result from ovariohysterectomy in aggressive behavior (Neilson, in Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta, (Holt and Thrusfield 1993), other Eckstein, and Hart 1997). Madras, Bangalore, Hyderabad, studies have revealed that urinary Uidapur, and Jodhpur. The Jaipur incontinence is less frequent in program has developed new tech- dogs who undergo the procedure CNR Programs niques for counting street dogs and before first estrus than those who Despite CNR’s promise, it has been for the capture and return of such do after first estrus (Kustritz 2002). introduced only in India, Thailand, dogs (Help in Suffering 2003). Salmeri et al. (1991) saw little dif- island areas, and a handful of other For the ABC program, HIS (2003) ference in health outcomes for spay countries. In many of these coun- selects an area of the district, subdi- and neuter at seven weeks versus tries, CNR programs were launched vides the district, and establishes a seven months, although they found in direct response to threatened or quota for the number of dogs to be more growth plate closure delayed actual mass killings of dogs by gov- captured in each area. Before work- in early-neutered dogs that they did ernment officials in attempts to re- ing in the area, HIS informs people in intact dogs. duce populations and decrease about the ABC program, what will As a result of improved body con- rabies transmission. Some CNR pro- be done to the dogs, and the bene- dition and diminished susceptibility grams operate from fixed clinics, fits of the program. Staff then travel to disease, sterilized dogs enjoy others depend on mobile clinics. through the areas capturing as longer life spans than do intact The programs vary in their duration, many female adult dogs and older

66 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Table 3 Selected Capture, Neuter, Return Program Locations, Duration, Sterilization Levels, and Components

Postprogram Place/ Type of Number of Sterilization Education Duration Clinic Vets Sterilizations Level Programs Source

Abaco Fixed Local 540 dogs and cats N/A No HSI (2001); (February 2000– 432 dogs (75 percent) Hargreaves (2002) October 2000) 108 cats (25 percent) 4–6 days per clinic Dogs (59 percent female, 8 clinics 41 percent male)

Bali Mobile Local 13,790 dogs 51 percent Yes Peacock (2005a); (September 1998– Fixed Visiting Listriani (2002) May 2005) Ongoing

Galapagos Islands Mobile Visiting 2,601 dogs N/A Yes Animal Balance (May 2004–May 2005) and cats (2005, 2006) Isabela Island—6 weeks Santa Cruz—3 weeks San Cristobal—4 weeks All three islands— 9 additional days

Jaipur Fixed Local > 23,000 dogs 68 percent No Help in Suffering (February 1997– adult males and (2003) May 2006) < 3 months Ongoing excluded 12 dogs captured per day, 7 days a week

Sri Lanka Mobile Visiting 1,833 dogs 70–90 percent No Peacock (2005b) (January–May 2005) (34 percent female, 13 sites 66 percent male) 81 days in field puppies of both sexes as possible. withheld from them overnight. brought into the shelter are eutha- With the exception of puppies, male Anesthetized female dogs are nized because they are terminally dogs are excluded from the pro- spayed using the keyhole flank ill, badly injured, too aggressive, or gram. Sterilization of female dogs is procedure, with the exception of suspected of being rabid or having seen as more cost-effective, since heavily pregnant dogs on whom a come in contact with another one male dog can impregnate mul- midline spaying procedure is per- rabid dog. tiple females. In addition, there is a formed. Anesthetized male dogs HIS (2003) has sterilized and belief that intact male dogs are are castrated. All dogs are vacci- vaccinated 68 percent of the dogs more territorial, which will prevent nated and identified with individu- in the population and has per- immigration of new dogs into terri- alized tattoos and an earmark. formed more than twenty-three tories (Nolan 2006). Puppies under After surgery a veterinarian deter- thousand spay-and-neuter proce- three months also are not captured. mines which dogs are ready for dures. While there has been some Dogs are captured in the early release and which need to stay opposition to the capture of dogs mornings and early evenings by longer. The average release time is and to their return, the program hand or with sacks and hoops. Staff 3.79 days for females and 3.25 generally enjoys widespread public receive incentives to encourage days for males. The dogs are then support (Nolan 2006). In her eval- high catch rates and capture of sick returned to the areas where they uation of the Jaipur program, No- dogs beyond their quotas. The dogs were captured. Two dogs are re- lan (2006, n.p.) observes, “Surgi- are then transported to the clinic. leased at a time to minimize prob- cal spay and neutering of dogs At the clinics the dogs rest for lems among the dogs and between appeared [to be] well accepted. twelve to twenty-four hours (Help the dogs and the public. Approxi- Human population control and in Suffering 2003), and food is mately 10 percent of the dogs health care campaigns may have

Free-Roaming Dogs in Developing Countries: The Benefits of Capture, Neuter, and Return Programs 67 helped raise awareness of this concept.” Figure 2 WSPA also evaluated the Jaipur program recently. WSPA found that, Number of Rabies Deaths in while there was a relatively rapid Chennai, India, 1996–2003 increase in the proportion of females Chennai Citywide ABC/Started Sept. ’96 sterilized (10–60 percent over the 140 first three years), the increase over 120 120 the next six years (to about 75 per- 107 cent sterilized) has been much 100 slower. As a result of the ABC program, the dog density also declined 80 by one third between 1997 and 2002. 60 However, these decreases have not 44 continued. The possible addition of 40 35 dogs to the population from the re- 24 production of dogs whose owners 20 17 16 have kept them on private property Number of Rabies Deaths 5 0 to avoid ABC capture, inadequate ABC coverage in some areas, and 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 migration or acquisition of dogs from Year outside of the district may have pre- vented further population declines. Higher reproductive and pup survival Figure 3 rates among dogs in protected envi- Number of Rabies Deaths in ronments also may contribute to higher than expected population lev- Jaipur, India, 1992–2002 els (E. Hiby, personal communication Jaipur-Walled City ABC/Started March ’96 with A.N.R., n.d. 2006). 12 Among the challenges the Jaipur 10 10 program has faced is difficulty in 10 9 getting commitments from munic- 8 ipal authorities to refrain from cap- 8 turing or killing dogs (Help in Suf- 7 fering 2003). Municipal officials 6 receive pressure from residents 5 who see dogs as a nuisance and fear 4 rabies. Officials also are concerned 3 that CNR success will result in re- 2 2 ductions in animal-control jobs. Number of Rabies Deaths 1 The absence of information on 00 0 street dog behavior and lack of 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 trained resources, staff, equipment, and medical supplies also Year have been problematic. HIS had initial difficulties in identifying 2003). Nonetheless, other cities in impact. If they are significantly re- Indian veterinary surgeons to par- India have also reported success ducing the number of young male ticipate in the program because with their ABC programs (Krishna dogs (the main rabies vectors) from few local veterinarians have experi- 2005). Chennai has recorded a the streets, it is conceivable that ence or training in small-animal substantial decline in human even a small reduction in teenage medicine (Nolan 2006). In addi- rabies cases since it launched its male dogs could break the infection, problems with other non- ABC program in September 1996 tion cycle for rabies. The ABC pro- governmental organizations inflat- (Figure 2), and the Jaipur rabies gram in Jodhpur has been set up to ing their sterilization numbers data are also impressive (Figure 3). try to answer some of these ques- have undermined the reputation of It is not immediately apparent tions. A desert city, Jodhpur is ABC programs (Help in Suffering why ABC programs should have this essentially an island consisting of

68 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 about 950,000 people and 46,000 2002). This capture strategy has from clinics was viewed as more dogs (or 4.9 dogs per hundred peo- only served to facilitate migration important than the financial incen- ple) (K. Doyle, personal communi- of infected and intact dogs into tive (HSI 2001). cation with A.N.R., n.d. 2006). new territories. Targeted CNR cam- The Abaco program was consid- paigns in isolated geographic areas ered a success: the proportion of Thailand such as southern Thailand are owners with sterilized dogs in- In 1995 Thailand set the goal of viewed as more viable (Denduang- creased from 62 percent before the being rabies free by 2000 (Wasi et boripant et al. 2005). four clinics to 76 percent after the al. 1997). Under Thailand’s 1992 clinics (HSI 2001). With the popu- Rabies Prevention Act, every Island Nations larity of the program, AARF was owned dog must be vaccinated at CNR programs have operated suc- asked to run makeshift clinics in two to four months of age and cessfully in island areas, including other neighborhoods (HSI 2001). receive annual vaccinations (Wasi Abaco, Bali, the Galapagos, and Sri Obstacles to the program have et al. 1997). Vaccination and steril- Lanka. In Abaco, an island in the included the lack of owner partici- ization campaigns focused on com- Bahamas, a spay/neuter incentive pation and the numbers-driven munity dogs who live around tem- program (SNIP) was launched in program approach that on occa- ples and schools (Kamoltham, 1999 with support from HSI and sion has resulted in more captured Singhsa, and Promsaranee 2003). the Pegasus Foundation. In 2000, dogs than could be sterilized (HSI Methods of sterilization included after the success of the initial pro- 2001). injections of medroxyprogesterone gram, SNIP and Abaco Animals In Bali, an island with 3,151,000 acetate, surgery, and use of natural Require Friends (AARF) initiated people, there are an estimated plant hormones. Outreach to the “Project Potcake” as a CNR pro- 550,000–600,000 dogs (18–18.5 medical community and local res- gram (HSI 2001). Most “potcakes” dogs per hundred people). Eighty- idents encouraged bite victims to (local dogs) are unowned, but five percent of these animals are seek treatment (Kamoltham, these dogs are recognized and sup- street dogs (Listriani 2002). Since Singhsa, and Promsaranee 2003). ported by specific neighborhoods. its inception in 1998 by the Bali Mass vaccination campaigns For Project Potcake, two local Street Dog Foundation (Yayasan achieved 53 percent coverage veterinary clinics ran eight spay- Yudisthira Swarga [YYS]) the pro- (WHO 1996). Although rabies de- and-neuter programs for four to six gram has sterilized 13,790 dogs and clined from two thousand cases in days each (HSI 2001). Volunteers provided veterinary care to an addi- 1993 to fewer than twenty in 2003, canvassed neighborhoods and tional 31,718 (Peacock 2005a). YYS vaccination levels of 40–70 percent transported dogs to the clinics, started with a “catch, treat, and in parts of the country are viewed where the animals were sterilized release” program to treat skin disas inadequate, particularly in view for free. The program focused on eases, parasites, and wounds. YYS of the migration of infected dogs female dogs, but also included now operates both mobile and fixed from suburban and rural areas male dogs and cats. Project Pot- clinics; the former comprise two (Denduangboripant et al. 2005). cake exceeded its target goals (HSI doctors, one dogcatcher, and a Moreover, stray dog populations 2001). After the program had suc- driver/field assistant. The “M.A.S.H.- tripled between 1992 and 1999 cessfully reached both owned and style” surgery unit goes out four (Lumlertdacha et al. 2006). socialized dogs, it attempted with- days a week, and the CNR program With a population of six to ten out success to use baited traps to is directed at both female and male million dogs, Thailand imple- capture less accessible dogs (HSI dogs. Before the mobile clinics mented a new program of capture, 2001). At the clinics dogs received began to visit villages, about 24 per- neuter, vaccination, and return in additional medical treatment, cent of the dogs were sterilized. 2002. This program has been the including antibiotics, fluid replace- After seven years of operation, an target of criticism because it is ment, and diagnosis of skin condi- estimated 51 percent of dogs are limited to Bangkok and lacks ade- tions (HSI 2001). now sterilized. Of the spay-and- quate financial and staffing re- Initially, the program offered in- neuter surgeries, 74 percent are sources (Denduangboripant et al. centives of $10 for each male dog performed by the mobile clinics 2005). Programs in Thailand faced brought in and all cats and $15 for (Peacock 2005a). It is evident that difficulties in hiring veterinarians each female dog. Incentives were the increased proportion of steril- who are trained in small-animal important in overcoming initial ized dogs cannot be due solely to surgery. When they could not hire community suspicion, but could be YYS activities. However, YYS has enough veterinarians for surgery, decreased or eliminated as the pro- stimulated a change in community Thailand officials built kennels gram gained community support. and veterinary behavior such that to house captured dogs (Clifton Transportation for the dogs to and sterilization is now more common.

Free-Roaming Dogs in Developing Countries: The The Benefits of Capture, Neuter, and Return Programs 69 Veterinary education and train- Cristobal Island in 2005, along Field clinics sterilized and vacci- ing have been a major focus of with another week-long clinic on nated an estimated 70–90 percent YYS’s work. WSPA initially trained Santa Cruz Island. In 2006 simul- of the dog population at each site. staff in spay procedures using a taneous campaigns were held on In total 1,430 dogs were treated spay hook (Listriani 2002). Since all three islands for nine days. between January and May 2005 then YYS’s fixed clinic has become Through these campaigns Animal (Peacock 2005b). The program a teaching facility for local veteri- Balance has sterilized 2,601 dogs developed strong community sup- narians and veterinary students. and cats. After 2007 municipal port, helped improve attitudes Regular seminars are held in con- administrators were to assume re- toward animal welfare, and in- junction with the Indonesia Veteri- sponsibility for the project. creased appreciation of the need nary Association, and YYS offers The program has faced two for veterinary services (HSI 2006). internships for veterinary students recent challenges. Animal Balance and hosts visiting veterinarians (2006) is working with quarantine from other countries. YYS also officials to contend with importa- The Success of runs “kindness” classes for chil- tion of purebred dogs to the dren and undertakes other public islands, which could compromise CNR: Outcomes, education efforts. vaccination and sterilization cover- Ingredients, and To stop the poisoning of dogs age. The organization also forged a and cats by the Galapagos National compromise in response to the de- Constraints CNR programs have been able to Park Service (GNPS), Animal Bal- mand for puppies on San Cristobal stabilize and, in some cases, ance introduced CNR to the Gala- Island. Previously hunters had reduce free-roaming dog popula- pagos Islands (Animal Balance refused to have their dogs steril- tions. The ABC program in Jaipur 2005, 2006). The local govern- ized. Animal Balance agreed to res- achieved an initial population ment provided clinic space, and cue and make available for adop- reduction of 28 percent (Help in municipal representatives did an tion excess puppies that otherwise Suffering 2003). In Abaco 50–75 initial door-to-door survey to in- would be killed by hunters. percent fewer dogs were seen form residents about the upcom- CNR programs also have been roaming the streets after Project ing spay-and-neuter program. A list implemented in rapid response to Potcake than during the year of interested residents was given natural disasters that precipitate before the program (Hargreaves to Animal Balance, which then fear of rabies. After the huge 2002), and the number of dog invited people to bring their dogs tsunami in 2004, the Sri Lankan roadkills declined significantly. and cats to the clinic, and GNPS military threatened to eradicate Few litters of pups and pregnant or provided vehicles to transport the street dogs to prevent rabies out- nursing potcakes were observed animals. Additional door-to-door breaks (HSI 2005a,b,c). The tsu- (HSI 2001; Hargreaves 2002). With canvassing covered every house on nami had displaced community the YYS program, the overall dog several of the islands to encourage dogs from familiar neighborhoods, to human population ratio in Bali participation. Radio commercials making it difficult for them to declined from 1:5.6 to 1:5.2 (Pea- publicized the program and pro- locate food and shelter. Sri Lankan cock 2005a). The population of vided public education on dog officials agreed to suspend plans dogs in targeted villages in Bali was care. Dog training and school- for shooting and poisoning dogs reduced by over half when 75 per- based humane education programs after HSI made a commitment to cent of the village dogs were also supplemented the treatment launch a CNR program to vacci- spayed or neutered. The popula- of dogs and cats. nate and sterilize free-roaming tion of puppies in these areas has Before the Animal Balance pro- dogs. Working with a Sri Lankan decreased from 32 percent to 25 gram, no veterinary services were animal hospital, veterinarians and percent. In the Galapagos Islands, available on the islands for dogs other volunteers from HSI, YYS, Animal Balance (2006) anticipated and cats. Clinic equipment was and The Humane Society of the pet populations would be stabilized brought to the Galapagos, and vol- United States’ Rural Area Veteri- on Isabela, San Cristobal, and unteer veterinarians from abroad nary Services set up thirteen suc- Santa Cruz islands by 2007. were recruited to perform surger- cessive field clinics across the Another measure of CNR success ies in the clinics. Animal Balance country. In addition to capturing, is reduction in canine rabies trans- had run seven campaigns by 2006. vaccinating, neutering, and return- mission. In Jaipur the ABC pro- In 2004 initial clinics were held on ing community dogs, the field clin- gram has been associated with a Isabela Island for six weeks and on ics encouraged owners to bring in significant decrease in rabies Santa Cruz Island for two weeks. A their pets. cases. In 2002 and 2003, no rabies four-week clinic was held on San

70 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 cases were reported in Jaipur (Fig- dogs are less likely to roam or also experienced initial resistance ure 2) in districts in which CNR fight (Help in Suffering 2003; Ani- from local veterinarians that disap- programs have been implemented. mal Balance 2005). peared when YYS activities led to In areas in which the program did While documentation of CNR an increased demand for veteri- not operate, the number of rabies program outcomes is preliminary, nary services. cases increased or stayed the same. CNR and vaccination campaign Involvement of local veterinari- After declines in rabies deaths experiences, epidemiology, and ans is imperative to meet legal throughout the 1990s and no dog ecology and behavior suggest requirements in some countries rabies deaths in 2002 in Thailand, several lessons for future pro- (Hargreaves 2002), to strengthen three people died of rabies in grams. Dog population surveys are support for CNR programs, and to Bangkok in 2003 (Lumlertdacha crucial to developing CNR and vac- ensure long-term availability of et al. 2006). The migration of peo- cination programs and monitoring spay-and-neuter services (HSI ple and dogs from affected areas, their success (Matter and Daniels 2002). CNR programs increase which, in turn, diminished rabies 2000; Wandeler and Bingham local veterinarians’ interest in vaccination coverage, most likely 2000; WHO 2004). Measurement small-animal medicine. Following contributed to this spike in the dis- of dog populations requires house- the same pattern in the United ease (Denduangboripant et al. hold surveys; collection of informa- States, low or no-cost spay-and- 2005; Lumlertdacha et al. 2006). tion on dog survival, fecundity, sex neuter programs not only make In Sri Lanka CNR possibly fore- ratio, age structure, keeping prac- services available and affordable, stalled rabies outbreaks in the tices and human population; use of but they also spur local veterinari- wake of the tsunami. capture-mark-recapture strategy ans to provide them (HSI 2002). At In many CNR program areas, to estimate owned and ownerless most locations CNR clinics were recapture of treated dogs and field population; and field observation the first veterinary services pro- observations have demonstrated to ascertain reproduction, survival, vided to dogs and helped build improved dog health. In Abaco habitat use, food sources, and public support for veterinary care. dogs who had been sterilized social behavior (Matter and Community involvement is showed weight gain, improved Daniels 2000). essential to the success of CNR coat luster and quality, improved CNR experiences in developing and vaccination programs. Resi- skin conditions, and fewer para- countries reveal important issues dents play an important role at all sites and venereal tumors (HSI regarding the involvement of the sites in assisting program imple- 2001). Following CNR implemen- veterinary community. Few veteri- mentation through bringing dogs tation in Bali, the proportion of narians in developing countries to sites and monitoring the ani- dogs classified as having poor wel- have training or experience in mals. In many programs commu- fare status decreased from 33 small-animal medicine and surgery nity leaders or “village mentors” percent to 13 percent (Peacock (WHO 2001). Most veterinary provide entrée into local commu- 2005a). As of 2006 ABC dogs in training is oriented toward agricul- nities and facilitate public educa- Jaipur were in better condition tural use of animals. To be success- tion and participation. Other pro- than was the rest of the dog popu- ful, CNR programs must incorpo- grams enlist the involvement of lation (Help in Suffering 2003). rate a training component for local “dog mommas,” who serve as care- HIS (2003) was in the process of veterinarians. The Bali program, in takers for neighborhood groups of developing more precise body con- which visiting veterinarians are dogs (HSI 2002). At all sites pro- dition scoring techniques to quan- provided with training capacity, grams gained strong community tify improvements. These tech- has done this most successfully. In support and saw improved atti- niques were being applied addition, the YYS veterinary teams tudes toward animal welfare. elsewhere. In addition, fewer dogs have trained veterinarians in Sri Field experiences also demon- were observed in emaciated condi- Lanka and India. strate the importance of transportation after clinic-based sterilization CNR and sterilization programs tion of dogs to clinic sites and programs in Abaco (HSI 2003). also have identified some conflicts mobile clinics. Experiences in Little research on dog behavior with local veterinarians. In Taiwan, Abaco, Jaipur, and other settings has been carried out before and for example, veterinarians have suggest that people who are respon- after CNR programs, although evi- been reluctant to support spay- sible for dogs are often unwilling or dence from Bali suggests the pro- and-neuter programs because they unable to bring their animals to a portion of aggressive dogs has “believe [the] resulting reduction location that is any distance from decreased (from 8 percent to 3 in the dog population will be bad their home. Rabies vaccination percent [Peacock 2005a]), and for business” (Hsu, Severinghaus, campaign surveys have found that other sites report that treated and Serpell 2003, 15). In Bali YYS the proportion of vaccinated dogs

Free-Roaming Dogs in Developing Countries: The Benefits of Capture, Neuter, and Return Programs 71 diminishes as the distance from vac- At these more isolated sites, risks more useful. Immunocontracep- cination points increases (Matter et of migration or introduction of tives need to be administered annual. 2000). Owner inability to handle infected or unsterilized dogs were ally or every two years, which pres- animals is another obstacle to par- minimal. In contrast, the size of ents a major logistical problem in ticipation in clinics that could be Thailand and India and territorial developing countries. Although ameliorated through transportation borders make the integration of some have suggested that the PZP of dogs (Matter et al. 2000). To new dogs more likely to occur and immunocontraceptive could lead reach the maximum number of harder to manage. The failure of to sterilization of dogs (Fayrer- dogs possible, dogs must be recent CNR programs in Thailand Hosken, Dookwah, and Brandon brought to clinics for spay-and- makes clear this threat to main- 2000), the data are not strong, and neuter procedures, or the clinics taining both vaccination and steril- no one has shown conclusively that must be brought to the dogs. ization thresholds. As Thailand PZP is effective in any canid even as Attitudinal surveys conducted studies of the distribution of differ- an immunocontraceptive. around CNR and vaccination pro- ent rabies virus strains confirm, The difficulty of monitoring dogs grams reveal some of the obstacles dog populations move with human after surgery in a field setting is yet to convincing owners to seek care populations. CNR programs need another concern. WSPA tradition- for their dogs. Overall, residents to address these population shifts ally only favors CNR as a short- are supportive of spay-and-neuter of humans and dogs to maintain term strategy when dogs can be programs because they want to stable dog populations and to monitored for health and welfare, avoid the animals’ having litters achieve ongoing population reduc- the environment can support free- (HSI 2001). However, in Abaco, for tions. “Immunization belts” and roaming dogs, and government example, some owners did not have “sterilization belts” at borders of and public support guarantees ani- their dogs neutered because of the CNR program areas, as well as mal safety (Leney 2002; WSPA young age of the dog, they had revaccination campaigns, are im- 2006). In her research on gonadec- missed a previous clinic, or they portant to maintain population tomy, Howe (1997) found greater did not want to sterilize male or stabilization and vaccination cov- risks after sterilization the shorter purebred dogs (HSI 2001; Field- erage. Another threat to CNR the postsurgical holding period in ing, Samuels, and Mather 2002). progress in Thailand and elsewhere U.S. shelters. CNR programs Older owners are more likely than is the continued capturing and/or vary in the amount of time they are younger ones to have their killing of dogs, which further en- keep dogs before and after proce- dogs spayed (Fielding, Samuels, courages movement and increased dures. In Jaipur dogs usually spend and Mather 2002). Owners often breeding among the remaining the night at the clinic before sur- let females have one litter before intact animals. gery and are generally not released spaying (Fielding and Plumridge Researchers have greeted sterili- until three to five days after the 2005). In Africa the desire for zation programs in general and operation (Nolan 2006). In Abaco, more guard dogs may outweigh CNR programs in particular with Bali, Sri Lanka, and the Galapagos, concerns about overpopulation. some initial skepticism. While most surgery was performed immedi- Owned dogs clearly play an experts agree that control of repro- ately, and the dogs were returned important role in maintaining or duction may help in rabies preven- to their territories after relatively increasing population levels of free- tion and with other problems asso- short (same-day) recovery times. roaming dogs. Study after study has ciated with free-roaming dogs, In addition to logistical, resource, found that ownerless dogs who do some do not believe these pro- and medical concerns, postsurgical not depend on humans have low grams are sustainable, affordable, release time has competing animal reproductive rates and cannot or sufficient (WHO 1989; Wilde, welfare implications (Nolan 2006). maintain their population levels Khawplod, and Khamoltham 2005). On the one hand, keeping dogs without new recruits. New recruit Many of the concerns over the longer can avoid postoperation dogs come from the owned popula- cost and ability of CNR to reach suf- complications. On the other hand, tion whose members are allowed to ficient numbers of dogs could be returning dogs sooner reduces roam freely and are not sterilized. addressed with the availability of an stress to the animals and permits Door-to-door canvassing and other antifertility vaccine (Leney and sterilization of more animals. strategies to incorporate owned Remfry 2000; Wheir, Dunbar, and Another obstacle to CNR and dogs are central to the overall suc- Prasad 2005). Immunocontracep- dog-vaccination programs has cess of CNR. tive vaccines provide a possible fer- been the lack of a single govern- CNR success in Abaco, Bali, Sri tility-control approach for many mental department to claim re- Lanka, and the Galapagos has been species of animals, although an sponsibility and adequate re- enhanced by their island locations. immunosterilant would be much sources for these programs (WHO

72 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 1996; Reece 2005). In most coun- welfare. The ability of rabies vacci- ———. 2006. Spring 2006 report. tries successful programs need the nation campaigns to reach up to http://www.animalbalance.org/ collaboration of veterinary, health, 90 percent of dogs, and their suc- index.shtml. and sanitation departments as well cess in achieving sterilization rates Bauhloul, C., D. Taieb, M. Diouani, as animal welfare nongovernmen- of 51–85 percent with CNR, S.B.H. Ahmed, Y. Chtourou, B.I. tal organizations (NGOs) (WHO demonstrates the viability of the B’chir, H. Kharmachi, and K. Del- 2001; Help in Suffering 2003). CNR approach. Because of differ- lagi. 2006. Field trials of a very Political commitment also must be ent dog ownership patterns in potent rabies DNA vaccine which sustained for effective and endur- developing countries, private, low- induced long lasting virus neu- ing rabies control (PAHO and WHO cost, and no-cost sterilization pro- tralizing antibodies and protec- 2005). While government support grams will never reach enough tion in dogs in experimental con- has varied across CNR programs, dogs to achieve population stabi- ditions. Vaccine 24: 1063–1072. Thailand is the only country in lization or reductions. CNR Beck, A. 2000. The human-dog re- which CNR has been a govern- addresses the reluctance of own- lationship: A tale of two species. ment-run activity. ers to take dogs for treatment and In Dogs, zoonoses, and public Puppies have the greatest risk the fact that community dogs health, ed. C. Macpherson, F. of contracting and transmitting often are not affiliated with individ- Meslin, and A. Wandeler, 1–16. rabies. The mortality of puppies uals who take responsibility for New York: CABI Publishing. also contributes to high popula- their veterinary care. Bogel, K., and D.D. Joshi. 1990. tion turnover. Most vaccination CNR also addresses the primary Accessibility of dog populations and CNR programs, however, ex- limitation of mass vaccination for rabies control in Kathmandu clude puppies under three months campaigns: high population Valley, Nepal. Bulletin of the of age. In Jaipur younger puppies turnover. The combination of vac- World Health Organization are not included in CNR because of cination, sterilization, and return 68(5): 611–617. belief that they should not be sep- of dogs to their territories appears Bogel, K., and F. Meslin. 1990. Eco- arated from adults and that the to enhance the health, longevity, nomics of human and canine capture and procedure would be and stability of dog populations, rabies elimination: Guidelines too stressful (Nolan 2006). While reducing movement and breeding for programme orientation. Bul- scientific literature suggests that of unsterilized and unvaccinated letin of the World Health Orga- prepubertal gonadectomy is a safe dogs. Lower dog population levels nization 68: 261–291. procedure with no increased inci- decrease the risk of rabies, echi- Boitsni, L., P. Francisci, P. Ciucci, dence of complications, health, or nococcosis, and toxocariasis. In and G. Andreoli. 1995. Popula- behavioral problems in developed the case of free-roaming dogs, ani- tion biology and ecology of feral countries (Howe et al. 2001), con- mal welfare and human health are dogs in central Italy. In The cern also has been expressed about closely linked. Ultimately, prob- domestic dog: Its evolution, neutering puppies under eight lems with free-roaming dogs can- behavior, and interactions with weeks of age outside a well- not be separated from human pop- people, ed. James Serpell, equipped clinic (Leney and Remfry ulation growth, urbanization, and 217–244. New York: Cambridge 2000) and before their immune increased waste. University Press. systems have matured (Cardwell Brooks, R. 1990. Survey of dog 1993). Modification of CNR pro- population of Zimbabwe and its grams to include on-site vaccina- Literature Cited level of rabies vaccination. tion of puppies could promote Adeyemi, I., V. Adetunji, V. James, Veterinary Record 127(24): rabies prevention and dog health. and D. Alonge. 2005. Ten year 592–596. Sterilization of puppies in field set- (1993–2002) retrospective eval- Butler, J. 2000. Demography and tings in which some supervision is uation of vaccination of dogs dog-human relationships of the available also might be a viable against rabies at the University dog population in Zimbabwean strategy. Because of differences in of Ibadan, Nigeria. African Jour- communal lands. 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78 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Teaching Children to Be Kind in an Unkind World 4CHAPTER

Catherine Ann Fabio

aring attitudes and behav- Americans live in a violent place. violence, robbery and rape, only 9 iors are rooted in a person’s In fact, the United States is the percent of those in the low-risk Ccapacity for empathy. Re- most violent industrialized country sample had witnessed a murder, search (Kestenbaum, Farber, and in the world today (Thornton et al. compared to 32 percent of those in Sroufe 1989; Brazelton and 2002; Hamblen and Goguen 2005; the high-risk sample (Hamblen and Greenspan 2000; Hoffman 2000) Youcha 2005). Violence among Goguen 2005). shows that quality of care and secu- children and teens is a more press- Children are also exposed to vio- rity of attachment affect children's ing problem in the United States lence through the media. Topics later capacity for cognitive develop- than in any other country (U.S. once considered only appropriate ment, emotional regulation, and Department of Health and Human for the eleven o’clock television behavioral control. Nurturing care- Services 2003). A national survey news are presented at all times of giving in a safe environment allows of children ages ten to sixteen day, with little regard for the cogni- for continued development of neu- found that more than one-third tive ability and psychosocial safety ral pathways, which in turn, allows were directly victimized by vio- of the developing child. Film clips for mastery of increasingly sophisti- lence, including aggravated of beheadings; the torture of pris- cated cognitive skills necessary for assault, attempted kidnapping, and oners of war; war-zone hostages emotion regulation, and social per- sexual assault (Boney-McCoy and begging for their lives at gunpoint, spective taking (Selman 1980), Finkelhor 1995). Marans and and war-torn victims cradling the prerequisites to empathic behavior Schaefer (2001) reported on a bloodied bodies of family members (Bryant 1985). True empathy study conducted at a Boston hos- can be viewed from a computer requires that an individual possess pital showing that one of every ten desk chair or livingroom couch. the capacity to discriminate children seen in the primary care War and threats of terrorism on another person’s affect, see a situa- center had witnessed a shooting or U.S. soil further complicate chil- tion from another person’s perspec- stabbing before the age of six (Tay- dren’s psychosocial development, tive, and respond with genuine lor et al. 1992). affecting their sense of personal emotion (Minuchin and Shapiro Children’s exposure to violence safety as well as their understand- 1983). However, contextual factors cuts across all socioeconomic, ing of what constitutes humane such as extreme poverty, homeless- racial, and cultural strata, as behavior. War may be an appropri- ness, chronic exposure to violence, demonstrated by Hill and Jones’s ate topic for teenagers to grapple and insufficient nurturing or (1997) study of nine- through with as they begin to think about childcare practices can interfere twelve-year-old children’s exposure their own developing values and with cognitive and emotional devel- to violence in low-risk versus high- beliefs. However, younger children opment, obstructing the capacity risk neighborhoods. While children lack the cognitive ability to view to care about others and to in both samples had witnessed the ramifications of war from mul- behave empathically. assaults, stabbings, gang-related tiple perspectives while also mak-

79 ing appropriate choices about News, a humane and environmen- tries, it is racially, culturally, and their own behavior. tal education program of the socioeconomically diverse. The impact of violence exposure National Association for Humane varies, depending on internal fac- and Environmental Education Data Collection tors (e.g., age, temperament), (NAHEE). Kind News (http:// A survey was enclosed with each of degree of violence exposure, pro- www.kindnews.org/about.asp) is the district’s fifth- and sixth-grade tective factors in the environment a classroom newspaper for elemen- teachers’ packages of KIND News (e.g., a nurturing parent), and the tary school children. Published newspapers (see appendix A) (n = availability of resources (Osofsky since 1983 by the youth education 270). Due to a low response rate, 1995). However, a growing body of affiliate of The Humane Society of two shorter surveys were developed research shows that consistent ex- the United States, it is read by and distributed to those who had posure to violence may have long- more than a million children na- not returned the original survey. In lasting consequences, affecting tionwide. Its goal, according to its all, 16 original surveys, 7 subset- children’s cognitive and social website, “is to encourage good one surveys, and 10 subset-two sur- development (Osofsky 2001; NYU character in children with an veys were received (n = 33). Child Study Center 2006). For emphasis on kindness to animals, young children, repeatedly witness- respect for natural habitats, good Instrument ing violence undermines a basic citizenship, and peaceful conflict Designed for this evaluation, the sense of trust (Youcha 2005) nec- resolution.” Content includes facts survey tapped into four areas: essary for mastery of more ad- about animals, brainteasers, KIND school and classroom demograph- vanced psychosocial tasks such as Club Projects, inspirational ics; teacher’s knowledge about playing independently, interacting celebrity profiles, an opinion humane and environmental topics; appropriately with peers, and de- forum, and original short stories. It teacher’s motivation and personal veloping a sense of agency. These is published at three reading levels: commitment to teaching about children tend to develop a view of (grades K–2), (grades 3–4), and humane and environmental topics; the world that is hostile (NYU (grades 5–6). It is delivered in bulk and teaching strategies used in Child Study Center 2006) rather to classrooms monthly from Sep- the classroom. than empathic and caring. tember through May accompanied by a teacher’s guide. It is available Data Coding to teachers directly or as a gift and Analysis The Question through NAHEE’s Adopt-a-Class- A correlation was run as a way of How does an elementary school room program. determining all possible connec- teacher foster kind and compas- This chapter focuses on one of tions among variables. Both simple sionate behavior in children ex- many themes in the data, chal- and multivariate regressions were posed to so much inhumane be- lenges teachers face when striv- run, and statistically significant havior? How does she teach them ing to promote humane and envi- correlations were examined in light the importance of respect for the ronmental values and behaviors, of teachers’ responses to open- natural world when they live in en- and challenges students face in ended questions and findings from vironments characterized by so constructing knowledge and an earlier tier of investigation. much disrespect? This question internalizing values. Only find- Open-ended questions were exam- was not posed in the study des- ings related to this theme are ined through use of Open, Axial, cribed in this chapter. Rather, it described. (For other evaluation and Selective coding (Strauss and emerged as a result of reading re- data, contact NAHEE: 67 Nor- Corbin 1990). Throughout the spondents’ hastily scribbled notes wich-Essex Turnpike, E. Haddam, process, coding categories were along the margins and on the back CT 06423-1736). generated and refined. As themes of surveys. In analyzing teachers’ emerged, coding paradigms were responses to survey questions, it developed and examined. became clear that many inter- Methods twined, complex contextual factors affect whether and how teachers Sample Findings promote humane and environmen- Respondents targeted were fifth- tal values and if and how students and sixth-grade teachers in a New Upper Grade Teachers make sense of these lessons. England city with a population of Are Giving Up Their Findings discussed in this chap- 175,000. Home to several colleges Subscriptions ter were extrapolated from a com- and universities, hospitals, and 1. Although subscriptions were prehensive evaluation of KIND numerous trade and service indus- originally distributed to fifth-

80 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 and sixth-grade classes only, fights with weapons, threats the teacher was to report teachers of lower grades have to the safety of others (e.g., improvement in children’s acquired subscriptions. bomb threats), and destruc- behavior toward one another 2. Not all students are reading tion of the natural environ- (p = .049). the edition appropriate to their ment were each reported by grade level (e.g., third graders three or fewer teachers. Only KIND News as a Useful reading an edition designed for one teacher reported knowl- Tool for Addressing fifth/sixth graders). edge of cruelty to animals. Aggressive Behaviors 1. Fourteen of twenty-six teach- Stability of Basic Teachers’ Commitment ers found KIND News helpful Human Needs to Teaching Humane/ in addressing antisocial behav- 1. At least 278 of the 628 stu- Environmental Lessons iors. Nearly as many respondents represented met eligi- 1. Eleven of twenty-six teachers dents did not find it helpful. bility requirements for free surveyed said they feel person- 2. The data revealed a highly sig- and reduced meals, a govern- ally committed to teaching nificant correlation between ment program for families liv- humane/environmental les- grade level and teachers’ per- ing near or below the federal sons. However there was no ception of KIND News as a poverty level. association between teachers’ useful tool for addressing bul- 2. Of twenty-three teachers personal commitment and lying behavior (p = .005). The queried, nine reported at whether they actually teach higher the grade level, the least one student in their such lessons. Their commit- less useful it seemed to be. class living in transitional cir- ment did not predict use of 3. Teachers who stated that cumstances (sleeping in a KIND News as a tool to pro- KIND News was a useful tool shelter or car, on the street, mote those values, nor did it for discussing bullying tended temporarily with others, or in predict teacher-led discussions to see improvement in stu- short-term foster care). about KIND News articles. dents’ behavior toward one 2. Fourteen of twenty-six teach- another since the start of Campus Environment ers queried stated they used KIND News use (p = .049). and Evidence of supplemental materials in Disrespectful Behavior addition to KIND News to pro- 1. Of the twenty-four teachers mote humane, environmen- Discussion reporting bullying in their tal, and character values. classroom, twenty reported of Findings Although this data was collected in that relational violence (ostra- Students’ Academic one large New England city, the cizing, shaming, name-calling, Abilities sample is representative of the verbal threats) was either as 1. The proportion of students larger population of the United evident as or more evident per classroom reading below States (see appendix B). than physical violence (hitting, grade level ranged from 8 per- Who are KIND News readers? In punching, spitting on, push- cent to 100 percent. The the sample city, KIND News sub- ing, tearing/removing cloth- mean percentage was 32. scriptions are given to fifth- and ing, use of weapons). There 2. Classrooms with high per- sixth-grade teachers only, as a gift was no relationship between centages of students reading from a generous donor. However, gender and type of violence. below grade level also had children actually receiving KIND 2. Of the thirty-three teachers high proportions of students News range from grade one to grade queried about problematic reading above grade level six/seven (including one multi- behaviors on campus, twenty- (p = .025). grade special education class). two reported littering and bul- Some fifth- and sixth-grade teachers lying; eight reported excessive Students’ Peer Behavior are passing their subscriptions on to relational aggression; four 1. The higher the grade level, the teachers of lower grades. reported excessive physical less likely the teacher was to Because surveys were included aggression; six reported graf- report improvement in peer be- in each teacher’s subscription fiti; six reported evidence of havior since the start of KIND packet, teachers who gave up their gang activity; and four News exposure (p = .037). subscriptions did not have the reported incidences of stu- 2. The larger the percentage opportunity to participate in the dents bringing weapons to of students reading below evaluation. Upper grade teachers school. Vandalism to cars, grade level, the less likely

Teaching Children to be Kind in an Unkind World 81 may have more time-consuming importance of keeping such infor- and who actually use it as such curriculum demands, minimizing mation private. may be more likely to believe that the time they have to spend on Children’s attitudes and behav- it actually has improved peer be- humane/environmental issues. As iors toward animals are generally havior. It’s possible that teachers evidenced in the data, aggressive positive but their attitudes and who believe they can improve chil- peer behavior seems to be a seri- behaviors toward one another leave dren’s peer behavior, and try to do ous problem, especially in the much to be desired. While some so, actually do improve their be- upper grades; upper grade teach- teachers reported improvement in havior. Only a carefully designed ers may view peer aggression as a children’s attitudes and behavior controlled experiment can tease priority over kindness to animals toward animals, few reported out extraneous variables and pro- and the natural world. improvement in children’s behavior vide more information. The passing of subscriptions has toward one another since the start Teachers lack the time necessary resulted in mismatches between of KIND News exposure. Only for integrating humane and envi- some children’s cognitive and aca- one teacher reported cruelty to ronmental education consistently demic abilities and the edition of animals, while more than half into their curriculum. Regardless of KIND News they currently use. the sample reported bullying as a how committed they are to impart- Classroom populations. A num- serious problem. ing humane and environmental val- ber of languages are spoken in the What to make of this finding? ues to their students, most respon- average classroom, including Eng- Few teachers are in positions to dents appeared to be barraged by lish, Swahili, Chinese, Japanese, observe their students interacting increased curriculum demands Spanish, Creole, Korean, Por- with animals, making accurate and pressures related to standard- tuguese, and Vietnamese. While response difficult. The publication ized testing outcomes. Of those not the majority, some children may affect children’s attitudes few teachers who practice humane have little or no experience with toward animals more than their and environmental education, nature or the natural world (e.g., attitudes toward peers, due to its such lessons tend to be scat- have never walked in a forest, editorial focus on animals. Al- tered and “squeezed in” when climbed a tree, peeked into a though students may construct time allows it or when they find bird’s nest, or visited national/ knowledge and internalize respect “teachable moments.” state park). for animals, they don’t seem to be Respondents cited creative uses A significant number of children transferring that knowledge to for KIND News, including using it live in dire circumstances. The peer relationships. for homework, to promote literacy backgrounds in a single class- KIND News appears to be a use- skills, and as a vehicle to address room ranged from high-income, ful bullying-intervention tool for bullying. Teachers enclosed thank highly educated families with younger children, but not for you notes with their surveys ex- access to numerous resources older ones. Teachers of lower-grade pressing appreciation for the publi- and opportunities to those living students who use KIND News as cation. Their gratitude and creativ- at or below the federal poverty a tool for discussing bullying ity may reflect satisfaction that by level. Approximately one third of tended to report improvement in distributing KIND News, they are students and their families hover students’ behavior toward one satisfying, to some degree, their at this level. another since the start of KIND need to impart humane and envi- A disturbing number of students News use. Most fifth- and sixth- ronmental values. live in transitional circumstances. grade teachers did not find this A large number of students are Nine of twenty classrooms possess- to be the case, however. It’s impos- reading below grade level, espe- ing the data reported at least one sible to discern how much of cially those in the fourth grade and student living in transition. One the credit belongs to KIND News above, where the emphasis has teacher reported that nearly 30 and how much is related to extra- shifted from learning to read to percent of students in his class live neous variables (e.g., Sunday reading to learn (Chall 1983). In in such circumstances. These fig- school lessons, values imparted by order for KIND News to be effec- ures may not reflect reality, how- family members) and how much tive in classrooms where teachers ever. Children living in transition relates to the teacher who man- do not have the time to review and tend to be embarrassed by their cir- ages to find the time to discuss discuss articles with their stu- cumstances, often hiding the fact bullying with her students. Self- dents, children must be independ- of their homelessness. Those living fulfilling prophecy and self-efficacy ent enough readers to master the in battered women’s shelters or may also have affected findings. concepts on their own. Unfortu- staying outside the school district Teachers who believe KIND News nately, wide variations in reading may have been warned about the is a useful tool for this purpose abilities, however, may prevent

82 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 some students from benefiting A study of homeless children in Media Influences and fully from KIND News. Worcester, Massachusetts, found the Changing Culture significant decreases in develop- of Childhood mental, interpersonal, and cogni- Marketing messages penetrate Discussion tive functioning, which the every area of children’s waking researchers attribute to the cumu- lives, often influencing minds that American Childhood lative effects of the many risk fac- in the Twenty-first have not yet developed the cogni- tors of homelessness (Traveler’s tive capacity to make fully in- Century: A Contextual Aid Family Services 2004). While Perspective formed decisions. Unlike a num- lack of stable housing per se does ber of other industrialized The ecological systems perspective not affect a child’s cognitive and countries, where advertising (Bronfenbrenner 1979) locates the intellectual abilities necessary for toward children is closely regu- child at the center of a set of con- school success, the ramifications lated or banned, “in the United centric circles representing sys- of these situations prevents him States, selling to children is sim- tems (e.g., family, local community from achieving his full potential. ply, ‘business as usual’” (American and wider social and economic sys- Homeless children tend to miss Academy of Pediatrics 2006, tems) in which children’s lives are significantly more school com- 2563). Some marketing strate- rooted. Interactions between the pared with housed children (Rubin gists work with child psychologists child and these systems are bi- et al. 1996); 12 percent are not who tell them how to create an ad directional and constant, affecting even enrolled in school (U.S. that will not only appeal to chil- and affected by one another. Opti- Department of Education 1999). dren, but will also begin to shape mal social development is most Approximately 22 percent of their attitudes—a marketing goal likely to occur when children expe- homeless children have been sepa- termed “early brand loyalty” (Con- rience strong, supportive links rated from their families at least sumers Union 2006). between systems and when those once during the past year, and 25 Tweens (children between the systems share common values re- percent have witnessed family vio- ages of eight and twelve) are a fast garding developmental outcomes lence (Weinreb 2004). Homeless growing consumer market. More (Miller-Heyl, MacPhee, and Fritz children are four times more likely than 40,000 television ads are 2000). to score at or below the tenth per- directed at them yearly (Stras- Economic systems, along with centile in receptive vocabulary and burger 2001); they are also ex- other systems in children’s lives, reading (Zima, Wells, and Freeman posed to marketing influences via present challenges to teachers and 1994) and twice as likely to repeat the Internet, cell phones and other humane environmental organiza- a grade as housed children (Na- electronic media, in magazines tions. These systems also present tional Coalition for the Homeless and in the schools. obstacles to children’s development 2005). of kind and respectful behavior. Forty-seven percent of children Marketing to a living in transition are afflicted Captive Audience The Quest for Basic with mental health problems Human Needs Many businesses promote their (Weinreb 2004), including clinical products (and brand loyalty) in the For an increasing number of chil- depression and severe anxiety dis- schools. ABC lettering charts and dren, the ability to learn is ham- orders (see Bassuk, Rubin, and other learning materials may be pered by a lack of basic needs. In Lauriat 1986; Bassuk and Rubin decorated with slogans and icons 2003 17 percent of infants and chil- 1987; Zima, Wells, and Freeman from fast food, movie, cereal, and dren in the United States were liv- 1994), behavior problems, and toy companies. They tend to be ing in poverty (U.S. Bureau of the symptoms of social withdrawal high quality, slick, and colorful, Census 2004). More than 14 mil- (Weinreb 2004). Because families with lots of stickers, puzzles, or lion children under the age of often can’t afford mental health photos of poplar celebrities, mak- eighteen live in “food-insecure” services, don’t qualify for them, or ing them especially appealing to households (Alaimo, Olson, and move too frequently to take advan- children. Such products are appeal- Frongillo 2001). Numerous studies tage of them, psychological and ing to teachers and administrators, document significant negative behavior problems tend to remain too; funding shortages make high- effects of food insecurity and untreated (Hart-Shegos 1999). quality free supplemental materials poverty on children’s cognitive and hard to resist. verbal skills (McLoyd 1998; Alaimo, Messages conveyed through in- Olson, and Frongillo 2001). school promotions are not always

Teaching Children to be Kind in an Unkind World 83 in children’s best interests. Some on the receiving end of it, aggressive of child witnesses who agonize over may even conflict with the values and unkind or humiliating behavior whether to intervene. Such children of the school, the child’s family, or toward one another is an acceptable tend to experience significant dis- of humane and environmental social behavior. tress including feeling helpless and organizations. Unfortunately, chil- Recent bullying research shows a ashamed. As they develop the capac- dren tend to assume messages con- disturbing shift taking place as chil- ity to care and empathize with oth- veyed through in-school promo- dren stand on the edge of adoles- ers, so, too, do they experience guilt tions are credible, because they are cence; bullying behavior increases related to their conflicted feelings introduced in the classroom. popularity and social acceptance between needing to intervene and among peers (Cillessen and Mayeux needing peer acceptance. Marketing Meanness: 2004a, b). The current generation Condoning Mean- of children appears to be learning Teachers: Managers Spirited Behavior that antisocial and destructive of the Twenty-first The spirit of ads and messages to behaviors are not only acceptable; Century U.S. Classroom children has shifted drastically they’re also desirable (Howard Data from the KIND News evaluation over the last decade. A study of 2003) and are likely to be re- reflect three areas obstructing food product ads on television mar- warded with much-desired peer teachers’ efforts to teaching humane keted toward children between approval. Even children who don’t and environmental lessons: (1) 1987 and 1998 reflects a disturb- like behaving aggressively may teachers’ job descriptions and the ing shift away from pro-social and find themselves emulating aggres- resources available to them; (2) healthy themes in 1987 to antiso- sive popular children as a way of social/political differences between cial and self-harming themes in moving up the social ladder. KIND News and other systems in stu- 1998 (Howard 2003). Ads from the dents’ lives (e.g., family, place of wor- later years imply a kind of nor- Bullying in the ship); and (3) students’ current malcy or social approval of aggres- Twenty-first Century behaviors regarding respectful prac- sive and mean-spirited behavior. Until recently, bullying has been tices. All three categories are inextri- K. Hymowitz (2000, 126) de- generally considered harmless cably intertwined, affecting not only scribes a popular jeans company schoolyard activity. Child develop- whether educators teach humane depicting cool, confident pre-teen ment advocates, however, are begin- and environmental lessons, but also girls peering into the camera asking ning to recognize the ramifications why and how they use KIND News in the viewer, “Have you ever seen your of bullying behavior (NYU Child the process. parents naked?” or stating, “I hate Study Center 2006). Easier access my mother.” A popular sneaker to weapons and weapon-making Teachers’ Job company recently ran an ad in an materials allow for increasingly Descriptions and equally popular teen magazine dangerous acts. Relational vio- Resources depicting a group of apparently lence, too, has become more seri- Teachers’ individual roles within a popular girls (wearing the sneakers) ous as perpetrators, with the help particular system affect their per- whispering about and ostracizing a of technology, spread rumors, pho- ceived ability to present humane/ less popular girl, also featured in tos, and images worldwide, in environmental lessons. The depart- the ad. Such an ad does more than efforts to humiliate their victims be- mentalized teacher’s subject spe- foster children’s desire for the prod- fore larger audiences. D. Alexander, cialty may play a role in whether he uct, it promotes relationally aggres- director of the National Institute of tackles humane and environmental sive behavior by playing on the Child Health and Development education. Language arts, social reader’s worst fear—rejection. (NICHD) asserts, “Being bullied is studies, and science teachers may Moreover, this ad appears to en- not just an unpleasant rite of pas- find features of KIND News useful courage readers to identify with and sage through childhood: it is a pub- for achieving learning goals and want to emulate the aggressor (and lic health problem that merits objectives, whereas math teachers her henchwomen) rather than the attention” (NICHD 2001, 1). may not. Departmentalized teach- peer-rejected girl who happens to be A nation-wide study of bullying in ers tend not to spend the majority wearing the wrong shoes. Children schools indicated that 29 percent of of their day with the same group of know that adults create the ads; the school children are involved in bully- students, further limiting the pos- covert message then, is that adults ing—13 percent perpetrate it, 10.6 sibility of squeezing in humane and sanction this kind of behavior. Even percent are victimized by it, and 6.3 environmental lessons. well behaved and/or typically non- percent perpetrate and are victim- Time—or lack of it—was the rea- aggressive children come to believe ized (Ericson 2001). These figures son most often cited for not teach- that, although they don’t like being don’t include the unknown number ing humane and environmental les-

84 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 sons. While teachers understand textual backgrounds, including im- rather than familiar, sharply angu- that teaching children to be kind plicit and explicit values, but also lar, and coolly aloof. and compassionate today may help their social-emotional and cogni- Second, NAHEE faces the chal- to create a more humane world tive developmental abilities. lenge of imparting values and tomorrow, they lack the ability to Nationwide, teachers cite large behaviors that conflict with mes- adjust their current curriculum to numbers of students lacking age- sages children receive from numer- support long-term social develop- appropriate social skills (e.g., shar- ous resources throughout a single mental outcomes. ing, waiting one’s turn). Increasing day. For every article a child reads Mandated curricula and wide numbers of elementary school chil- in KIND News fostering compas- variations in students’ academic dren are unprepared to function in sionate responsible behavior, he abilities, among other factors, age-appropriate ways in the class- may be bombarded with multiple leave little time for humane and room (Evans 2004). Teachers in this messages promoting just the oppo- environmental education. position may believe that teaching site. A well-written KIND News children to be kind to animals or to article on the importance of kind- Social-Political respect nature falls farther down on ness to animals must compete with Differences their list of priorities when, as one the details of immoral, illegal, and The second obstacle to teaching respondent stated, “they don’t even inhumane acts perpetrated by sen- humane and environmental lessons have basic manners.” ators, congressmen, presidents, concerns social-political differ- priests, and other individuals in ences among teachers, families, positions of trust. and the educational institution. Conclusions Last, NAHEE competes with pre- Not only must teachers walk a fine If basic human needs are met, ele- viously developed attitudes and line between their own values and mentary school children tend to be beliefs of a fair number of children beliefs and those of their students’ enthusiastic and motivated to learn. with low self-efficacy and a poor families (e.g., family’s practices Unfolding cognitive skills allow sense of agency. Children who are regarding responsible pet owner- increasing abilities to manage and exposed to chronic violence, live in ship), they must also navigate the focus attention, especially regard- poverty, or are homeless tend to be values of the school system, which ing topics they are motivated to streetwise. They’re more likely to may or may not closely parallel the understand (Berger 2005). As they be cynical about articles encourag- values of the teacher and/or fami- peek around the corner of adoles- ing kindness or respect. These lies. Working with children and cence, they discover strategies for messages may pale in comparison families in a litigious society pres- learning, accumulate constructed to the daily realities of their lives. ents added challenges for educa- knowledge, and begin applying that Such a child may be too busy figur- tors. One teacher stated that he is logic to abstract topics such as ing out the safest route home to “not allowed” to let students know morality or humaneness. pay attention to the fact that the his personal beliefs about humane/ NAHEE, in efforts to reach stu- earth revolves around the sun; re- environmental issues. Teachers im- dents, publishes an award-winning specting the earth and atmosphere plied and occasionally commented program designed to foster humane when he hasn’t yet developed a on the fact that they “must be care- and environmentally respectful atti- sense of safety in his own neighbor- ful” about what they say and how tudes and behaviors in children, hood may seem irrelevant. they say it. They worry about doing especially in regard to animals and NAHEE provides informative, or saying the wrong thing. As a the natural world. However, it must age-appropriate, accurate, and up- result, some teachers may choose compete on at least three levels to-date information about humane not to overtly teach about or pro- with powerful systems. and environmental topics in the mote humane values. To the per- First, NAHEE must compete form of a newspaper. However, sonally committed teacher, distrib- with the corporate world in striv- accurate information is only part uting KIND News may provide ing for children’s attention. Many of the equation necessary for chil- some reassurance that she is pro- corporations have well-known (and dren to develop humane and envi- moting the values she feels other- sometimes well-respected) icons, ronmentally respectful attitudes wise barred from presenting. celebrity endorsements, and slick, and behaviors. The other half of well-crafted, well-placed marketing the equation includes, ideally, Attitudes and Behavior strategies. In terms of appeal, trustworthy nurturing mentoring Students’ attitudes and behaviors, KIND News may pale in compari- relationships allowing children the the third area of obstacles to teach- son. It is colorful, but not glossy; necessary room to develop the cog- ing humane and environmental val- the illustrated characters are gen- nitive and social skills necessary to ues, reflect not only students’ con- erally unnamed, rounded and cute empathic development.

Teaching Children to be Kind in an Unkind World 85 Empathy and care are inter- ventions targeting changes in the care very much about issues of fair- twined with the ability to think social context appear to be more ness. Short lessons integrated with about the feelings and needs of effective than those attempting to hands-on tasks that use motor others and to regulate one’s emo- change individual attitudes, skills, skills (e.g., building a birdhouse) tions appropriately. While the most and risk behaviors (National Insti- and rapidly developing cognitive common pathway for developing tute of Mental Health 2006). The skills, are bound to result in knowl- caring behavior is via secure rela- same may be true for humane and edge construction. tionships with family members, environmental education pro- Successful programming for pre- alternative pathways are possible grams. Focusing, for example, on teens includes reasonably challeng- (Chase-Landsdale et. al. 1995). taking pride in one’s school by pro- ing cognitive tasks that allow them Trustworthy mentors, using devel- moting clean-up projects may be to test newly developing abstract opmentally appropriate literature more effective than instructing thinking abilities. Although still such as KIND News in the context children to refrain from littering. dependent upon parents and other of a high quality, multi-systemic This is especially true if the valued adults, preteens strive for a sense of program, may indeed foster the behaviors conflict with those of autonomy and tend to resist mes- development of a kinder, more children’s family or other systems. sages that appear to tell them what humane generation. By overtly focusing on changes in to do or how to think. Lessons context, adults allow children to appealing to their developing abil- come to their own conclusions and ity to think more abstractly and to Recommendations to internalize constructed knowl- come to their own conclusions will The success of intervention and edge and developing values as be well received, albeit often with prevention programs is determined their own. an air of pseudo-boredom. For by the soundness of the program, Begin prevention and/or interven- example, an activity encouraging its acceptability to the intended tion programs early and keep pro- students to debate both sides of the recipients, and the quality of its gramming developmentally appro- question of spaying and neutering implementation (Shonkoff and priate. Program literature and pets may be more likely to pro- Phillips 2000). Effective programs lessons are most effective when they mote the construction of knowl- support and are supported by mul- appeal to a child’s desire to feel edge than the notion of spaying tiple systems; focus intervention on more grown-up. Literature or les- and neutering. social context; maintain develop- sons that seem too “babyish” are In the presence of authentic role mental appropriateness and target likely to elicit scoffs. Role models models, pre-teens may develop the children over a long period of time; and characters should be two or necessary comfort and trust to be- are implemented by qualified indi- three years older than the target gin exploring their own beliefs and viduals in a safe environment; and audience and appear respected by behaviors, asking profound ques- are evaluated consistently and peers as well as adults. tions as they struggle to make funded adequately. Early intervention, especially sense of the many contradictions Use a multi-systems approach. among disadvantaged children, encountered when exploring hu- Successful prevention and interven- leads to long-term positive results. mane and environmental topics. tion programs include in their Younger children are interested in This exploration and questioning is design and implementation an being “good” and take great pride necessary for them to internalize understanding of and respect for in learning and doing good deeds. humane and environmental values children’s families, neighborhoods, This is an ideal time to introduce as their own. cultures, schools, and other systems and foster social skills develop- Use quality implementation in which children’s lives are nested. ment as well as age-appropriate strategies in safe environments. The Moreover, they work collaboratively humane and environmental topics. quality of implementation is as with individuals in those systems to Slightly older children (third to important to a program’s success promote and achieve program fourth grade), think fairly con- as is the program itself. Programs objectives and goals. Lessons in pro- cretely at some times and more are more likely to be successful if gram literature presented by the abstractly at others. They are eager the mentors and other adults im- after-school program staff, for exam- learners and will, if the context plementing them have a high ple, are ideally reinforced (or at allows, ask questions in efforts to degree of self-efficacy and earn the least, not contradicted) by teach- make sense of complex issues, even genuine respect of the program ers, community center staff, and though cognitive limitations may participants. A primary step in pro- individuals in other systems. not allow them to fully compre- gram design is the development of Focus intervention programs on hend abstract principles. They self-efficacy in adults implementing social context. School-based inter- tend to be curious learners and the program (Miller-Heyl, MacPhee,

86 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 and Fritz 2000). If program men- quality writing and accurate re- With long-term participation in tors believe they can design and porting about humane and envi- quality programs, children are implement a successful program, ronmental topics in KIND News more likely to think critically they are more likely to persevere, may pale in comparisons to glossy about conflicting messages related even in the face of opposition. They supplemental materials featuring to ethical, moral, and humane will persist when not entirely sure licensed characters and other practices, and as they move into their results will be successful highly valued cultural icons. adolescence, to struggle construc- (Miller-Heyl, MacPhee, and Fritz Continuous cognitive, motor, tively with personal choices for 2000). When adults feel competent and social changes in the develop- their behavior and make informed and confident, the children in their ing child affects how he thinks decisions reflecting the values of presence tend to believe that they, about the world, interacts with oth- the people and institutions they too, are capable (Miller-Heyl, Mac- ers, and regulates his emotions and have come to genuinely respect. Phee, and Fritz 2000). behavior. The likelihood of a child Effective programs are imple- becoming a kind, caring, respectful (Editor’s note: in 2007 NAHEE mented in safe environments. Safety citizen is much greater if certain was renamed Humane Society needs must be met before mentors protective factors (e.g., nurturing, Youth.) can focus on teaching and before safety needs) are in place. However, children can focus on learning. even children lacking such protec- Ensure adequate, long-term fund- tive factors may develop into highly Literature Cited ing and consistent evaluation. caring, empathic adults when cer- Alaimo, K., C.M. Olson, and E.A. Building and grounds mainte- tain resiliency factors (e.g., men- Frongililo. 2001. Food insuffi- nance, transportation, salaries for tors who believe in the child’s good- ciency and American school-aged competent staff, and money for ness and capacity to be a kind, children’s cognitive, academic, supplies and various other ex- compassionate humane being) are and psychosocial development. penses require adequate funding in place. Pediatrics 108(1): 44–53. over a long period of time. Evalua- Teachers face increasing curricu- American Academy of Pediatrics, tion activities must be included in lum demands, wider variations Committee on Communica- the budget and conducted over the in students’ academic and social tions. 2006. Children, adoles- course of the program. Ideally, ad- skills, and increasingly aggres- cents, and advertising. Pediatrics justments in program implementa- sive behavior among students. Al- 118(6): 2563–2569. tion are considered as data are though many teachers believe Bassuk, E., and L. Rubin. 1987. analyzed and explored. humane and environmental educa- Homeless children: A neglected tion is important, few teach these population. American Journal of lessons consistently. They may rely Orthopsychiatry 57: 279–286. Summary instead on students’ ability to read Bassuk, E., L. Rubin, and A. Lau- Childhood has changed in a num- KIND News and/or other supple- riat. 1986. Characteristics of ber of important ways over the last mental materials related to hu- sheltered homeless families. two decades, affecting not only mane and environmental topics. American Journal of Public children’s lived experiences, but Findings from the KIND News eval- Health 76: 1097–1101. also teachers’ practices, which in uation reflect the fact that, while Berger, K.S. 2005. The developing turn, affect if and how humane and children’s attitudes and behaviors person: Through childhood and environmental education pro- towards animals are not problem- adolescence. New York: Worth. grams are implemented. More chil- atic, their behavior toward one Boney-McCoy, S., and D. Finkelhor. dren are living in poverty, are another is aggressive, especially in 1995. Psychosocial sequelae of exposed directly and indirectly to the upper grades. violent victimization in a na- violence, have reasonably easy For humane education to be tional youth sample. Journal of access to weapons, and experience effective, programs must consider Consulting and Clinical Psychol- difficulty escaping negative peer the shifting contexts of childhood; ogy 63: 726–736. influence and gang activity. They work collaboratively with multiple Brazelton, T., and S. Greenspan. are bombarded with media-driven systems; be developmentally appro- 2000. The irreducible needs of messages that may conflict with priate; be implemented over children. Cambridge, Mass.: goals of humane organizations. In- longer periods; foster self-efficacy Perseus Publishing. school promotions are especially among program staff and adminis- Bronfenbrenner, U. 1979. The ecol- effective in gaining children’s trators; and be evaluated consis- ogy of human development. attention; they tend to be colorful, tently and funded adequately. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni- glossy, and highly appealing. High versity Press.

Teaching Children to be Kind in an Unkind World 87 Bryant, B.K. 1985. The neighbor- Hart-Shegos, E. 1999. Homelessness ization, personality, and social hood walk: Sources for support and its effects on children. A re- development, series ed. E.M. Het- in middle childhood. Mono- port prepared for the Family herington and P.H. Mussen, graphs for the Society for Housing Fund, Minneapolis, Minn. 197–274. New York: Wiley. Research in Child Development Hill, H.M., and L.P. Jones. 1997. National Coalition for the Home- 50(2): 210. Children’s and parents’ percep- less. 2005. Making the grade: Chall, J.S. 1983. Stages of read- tions of children’s exposure to Successes and challenges in pro- ing development. New York: violence in urban neighborhoods. viding educational opportunities McGraw-Hill. Journal of the National Medical to homeless children and youth. Chase-Landsdale, P.L., L.S. Association 89: 270–276. Executive summary. Washing- Wakschlag, and J. Brooks-Gunn. Hoffman, M. 2000. Empathy and ton, D.C.: National Coalition for 1995. A psychological perspec- moral development: Implications the Homeless. tive on the development of car- for caring and justice. New York: National Institute of Child Health ing in children and youth: The Cambridge University Press. and Human Development role of the family. Journal of Howard, S.R. 2003. Innocent little (NICHD). 2001. Bullying wide- Adolescence 18: 515–556. thiry-second tales: How children’s spread in U.S. schools, survey Cillessen, A.H.N., and L. Mayeux. food commercials normalize finds. NIH news release. Wash- 2004a. From censure to rein- social alienation, violence, ington, D.C. April 24. forcement: Developmental changes crime, and substance use: A National Institute of Mental Health in the association between aggres- content analysis of children’s (NIMH). 2006. Youth violence: A sion and social status. Child De- food commercials 1987–1998. report of the Surgeon General. velopment 75: 147–163. Dissertation Abstracts Interna- Washington, D.C.: National Insti- ———. 2004b. Sociometric status tional: Section B: Science and tutes of Health. and peer group behavior: Previ- Engineering 63(10-B): 4964. NYU Child Study Center. 2006. ous findings and current direc- Hymowitz, K.S. 2000. Ready or not: Community violence: The effects tions. In Children’s peer rela- What happens when we treat on children. Retrieved from NYU tions: From development to children as small adults. San Child Study Center: Changing intervention, ed. J.B. Kupersmidt Francisco: Encounter Books. the face of child mental health. and K.A. Dodge, 3–20. Washing- Kestenbaum, R., E.A. Farber, and www.AboutOurKids.org. ton, D.C.: American Psychologi- L.A. Sroufe. 1989. Individual dif- Osofsky, J.D. 1995. The effects of cal Association. ferences in empathy among exposure to violence on young Consumers Union. 2006. Selling preschoolers: Relation to attach- children. American Psychologist America’s kids: Commercial ment history. New Directions for 50: 782–788. pressures on kids of the 90’s. Child Development 44: 51–64. ———. 2001. Addressing youth Consumers Union Education Marans, S., and M. Schaefer. 2001. victimization. U.S. Department Services Division. Nonprofit Community policing, schools, of Justice, Office of Juvenile Jus- Publisher of Consumer Reports. and mental health: The challenge tice and Delinquency Preven- http://www.consumerion.org/ of collaboration. In Violence in tion. Action plan: October. contact.htm. American schools, ed. D.D. Rubin, D.H., C.J. Erickson, M.S. Ericson, N. 2001. Addressing the Elliott, B.A. Hamburg, and K.R. Agustin, S.D. Cleary, J.K. Allen, problem of juvenile bullying. Williams, 312–347. Cambridge: and P. Cohen. 1996. Cognitive U.S. Department of Justice, Cambridge University Press. and academic functioning of Office of Juvenile Justice and McLoyd, V.C. 1998. Socioeconomic homeless children compared Delinquency Prevention. Fact disadvantage and child develop- with housed children. Pediatrics Sheet #27. June. ment. American Journal of Psy- 97(3): 289–294. Evans, R. 2004. Family matters: chology 53(2): 185–204. Selman, R. 1980. The growth of in- How schools can cope with the Miller-Heyl, J., D. MacPhee, and J. terpersonal understanding: Devel- crisis in childrearing. San Fran- Fritz. 2000. Dare to be you: A opmental and clinical analyses. cisco: Jossey-Bass. systems approach to the early New York: Academic Press. Hamblen, J., and C. Goguen. 2005. prevention of problem behaviors. Shonkoff, J.P., and D.A. Phillips, eds. Community violence: A National New York: Kluwer Academic/ 2000. From neurons to neighbor- Center for PTSD fact sheet. Plenum Publishers. hoods: The science of early child- Washington, D.C.: U.S. Depart- Minuchin, P.P., and E.K. Shapiro. hood development. National Re- ment of Veterans Affairs, Na- 1983. The school as a context for search Council Institute on tional Center for PTSD. social development. In Handbook Medicine, Board on Children, of child psychology, vol. 4. Social-

88 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Youth, and Families. Washington, lies Policy Academy, Miami, Fla. D.C.: National Academy Press. January 7. Strausburger, V.C. 2001. Children Youcha, V. 2005. Research sum- and TV advertising: Nowhere to mary: Children exposed to vio- run, nowhere to hide. Journal of lence. Zero to Three National Developmental and Behavioral Center of Infants, Toddlers, and Pediatrics 22: 185. Families. Washington, D.C.: Zero Strauss, A.L., and J. Corbin. 1990. to Three Press. Basics of qualitative research: Zima, B.T., K.B. Wells, and H.E. Grounded theory procedures Freeman. 1994. Emotional and and techniques. Newbury Park, behavioral problems and severe Calif.: Sage. academic delays among shel- Taylor, L., B. Zuckerman, V. Harik, tered homeless children in Los and B. Groves. 1992. Exposure Angeles County. American Jour- to violence among inner-city par- nal of Public Health 84: 260–264. ents and young children. Ameri- can Journal of the Diseases of Children 146: 487–494. Thornton, T.N., C.A. Craft, L.L. Dahlberg, B.S. Lynch, and K. Baer. 2002. Best practices of youth violence prevention: A sourcebook for community action (rev.). Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Preven- tion, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Travelers Aid Family Services. 2004. Homeless children. Boston, Mass. http://www.taboston.org/ homelesschildren.html. U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2000. Table DP-2. Profile of selected social characteristics. Washing- ton, D.C. www.census.gov/main/ www/cen2000.html. ———. 2004. Income, poverty, and health insurance coverage in the United States. Report P60, n. 229, Table B-2, 52–57. U.S. Department of Education. 1999. Education of homeless children and youth: Progress report to Congress. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resour- ces and Services Administration. 2003. U.S. teens in our world. Rockville, Md. http://mchb.hrsa. gov/mchirc/_pubs/us_teens/ main_pages/ch_6. Weinreb, L. 2004. The health and behavioral health needs of homeless families. University of Mass- achusetts Medical School. Paper presented at the Homeless Fami-

Teaching Children to be Kind in an Unkind World 89 Appendix A Sample Issues of Kind News

90 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Appendix B Demographic Comparisons of City Sample and U.S. Population (All figures are in percentages, unless otherwise indicated)

Variable Sample City U.S. Population

Household and Family Average household size (number of people in the household) 2.41 2.60 Average family size (number of people in the family) 3.11 3.14

Racial Makeup White 77.11 76.00 Black or African American 6.89 12.00 Native American 0.45 1.00 Asian 4.87 4.00 Pacific Islander 0.06 0.05 From other races 7.24 6.00 From two or more races 3.39 2.00 Percentage of Hispanic or Latino individuals of any race 15.15 15.00

Age Percentage of population under age 18 23.60 25.00 Percentage of population over age 65 14.10 12.00 Median age 33.00 years 36.40 years

Education (Highest Level Attained) High school diploma/GED 29.30 28.60 Some college 24.00 27.40 Earned bachelor’s degree 13.60 15.50 Graduate/professional degree 9.80 8.90

Income Median family income $42,988.00 $46,242.00 Number of children age 18 and younger living below poverty level 24.60 19.00 Number of people age 65 and above living below the poverty level 11.60 10.00

Poverty Status (1999) Families w/ children under 18 10.50 13.60 Families w/children under 5 13.10 17.00 Families w/children headed by female (no father present) 24.40 26.50 Families w/female head (no father present), children under 18 33.10 34.30 Families w/female head (no father present), children under age 5 48.90 46.40

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census (2000).

Teaching Children to be Kind in an Unkind World 91 Canada’s Commercial Seal Hunt 5CHAPTER

Rebecca Aldworth and Stephen Harris

Introduction ike efforts to end the commer- A review of the history of the seal cial exploitation from the time of cial hunting of whales, the cam- campaign and the political envi- the first European settlers through Lpaign to stop the slaughter ronment in which it occurred can today. In addition to pinnipeds, sev- of seals in Canada has become a help account for some of these per- eral species of whales, marine birds, major focus for animal and envi- ceptions. It exposes the forces be- and fish have also been driven to ronment protection groups and hind the rejuvenation of commer- the brink of extinction through governments the world over. For cial sealing over the past decade commercial slaughter over the past decades the face of the harp seal and reveals that the price on the four centuries. Pilot whales, once pup has been a symbol—to many, seals’ heads is far greater than that the most common inshore whale the symbol—of environment and which could ever be attached to species in Newfoundland, were animal advocacy. their skins. Moreover, it explains killed en masse, in part to provide But as much as the campaign to why the success—or failure—of meat for mink and fox fur farms, save the seals has become an icon the campaign to save the seals may until the population had become so for those who would protect play a significant role in shaping depleted that hunters could no wildlife, the campaign to continue society’s view of the status of all longer find enough to meet de- the hunt has become a focus for animals. mand (Sanger, Dickinson, and those who would block the Handcock 1998). The bowhead and progress of the animal protection right whales have become endan- and environmental movements. Early Seal Hunting gered species, the grey whale popu- There is little middle ground lation of the North Atlantic no between the two camps, with one in Canada longer exists, and both the hump- Commercial hunting of seals and calling for an immediate cessation back and blue whale are now other pinniped populations has of all commercial hunting of seals threatened species. Great auks, taken place off Canada’s east coast in Canada and the other lobbying flightless aquatic birds once found for hundreds of years. From its very for the highest seal hunt quotas in throughout the North Atlantic, beginnings, this commercial ex- history. Canadian journalists often were hunted for their feathers, oil, ploitation was conducted in an report with incredulity the vast and meat, and their populations entirely unregulated and unsus- gulf between the two sides of this began to decline rapidly in the late tainable fashion, leading to the ex- debate. At the same time, those 1600s. Funk Island, off Newfound- tirpation and severe depletion of working to end the seal hunt note land’s east coast, and the Magdalen several populations (Mowat 1984). the campaign appears far harder Islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence The overhunting of pinnipeds did to win than the economic and cul- were once home to large colonies, not occur in isolation; the marine tural importance of the industry but Funk Island’s last bird was environment of the northwestern would seem to warrant. killed between 1785 and 1800, and Atlantic has been systematically the species officially became devastated by relentless commer-

93 extinct in 1844 (Mersereau 2000). a century of historic high levels of Under these conditions, and Industrial fishing has severely killing. Between 1818 and 1862, without imposition of effective depleted numerous ground fish Newfoundlanders killed more than controls, the stock of western stocks, including northern cod, eighteen million seals. Atlantic harp seals must be haddock, redfish, American plaice, Annual catches of harp seals re- considered to be in grave dan- and capelin. mained strong until the 1860s, ger of catastrophic decline in Early European settlers’ first when they finally began to decline as numbers within a very few foray into commercial hunting the unsustainable levels of hunting years. (In Lavigne and Kovacs of pinnipeds off the east coast of took their toll on the population. 1988, 131) Canada was with the walrus. Despite technological advances such Sergeant and Fisher (1960) Throughout the sixteenth and sev- as steam-driven vessels and the use noted that the census figures indi- enteenth centuries, walruses were of aircraft to spot seal herds, kill lev- cated the population had been re- slaughtered relentlessly for their els would never again be as consis- duced by at least 50 percent lucrative oil, leather, and tusks. tently high. Nonetheless, sealers between 1950 and 1960. By 1680 all walruses had been re- continued to slaughter hundreds of moved from the St. Lawrence River; thousands of seals annually, and by those along the north shore of the the turn of the century, another The Campaign Gulf of St. Lawrence were gone by 12.8 million seals had been killed. 1704 (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). This brought the total seal kill for to Save the Seals The question the seal hunt posed was As the walrus disappeared, grey the century to a staggering 33 mil- not just how seals were killed, but seals quickly became a substitute lion animals, most of them newborn whether they should be killed at all. source for marine oil. For a time, harp seals (Ronald and Lavigne n.d.). —Brian Davies, founder, grey seals became one of the most With the dawn of the twentieth International Fund exploited resources in the New century came the advent of steel- for Animal Welfare World. As with the walruses, they hulled ships, and annual catches were slaughtered by the thou- averaged more than 200,000 per As scientists grew increasingly con- sands, and by the 1860s grey seals year until 1914. But the new ships cerned about unsustainable kill had been wiped out of much of were called into service during levels, Canadians were beginning their former range (Ronald and both world wars, and kill levels dur- to consider the animal welfare im- Lavigne n.d.). ing these years dropped dramati- plications of the seal hunt. Hu- With walruses and grey seal pop- cally (Canadian Geographic 2000). mane societies first sent observers ulations in severe declines, it was Hunt numbers began to increase to the seal hunt during the 1950s, inevitable that hunters would soon again at the end of World War II, and reports of cruelty slowly fil- set their sights on the larger popu- with higher oil prices and the intro- tered out to the public. In 1958 lations of ice-breeding harp and duction of motorized vessels. Albert Perlin, editor of Newfound- hooded seals. These seals spent On average, more than 200,000 land’s Daily News, was interviewed only part of the year in Canadian seals were killed annually through by CBC radio about the sealing waters, breeding on inaccessible 1949. That year the sealing indus- industry. He commented, sea ice, and it is likely they initially try began to restructure. New- The seal fishery was a wasteful escaped the attention of early foundland became a province of industry. It was in many ways hunters. But by the early eigh- Canada, and with that came social an unpleasant industry. I’ve teenth century, both French and benefits that made sealing less nec- heard many a sealer talk about English settlers had begun to hunt essary for economic survival (Cana- the small whitecoats—two or harp and hooded seals commer- dian Broadcasting Company [CBC] three days old—almost look- cially; by the end of the century, 1958). As sealing firms in New- ing up with tears in their eyes British settlers in Newfoundland foundland withdrew from the seal as they killed them...and were killing more than a hundred hunt, companies based in Norway frankly, if it’s an industry we thousand seals in some years (Lav- sent their boats to the ice instead. could do without, I’m not at all igne and Kovacs 1988). Despite the decrease in Newfound- sure—from the standpoint of Over the next hundred years, land interest in the seal hunt, kill humanitarianism alone—it’s advances in technology and vessel levels increased, achieving a 1950s probably a good industry to be construction dramatically increased average of 312,000 seals per year without. (CBC 1958) the number of seals killed in the (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). In 1964 the seal hunt achieved annual hunt. The year 1818 marks Scientists soon grew concerned widespread notoriety, when a film in- the beginning of the so-called about the high levels of killing. In cluding seal hunt footage was com- Golden Age of Sealing, nearly half 1960 D. Sergeant warned,

94 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 missioned and broadcast by Radio As the cruelty debate raged on, mitting trade restrictions to pro- Canada (the French component of government scientists were continu- tect public morals. One month the CBC). For the first time, the ing to warn that the consistently later the European Parliament stark images of the bloodied new- high kill levels threatened the very effected a temporary ban to last born pups on the white ice floes and survival of the seal populations. In until March 1983. Just before it scenes of seals appearing to be 1971 a quota system was introduced expired, the European Economic skinned alive allowed Canadians to in an attempt to conserve the rap- Community (EEC), predecessor of see what they had occasionally read idly dwindling seal stocks. However, the European Union, extended it about in newspapers. The images the situation continued to worsen, for another six months. Talks on were disturbing, and public reaction and by 1975 a senior Canadian gov- ending the ban took place among was understandably strong. ernment scientist was so concerned Canada, Norway, and the European In 1966 the New Brunswick Soci- about the impact of high levels of Commission, but on October 1, ety for the Prevention of Cruelty to hunting that he suggested the harp 1983, the EEC implemented a two- Animals sent its officer, B. Davies, seal population could be lost in the year ban, then renewed it for to observe the commercial seal absence of a ten-year moratorium another four years in 1985. Since hunt. Davies was profoundly moved on commercial sealing (Lavigne and Europe was the primary market for by what he witnessed, and founded Kovacs 1988). the Canadian sealing industry, kill the International Fund for Animal With Canada showing little will levels in Canada declined dramati- Welfare (IFAW) just three years to even reduce quotas to a more cally (CBC 1982). later, with the goal of ending sustainable level—much less end Still, Canada refused to prohibit Canada’s commercial seal hunt the hunt for humanitarian rea- a practice that was already ending (Lavigne and Kovacs 1988). Im- sons—Davies and his colleagues through lack of markets. IFAW in- pressed by its ability to generate realized public opposition would creased global pressure on the media coverage, Davies also sought not be enough to stop the seal Canadian government and fishing to involve the newly formed organ- hunt. At the time, Europe was industry by launching a boycott of ization Greenpeace in the cam- Canada’s top sealskin market, im- Canadian seafood products in the paign to save seals. Over the com- porting fully three-quarters of the United Kingdom in 1984. The boy- ing years, innovative media events skins produced each year. Davies cott achieved significant corporate on the ice organized by IFAW, argued that Canada’s commercial support, and the campaign con- Greenpeace, and others, and the seal hunt was in reality Europe’s vinced sealing groups to support a support of celebrities such as responsibility, given that Europe moratorium on the hunting of Brigitte Bardot, made the plight of was providing the economic incen- whitecoats. Still, the Canadian the seal pups in Canada an interna- tive for the seal hunt to continue. government refused to give in: it tional lead story. As the public out- A tremendous lobby effort was guaranteed to pay sealers 80 per- cry against the seal hunt echoed waged by IFAW and European ani- cent of the value of the seal pelts around the world, it was clear the mal protection groups. An impres- that year (CBC 1984). global effort to save the seals had sive five million signatures oppos- Clearly, the offer of subsidies was begun in earnest. ing the seal hunt were collected not enough. In 1984 and 1985, be- The messaging of the animal wel- and submitted to the European cause of the European ban on the fare groups working to stop the seal Parliament and British govern- import of whitecoat and blueback hunt largely focused on the objec- ment. By 1982 the public pressure sealskins and the successful British tions to beating newborn pups to was overwhelming, and the Euro- boycott of Canadian fish, there was death in front of their mothers, pean Parliament voted to ban the no large vessel-based commercial along with observer testimony and import of skins from “whitecoats” seal hunt (CBC 1987). Animal pro- veterinary evidence indicating a (newborn harp seal pups under tection groups, confident the significant percentage of the pups about two weeks of age) and “blue- seafood boycott had achieved its were being skinned alive in the backs” (hooded seal pups under goals, suspended the tactic, believ- process (Simpson 1967; Jordan about one year of age). The meas- ing the seal hunt was winding down 1978). Images of newborn seals ure passed, 160 to 10, with 20 ab- and would soon be over for good. staring up at club-wielding sealers stentions, and the issue then went In December 1986 the Royal shocked people around the world, to the European Commission for Commission on Seals and Sealing, and, as the campaign progressed, consideration. In October 1982 a panel that had been set up by the debate was changing from how the commission recommended a the federal government two years many seals should be killed in the temporary import ban based on a earlier, introduced a report in the hunt to whether it was morally clause in the General Agreement House of Commons. Among other acceptable to kill them at all. on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) per- things, the report recommended

Canada’s Commercial Seal Hunt 95 an end to hunting whitecoats. In time: the 1972 U.S. Marine Mam- effective and convincing advo- 1987 large vessel owners prepared mal Protection Act, the 1982 cate for your industry. It can once again to hunt seals. Animal moratorium on commercial whal- evoke powerful archetypes, protection groups reacted quickly, ing, and the 1983 EU ban on trade such as the sanctity of the threatening to move the seafood in products of whitecoat and blue- family, the virtue of the close- boycott into the United States, back seal pups. knit community, the natural the top market for Canadian Even as the environmental move- wisdom of rural dwellers...and seafood. The Canadian government was making headway, power- it can turn the public against ment responded by banning the ful opponents were surfacing your enemies....I think you’ll use of larger vessels and the in response. Those who stood to find it one of your wisest in- killing of newborn pups at the seal profit from resource exploitation vestments over time. (Gold- hunt in Canadian waters, effec- struck back with an organized force berg 2001, 15) tively ending the large-scale com- that became known as the “wise Soon, environmental and animal mercial seal hunt for several years use” movement. By creating indus- protection groups found them- (CBC 1987). try front groups, using conserva- selves contending with industry- Arguably, this could have been tion language to describe resource funded front groups in virtually the end of commercial sealing in extraction activities, advancing in- every resource-extraction sector Canada if not for two important dustry agendas through appropria- they attempted to influence. It was factors—the collapse of the north- tion of native interests, and pre- in this context that industry and ern cod stock and the rise of the senting environmentalists as self- government-funded sealing advo- “wise use” movement, whose interested profiteers, the wise use cacy groups, including the North strategies were embraced by those movement set out to regain Atlantic Marine Mammal Commis- promoting commercial exploita- ground. sion (NAMMCO), the World Coun- tion of marine mammals. In 1988 a conference was organ- cil of Whalers (WCW), the High ized by the Center for the Defense North Alliance (HNA), and the of Free Enterprise (CDFE), led by IWMC World Conservation Trust The Rise of an active opponent of the environ- were established. Notably, the mental movement, R. Arnold. The Canadian government counseled, the Wise Use conference drew industry leaders participated in, and funded these Movement from the United States and organizations (Goldberg 2001). Our goal is to destroy, to eradicate Canada, and the outcome was a NAMMCO was created in 1992 the environmental movement.... “wise use agenda” signed by all by four pro-whaling nations (the We’re mad as hell. We’re not going participants. But while the objec- Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, to take it anymore. We’re dead tives of the wise use agenda (in- and Norway) that were dissatisfied serious—we’re going to destroy cluding clear-cutting of old growth with the International Whaling them. We want to be able to ex- forests and weakening of endan- Commission’s (IWC) global mora- ploit the environment for private gered species legislation) were torium on commercial whaling. gain, absolutely. controversial, it was the strategies NAMMCO positions itself as a sci- —Ron Arnold, executive vice laid out by the “wise users” to ence-based and responsible alter- president, Center for the Defense achieve their goals that were the native to the IWC and a recognized of Free Enterprise (Arnold 1995) most troubling to environmental international management body. groups. However, its membership is re- During the second half of the One of the key tactics promoted stricted to whaling and sealing twentieth century, the environ- by the wise use movement to interests, and experts view it as an mental movement was fast chang- counter environmental campaigns organization working to promote a ing from a fringe interest into a was the creation of “front” groups— wise use agenda (Goldberg 2001). politically powerful entity. During industry advocacy organizations In 1997 Canada played host to a this time leading environmental positioned as public interest NAMMCO meeting, “Sealing the organizations such as Greenpeace groups. Arnold advised, Future.” The conference, which in- were established, and, as public The public is completely concluded representatives of the Cana- support for the movement grew, vinced that when you speak as dian government, resulted in a key environmental defense poli- an industry you are speaking press release demanding the elim- cies were successfully adopted. out of nothing but self-inter- ination of “WTO incompatible seal Three of the most important victo- est... The pro-industry citizen product trade barriers” (North ries in the protection of marine activist group is the answer to Atlantic Marine Mammal Commis- mammals happened during this these problems. It can be an sion 1997, n.p).

96 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 While NAMMCO positions itself Canadian Government, in their decimated by outside intrud- as an international management struggle against the anti-sealing ers....As a result, the resource- authority, other wise use groups protest industry” (Lapointe 2005, extracting culture withered define themselves as conservation n.p.). This, and the other seal con- and its suicide rate skyrock- bodies. On its website (www.iwmc. tent on the IWMC website, is a eted as helpless people felt the org), the IWMC World Conservation good example of wise use messag- unreasoning hatred of well-fed Trust (formerly known as the Inter- ing, branding the campaign to constituencies in the domi- national Wildlife Management Con- defend the seal hunt as “sustain- nant urban culture. http:// sortium, or IWMC) calls itself a able use” and the campaign to end www.eskimo.com/~rarnold/ “global coalition of experts and it as “eco-terror.” The IWMC site seal_hunt.htm. wildlife managers promoting the defines groups working to end the Notably, the commercial seal conservation of habitat and wildlife seal hunt as “extreme,” “radical,” hunt in Canada is conducted resources,” and asks people to and “vicious,” and the individuals almost entirely by non-aboriginal “donate now to protect the world’s who oppose the seal hunt as misin- people from Canada’s east coast, wildlife for future generations.” In formed, wealthy urbanites with lit- and the traditional value of sealing light of this, the public would per- tle understanding of, or concern to native communities has been in haps be surprised to learn that for, rural lifestyles. subsistence hunts, which by defini- IWMC’s Canadian founder and pres- Another common wise use strat- tion are not affected by global seal ident, E. Lapointe, is a paid lobbyist egy emerged in the 1980s: the use product trade. According to P. for countries seeking to reopen the of public sympathy for traditional, Hollingsworth, an Ojibwa and trade in endangered species (Vidal subsistence aboriginal lifestyles to founder of the Native Animal Broth- 2004). Having previously worked defend commercial trade in erhood, it is resource extraction in- with the Canadian government for wildlife parts. An employee of the dustries that are leading to the fourteen years, Lapointe served as Canadian Department of Indian demise of native culture. secretary general of the Convention and Northern Affairs and senior He noted, on International Trade in Endan- Canadian government advisor, Indigenous survival is not syn- gered Species (CITES) between B. Roberts, explained the tactic at onymous with Canada’s fur 1982 and 1990, a position from a whaling conference in Iceland as trade. Quite the opposite is which he was dismissed under con- he outlined successful strategies true. History has shown that troversial circumstances when he used to counter anti-sealing the commercial fur trade in- campaigned against a ban on the groups. He said, dustry actively promoted the ivory trade. He later received a set- The first step was to neutral- disintegration of our culture, tlement after the UN found that his ize the appeal of the animal a process which continues dismissal was “arbitrary and capri- protection lobby. To accom- to this day. (Global Action cious,” and he now advises several plish this it was necessary to Network n.d). nations, including Canada, on how mount an equally emotionally Regardless, the perception that to avoid animal trade legislation powerful counter-appeal. This ending the commercial seal hunt legally (Vidal 2004). Five of the nine counter-appeal was based would have a devastating impact officers in his organization are for- on the survival needs of abo- on native communities prevails, mer CITES employees, and La- riginal communities which de- and hardships faced by Canadian pointe states that his funding pended upon the continued aboriginals remain one of the most comes from Canada, China, Japan, taking of fur-bearing animals. compelling arguments in support Norway, and "two small European (Schmidt 1999, 7) of the hunt. As CDFE’s founder countries" (Russell 2002). The Center for the Defense of Arnold stated in 1991, “Facts don’t In addition to advocating trophy Free Enterprise (2006), consid- matter. In politics, perception is hunts for elephants, reopening the ered a leading wise use group, uses reality” (Krakauer 1991, 70). international ivory trade, and a re- this tactic to support the seal While these and other wise use turn to commercial whaling, the hunt. The CDFE website includes a tactics helped seal hunt propo- IWMC strongly supports the Cana- statement that, without providing nents lay the foundation for a re- dian seal hunt. In an open letter any substantiating evidence, turn to industrial-scale commer- entitled “Seal War,” which was attempts to blame economic hard- cial sealing, it was the cod collapse posted on the IWMC website in ships and even suicide rates in off the east coast of Canada in the 2005, Lapointe urged organiza- native communities on the col- 1990s that provided the political tions to join a “Sustainable Use lapse of the commercial sealing in- impetus for the Canadian govern- Coalition to support the Canadian dustry in the 1980s: ment to act. Sealers and Fishermen and the The Canadian seal hunt was

Canada’s Commercial Seal Hunt 97 the Europeans were gone it would through eastern Canada and The Collapse of come to the Canadians” (McK- within the DFO bureaucracy itself. Northern Cod ibben 1998, 64). The collapse of the cod stocks was Throughout the next decade, the due to over-fishing. It had nothing to Canadian government paid little A Lethal do with the environment and noth- heed to the concerns of inshore ing to do with seals. fishermen who were noticing a Combination Mr. Speaker, I would like to see the —Ransom Myers, former serious decrease in their catches 6 million seals, or whatever num- Canadian Department of and the size of the individual ber is out there, killed and sold, or Fisheries and Oceans scientist northern cod. They continued to destroyed and burned. I do not care set unsustainable quotas until it what happens to them...the more Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, was evident the northern cod pop- they kill the better I will love it. Canada’s fishing industry devel- ulation could withstand no more —John Efford, Newfoundland oped new technologies. With huge (Harris 1998). By the 1990s, with Minister of Fisheries nets, industrial fishing vessels northern cod stocks at only 1 per- and Aquaculture, 1998 could haul up as much as two hun- cent of their historic levels, it was dred tons of fish in one hour, twice clear decades of overfishing had re- When the 1992 cod moratorium the amount a typical sixteenth- sulted in an ecological catastro- was announced, optimistic politi- century boat would have caught in phe. In 1992 a moratorium was cians predicted it would be over an entire season. Cod catches in- declared on cod fishing; un- within a few years. But informed creased steadily over the 1950s fortunately, by then, many believe scientists were already stating it and 1960s, from a yearly average of it was already too late (Woodard would take at least a decade before 250,000 tons to a peak of 800,000 2001). the cod could be expected to recover tons in 1968 (Brubaker 2000). The public demanded to know (Myers, Mertz, and Fowlow 1997). At the time, foreign fishing fleets how Department of Fisheries and As the years went by, it was clear were taking the lion’s share of the Oceans (DFO) scientists could have the cod were not coming back, fish caught off the east coast of missed the obvious signs of a de- and the Canadian government be- Canada. They took not only the clining population, when inshore gan to look at ways to appease the cod, but the main food source for fishermen had been predicting the east coast fishing industry. the cod, capelin, as well. It was no collapse for decades. As tens of In October 1995 B. Tobin, then surprise that the northern cod thousands of Atlantic Canadians Canadian fisheries minister, along stock was diminishing under the lost a primary source of income, with the fisheries ministers from double threat of a decreasing food the DFO offered up various expla- Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the supply and overfishing (Tsoa nations, from foreign fishing fleets Faroe Islands and a representative 1996). to changing ocean temperatures. from Greenland, signed a state- By 1977 the decrease in ground Despite a consensus among the sci- ment declaring seals “a conserva- fish stocks had become so evident entific community to the contrary, tion problem” in parts of the North that Canada imposed a two hun- seal predation was at the top of the Atlantic Ocean (Department of dred-mile limit off its coast as a DFO’s list (Lavigne 1995). Fisheries and Oceans 1995, n.p.). means of stopping the foreign fish- Given the residual resentment The statement concluded, “there ing fleets. Regrettably, instead of surrounding the EU sealskin ban is a need to reduce the sizes of the using the new protected zone to re- and the boycott of Canadian seal herds...through expanded duce fishing and allow fish stocks seafood, the failure of the cod commercial harvests where possi- to rebuild, Canadian fishing com- stocks to recover, and the preva- ble.” Only the EU dissented. panies saw a chance to increase lent myth that seals harm fish While informed cynics saw the their own take. In what many envi- stocks, seals were a perfect scape- move as an attempt to justify com- ronmentalists see as a conserva- goat for dwindling fish stocks. Gov- mercial sealing and placate fisher- tion betrayal, Canadian fishing ernment and independent scien- men in the wake of the cod collapse, fleets dramatically increased the tists argued that only 3 percent of Canadian media provided mislead- size of their catches, and in New- a harp seal’s diet consists of north- ing legitimacy to the minister’s foundland the number of regis- ern cod, and that harp seals also statement. The Canadian press tered fishers increased by 41 consume many significant cod falsely stated that “federal research percent (Blake n.d.). Fisheries biol- predators (Lavigne 1995). But has linked seals to a decline in cod ogist Richard Haedrich elaborated: their advice went unheard, and stocks” (Lavigne 1996a, 57). The “The idea was that the streets were calls for a seal cull echoed loudly Department of Fisheries and paved with fish and that now that

98 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Oceans’ website homepage at the 1995 Stock Status Report on Gulf their populations to declining fish time stated, “Harp seals are one of of St. Lawrence ground fish, indi- stocks (Department of Fisheries the factors inhibiting groundfish cating seal predation was unlikely and Oceans 2004). recovery” (Lavigne 1995). In reality, to be responsible for cod mortality the Canadian government’s own sci- trends, were allegedly removed entists had repeatedly concluded from the published version, con- Trading Quotas the depletion of fish stocks had trary to scientific advice. nothing to do with seals (House A hearing was convened in the for Votes In 1997, despite the information of Commons Standing Committee House of Commons Standing Com- exposed in the House of Commons on Fisheries and Oceans 1997). mittee on Fisheries and Oceans to inquiry and media, the use of seals Regardless, a public relations foun- hear testimony regarding the re- as a scapegoat for fisheries mis- dation was clearly being laid for reju- port. Witnesses described an estab- management continued. New- venation of the commercial seal lished pattern at DFO of intimidat- foundland’s fisheries minister, J. hunt in Canada. It came as little suring researchers, repressing sci- Efford, crisscrossed the nation to prise to animal protection groups entific uncertainty about stock lev- convince Canadians of the need for when, in 1996, Tobin announced a els, censoring or rewriting reports, an expanded seal hunt. “The prob- massive federal subsidy for sealers failing to collect or use relevant lem is that seals eat fish. They do (Lavigne 1996b). Hunt numbers ex- data, hiding data from researchers, not eat Kentucky Fried Chicken. I ceeded 240,000 seals that year and barring scientists from speaking to don’t need to be a genius or a have remained high ever since. the media or to colleagues about rocket scientist to figure that out,” their findings, threatening to with- he informed audiences (Luksic hold research funding to universi- 1998, n.p.). ties whose staff criticize DFO, and The Politics of It is perhaps ironic that Efford threatening to sue DFO critics was blaming seals for the vanished Conservation (Goldberg 2001, 3). The following year some clarity was cod just as the House of Commons R. Myers, a former DFO fisheries finally provided on the seals and inquiry was exposing what appeared scientist, was called to testify. He cod question when two former DFO to be a DFO agenda to scapegoat described being tasked by the DFO scientists, including J. Hutchings, seals for the cod collapse. Around bureaucracy to conduct research published “Is Scientific Inquiry In- the same time, F. Mifflin, B. Tobin’s “examining the mortality of cod compatible with Government Infor- successor as Canadian fisheries relating to seals to counter argu- mation Control?” (Hutchings, Wal- minister, was telling the public that ments by animal rights people that ters, and Haedrich 1997). It the cod stocks were recovering. one could never detect such an indicated a tradition of suppression In a 1996 press release, Mifflin event.” Myers noted, “We found of scientific information at DFO stated, “Declines in stocks have out we could not detect the effect and cited numerous examples stopped...there are indications that of seals with the data we had. of DFO scientists warning that some stocks are rebuilding” (De- Because we did not show what was ground fish stocks were in a dan- partment of Fisheries and Oceans desired by Ottawa bureaucrats, gerous decline; these findings were 1996, n.p.). In a controversial move, that research was suppressed” (in either ignored or suppressed as just ten days before the 1997 fed- House of Commons Standing Com- high quotas continued to be allo- eral election was called, Mifflin mittee on Fisheries and Oceans cated. The authors suggested, “The announced that six thousand tons 1997, n.p.). conservation of natural resources is of cod could be taken from the Though Myers and other wit- not facilitated by science inte- northern Gulf of St. Lawrence and nesses provided suggestions for grated within a political body” off the west coast of Newfoundland, improvements to DFO, the hearing (Goldberg 2001, 3). and ten thousand tons could in the House Standing Committee According to the authors, gov- be taken from the southern New- on Fisheries and Oceans resulted ernment interference was not re- foundland coast (Department of in little concrete change at DFO stricted to reports on fish stocks. Fisheries and Oceans 1997). (Goldberg 2001). A decade later Just as evidence suggesting a pend- Meanwhile, attempts by the DFO bottom trawling and other destruc- ing collapse of cod stocks was sup- to prove seal predation was leading tive technologies were still estab- pressed, so, too, was information to increased cod mortality were lished practices in Canada’s fishing that did not support the govern- falling far short of their goals industry (Canadian Broadcasting ment agenda to scapegoat seals; (House of Commons Standing Corporation News 2006b), and the authors pointed out that state- Committee on Fisheries and seals remained the focus of inten- ments in the original draft of the Oceans 1997). Nevertheless, a Par- sive studies that attempt to link

Canada’s Commercial Seal Hunt 99 liamentary advisory group, the Biologists overestimated size of bad ice conditions. In 1998 and Fisheries Resource Conservation of stocks. Managers proposed 2000, they estimated that one- Council (FRCC), advised in a 1999 quotas that did not allow for quarter of the pups died due to lack report that the seal herds be re- natural large declines in popu- of ice before the hunt began (IFAW duced by up to 50 percent of their lations, and they consistently 2006a). current levels, stating, “action set quotas that were higher In 2005 S. Dion, Canada’s envi- must be taken immediately to im- than what the biologists pro- ronment minister, spoke at the prove opportunities for the conser- posed. Fishermen lobbied hard United Nations Climate Change vation and recovery of cod and for greater access.... Conference and warned, “Reduc- other groundfish stocks, without Berrill was referring to the col- tions in sea ice will drastically waiting for absolute scientific proof lapse of northern cod in the New- shrink marine habitat for polar of the effects of seal predation” foundland fishery, but the words bears, ice-inhabiting seals, and [emphasis added] (Fisheries Re- could apply equally to seals today. some seabirds, pushing some source Conservation Council Scientists argue the current Cana- species toward extinction” (Dion 1999, 11). dian seal hunt management plan 2005, n.p.). The same year, G. By 2003 it was clear the contro- poses a renewed threat to the sur- Regan, Canada’s minister of fish- versial new cod fishing zones had to vival of seal populations, particularly eries and oceans, allowed sealers to be closed permanently. The FRCC in light of the pending effects of cli- reach one of the highest quotas for distributed a press release calling mate change on the habitats of ice-dependent harp seals in history. for the government to cull seals as a these ice-dependent animals. They Animal protection groups note means to help cod stocks rebuild, suggest that DFO’s population mod- that, in addition to its effects and, in the run-up to another federal eling may be overestimating harp on marine mammal populations, election, fisheries minister R. seal numbers (Harris, Sousbury, and Canada’s commercial seal hunt in- Thibault announced the highest Iossa 2005) and note that Canada volves a well-documented and unac- quota for harp seals in history; and Greenland both hunt the same ceptable level of cruelty. In 2001 an Canada would allow nearly one mil- population of harp seals but do not international team of veterinarians, lion seal pups to be slaughtered over cooperate in setting quotas. including American, British, and the next three years (Department of Perhaps these factors would be Canadian experts, observed the Fisheries and Oceans 2003). less alarming, were it not for the commercial seal hunt. The team pending effects of climate change studied the seal hunt from the ice on harp and hooded seals and other and from the air and performed The Expanded ice associated animals. In a 2005 postmortems on seal carcasses report, Johnston et al. (2005) con- abandoned on the ice. Their report Seal Hunt cluded that reduced ice cover in concluded the Canadian commer- Last year in the seal management the Gulf of St. Lawrence and off cial seal hunt results in ”consider- plan I used a flexible approach....I Newfoundland and Labrador during able and unacceptable suffering” introduced a three-year manage- the breeding season may represent and noted in 42 percent of cases ment plan of 975,000 seals. It will a serious environmental challenge studied, the seals did not show mean a reduction for the first time for harp and hooded seals, which enough evidence of cranial injury in the herd. require an ice platform for whelp- to even guarantee unconsciousness —R. Thibault, Canadian ing and nursing. The report noted at the time of skinning (Burdon et Minister of Fisheries that, in six of the previous seven al. 2001). and Oceans, 2003 years (1996–2002), ice cover on M. Richardson, a Canadian vet- the east coast of Canada was signif- erinary expert in humane slaughter With more than one million seals icantly below the seasonal average and the former chairwoman of the killed between 2003 and 2006, for the period 1983–2002, and in Animal Care Review Board for the Canada’s commercial seal hunt has poor ice years, ice cover in some Solicitor General of Ontario, con- become by far the largest slaughter regions was up to 60 percent less tends the seal hunt is inherently of marine mammals on Earth. The than the yearly average observed inhumane because of the environ- 2006 kill levels met and even between 1969 and 2002 (John- ment in which it operates (off- exceeded those of the 1950s and ston et al. 2005). In 1981 and shore, on unstable ice floes, often 1960s, when scientists argued 2002, both poor ice years, Cana- in extreme weather conditions) and overhunting threatened the North- dian government scientists esti- the speed at which it must be con- west Atlantic harp seal population. mated that three-quarters of the ducted to be commercially viable In The Plundered Seas, M. Berrill pups born in the Gulf of St. (hundreds of thousands of animals (1997, 120) stated, Lawrence died as a consequence are killed over just a few days)

100 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Europe, where they are tanned and Figure 1 resold in fashion markets. Canadian sealers are commercial Age of Harp Seals fishermen from Canada’s east coast Slaughtered (2001–2006) who participate in several commercial fisheries throughout the year. 400000 Government data show they earn on average less than 5 percent of their 350000 total annual incomes from sealing. The rest is from commercial fish- 300000 eries such as crab, shrimp, and lob- ster (Linzey 2006). This analysis is 250000 supported by quotes from sealers in media reports (Warne 2004). 200000 Even in Newfoundland, where more than 90 percent of sealers live, 150000 sealing income accounts for less than .1 percent of the gross domes- 100000 tic product. Economists note the Number of Harp Seals Killed few million dollars the sealing indus- 50000 try brings in each year are offset by the high level of government sup- 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 port it receives. As a whole, the seal- Year ing industry received more than $20 Number of seals killed Number of seals killed million in government subsidies over 3 months old under 3 months old between 1995 and 2001, according to a report by the Canadian Institute Source data: Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans harp seal landings reports. for Business and the Environment (Gallon 2001). (Richardson 2005). In 2005 D. publicity. The sealing industry has In contrast to the relatively mar- Broom of the University of Cam- found some success in marketing ginal economic contribution it bridge and S. Cheetham, chief vet- seal oil, but most of it is sold as an makes, animal protection groups erinary officer of the British Royal industrial lubricant, and seal-pro- argue the commercial seal hunt Society for the Prevention of Cru- cessing plant price lists show sales of causes significant damage to elty to Animals (RSPCA), reported seal oil constitute a small amount of Canada’s international reputation on footage of the Canadian seal the total income generated by the and to Canadian businesses. hunt, noting the prolonged suffer- seal hunt (Carino Company Limited ing of the animals and the inability 2005). Millions of dollars in direct of the sealers to provide an accept- subsidies were provided to the seal- The Renewed Fight ably humane death to the pups ing industry through the late 1990s (Broom 2005; Cheetham 2005). to try to develop markets for seal to Save Seals We are absolutely committed to Over six years (2001–2006), virtu- meat. However, this endeavor failed, making sure this is the last slaugh- ally all of the seals killed (97 per- with products such as seal pepper- ter of baby seals in Canada anyone cent) were less than three months oni finding limited acceptance. will ever have to witness. old, and most were under one Despite the millions of dollars in —Paul McCartney, March 2006 month (Figure 1). The pups in government subsidies for product Canada were killed almost exclu- development and marketing, seal Throughout the mid- to late 1990s, sively for their fur. Attempts have carcasses are almost always left to animal protection groups around the been made over the years to develop rot on the ice floes, and Canadian world were slowly becoming aware of other products, with varying degrees government officials define the com- the steadily rising seal hunt quotas of success. For a short time in the mercial seal hunt as “primarily a fur in Canada. One after another, organ- mid-1990s, seal organs brought in a hunt” (Standing Committee on izations launched renewed cam- significant percentage of total seal Fisheries and Oceans 2006). The paigns—this time to put a “final hunt revenues, though that market skins are shipped, largely in a raw end” to the Canadian seal hunt. either closed down or was driven (unprocessed) state, directly to underground in the wake of negative

Canada’s Commercial Seal Hunt 101 During those years it became evi- that overhunting in the 1950s and It was in this challenging environ- dent that the animal protection 1960s had reduced the population ment that animal protection groups community had in some ways be- by as much as two-thirds by the managed to bring the campaign to come a victim of its own success in early 1970s. Animal protection save the seals once again to the fore- the seal campaign. Opinion polls groups argued that what was in real- front of the public consciousness. showed the public was largely ity a recovery from a dangerously Throughout the 1990s organiza- unaware the seal hunt was even low level was being misleadingly tions worked on a variety of fronts to going on (Angus Reid Group represented by the Canadian gov- end the seal hunt in Canada. Paid 1997), with many believing it had ernment as a population explosion. advertisements educated Canadians ended for good in the 1980s. Inflations of the economic value about the humane, conservation, Environment and animal protec- of the seal hunt were persistent in and economic aspects of the com- tion organizations argue incomplete the DFO messaging. In its 200l mercial seal hunt. Grass-roots initia- and misleading information provided Facts about Seals, the DFO (2001) tives organized by animal protection by the Canadian government only claimed, “The seal hunt provides groups resulted in protests across helped to confuse the matter. valuable income to about 12,000 the country, and tens of thousands Though government kill reports sealers and their families in eastern of Canadians contacted their politi- clearly showed most of the seals Canada.” However, in the same year, cal representatives to express their killed in the hunt at the time were the executive director of the Cana- opposition to the seal hunt. Govern- pups just days or weeks of age, the dian Sealers Association stated at a ment relations campaigns put the DFO asserted that hunting baby sealing conference, commercial seal hunt onto the seals was illegal in Canada, restrict- In Newfoundland, we have agendas of Canadian politicians. ing its definition of “baby seal” to the 11,000+ licensed sealers with Scientific studies raised serious newborn (whitecoat) harp seals pro- approximately 2,500 of them questions about the sustainability of tected in Canada from commercial active in any given year. Sealing the Canadian government seal hunt hunting as of 1987. In Facts about licenses are not expensive to management plan. Seals, the DFO (2000, n.p.) stated, buy—they cost $5.00 a year. During this time some advances “Young harp seals are independent The reason for the large num- were made in the campaign. The and completely self-reliant two or ber of licenses vis-à-vis the Canadian government reevaluated three weeks after birth.” Animal pro- smaller number of active seal- some of its estimates of the numbers tection groups claimed the DFO ers is the fact that if they do not of seals actually killed during the position was misleading and inaccu- renew their license in any given Canadian seal hunt, and the new cal- rate. They noted that seals can be year, they will not be eligible in culations were incorporated into legally hunted in Canada as young as the following year. (Greenland management plans. Canada began twelve days old, when they begin to Home Rule 2001, 57) to relax its arguably unlawful restric- shed their white fur, and that most of In Six Facts about Canada’s Seal tions on seal hunt observers, which the seals killed are less than three Hunt, the DFO (2005b) attributed had previously made it very difficult months of age. The groups argued a value of $40 million for the Cana- to obtain footage of the seal hunt. that, at the young age they are dian seal hunt, a figure several Possibly in response to opinion polls slaughtered, the pups have poorly times greater than the amount gov- showing the majority of Canadians, developed swimming skills and many ernment landings reports show was including Newfoundlanders, opposed have not yet eaten solid food, leaving actually paid to sealers that year. government subsidies to the seal them defenseless against the The DFO claimed the $40 million hunt (Angus Reid Group 1997), hunters. Organizations pointed out figure was provided by the Cana- direct subsidies to sealers were that public opinion polling in 1997 dian Sealers Association (CSA), but phased out before 2000. showed 85 percent of Canadians neither the DFO nor the CSA was However, the Canadian govern- believed seal pups less than one year able to provide any substantiating ment continued to expand the seal- of age should be protected from evidence. Regardless, the figure ing industry, and despite the best hunting (Angus Reid Group 1997). continued as of late 2006 to appear intentions of the animal protection Animal protection groups main- prominently on the DFO website. groups, kill levels continued to tained that DFO information re- As the years progressed, it became increase...with one notable excep- garding the size of the harp seal clear that animal and environment tion. In 2000, with the direct meat population was equally misleading. protection groups were opposing subsidy to sealers eliminated, the kill Department publications consis- more than the sealing industry in level dramatically declined, to under tently referred to the harp seal pop- their campaign to stop the seal 100,000 animals. Animal protection ulation as being “triple” what it was hunt—they were up against the full groups hoped, perhaps naively, that in the 1970s, neglecting to mention force of the Canadian government. the hunt was finally beginning to

102 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 wind down in favor of less controver- Fisheries and Oceans and animal About two-thirds of Canadian sial economic opportunities. protection groups, government offi- seafood is exported every year to Unfortunately, the reprieve was cials said that the only environment the United States, generating brief. Some argue the subsidies were in which the seal hunt could end nearly $3 billion for the Canadian never really removed but rather would be if Canada’s fishing indus- economy annually (Department of driven underground by negative try demanded it. This was likely due Fisheries and Oceans 2005a). This publicity. Seal hunt numbers began to the close ties between the Cana- made the United States an obvious to climb again in the following year, dian sealing and fishing industries; initial focus for the campaign to and in 2002 more than 300,000 Canadian sealers are commercial boycott Canadian seafood. With its seals were killed, the highest kill fishermen who hunt seals in the off- millions of members and con- level in thirty-five years. season, and fisheries unions repre- stituents across the United States, April 2004 marked a turning sent sealers (Fish, Food, and Allied The Humane Society of the United point in the campaign, when The Workers Union 2001). States (HSUS) was in a natural posi- New York Times featured the seal Thus, following decades of unsuc- tion to lead the effort. hunt controversy on its front page cessful negotiations with the Cana- The HSUS launched the seafood (Krauss 2004). In the weeks that fol- dian government, a network of some boycott in the United States on lowed, major media outlets all over of the world’s most influential ani- March, 29, 2005, the opening day of the globe, including those through- mal protection groups created an the 2005 commercial seal hunt. As out Canada, the United States, economic incentive for the Cana- of mid-2006, The HSUS reported Europe, Australia, South America, dian fishing industry to act. Noting more than 330,000 Americans and and Asia, covered the story. In the the success of the 1980s seafood more than one thousand major second year of the “million seal boycott in changing Canadian gov- restaurants, grocery stores, and quota,” the world was finally becom- ernment policy on the seal hunt, the seafood wholesalers in the United ing aware that Canada’s seal hunt network, which represents tens States pledged not to buy Canadian was back and twice as large as when of millions of people worldwide, de- seafood until the seal hunt is ended animal protection groups first cam- clared a boycott of Canadian for good. Since the boycott was paigned to stop it. seafood products until the seal hunt launched, official government trade However, rather than working to is permanently ended (HSUS 2005). statistics through July 2006 showed end the hunt in the wake of the the value of Canadian snow crab—a negative publicity, the Canadian government stepped up its defense and promotion of the sealing indus- Figure 2 try, allocating the highest quotas Decline in Value of Canadian Snow for harp seals in history. Animal protection groups countered with Crab Exports to the United States a hard-hitting strategy to increase Total value of Canadian snow crab exports to the United States down 34 percent (CDN$290 million) since the ProtectSeals seafood boycott began. economic pressure on the Cana- dian fishing industry—a boycott of $1,000,000,000 Canadian seafood products. $852,854,151

$800,000,000 The Canadian $563,185,784 Seafood Boycott $600,000,000 The message is simple; it will be heard across the world. If you oppose Canada’s merciless slaugh- $400,000,000 ter of baby seals, don’t buy Cana- dian seafood products. —Wayne Pacelle, President Value in Canadian Dollars $200,000,000 and CEO of The Humane Society of the United States, press conference, 2005 $0 Pre-BoycottApril 2005 Onward = Boycott

In November 2004, in a meeting Source: Canadian international trade data from Statistics Canada through between Canada’s Department of July 2006 (HS 03.06.14.10).

Canada’s Commercial Seal Hunt 103 primary focus of the boycott—ex- restaurants that formerly bought cease this cruel practice, which is ports to the United States had de- Canadian shrimp are now asking unbecoming of a civilized nation. clined by nearly $300 million (Figure for the more expensive Greenland —2004 Motion for 2). While animal protection groups variety because of the boycott. a Recommendation, have never claimed the boycott is While the seafood boycott puts submitted to the Council of the only reason for the decline, economic pressure on the Cana- Europe by Claudio Azzolini, they viewed it as a significant fac- dian government and fishing indus- Italian foreign minister tor (HSUS 2006). try to end the seal hunt, closing the The Canadian government global markets for seal products is The 1980s European Union Direc- denied the seafood boycott had starting to remove the primary in- tive prohibiting the trade in prod- had any impact, blaming the de- centive for sealers to hunt seals. ucts derived from newborn (white- crease in the value of Canadian coat) harp seals and young snow crab exports to the United (blueback) hooded seals brought States on market conditions and Global Markets Canada’s commercial seal hunt to a competition from other countries. virtual standstill for a number of However, in July 2006 Greenland’s for Seal Products years (Figure 3). But while the Grønlandsposten reported the Begin to Close intent of the legislation was to boycott of Canadian seafood had The Assembly undertakes to pro- decrease demand for products of directly affected Royal Green- mote in every forum regulatory ini- seal pups (and thus the incentive land’s sales of Canadian seafood in tiatives aimed at prohibiting the for sealers to hunt them), Canadian the United States (AG/Grønland- import and use of seals or seal sealers simply began to kill the pups sposten 2006). Royal Greenland, parts....The Assembly also asks the when they were just a few days older the world’s largest distributor of Committee of Ministers and the (Figure 1). Today, the skins of these cold water shrimp, said its client parliaments of the Member States young seals are legally traded in to exert pressure on the Canadian many parts of Europe (Figure 4). Government and Parliament to

Figure 3 Total Reported Kill of Harp Seals in the Northwest Atlantic, 1952–2006 500,000 Number of Harp Seal Kills 450,000

400,000

350,000

300,000

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000 0

1952 1955 1958 1961 1964 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 Year Note: Includes Canadian commercial seal hunt and Arctic and Greenland harp seal catches. Catches for Greenland are estimated for 2005 and 2006. Canadian catch for 2006 is preliminary. Sources: Graph courtesy of S. Fink; data updated from: Stenson (2005).

104 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 which they perceive as inhumane, Figure 4 their next target will be aboriginal hunters” (in Minogue 2006, n.p.). Canadian Exports of Sealskins On February 3, 2006, a leading to Europe, 2004 Newfoundland newspaper reported that several high-level officials with Exports of Raw and Unassembled Tanned Sealskins = 272,362 Pelts the Inuit Circumpolar Conference and the government of Nunavut met Greenland 16% with Greenland officials to present the “Canadian argument” on the matter (Baker 2006). On March 24 a high-level delegation from Canada went to Greenland to discuss trade opportunities between the two countries. The delegation included F. Gregory, Canada’s ambassador to Denmark; J. Anawak, Canada’s ambassador for Circumpolar Affairs; and G. Beaupré, director general of Norway 53% EU15 30% International Affairs, Fisheries, and EU New 10 Oceans Canada. While no specific 1% mention of lobbying against the Source: Eurostat and Statistics Canada. sealskin decision was made, the published trip itinerary shows meetings As Canada’s commercial seal Canada’s commercial seal hunt between the senior Canadian dele- hunt once again achieved interna- (Danish Broadcasting Corporation gates and Greenland’s premier and tional notoriety in 2004, interna- 2006a). Just twenty-three hours minister of Fisheries and Hunting tional governments began to act after the footage was aired, Green- (Greenland Home Rule 2006a). on behalf of their citizens to put an land Prime Minister H. Enoksen Within weeks, the Greenland Home end to their trade in all harp and announced to the Danish and Rule government sent out a media hooded seal products. Belgium was Greenlandic media that his cabinet advisory announcing it would once the first country to take action, had decided to stop all of the Great again allow Great Greenland to adopting a legislative proposal in Greenland Company’s trade in trade in Canadian sealskins (Green- May 2004 to ban the import/ Canadian sealskins (Danish Broad- land Home Rule 2006b). export and marketing of all seal casting Corporation 2006b). Danish parliamentarians quickly products (Fink 2006). Soon other The decision removed an impor- urged Greenland to reconsider, not- nations began to act as well; Croa- tant market for Canada’s commer- ing any resumption in trade of Cana- tia, Luxembourg, Mexico, and the cial seal hunt; in 2004 and 2005, dian sealskins could severely damage Netherlands had all either ended Canadian government trade statis- Greenland’s sealing industry (Green- their trade in seal products or had tics revealed that Greenland had land National Broadcasting Company initiated campaigns to do so by imported more than ninety thou- 2006). Denmark’s foreign office then 2006 (IFAW 2006b). sand Canadian sealskins. announced it would investigate the The Canadian government and fur potential for a Danish ban on trade in industry reacted strongly. A. Her- Canadian sealskins. While the Green- Initial Support scovici of the Fur Council of Canada land government had lifted its order weighed in on the topic in Nunatsiaq for Great Greenland to stop trading from Greenland News, sending a clear message to in Canadian sealskins, as of mid- On January 5, 2006, footage Greenland. According to Herscovici, 2006 it remained uncertain whether obtained by The HSUS of the 2005 the Greenland government would Great Greenland would actually commercial seal hunt was broadcast “only hurt themselves if they try resume the trade. on Danish and Greenland national to distance their seal hunting Such a move would likely be met television stations. Public and gov- from images of clubbed baby seals with strong opposition from the ani- ernment reaction was strong and in Atlantic Canada.” He continued, mal protection community and the swift, with Danish animal protection “[I]f they [animal protection Danish public and government. The groups and parliamentarians pub- groups] are successful in stop- point, however, already may be moot. licly stating their opposition to ping the Atlantic Canada hunt, Many of the sealskins imported by

Canada’s Commercial Seal Hunt 105 Greenland from Canada are reex- to be used for a sealing license reported into the EU, and the EU was A Sealing License tirement program to end the com- as of 2006 taking action to stop its Retirement Plan mercial seal hunt. A Department of own trade in harp and hooded seal We are providing you with an alter- Fisheries and Oceans spokesperson products. native to what Paul McCartney turned down the offer quickly, stat- called “a stain on the character of ing, “The short answer is no. We’re the Canadian people....” If this is not interested in the offer and would The EU Resolves really simply an economic problem, prefer she put the money in another to Ban Seal then take our offer. worthwhile cause” (British Broad- —Cathy Kangas, founder casting Corporation 2006, n.p.). Products and CEO of PRAI Beauty, The sealing industry was not as On September 6, 2006, the Euro- letter to Canadian Prime quick to turn away. On April 15, pean Parliament adopted a written Minister S. Harper, April 2006 2006, the Montreal Gazette repor- declaration instructing the Euro- In March 2006 animal protection ted that sealers from Prince Edward pean Commission to “immediately groups escorted Paul and Heather Island were open to the concept of draft a regulation to ban the import, McCartney to the ice floes in the a buyout (Canadian Press 2006b, export, and sale of all harp and Gulf of St. Lawrence to be pho- 10). K. MacLeod, a local sealer hooded seal products” (Lucas tographed in the harp seal nursery. said, “I talked to quite a few of the 2006). Four hundred twenty-five The McCartneys made an impas- license holders here in P.E.I. and members of the European Parlia- sioned plea to Canadian Prime Min- everyone is willing to give this ment signed the Declaration, the ister S. Harper to end the seal hunt a try.” He concluded that sealers highest level of support for any reso- and for the Canadian government would like to “explore the alterna- lution in the history of the European to consider investing in a license tives” and observed, “It’s the twenty- Parliament. While the Canadian retirement plan for sealers. The first century.” Minister of Fisheries and Oceans, L. unprecedented media coverage may Hearn, attempted to dismiss the res- have increased hostilities from the olution as “really nothing” (Cana- sealing community, with media Conclusions dian Press 2006a), others were not reports of violence from sealers P. Moore, a co-founder of Green- so convinced. In a September 7, toward seal hunt observers occur- peace, once said, “What the seal 2006, press release, Canadian sena- ring just weeks later (CBC News hunt represented was the para- tor L. Milne, who also serves as pres- 2006a). However, the McCartneys’ mount focus for public attention ident of the Canada Europe Parlia- proposed buyout plan did achieve on the need to change our basic mentary Association, stated of some support from both seal hunt attitude and relationship to nature Hearn, “If he can’t understand how advocates and opponents. and to the species that make it up” important this declaration is, he License retirement programs (in Herscovici 1998, n.p.). In this doesn’t understand his job” (Liberal have been implemented over the he was correct; for the true cost of Party of Canada 2006, n.p.). Milne’s past few decades in Canada, the resumption of commercial sealing sentiments are perhaps understand- United States, Britain, Europe, is far greater than the seals it able. Canadian export statistics indi- Australia, and elsewhere in the claims each year, and those work- cate the EU is a consistent and sig- wake of fishery closures and reducing both for and against it are well nificant market for unprocessed tions (Nautilus Consultants 1997). aware of what is at stake. (raw) sealskins and other seal prod- The programs can take many forms, In the wake of the 1990s cod col- ucts. Moreover, the implications of but they generally involve pro- lapse, the Canadian government an EU prohibition on harp and viding federal funds in exchange clearly felt secure in rejuvenating hooded seal products are even for fishing licenses. This kind of the commercial seal hunt, which greater, given the untracked exports program has already been put had caused so much controversy in of tanned sealskins from Canada to into practice in Canada for marine previous decades. Perhaps it be- Europe (there is no distinct trade mammal hunts; in the 1970s lieved that the animal protection category for tanned sealskins in Canada declared a moratorium on movement had diminished over the Canada); the powerful fashion mar- commercial whaling and instituted years or that seal hunt proponents kets in France and Italy; and the a buyback program for whaling had laid a strong enough public European retail trade of garments licenses (Williams and George n.d.). relations foundation to weather any and other finished products made In April 2006 BBC News reported opposition. Instead, the Canadian from sealskin and seal leather. that American businesswoman C. government soon found itself to be Kangas had made an offer of $16 the focus of strong domestic and million to the Canadian government

106 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 international criticism for rejuve- Berrill, M. 1997. The plundered seas: ———. 2006b. Pressure mounts on nating the seal hunt. Can the world’s fish be saved?. Canada to ban bottom trawling. Throughout the 1990s seal hunt Vancouver, B.C.: Greystone Books. http://origin.www.cbc.ca/canada/ proponents spent much of their Blake, R. n.d. Conservation betrayed. british-columbia/story/2006/10/ efforts either discounting or scorn- In Canada’s fishery, ed. J. 04/bottom-trawling.html. ing efforts by animal protection Goodrich. Produced by the Center Canadian Geographic. 2000. Seal- organizations to stop the commer- for Canadian Studies, Mount Alli- ing through the years. http:// cial seal hunt. However, more son University, in cooperation with www.canadiangeographic.ca/ recently, high-profile celebrities and Canadian Heritage Canadian Stud- magazine/jf00/sealtimeline.asp. hard-hitting campaign tactics by ies Program. http://www.nafo.int/ Canadian Press. 2006a. European seal animal protection groups have about/history/canada-fishery/ proposal “really nothing,” Hearn brought the plight of seals in Canadasfishery.pdf. says. Globe and Mail. September 7. Canada to the forefront of public British Broadcasting Corporation http://www.theglobeandmail.com/ consciousness, creating a backlash (BBC). 2006. Firm offers $16m to servlet/story/RTGAM.20060907. of opposition to the hunt that has end seal cull. April 6. http://news. weuseals0907/BNStory/National/ been impossible to ignore. In re- bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/ home. sponse the Canadian government 4884132.stm. ———. 2006b. We can be has launched a full-scale effort in Broom, D. 2005. Statement of bought out, P.E.I. seal hunters defense of commercial sealing inter- witness. Veterinary review of say. Montreal Gazette. April 15, ests, committing the resources of HSUS seal hunt video footage. 10. several federal government depart- Unpublished. Carino Company Limited. 2005. ments. Senior Canadian govern- Burdon, R.L., J. Gripper, J.A. Price list. March 30. http:// ment officials, including the prime Longair, I. Robinson, and D. www.carino.ca/products.php. minister, have spoken out regularly Ruehlmann. 2001. Veterinary Center for the Defense of Free in defense of the sealing industry in report: Canadian commercial Enterprise. 2006. Canadian seal Canada, and Canadian delegations seal hunt. Prince Edward Island. hunt protests—Eco-colonialism have lobbied in Europe to prevent March. http://www.ifaw.org/ or legitimate concern? http:// seal product trade restrictions. ifaw/dfiles/file_95.pdf. www.cdfe.org/seal hunt.htm. Only time will reveal the fate of Canadian Broadcasting Corpora- Cheetham, S.E. 2005. Statement the harp and hooded seals of the tion (CBC). 1958. A dying indus- of witness. Veterinary review of northwest Atlantic, but to seal hunt try. Canadian Scene (television HSUS seal hunt video footage. opponents, the events of the past program). March 14. http:// Unpublished. decade could perhaps be summa- archives.cbc.ca/400d.asp?id= Danish Broadcasting Corporation. rized by the oft-used words of 1-73-986-5590. 2006a. Grønland indblandet i sæl- Mahatma Gandhi: “First they ignore ———. 1982. European Parliament mishandling. January 5. http:// you, then they laugh at you, then endorses import ban on seal- www.dr.dk/Nyheder/Indland/ they fight you...then you win.” skins. Sunday Morning (radio 2006/01/05/201415.htm. program). March 14. http:// ———. 2006b. Stop for grøn- archives.cbc.ca/400d.asp?id landsk import af sæler fra Literature Cited =1-73-986-5605. Canada. January 6. http://www. AG/Grønlandsposten. 2006. Sael- ———. 1984. U.K. boycott threat- dr.dk/Nyheder/Indland/2006/ jagt resulterer i boykot af canadisk ens Canadian fishery. The Jour- 01/06/184153.htm. seafood i USA. AG/Grønland- nal (television program). April 3. Department of Fisheries and Oceans. sposten July 27, A7. http://archives.cbc.ca/400d.asp 1995. North Atlantic Fisheries Angus Reid Group Inc. 1997. Cana- ?id=1-73-986-5606. ministers renew commitment dians and the commercial seal ———. 1987. Ottawa ends large to conservation. News release. hunt. September 4. http://www. scale hunt. The National (televi- October 20. http://www.dfo-mpo. ipsosreid.com/pdf/media/pr970 sion program). December 30. gc.ca/media/newsrel/1995/ 904.PDF. http://archives.cbc.ca/400d.asp hq-ac122_e.htm. Arnold, R. 1995. The wise use phi- ?id=1-73-986-5607. ——–. 1996. Mifflin disputes cod losophy. Blue Ribbon Magazine. Canadian Broadcasting Corpora- extinction status. News release. December. tion News. 2006a. Fishermen October 11. http://www.dfo-mpo. Baker, J. 2006. Battling the ban. keep anti-sealing activists gc.ca/media/newsrel/1996/ The Telegram. February 3, A1. grounded. April 13. http://www. hq-ac79_e.htm. cbc.ca/nl/story/nf-cartwright- ———. 1997. Mifflin announces seals-20060413.html. limited cod fishery re-openings.

Canada’s Commercial Seal Hunt 107 News release. April 17. http:// file_226.pdf#search=%22IFAW% parl.gc.ca/cmte/CommitteePub www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/media/ 20gallon%20report%20seal%20 lication.aspx?SourceId=49703. newsrel/1997/hq-ac22_e.htm. subsidy%22. Humane Society of the United ———. 2003. Thibault announces Global Action Network. n.d. Fur States, The (HSUS). 2005. HSUS multi-year Atlantic seal hunt and aboriginal people. http:// announces boycott of Canadian management measures. News www.gan.ca/campaigns/fur+ seafood to save baby seals. News release. February 3. http:// trade/factsheets/fur+and+ release. April 4. http://www.hsus. www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/media/ aboriginal+people.en.html. org/press_and_publications/press_ newsrel/2003/hq-ac01_e.htm. Goldberg, K. 2001. Canada’s war releases/the_hsus_announces_ ———. 2004. Cod recovery efforts on whales: Will the bowhead sur- boycott_of_canadian_seafood_ since the 2003 closure. Media vive? British Columbia, Canada: to_save_baby_seals.html. backgrounder. May. http:// Canadian Marine Environment ———. 2006. Seal hunt costs www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/media/ Protection Society. Canada’s fishing industry mil- backgrou/2004/hq-ac43a_e.htm. Greenland Home Rule. 2001. lions. News release. September ———. 2005a. Canadian seafood Department of Industry report 28. http://www.hsus.org/press_ exports reach $4.5 billion in of the seal seminar. Seals in the and_publications/press_releases/ 2004. News release. March 14. marine ecosystem. June, 57. _seal_hunt_costs_canadas.html. http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/ http://www.norden.org/pub/ Hutchings, J.A., C. Walters, and media/newsrel/2005/hq-ac09_ miljo/miljo/sk/2001-580.pdf. R.L. Haedrich. 1997. Is scientific e.htm. ———. 2006a. Canadian mission to inquiry incompatible with govern- ———. 2005b. Six facts about Greenland. Itinerary. March 24. ment information control? Cana- Canada’s seal hunt. http://www. http://www.nanoq.gl/upload/nap/ dian Journal of Fisheries and dfo-mpo.gc.ca/seal-phoque/ greenland program0323pressgl.doc. Aquatic Sciences. 53: 1198–1210. reports-rapports/facts-faits/ ———. 2006b. Cancellation of International Fund for Animal Wel- factsheet_e.htm. recommendation of 6 January fare (IFAW). 2006a. IFAW calls Dion, S. 2005. Opening remarks at 2006 to Great Greenland A/S on on Canada to cancel seal hunt the Arctic Day Parallel Event, a provisional stop on purchases due to lack of ice. News release. United Nations Climate Change of Canadian seal skin. News March 24. http://www.ifaw.org/ Conference. December 6. http:// release. May 19. http://dk. ifaw/general/default.aspx?oid= www.ec.gc.ca/minister/speeches/ nanoq.gl/upload/dff/fangst/ 165470. 2005/051206_s_e.htm. pressreleaseuk%20final.pdf. ———. 2006b. IFAW briefing on Fink, S. 2006. Seals and sealing in Greenland National Broadcasting Canada’s commercial seal hunt. Canada 2006. March. http:// Company. 2006. Risiko for July. http://www.epolitix.com/ www.stopthesealhunt.com/atf/ boykot af sælskind fra Grønland. NR/rdonlyres/82269268-D411- cf/%7B1AE979E3-67B2-4AC0- May 26. http://knr.gl/nyheder/ 4352-93EE-A5E4CCB83E14/0/ A26D-17D11CF1EAB6%7D/seals nyhed/?&tx_ttnews%5btt_news% IFAWbriefingCanadiansealhunt andsealing2006.pdf#search=%2 5d=12701&tx_ttnews%5bback July06.pdf. 2seals%20and%20sealing%22. Pid%5d=143&cHash=7912c2f77d. Johnston, D.W., A.S. Frienlaender, Fish, Food, and Allied Workers Harris, S., C. Sousbury, and G. L.G. Torres, and D.M. Lavigne. Union. 2001. The Newfoundland Iossa. 2005. Harp seal popula- 2005. Variation in sea ice cover and Labrador seal fishery: Where tions in the northwestern on the east coast of Canada from do we go from here? May 1. Atlantic: Modeling populations 1969 to 2002: Climate variabil- http://www.ffaw.nf.ca/Issue with uncertainty. http://www. ity and implications for harp and Details.asp?id=5. boycott-canada.com/assets/docs/ hooded seals. Climate Research Fisheries Resource Conservation Harp%20seal%20modelling%20 29: 209–222. Council. 1999. 1999 Conserva- report%20final%20final.doc. Jordan, W.J. 1978. The killing of tion requirements for the Gulf of Herscovici, A. 1998. The rise and the harp seal pups. London: St. Lawrence groundfish stocks fall of animal rights: Holding Royal Society for the Prevention and cod stocks in divisions 2gh activists accountable. November. of Cruelty to Animals. April, 3–7. and 3ps and science priorities. http://website.lineone.net/~s.ward/ Krakauer, J. 1991. Brown fellas. Ottawa, Ontario: FRCC. April. MIN/98Nov/Herscovici.html. Outside Magazine, December, 70. http://www.frcc.ca/1999/ House of Commons Standing Com- Krauss, C. 2004. Clubs are out in frccr199.pdf. mittee on Fisheries and Oceans. force for baby seals. New York Gallon, G. 2001. The economics of 1997. Role of sciences in fish- Times. April 5, A1. the Canadian sealing industry. eries management. Meeting evi- Lavigne, D. 1995. Seals and fish- http://www.ifaw.org/ifaw/dfiles/ dence. December 9. http://cmte. eries, science and politics. 11h

108 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Biennial Conference on the Biol- Myers, R.A., G. Mertz, and P.S. Standing Committee on Fisheries ogy of Marine Mammals. Decem- Fowlow. 1997. Maximum popula- and Oceans. 2006. 39h Parlia- ber 15. http://www.imma.org/ tion growth rates and recovery ment, 1t session. June 15. orlando.html. times for Atlantic cod, Gadus http://cmte.parl.gc.ca/cmte/ ———. 1996a. The sudden ecolo- morhua. Fisheries Bulletin 95: CommitteePublication.aspx? gists. BBC Wildlife 14(1), 57. 762–772. SourceId=149610. ———. 1996b. Mr. Seal gets all the North Atlantic Marine Mammal Stenson, G.B. 2005. Estimates of stick for Atlantic fish dilemma. Commission. 1997. Interna- human-induced mortality in BBC Wildlife 14(2): 61. http:// tional panel calls for elimination Northwest Atlantic harp seals, www.imma.org/mrseal.html. of barriers to international trade 1952–2004. CSAS research Lapointe, E. 2005. Seal wars. in seal products. News release. document. March 10. http://www.iwmc. November 28. http://www. Tsoa, E. 1996. The Atlantic org/seals/050311e.htm. iwmc.org/seals/971128.htm. Canada resource management Lavigne, D., and K. Kovacs. 1988. Nautilus Consultants. 1997. A review catastrophe: A predator-prey Harps and hoods: Ice-breeding of U.K. structures and licensing consideration. Canadian Jour- seals of the Northwest Atlantic. policy. Executive summary 5. nal of Economics/Revue canadi- Waterloo, Canada: University of http://www.nautilus-consultants. enne d’Economique 29 (Special Waterloo Press. co.uk/pdfs/decom.pdf. Issue: Part 1, April): S145–S150. Liberal Party of Canada. 2006. Liber- Richardson, M. 2005. The horror of Vidal, J. 2004. Wildlife trade? It’s a als decry fisheries minister’s irre- the seal hunt. National Post. jungle out there. The Guardian, sponsible response to...Septem- June 9, 20. September 30. http://www. ber 7. http://www.liberal.ca/news_ Ronald, K., and D.M. Lavigne. Seal- commondreams.org/headlines04/ e.aspx?type=pressrelease&id= ing. The Canadian encyclopedia. 0930-03.htm. 11864. http://www.thecanadian Warne, K. 2004. Harp seals: The Linzey, A. 2006. An ethical critique encyclopedia.com/index.cfm hunt for balance. National Geo- of the Canadian seal hunt and an ?PgNm=TCE&Params= graphic. March l, 63. examination of the case for import A1ARTA0007250. Williams, C., and M. George. n.d. controls on seal products. Journal Russell, D. 2002. Whaling. Whaling in Dildo, Trinity Bay, of Animal Law II: 87–119. http://www.dickrussell.org/ Newfoundland. http://www.nfld. Lucas, C. 2006. MEPs vote to halt articles/ecologist1.htm. com/nfld/nfld/other/whales/ seal slaughter. News release. Sanger, C.W., A.B. Dickinson, and trinitybay/story0001.html. September 6. http://www. W.G. Handcock. 1998. Commer- Woodard, C. 2001. A run on the carolinelucasmep.org.uk/. cial whaling in Newfoundland banks. The Environmental Maga- Luksic, N. 1998. Seal slaughter and Labrador to 1900; Com- zine. March/April: 65. under scrutiny: Newfoundland mercial whaling in Newfound- minister promoting controver- land and Labrador in the 20th sial business. Varsity Staff. Janu- century. Newfoundland and ary 26. http://www.varsity. Labrador Heritage. http://www. utoronto.ca/archives/118/ heritage.nf.ca/environment/ jan26/news/seals.html. whaling2.html. McKibben, B. 1998. Ocean soli- Schmidt, S. 1999. Whaling lobby taire. Utne Reader. May–June: gets federal cash, PR assistance: 60–65, 102–105. Commercial whalers told refer- Mersereau, V. 2000. The great auk. ences to natives could help win Canadian Biodiversity Project. over “emotional” public. Bat- http://www.biology.mcgill.ca/ tling the ban. Globe and Mail. undergra/c465a/biodiver/200/ June 14, 7. great-auk/great-auk.htm. Sergeant, D.E., and H.D. Fisher. Minogue, S. 2006. Greenland bans 1960. Harp seal populations in Canadian sealskins. Nunatsiaq the western north Atlantic from News. January 13. http://www. 1950 to 1960. Fisheries Reserve nunatsiaq.com/archives/60113/ Board Canadian Arctic Unit. Cir- news/nunavut/60113_02.html. cular No. 5. Mowat, F. 1984. Sea of slaughter. Simpson, E. 1967. Seal hunting in Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press. the Gulf of St Lawrence. Nature 214: 1274.

Canada’s Commercial Seal Hunt 109 Their Bugs Are Worse than Their Bite: Emerging Infectious6CHAPTER Disease and the Human-Animal Interface

Michael Greger, M.D.

1981: Ronald Reagan takes the oath tion of animals. When human goats, and they, in turn, may have of office as president of the United beings confined animals to a barn- given human beings tuberculosis States, MTV starts broadcasting, yard, we corralled their diseases (Espinosa de los Monteros et al. Raiders of the Lost Ark hits movie with them. They were not just any 1998). This “captain of all these theaters, and Pac-Mania is all the diseases. Species that have a herd men of death” (Dubos and Dubos rage. The Centers for Disease Con- instinct are the easiest to domesti- 1952, 8) in the last century alone trol (CDC) issues a bulletin of just cate. Unfortunately such animals killed about one hundred million nine brief paragraphs: five men in also evolved epidemic diseases that people (Torrey and Yolken 2005b) Los Angeles with a strange cluster can exploit their large, dense num- and is today killing more people of symptoms are dying. bers. Archeological evidence sug- than ever (Reichman and Hopkins gests that humans, on the other 2001). A disease that may have hand, evolved in tight hunter/gath- started out in goats now infects n the twenty-five years since that erer bands too small to support epi- one-third of humanity (WHO 2000). announcement, what we now demics and, as such, hardly suf- Tuberculosis is jumping species Iknow as AIDS has killed 20 mil- fered from contagious disease at all to this day. In a 2000 study, doc- lion people (National AIDS Trust (Torrey and Yolken 2005a). Then tors tested children with tubercu- 2005). Where did the AIDS virus— human beings became herders, losis in San Diego and found that and other emerging diseases, such triggering what the director of one-third of the tuberculosis cases as severe acute respiratory syn- Harvard University’s Center for weren’t human tuberculosis. They drome (SARS), Ebola, mad cow— Health and the Global Environment were bovine tuberculosis, caught, come from? called the mass “spillover” of ani- the researchers suspect, from mal disease into human popula- drinking inadequately pasteurized tions (Epstein, Chivian, and Frith milk from an infected cow. The First 2003). The World Health Organiza- The investigators conclude, Age of Disease tion (WHO) defined the term “These data demonstrate the dra- The Smithsonian Institution has “zoonoses” to describe this phe- matic impact of this underappre- identified three periods of disease nomenon (Mantovani 2001), from ciated cause of zoonotic TB on since the beginning of human evo- the Greek zoion for “animal” and U.S. children....” (Dankner and lution (Armelagos, Barnes, and Lin nosos for “disease.” Davis 2000, E79). 1996), and humankind’s relation- Humanity’s biblical “dominion When human beings first domes- ship with animals has played a key over the fish of the sea and over the ticated cattle, we also domesti- role in each of these “epidemiolog- birds of heaven; and every living cated their rinderpest virus, which ical transitions.” thing that moved upon the earth” is thought to have turned into The first period started ten thou- has unleashed a veritable Pandora’s human measles (Daszak and Cun- sand years ago with the domestica- ark full of humankind’s greatest ningham 2002). Now regarded as a killers. Human beings domesticated relatively benign disease, measles

111 has killed two hundred million now infected with it (Suerbaum WHO is considered one of the people worldwide over the last and Michetti 2002). This ulcer- world’s most reputable sources of 150 years (Torrey and causing bacterium is thought to nutrition information because it Yolken 2005b). In a sense, all have originated in sheep’s milk, is seen as less beholden to the those deaths can ultimately be but is now spread person-to-per- multitrillion-dollar food industry traced backed a few hundred gen- son. What is now probably the than government agencies can be. erations to the taming of the first most common chronic infection (For example, U.S. government rec- cow or bull (Diamond 1992). afflicting humanity (Centers for ommendations, allegedly at the Smallpox may also have been Disease Control and Prevention sugar industry’s behest, have long caused by a mutant cattle virus 2005) came about because we allowed added refined sugar (McMichael 2001). Human beings decided thousands of years ago to to make up an astounding 25 per- domesticated pigs, and the result start drinking the milk of another cent of our daily caloric intake was whooping cough; we domesti- species (Dore et al. 2001). [Doyle 2003]). cated chickens and got typhoid H. pylori is not an isolated find. WHO blames the growing epi- fever; and we domesticated ducks H. pullorum, a cousin of H. pylori, demic of global chronic disease in and got influenza (Torrey and is a bacterium found in chicken part on “greater saturated fat Yolken 2005b). Before then, it is meat. Hepatitis E, a new hepatitis intake (mostly from animal likely that no one ever got the flu. virus that can kill pregnant sources), reduced intakes of com- Leprosy likely came from water women, has been found to be ram- plex carbohydrates and dietary buffalo, and the cold virus from pant in North American pork oper- fiber, and reduced fruit and veg- horses (McMichael 2001). How ations (Yoo et al. 2001). Unlike a etable intakes.” As such, it is call- often did wild horses have the disease like trichinosis, which only ing for limiting the consumption opportunity to sneeze into human- affects those who actually consume of saturated animal fat and “in- ity’s face until they were broken undercooked pork, once hepatitis creasing the consumption of fruits, and bridled? Before then the com- E crosses the species line, it can be vegetables, legumes [beans, peas, mon cold was presumably common spread person-to-person. One may and lentils], whole grains, and only to them. not have eaten infected pork, but nuts” (World Health Organization Diamond (1997) explains how the person from whom one got a 2003, n.p.). barnyard diseases decimated 95 blood transfusion may have. Barnard, Nicholson, and Howard percent of Native Americans, who (1995) estimate that meat con- had never before been exposed to sumption may account for up to diseases like tuberculosis, measles, The Second one-quarter of the cases of heart and smallpox. Before Europeans disease in the United States, one- arrived, bringing their goats with Age of Disease third of the diabetes, maybe four The second great era of human dis- them, tuberculosis didn’t exist in out of ten common cancers, half of ease started with the Industrial the Americas. There were no the obesity, two-thirds of the Revolution of the eighteenth and domesticated buffalo, so there was nation’s high blood pressure, and nineteenth centuries, when an epi- no measles or smallpox. There as many as three-fourths of all gall- demic of the so-called diseases of were no pigs, so no pertussis; no bladder operations. civilization, such as cancer, heart chickens, so no Typhoid Marys. M. Nestle, one of world’s most disease, stroke, and diabetes, While people in Europe and Asia highly respected nutrition experts, began. These chronic diseases, died by the millions of killer former director of nutrition policy considered largely preventable scourges, none was dying in the at the U.S. Department of Health through changes in diet and New World because there were no and Human Services, and longtime lifestyle, now account for seven of farm animals to domesticate (Dia- chairwoman of the nutrition de- ten deaths in the United States mond 1997). partment at New York University, and the majority of deaths world- Such events aren’t confined to has said, “The evidence is so strong wide (Centers for Disease Control centuries past. New diseases from and overwhelming and produced and Prevention 2006a). Interest- domesticated farm animals con- over such a long period of time ingly, our domestication of animals tinue to be discovered. H. pylori, a that it is no longer debatable.... also plays a role. bacteria living in the human stom- There is no question that largely In 2004 WHO published its long- ach, causes stomach cancer and vegetarian diets are as healthy as awaited Global Strategy on Diet, the vast majority of peptic ulcers you can get” (in Liebman 1996, Physical Activity, and Health, unan- worldwide (De Groote, Ducatelle, n.p.). The fewer animals in the imously endorsed by the United and Haesebrouck 2000). Roughly human diet and the more healthy Nations’ 192 member countries. half of the world’s population is plant foods—the WHO’s “fruits,

112 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 vegetables, beans, whole grains, discipline that has moved to center percent of the world’s population and nuts”—the lower the risk of stage (Brown 2000). We may soon to 60 percent (Nolen 2005), caus- developing many chronic diseases be facing, according to the Insti- ing fifty to eighty million new cases (WHO 2003, n.p.). tute of Medicine, a “catastrophic of malaria (Stapp 2004). storm of microbial threats” (Wein- Inroads into Africa’s rainforests hold 2004). have blazed trails on which other The Third We are currently living in the hemorrhagic fever viruses escaped third era of human disease, —the Lassa virus, Rift Valley Fever, Age of Disease described by medical historians as and Ebola. “These zoonotic viruses By the mid-twentieth century, the age of “the emerging plagues” seem to adhere to the philosophy humankind had developed peni- (Glasser 2004). Never in medical that says, ‘I won’t bother you if you cillin, conquered polio, and eradi- history have so many new diseases don’t bother me,’” (Culliton 1990, cated smallpox. The age of infec- appeared in so short a time—and 279). But as people began “push- tious disease was thought to be almost all of them have entered the ing back forests, or engaging in over. Indeed, in 1948 the U.S. sec- human population from animals. agricultural practices that are eco- retary of state pronounced that the Animals were domesticated ten logically congenial to viruses, the conquest of all infectious diseases thousand years ago: what has viruses could make their way into was imminent (Najera 1989). changed in recent decades to bring the human population and multiply Twenty years later the U.S. surgeon this sobering reality upon us? and spread” (Culliton 1990, 279). general declared victory: “The war Human beings have been chang- Radical alterations of forest against diseases has been won” ing the way animals live. One exam- ecosystems can be—indeed, are— (Crawford 2000). Even Nobel laure- ple: during World War II, when lead- hazardous, whether in the Amazon ates were seduced into the heady ing cattle-producing nations were at Basin or the woods of Connecticut. optimism. To write about infectious war, Argentina took advantage of Lyme disease was first recognized in disease, one Nobel-winning virolo- the situation by dramatically ex- New England’s forests in 1975 and gist wrote in the 1962 text Natural panding its beef industry at the has since moved across all fifty History of Infectious Disease, “is expense of its forests. There human states (Dryden’s Grant Information almost to write of something that beings discovered the deadly Junin 2005), affecting an estimated hun- has passed into history.” “[T]he virus (or, more accurately, it discov- dred thousand Americans (National most likely forecast about the ered human beings), which is now Institute of Allergy and Infectious future of infectious disease,” he known as the cause of Argentine Diseases 2000). Lyme disease is pronounced, “is that it will be very hemorrhagic fever. This “hamburg- spread by bacteria-infested ticks dull” (Burnet and White 1962). erization” of the rainforests subse- who live on deer and mice, animals Then something changed. After quently played a role in uncovering with whom people have always years of declining infectious dis- the Machupo virus in Bolivia, the shared wooded areas. Suburban ease mortality in the United States, Sabia virus in Brazil, and the sprawl in recent decades has the last three decades have seen Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever virus chopped America’s woods into sub- a reversal in that trend (Gill, in Venezuela (Hoff and Smith 2000). divisions, scaring away the foxes and Rechtschaffen, and Rubenstein Deforestation also contributes bobcats who had previously kept 2000): the number of Americans to global warming. The millions of mouse populations in check. dying from infectious diseases has cattle and other farm animals, and Cookie-cutter subdivisions weren’t started going back up (Cohen and the billions of tons of their the reason Africa’s rainforests were Larson 1996). Beginning in approx- manure, are primary global con- cut down. Rather, transnational imately 1975 (National Agricul- tributors of the greenhouse gas timber corporations, hacking log- tural Research, Extension, Educa- methane (Mossa, Jouanyb, and ging roads deep into the remotest tion, and Economics 2004), new Newbold 2000), which also plays a regions of the continent, paved the diseases started to surface at a pace significant role in climate change way for a mass human migration unheard of in the annals of medi- (Ramanujan 2005). The warming into the rainforests to set up con- cine (Epstein, Chivian, and Frith trend could dramatically expand cessions to support the commer- 2003)—more than thirty new dis- the reach of insect-borne diseases cial logging operations. One of the eases in thirty years, most of them like the West Nile virus. According main sources of food for these newly discovered viruses (Wool- to an international panel of ex- migrant workers is bushmeat— house 2002). The concept of perts, if the average world temper- wild animals killed for food (Wal- “emerging infectious diseases” has ature were to increase by three ters 2003), including upwards of now changed from a mere curiosity degrees, the zone in which malaria twenty-six different species of pri- in the field of medicine to an entire is spread would expand from 45 mates (Avasthi 2004). Thousands

Their Bugs Are Worse than Their Bite: Emerging Infectious Disease and the Human-Animal Interface 113 of endangered great apes—gorillas Wild animals have been hunted into vinegar, and a third time as she and chimpanzees—are shot, for a hundred thousand years, but or he is bitten into (Lynch 2003). butchered, smoked, and sold for at nothing like the current rate. In China animals are eaten for human consumption (Rose 1996). Growing human populations and enjoyment, sustenance, and their To support the logging industry’s increasing demand for wildlife purported medicinal qualities. infrastructure (Rose 1998), a veri- meat exceed local populations of There are reports of dogs being table army of commercial bush- affected species (Karesh et al. “savagely beaten before death to meat hunters is bringing the 2005). This has resulted in an increase their aphrodisiac proper- great apes to the brink of extinc- enormous (and largely illegal) ties” (Lawrie 2004). Cats are killed tion (Walsh et al. 2003). “These transboundary trade of wildlife and and boiled down into “cat juice,” logging companies have been pro- the setting up of intensive captive used to treat arthritis. Many of the moting the bushmeat trade them- production farms in which wild ani- cats are captured ferals in ill health, selves,” says Fox (2000, n.p.). “It is mals are raised, often subjected to so “consuming such diseased cats is easier to hand out shotgun shells poor sanitation, in unnatural a time bomb waiting to explode,” than to truck in beef” (Fox 2000). stocking densities before being claimed the chief veterinarian of By cannibalizing fellow primates, packed together into markets for the Australian RSPCA. human beings are exposing them- sale. These factors favor the spread The cat-like masked palm civet selves to pathogens particularly fine- and emergence of mutant strains has been a popular commodity in tuned to human primate physiology. of pathogens capable of infecting Chinese animal markets (Brummitt Recent human outbreaks of Ebola, hunters, farmers, and grocery 2004). Civets are raised for their for example, have been traced to shoppers (Gilbert, Wint, and Slin- flesh, and the civet cat penis is exposure to the dead bodies of in- genbergh 2004). Live-animal mar- soaked in rice wine for use as an fected great apes hunted for food kets have been described by the aphrodisiac (Bell, Roberton, and (Karesh et al. 2005). Ebola, one of director of the Wildlife Conserva- Hunter 2004). These animals also humanity’s deadliest infections, is tion Society as veritable human produce the most expensive coffee not efficiently spread, though, com- and animal “disease factories” in the world (Kasper n.d.). So-called pared to a virus like human immun- (Lawrie 2004). These viral swap fox-dung coffee is produced by feed- odeficiency virus (HIV). meets are blamed for the transfor- ing coffee beans to captive civets The leading theory about the mation of a class of viruses previ- and then recovering the partially emergence of HIV is “direct expo- ously known for causing the com- digested beans from the feces (Mar- sure to animal blood and secretions mon cold into a killer named SARS shall 1999). A musk-like substance as a result of hunting, butchering, (Lee and Krilov 2005). of buttery consistency secreted by or other activities (such as con- The intensive commercial bush- the anal glands gives the coffee its sumption of uncooked contami- meat trade started in the live-animal characteristic flavor and smell nated meat)” (Hahn et al. 2000). markets of Asia (Bell, Roberton, and (William 2003). Experts believe the most likely sce- Hunter 2004), particularly in The masked palm civet has been nario is that HIV arose from Guangdong, the southern province blamed for the SARS epidemic (Lee humans sawing their way into the surrounding Hong Kong from which and Krilov 2005). “A culinary choice forests of west equatorial Africa on the deadly avian influenza strain in south China,” one commentator logging expeditions, butchering H5N1 arose (Chen et al. 2004). Lit- summed up in Lancet, “led to a chimpanzees for their flesh along erature from the Southern Song fatal infection in Hong Kong, and the way (Laurance 2004). Dynasty (1127–1279) describes the subsequently to 8,000 cases of In some countries the preva- residents of Guangdong eating severe acute respiratory syndrome lence of HIV now exceeds 25 per- “whatever food, be it birds, animals, (SARS), and nearly 1,000 deaths in cent of the adult population (Davis worms, or snakes” (Jun 2004). thirty countries on six continents” and Lederberg 2001), leaving mil- Today, live-animal markets cater to (Mack 2005). Ironically, one reason lions of orphaned children in its the unique tastes of the people of civets are eaten is for protection wake (United Nations 2004). Five Guangdong, where shoppers can from respiratory infections (Davis people die from AIDS every minute savor “Dragon-Tiger-Phoenix Soup,” 2005c). As noted in The China (Lamptey et al. 2002). The most a brew made of snake, cat, and Daily, “We kill them. We eat them. current thinking leads one to chicken (Bray 2005) or delicacies And, then, we blame them” (Ming believe that, because someone like san jiao, or “three screams”— 2004, n.p.). butchered a chimp a few decades the wriggling baby rat is said to Viruses can escape the rain forests ago, twenty million people are now scream first when hefted with chop- in animals living or dead, as pets or dead (National AIDS Trust 2005). sticks, a second time when dipped as meat. The international trade in exotic pets is a multibillion-dollar

114 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 industry, and exotic pets can harbor (Johnson 2003). West Nile hit New tion by humans.” This includes exotic germs (Avasthi 2004). York in 1999 and has since spread degradation wrought by global cli- Wildlife trafficking—the illegal across forty-eight states and Canada mate change, deforestation, and, as trade in wildlife and wildlife parts— (Stapp 2004), with thousands of described by WHO, “industrializa- is a soaring black market worth $10 cases in 2005 and more than a hun- tion and intensification of the ani- billion a year in the United States dred deaths (Centers for Disease mal production sector” (WHO and alone (U.S. Department of State Control and Prevention 2006b). Its Office International des Epizooties 2005). The United States imports continued expansion suggests that 1999, n.p). an unbelievable 350,000 different the virus has become permanently In 2005 China, the world’s largest species of live animals. The deputy established in the United States, producer of pork (RaboBank Inter- director of the U.S. Fish and all, perhaps, because of a single, ille- national 2003), suffered an unprece- Wildlife Service testified before a gally imported pet bird (Ludwig et dented outbreak in scope and lethal- Senate committee in 2003 that the al. 2003). ity of Streptococcus suis, a newly United States imports more than This movement of disease agents emerging zoonotic pig pathogen 200 million fish, 49 million amphib- can also threaten wildlife. The (Gosline 2005). Strep. suis is a com- ians, 2 million reptiles, 365,000 greatest animal plague ever mon cause of meningitis in inten- birds, and 38,000 mammals in a sin- recorded was the “Great Rinderpest sively farmed pigs worldwide (Merck gle year (Weinhold 2004). Pandemic” at the end of the nine- Veterinary Manual, n.p.) and pres- Whether for exotic pets or exotic teenth century. The use of cattle by ents most often as meningitis in cuisine, imported animals trans- the Italian army to pull gun car- people as well (Huang et al. 2005), ported together under cramped riages into sub-Saharan Africa is particularly those who butcher conditions end up in holding areas thought to have triggered the out- infected pigs or handle infected in dealer warehouses, where they— break of rinderpest, a measles-like pork products (Gosline 2005). Due and their viruses—can mingle fur- disease of cloven-hoofed animals to involvement of the auditory ther. The 2003 monkeypox outbreak that wiped out not only up to 95 nerves connecting the inner ears to across half a dozen states in the Mid- percent of cattle in some countries the brain, half of the disease’s west was traced to monkeypox-in- (Waltner-Toews 2002), but also up human survivors are rendered deaf fected Gambian giant rats shipped to 90 percent of other large ungu- (Altman 2005). to a Texas animal distributor, along late species such as African buffalo WHO reported that it had never with eight hundred other small and giraffe (Alfonso 1999). Soci- seen so virulent a strain (Nolan mammals snared from the African eties based on the cattle economy 2005) and blamed intensive con- rain forest. The rodents were housed were devastated. As one Masai man finement conditions as a predispos- with prairie dogs, who contracted described, the corpses of cattle and ing factor in its sudden emergence, the disease and made their way into people were “so many and so close given the stress-induced suppres- pet stores and swap meets via an Illi- together that the vultures had for- sion of the pigs’ immune systems nois distributor. One week the virus gotten how to fly” (Plowright (WHO 2005). The U.S. Department is in a rodent in the dense jungles of 1982). No longer can natural barri- of Agriculture (USDA) explains Ghana, along the Gold Coast of ers like the Saharan desert protect that these bacteria can exist as a West Africa—a few weeks later, that populations against the spread of harmless component of a pig’s nor- same virus finds itself in a three-year- epidemic disease. mal bacterial flora, but stress due old Wisconsin girl whose mother A contemporary example is an to factors like crowding and poor bought her a little prairie dog at a emerging fungal disease discovered ventilation can drop the animal’s 4-H swap meet. “Basically you fac- in 1998 (Williams et al. 2002) that defenses long enough for the bacte- tored out an ocean and half a conti- causes massive die-offs and even ria to become invasive and cause nent by moving these animals extinctions of amphibian wildlife disease (USDA 2005b). China’s around and ultimately juxtaposing across five continents (Williams et assistant minister of commerce them in a warehouse or a garage al. 2002). Ecologists now suspect admitted that the disease was somewhere,” said Wisconsin’s chief the international restaurant trade “found to have direct links with epidemiologist (Marchione 2003). in the North American bullfrog (for the foul environment for raising As one expert quipped, “It was prob- its fleshy legs) may have played a pigs” (China View 2005, n.p.). ably easier for a Gambian rat to get key role in global dissemination of The disease can spread through into the United States than [it was this disease (Ginsburg 2004). respiratory droplets or directly via for] a Gambian” (Marchione 2003). According to WHO’s coordinator contact with contaminated blood Bird smuggling may actually have for zoonoses control, “The chief on improperly sterilized castration been what brought the West Nile risk factor for emerging zoonotic scalpels, tooth-cutting pliers, or virus to the Western hemisphere diseases is environmental degrada- tail-docking knives (Du 2005).

Their Bugs Are Worse than Their Bite: Emerging Infectious Disease and the Human-Animal Interface 115 China boasts an estimated fourteen list of potential bioterrorism agents the time when the dean of Yale’s thousand concentrated animal- (Fritsch 2003). This virus is also School of Medicine famously told feeding operations (CAFOs) noted for its “intriguing ability” to students that there were “no new (Nierenberg 2005), colloquially cause relapsing brain infections in diseases to be discovered”) and known as factory farms, which some survivors (Wong et al. 2002) 1995, seventeen foodborne patho- tend to have stocking densities con- many months after initial exposure gens emerged, almost one each year ducive to the emergence and spread (Wong et al. 2001). Even more con- (Liang 2002). According to the of disease (Arends et al. 1984). cerning, a 2004 resurgence of executive editor of Meat Processing The United States is the world’s Nipah virus in Bangladesh showed a magazine, “Nearly every food con- second-largest pork producer (FAO- case fatality rate on a par with sumers buy in supermarkets and STAT Database 2005), and Strep. Ebola—75 percent—and showed order in restaurants can be eaten suis infection is also an emerging evidence of human-to-human trans- with certainty for its safety—except pathogen in North America pig pro- mission (Harcourt et al. 2004). The for meat and poultry products” duction, especially in intensive con- Nipah virus, like all contagious res- (Bjerklie 1999). finement settings (Du 2005). piratory diseases, is a density-de- Animals were domesticated ten According to The Journal of Swine pendent pathogen (U.S. Central thousand years ago. With billions of Health and Production, human cases Intelligence Agency 2006). “With- feathered and curly-tailed test-tubes of meningitis in North America are out these large, intensively man- for viruses to incubate and mutate likely underdiagnosed and misiden- aged pig farms in Malaysia,” the within, a WHO official described the tified (Gottschalk 2004) due to the director of the Consortium for Con- last few decades as “the most ambi- lack of adequate surveillance (Cole, servation Medicine said, “it would tious short-term experiment in evo- Todd, and Wing 2000). WHO en- have been extremely difficult for lution in the history of the world” courages careful pork preparation the virus to emerge” (Nierenberg (Cookson 1993, n.p.). (WHO 2005), and North American 2005, 44). Global public health experts have agriculture officials urge Strep. suis Even industry groups like the identified specific “dubious prac- disease awareness for people “who American Association of Swine Vet- tices used in modern animal hus- work in pig barns, processing plants, erinarians cite “[e]merging live- bandry” beyond the inherent over- as well as in the home kitchen” stock production systems, particu- stocking, stress, and unhygienic (Du 2005, n.p.). larly where they involve increased conditions that have directly or The first human case of Strep. intensification” as a main reason indirectly launched deadly new dis- suis was not in Asia or in the why zoonotic diseases are of in- eases (Phua and Lee 2005). One United States, but in Europe. The creasing concern. These intensive such “misguided” brave new farm Dutch pig belt, extending into systems, in addition to their high practice is the continued feeding of parts of neighboring Belgium and population density, “may also gen- livestock slaughterhouse waste, Germany, has the densest popula- erate pathogen build-ups or impair blood, and excrement to save on tion of pigs in the world, more than the capacity of animals to withstand feed costs (Stapp 2004). twenty thousand per square mile. infectious agents” (Meredith 2004, Feed expenditures remain the This region has been hit in recent n.p.). Increasing consumer demand single largest industry expense years with major epidemics of hog for animal products worldwide over (Lawrence and Otto 2006). The cholera and foot and mouth dis- the past few decades has led to a livestock industry has experi- ease, leading to the destruction of global explosion in massive animal mented with feeding newspaper, millions of animals. “With more agriculture operations that have cardboard, cement dust, and sewer and more pigs being raised inten- come to play a key role in the third sludge to farm animals (Rampton sively to satisfy Europe’s lust for age of emerging human disease and Stauber 1997). Satchell and cheap pork, epidemics are in- (McMichael 2004). Hedges (1997, n.p.) report: “Cattle evitable,” wrote MacKenzie (1998, Whether it be from E. coli feed now contains things like n.p.). “And the hogs may not be the O157:H7 in hamburgers, antibiotic- manure and dead cats.” The Ani- only ones to get sick.” resistant Salmonella in eggs, Liste- mal Industry Association (1989) This Strep. suis outbreak fol- ria in hot dogs, “flesh-eating” bac- defends these practices, arguing lowed years after the emergence teria in oysters, or Campylobacter that the average U.S. farm animal of the Nipah virus on an intensive in chickens and Thanksgiving “eats better than the average U.S. industrial pig farm in Malaysia. turkeys, the CDC estimates that citizen.” Forcing natural herbivores Nipah turned out to be one of the seventy-six million Americans come like cows, sheep, and other animals deadliest of human pathogens, down with foodborne illness every to be carnivores and even cannibals killing 40 percent of those infected, year (Mead et al. 1999). In the has turned out to have serious pub- a toll that propelled it onto the U.S. twenty years between 1975 (around lic health implications.

116 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 A leading theory on the origin of ple scrape can turn into a mortal die of diseases like malaria, tuber- bovine spongiform encephalopathy wound, and a simple surgical proce- culosis, and AIDS, why is there so (or “mad cow disease”) is that dure can be anything but simple. At much concern about bird flu? The cows got it by eating diseased least these “superbugs” are not answer is, because the flu has killed sheep (Kimberlin 1992). In mod- effectively spread from person to before. An influenza pandemic in ern corporate agribusiness, protein person. Given the propensity of 1918 became the deadliest plague concentrates (or “meat and bone industrial animal agriculture to in human history, killing up to a meal,” euphemistic descriptions of churn out novel lethal pathogens, hundred million people around the “trimmings that originate on the what if they produced a virus capa- world (Johnson and Mueller 2002). killing floor, inedible parts and ble of a global pandemic? The 1918 flu virus was likely a bird organs, cleaned entrails, fetuses” flu virus (Belshe 2005); that virus [Ensminger 1990]) are fed to dairy made more than a quarter of all cows to increase milk production Last Great Plague Americans ill and killed more peo- (Flaherty 1993) as well as to most The dozens of emerging zoonotic ple in twenty-five weeks than AIDS other livestock (The Economist disease threats that have character- has killed in twenty-five years 1990). Nearly ten million metric ized this third era of human disease (Barry 2004). In 1918 the case tons of slaughterhouse waste is fed must be put into context. Strep. mortality rate was less than 5 per- to livestock every year (WHO and suis infected scores of human cent (Frist 2005). H5N1 has so far Office International des Epizooties beings and killed dozens. Nipah in- officially killed half of its human vic- 1999). Recycling the remains of fected hundreds and killed scores. tims (WHO 2006). infected cattle into cattle feed was SARS infected thousands and killed H5N1 took its first human life in probably what led to the British hundreds. AIDS has infected mil- Hong Kong in 1997 (Davies 1999) mad cow epidemic’s explosive lions. Only one virus we know of can and has since rampaged west to Rus- spread (Collee 1993) to nearly two infect billions—influenza. sia, the Middle East, Africa, and dozen countries around the world Influenza, the “last great plague Europe (Lancet Infectious Diseases in the subsequent twenty years of man” (Kaplan and Webster 2006). It remains almost exclusively (USDA 2005a). Dairy producers 1977), is the only known pathogen a disease of birds, but as the virus has can use corn or soybeans as a pro- capable of truly global catastrophe spread, it has continued to mutate. tein feed supplement, but slaugh- (Silverstein 1981). Unlike other It has become more lethal and more terhouse by-products can be devastating infections like malaria, environmentally stable and has cheaper (Albert 2000). which is confined equatorially, or begun taking more species under its The meat industry has long HIV, which is only fluid-borne, wing (Stöhr 2005). Influenza viruses known that cannibalistic feeding influenza is considered by the don’t typically kill mammals like practices could have human health CDC’s K. Fukuda to be the only rodents, but experiments have consequences, as Salmonella epi- pathogen carrying the potential to shown that the latest H5N1 mutants demics in poultry linked to the recy- “infect a huge percentage of the can kill 100 percent of infected cling of animal remains back into world’s population inside the space mice, practically dissolving their animal feed had been described well of a year” (in Davies 1999, n.p.). lungs (Garrett 2005). “This is the before the mad cow disease epi- Because of its extreme mutation most pathogenic virus that we know demic (Waltner-Toews 2002). De- rate, influenza is a perpetually of,” declared one lead investigator. spite the known potential hazards emerging disease. A. Fauci, NIH’s “One infectious particle—one single to humans, the meat industry re- pandemic planning czar, calls it infectious virion—kills mice. Amaz- mains opposed to a total ban on “the mother of all emerging infec- ing virus” (Drexler 2002, 180). feeding slaughterhouse waste, tions” (Davis 2005b, n.p.). In its The virus also started killing cats, blood, and excrement to farm ani- 4,500 years of infecting humans both pets (WHO 2004) and tigers mals (Murphy 2003). since the first domestication of and leopards in zoos (Keawcharoen In 2004 the Worldwatch Institute wild birds, influenza has always et al. 2004). Before H5N1 no (2004) published Meat: Now, It’s been one of the most contagious influenza virus was known even to Not Personal, whose title alludes to pathogens (Taylor 2005). Only make felines sick (Kuiken et al. intensive methods of production since 1997 has it also emerged as 2004). According to WHO (2004, that have placed all human beings one of the deadliest. n.p.), “The reported infection of at risk, regardless of what they eat. H5N1, the new killer strain of domestic cats with H5N1 is an un- In the age of antibiotic resistance, avian influenza spreading out of usual event in what is an histori- which has been fueled by the indus- Asia, had only killed about a hun- cally unprecedented situation.” trial feeding of antibiotics to farm dred people by mid-2006 (WHO Currently in humans H5N1 is animals to promote growth, a sim- 2006). In a world in which millions good at killing, but not at spread-

Their Bugs Are Worse than Their Bite: Emerging Infectious Disease and the Human-Animal Interface 117 ing. Three essential conditions are first few years of the twenty-first a match to the tinder? necessary to produce a pandemic. century has already exceeded the WEBSTER: [F]arming prac- • A new virus must arise from an total number of outbreaks tices have changed. Previously, animal reservoir, such that recorded for the entire twentieth we had backyard poultry....Now humans have no natural immu- century. As a leading flu scientist we put millions of chickens nity to it. told Science, “We’ve gone from a into a chicken factory next • The virus must evolve to be few snowflakes to an avalanche” door to a pig factory, and this capable of killing human beings (Enserink 2005, 341). virus has the opportunity to efficiently. (H5N1 has met The increase in chicken outbreaks get into one of these chicken these first two conditions.) has gone hand-in-hand with more factories and make billions and • The virus must succeed in transmission to humans. A decade billions of these mutations jumping efficiently from one ago, human infection with bird flu continuously. And so what human to the next. (For H5N1 was essentially unheard of. Since we’ve changed is the way we it’s one small step to man, but H5N1 emerged in 1997, chicken raise animals and our interac- one giant leap to mankind!) viruses H9N2 infected children in tion with those animals. And If the bird flu virus triggers a China in 1999 and 2003, H7N2 in- so the virus is changing in human pandemic, it will not be fected residents of New York and Vir- those animals and now finding peasant farmers in Vietnam dying ginia in 2002 and 2003, H7N7 its way back out of those ani- after handling dead birds or raw infected people in the Netherlands mals into the wild birds. That’s poultry—it may be New Yorkers, in 2003, and H7N3 infected poultry what’s changed. (Council on Parisians, Londoners, and people workers in Canada in 2004 (En- Foreign Relations 2005, n.p.) in every city, township, and village serink 2005) and a British farmer in The big change in the ecology of in the world dying after shaking 2006. The bird flu virus in the avian influenza has been the indus- someone’s hand, touching a door- Netherlands outbreak infected more trialization of the global poultry knob, or simply inhaling in the than a thousand people (Enserink sector. Over the last few decades, wrong place at the wrong time. 2005). To slow down or stop this meat and egg consumption has Mathematical models suggest sudden, rapid, recent emergence of exploded in the developing world that it might be possible to snuff highly pathogenic flu viruses, (Kazmin 2004), leading to indus- out an emerging flu pandemic at humane beings must understand trial-scale commercial chicken the source if caught early enough what has triggered this “avalanche” farming, the perfect environment (Ferguson et al. 2005; Longini et in the first place. for the emergence and spread of al. 2005), but practical considera- Free-ranging flocks and wild new superstrains of influenza. tions may render this an impossibil- birds have been blamed for the When tens of thousands of animals ity (Center for Infectious Disease recent emergence of H5N1, but are crammed into filthy, football- and Research Policy 2005). Even if people have kept chickens in their field-size sheds to stand beak-to- we were able to stamp it out, as backyards for thousands of years, beak in their own manure, human long as the same underlying condi- and birds have been migrating for beings are asking for trouble. tions remain, the virus would pre- millions. What has changed in WHO in part blames the emer- sumably soon pop back up again as recent years that led us to this cur- gence of deadly Asian viruses—such it has in the past (Heiberg 2005). rent crisis? At a November 2005 as H5N1, SARS, and Nipah—on the The current dialogue surround- Council on Foreign Relations Con- “over-consumption of animal prod- ing avian influenza speaks of a ference on the Global Threat of ucts” and intensive animal agricul- potential H5N1 pandemic as if it Pandemic Influenza, the senior ture (Oshitani, n.d.). The World were a natural phenomenon—like correspondent of the PBS televi- Organization for Animal Health hurricanes, earthquakes, or even a sion program The NewsHour with blames in part the shorter produc- “viral asteroid on a collision course Jim Lehrer, R. Suarez, asked such a tion cycles and greater animal den- with humanity” (Davis 2005a, question of the “godfather of flu sities of modern poultry produc- n.p.)—which human beings could research” (Council on Foreign tion, which result in “greater not hope to control. The reality, Relations 2005), R. Webster. number of susceptible animals however, is that the next pandemic SUAREZ: Was there something reared per given unit of time” may be more of an unnatural disas- qualitatively different about (Capua and Marangon 2003, n.p.). ter of our own design. this last decade that made it The Food and Agriculture Orga- Bird flu in chickens has gone possible for this disease to do nization of the United Nations from an exceedingly rare disease to something that it either hasn’t (FAO) notes that one that crops up every year. The done before...a change in con- [T]here seems to be an accel- number of serious outbreaks in the ditions that suddenly lit eration of the human influenza

118 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 problems over the last few to be excreted into the pond water may be no stopping rapidly mutat- decades, involving an increas- and then swallowed by another ing viruses from becoming truly ing number of species, and this duck who alights for a drink; the ferocious (Rennie 2005). is expected to largely relate to cycle continues as it has for mil- This may have been what intensification of the poultry lions of years, and no one gets hurt. occurred in the crowded trenches, (and possibly pig) production. If, for example, an infected duck troop transports, and army camps (Gilbert, Wint, and Slingen- is dragged to a live poultry market, of World War I leading up to the bergh 2004, n.p.) though, and crammed into a cage 1918 pandemic. Boxcar capacity The FAO elaborates in an inter- stacked high enough to splatter was labeled “eight horses or forty nal document: virus-laden droppings over many men” (Byerly 2005, 94). Millions of [C]hicken-to-chicken spread, different species of land-based people were forced into close quar- particularly where assisted by birds, the virus then has a problem. ters where there was no escaping a intensive husbandry condi- No longer can the virus rely on the sick comrade. This may have been tions, promotes the virus to ease of pond water spread: it must where the flu virus of 1918 gained shift (adaptation) to more mutate or die (Shortridge 1992). its virulence (Byerly 2005). severe type (highly pathogenic Thankfully for the virus, mutating From the virus’s point of view, type) of infection.... Intensive is what influenza viruses do best these same trench warfare condi- production conditions favor (Suarez 2000). In aquatic birds the tions exist today in every industrial rapid spread of infection within virus is perfectly adapted in total chicken shed. Birds are intensively units and “hotting-up” of virus evolutionary stasis (Webster 1998), confined, crowded, and stressed, from low pathogenicity to a but, when thrown into a new envi- not just by the millions but by the highly pathogenic types. (FAO ronment—land-based birds like billions. Mabbett (2005, 34) offers 2004, n.p.) chickens—it quickly starts mutat- a concise explanation of the role of The United Nations specifically ing to adapt to the new host large-scale poultry production: calls on governments to fight what (Suarez et al. 1998). In the open The AI virus lives harmlessly in it calls factory farming: air, it must resist dehydration the ducks popular in Asia to Governments, local authori- (Dronamraju 2004), for example, control insect pests and snails ties, and international agen- and may spread to other organs to in rice paddies. If this duck cies need to take a greatly find a new way to travel. Sometimes ’flu passes to chickens kept increased role in combating it finds the lungs. nearby, it can mutate into a the role of factory farming The more virulent the virus be- deadly and highly contagious [which combined with live bird comes, the quicker it may be able to strain that speeds rapidly with markets] provide[s] ideal con- overwhelm the immune system of accompanying high mortality. ditions for the virus to spread its new victims (Van Blerkom 2003), The larger the flocks and the and mutate into a more dan- but it must take care not to become more intensive the production gerous form. (United Nations too deadly. In an outdoor setting, if level, the more scope there is 2005, n.p.) the virus kills the host too quickly, for the disease to spread for All bird flu viruses seem to start the animal may be dead before it has genetic changes to the virus. out harmless to both birds and a chance to infect another. So The industry admits to people. In its natural state, the there’s a limit to how virulent these [T]he growing realization that influenza virus has existed for mil- viruses can get (Dimmock, Easton, viruses previously innocuous lions of years as an innocuous, and Leppard 2001)—or at least to natural host species have in intestinal, waterborne infection of there was until now. all probability become more aquatic birds such as ducks (Web- Enter intensive poultry production. virulent by passage through ster et al. 1992). How does a When the next beak is inches large commercial populations. duck’s intestinal bug end up in a away, there may be fewer limits to (Shane 2005, 22) human cough? how nasty the virus can get. Evolu- Unfortunately for us, through In the viruses’ natural aquatic tionary biologists believe that this some quirk of evolution, the respira- bird reservoir, the duck doesn’t get is the key to the emergence of tory tract of a chicken seems to bear sick, because the virus doesn’t need so-called predator-like (McGirk, a striking resemblance (on a virus to make the duck sick to spread. In Adiga, and Glacier 2005) viruses receptor level) to our own respira- fact, it’s in the virus’s best interest like H5N1—disease transmission tory tract (Gambaryan, Webster, for the bird not to get sick so as to from immobilized hosts (Ewald and Matrosovich 2002). So as the spread farther. After all, dead ducks 1994). When you have a situation virus gets better at infecting and don’t fly. The virus silently multi- where the healthy animals can’t killing chickens, it may be getting plies in the duck’s intestinal lining escape the diseased, then there better at infecting and killing us.

Their Bugs Are Worse than Their Bite: Emerging Infectious Disease and the Human-Animal Interface 119 Virologist E. Brown is a specialist fire with no way to put it out, but it within the U.S. Department of in the evolution of influenza is also fanning the flames, and fire- Homeland Security, has tried to viruses: “You have to say that high walls to contain the virus do not describe what an H5N1 pandemic intensity chicken rearing is a per- exist. “Unfortunately,” leading could look like. He suggests policy fect environment for generating USDA poultry virologist D. Senne makers consider the devastation of virulent avian flu virus” (in Bueck- told an international gathering of the 2004 tsunami in South Asia: ert 2004, 6). To lower the risk of bird flu scientists, “that level of “Duplicate it in every major urban generating increasingly dangerous biosecurity does not exist in U.S. centre and rural community around bird flu viruses, the global poultry poultry production and I doubt the planet simultaneously, add in industry must reverse course away that it exists in other parts of the the paralyzing fear and panic of con- from greater intensification. world” (in Stegeman 2003, n.p.). tagion, and we begin to get some Might not human beings want S.M. Shane (2003, 22) notes a sense of the potential of pandemic birds confined indoors away from “decline in the standards of biose- influenza” (in Kennedy 2005, A1). waterfowl, though? Does it matter curity in an attempt to reduce “An influenza pandemic of even from a public health standpoint if costs in competitive markets.” The moderate impact,” Osterholm the environment inside poultry decline is a contributing factor, writes, sheds can transform harmless Shane concludes, in the frequency [W]ill result in the biggest sin- viruses into deadly viruses if the and severity of disease outbreaks. gle human disaster ever—far harmless virus can’t get inside in Biosecurity measures as cur- greater than AIDS, 9/11, all the first place? Unfortunately, rently practiced are better than wars in the twentieth century studies have uncovered widespread nothing but may not be something and the recent tsunami com- disregard for this so-called biosecu- on which to stake millions of bined. It has the potential to rity (Schmit 2005)—even in the human lives for the sake of cheaper redirect world history as the United States, where the industry chicken. A pandemic of H5N1, or a Black Death redirected Euro- claims to have the best biosecurity comparable future bird flu virus, pean history in the fourteenth in the world (Canning 2005, n.p.). has the capacity to spark the great- century. (In Kennedy 2005, According to Vaillancourt (2002, est medical catastrophe of all time. A1) 12): “High biosecurity and proper It may be wiser to move away from One hopes the direction world monitoring are still wishful think- intensive poultry production alto- history will take is away from raising in many areas of intensive poul- gether or, at the very least, stop ing birds by the billions under try production.” A 2002 bird flu encouraging its movement into intensive confinement to poten- outbreak in Virginia led to the the developing world. tially lower the risk of our ever deaths of millions of birds and Avian health expert K. Rudd, being in this same precarious situ- found its way inside two hundred drawing on thirty-seven years’ expe- ation in the future. farms (Senne, Holt, and Akey rience within the industry, warns: 2003), highlighting just how wish- Now is the time to decide. We ful is the thinking that industrial can go on with business as Will We Survive? poultry populations are biosecure. usual, hoping for the best as Former U.S. Senate Majority Based on the rapid spread of bird we charge headlong toward Leader B. Frist described the re- flu in the United States in 2002, lower costs. Or we can begin cent slew of emerging diseases in leading USDA poultry researchers making the prudent moves almost biblical terms: “All of these concluded the obvious: “[B]iosecu- needed to restore a balance [new diseases] were advance rity on many farms is inadequate” between economics and long- patrols of a great army that is (Suarez, Spackman, and Senne range avian health. We can pay preparing way out of sight” (in 2003, 896). now or we can pay later. But it Dennehy 2005, n.p.). J. Lederberg, University of Maryland researchers should be known and it must who won the Nobel Prize in medi- surveyed commercial chicken facili- be said, one way or another we cine for his discoveries in bacterial ties throughout the Delmarva Penin- will pay. (Rudd 1995, 20) evolution, has said, sula, perhaps the densest concen- As the United Nations has urged, Some people think I am being tration of chickens in the world, combating factory farming may pre- hysterical [referring to pan- and concluded that U.S. flocks “are vent the emergence of future demic influenza], but there are constantly at risk of infection trig- viruses, but there seems little hope catastrophes ahead. We live in gered by poor biosecurity practices” of eradicating H5N1. M. Osterholm, evolutionary competition with (Tablante et al. 2002, 896). the director of the U.S. Center for microbes—bacteria and viruses. The intensive global poultry Infectious Disease Research and There is no guarantee that we industry is not only playing with Policy and an associate director will be the survivors. (In Culli-

120 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 ton 1990, 279) trointestinal tract in three In host-parasite evolutionary days, its genome mutates Literature Cited Albert, D. 2000. EU meat meal dynamics, the so-called Red Queen about two percent. That level industry wants handout to sur- hypothesis attempts to describe of mutation—two percent of vive ban. Reuters World Report. the unremitting struggle between the genome—has taken the December 5. immune systems and the path- human species eight million Alfonso, T. 1999. International eco- ogens against which they fight, years to accomplish. So who’s nomic considerations concern- each constantly evolving to try to going to adapt to whom? (In ing agricultural diseases and outsmart the other (Lythgoe and Drexler 2002, 8) human health costs of zoonotic Read 1998). Its name is taken from Pitted against that kind of com- diseases. Annals of the New York L. Carroll’s Through the Looking petition, Lederberg concludes that Academy of Sciences 894: Glass, in which the Red Queen the human evolutionary capacity to 80–82. instructs Alice, “Now, here, you see, keep up “may be dismissed as Altman, L.K. 2005. Pig disease in it takes all the running you can do almost totally inconsequential” China worries UN. New York to keep in the same place” (Carroll (Drexler 2002, 180). To help pre- Times, August 5. iht.com/bin/ 1872, n.p.). Because the pathogens vent the evolution of viruses as print_ipub.php?file=/articles/ keep evolving, human immune sys- threatening as H5N1, the least we 2005/08/05/news/pig.php. tems have to keep adapting as well can do is take away a few billion Animal Industry Foundation. 1989. just to keep up. According to the feathered test-tubes in which Animal agriculture: Myths and theory, animals who “stop running” viruses can experiment, a few billion facts. Arlington, Va.: Animal In- go extinct. fewer spins at pandemic roulette. dustry Foundation. So far our immune systems have The human species has existed Arends, J.P, N. Hartwig, M. Rudol- largely retained the upper hand, in something like our present form phy, and H.C. Zanen. 1984. Car- but the fear is that, given the cur- for approximately 200,000 years. rier rate of Streptococcus suis rent rate of disease emergence, “Such a long run should itself give capsular type 2 in palatine ton- the human race is losing the race us confidence that our species will sils of slaughtered pigs. Journal (Culliton 1990). Mitchison (1993, continue to survive, at least insofar of Clinical Microbiology 20(5): 136) writes: as the microbial world is con- 945–947. Has the immune system, then, cerned. Yet such optimism,” wrote Armelagos, G.J., K.C. Barnes, and reached its apogee after the A. Mitchison (1993, n.p.), the J. Lin. 1996. Disease in human few hundred million years it Ehrlich prize-winning former evolution: The re-emergence had taken to develop? Can it chairman of zoology at the Univer- of infectious disease in the respond in time to the new evo- sity College of London, “might eas- third epidemiological transition. lutionary challenges? These ily transmute into a tune whistled National Museum of Natural His- perfectly proper questions lack whilst passing a graveyard.” tory Bulletin for Teachers 18(3). sure answers because we are in According to a WHO spokesper- Avasthi, A. 2004. Bush-meat trade an utterly unprecedented situ- son: breeds new HIV. New Scientist. ation [given the number of The bottom line is that www.newscientist.com/article. newly emerging infections]. humans have to think about ns?id=dn6239. According to Torrey and Yolken how they treat their animals, Barnard, N.D., A. Nicholson, and (2005a), “Considering that bacte- how they farm them, and how J.L. Howard. 1995. The medical ria, viruses, and protozoa had a they market them—basically, costs attributable to meat con- more than two-billion-year head the whole relationship be- sumption. Preventive Medicine start in this war, a victory by tween the animal kingdom and 24: 646–655. recently arrived Homo sapiens the human kingdom is coming Barry, J.M. 2004. Viruses of mass would be remarkable.” under stress. (Torrey and destruction. Fortune, November 1. J. Lederberg ardently believes Yolken 2005a) Bell, D., S. Roberton, and P.R. that emerging viruses may imperil Along with human culpability, Hunter. 2004. Animal origins of human society itself (in Drexler though, comes hope. If changes in SARS coronavirus: Possible links 2002). D. Morens says: human behavior can cause new with the international trade in When you look at the relation- plagues, changes in human be- small carnivores. Philosophical ship between bugs and hu- havior may prevent them in the Transactions of the Royal Society mans, the more important future. of London. Series B: Biological thing to look at is the bug. Sciences 359(1447): 1107–1114. When an enterovirus like polio goes through the human gas-

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Their Bugs Are Worse than Their Bite: Emerging Infectious Disease and the Human-Animal Interface 127 Farm Animal Welfare: In Legislatures, Corporate Boardrooms, 7CHAPTER and Private Kitchens

Andrea Gavinelli and Miyun Park

Introduction uxembourg, April 2004: The and the economic operators, who Council of the Agricultural Min- were ready to develop an even larger A Global L ister of the European Union transport network to cope with the Perspective fails to achieve long-awaited politi- new demands of an enlarged Euro- According to the Food and Agricul- cal agreement among member pean market. ture Organization of the United countries for the adoption of a new The debate concluded in Decem- Nations, globally, approximately 56 European regulation to upgrade ber 2004 with an agreement by the billion land animals—including existing legislation on the protec- EU ministers on a new European nearly 48 billion broiler chickens— tion of animals during transport. regulation for the protection of are slaughtered for human con- In one month’s time, ten coun- animals during transport (Euro- sumption in a single year (Food and tries would be joining the European pean Commission 2005a). The reg- Agriculture Organization of the Union (EU) and become part of a ulation did not mandate more United Nations 2004), in addition unique European market, increas- appropriate traveling times and to an untold number of aquatic ani- ing the already large number of ani- loading densities for the trans- mals. The numbers of individual mals traveling on European roads. ported animals, but, as a compro- animals raised and killed by the With the impending expansion of mise, it did introduce for the first meat, egg, and dairy industries far the EU, the passage of such a regu- time the use of satellite navigation surpass the number of animals with lation was paramount. systems to trace the transport of whom human beings have any Intense negotiations to find a animals in the EU. other relationship—whether they proper compromise between animal The months of negotiations, be those seen as fabric, target prac- protection and the economic inter- argument, and political strategiz- tice, test tubes, companions, or ests of the sectors involved had ing reveal the climate of debate on sideshow spectacles. been going on for months. Member animal protection in Europe in By continent, Asia raises approxi- states fought from opposite ex- 2004. They clearly indicated that a mately 23 billion farm animals, tremes: no changes to the status new approach—one not based only Africa nearly 4 billion animals, and quo because of negative economic on adopting new legislation—was Australia an estimated 500 million, impacts on one side, and no trans- needed to advance the demands of while Europe, North America, and port of animals for slaughter on the a society in the process of changing South and Central America (com- other. Indeed, that particular night, its relationship with animals while bined) each raise approximately 10 the European ministers felt great at the same time associating re- billion animals. With the exception pressure from both the general pub- spect for an animal’s welfare with of Africa, chickens (broiler chickens lic, worried about the possibility of the concept of a higher-quality and laying hens) account for 90 per- increasing the suffering of animals product. These demands are found cent of all nonaquatic farm animals traveling thousands of kilometers not only in the EU, but increas- used in agriculture on each conti- primarily just to be slaughtered, ingly, in the United States as well. nent. Globally, broiler chickens

129 comprise 85 percent of the total Agricultural ethicist B.E. Rollin rather than the 220 days it took farm animals used, laying hens 8 (n.d., n.p.) asserts, “[I]n industrial forty years ago (Ferket 2004). Em- percent, beef cattle 3 percent, goats agriculture, this link between pro- phasizing productivity can often be 2 percent, and pigs and dairy cows ductivity and well-being is severed. at odds with animal welfare and, as 1 percent each. When productivity as an economic a result, has severely reduced the As of 2006 traditional (exten- metric is applied to the whole health and well-being of farmed sive) farming methods remained operation, the welfare of the indi- birds. Data show that up to nine of widespread in Africa and parts of vidual animal is ignored.” A recent ten egg-laying hens now suffer from Asia, but the reach of industrial- review concluded that: osteoporosis, a disorder largely ized animal agribusiness custom- Apart from a favorable in- genetic in origin and exacerbated ary in Western countries had ex- crease in production, animals by the battery-cage system custom- tended to developing countries, in a population that have been ary in the U.S. egg industry (Web- particularly in Asia and Latin selected for high production ster 2004). Forced rapid growth has America, increasingly favoring efficiency seem to be more at caused many broiler chickens and intensive production systems over risk for behavioral, physiologi- turkeys acute and chronic pain, leg more welfare-friendly practices cal, and immunological prob- abnormalities and disorders, skele- (Nierenberg 2006). lems. (Rauw et al. 1998) tal and cardiovascular disease, and Looking to the most prominent other disabilities (Scientific Com- Western country, the United States, mittee on Animal Health and Wel- Productivity and its poultry industry, as a case fare 2000; Duncan 2004a; Mench study, it is clear that productivity 2004; The Humane Society of the and Its Impact has caused serious concern about United States 2006). Although animal agribusiness rep- the consequences for the animals’ resentatives often claim it is in their health and welfare. The overwhelm- own interest to treat animals well, ing majority of the nearly 10 billion the simplistic notion that “only Human-Animal birds raised for egg production or happy animals produce,” thereby human consumption each year in Relationship making welfare critical to the prac- As countries urbanize and farm the United States, as reported by tice and efficacy of animal produc- animal production intensifies, con- the U.S. Department of Agriculture tion—whether extensive or inten- sumers become increasingly re- (USDA), are members of breeds sive—is disputed by expert animal moved from animals raised by the bred selectively for high rates of lay welfare scientists and ethologists. meat, egg, and dairy industries. or to achieve slaughter weight in According to poultry welfare This detachment could explain the the shortest time. During 2004 expert J. Mench, prevalence of intensive animal approximately 300 million hens pro- It is now generally agreed that agriculture in the United States as duced 76.2 billion table eggs, with good productivity and health well as Americans’ minimal under- each hen laying an annual average are not necessarily indicators of standing of farm animal welfare of 260 eggs (U.S. Department of good welfare....Productivity...is concerns when compared with, for Agriculture [USDA], National Agri- often measured at the level of example, the practices and knowl- cultural Statistics Service 2005a). the unit (e.g., number of eggs edge of EU citizens. According to a This is a more than tenfold increase or egg mass per hen housed), 2002 U.S. census of agriculture, over the approximately 25 eggs and individual animals may be approximately 1 million Americans their ancestors, Red Junglefowl in a comparatively poor state of (compared with a total population (Arshad 1999), laid each year and welfare even though productiv- of nearly 300 million) are animal more than double the average 100 ity within the unit may be high. farm operators, and numerous eggs laid annually by hens in the (Mench 1992, 112) sources point to the growing popu- 1940s (United Egg Producers Farm animal welfare expert D. lation numbers in urban or subur- 2006). In just the last five decades, Broom observes, ban areas, compared to rural, the rearing time for broiler chick- [E]fforts to achieve earlier and farming communities. In contrast, ens decreased by nearly half, from faster growth, greater produc- according to a European Commis- 84 to 45 days (Duncan 2001; per- tion per individual, efficient sion’s (EC) (2005b) Eurobarome- sonal correspondence, G. Matheny feed conversion and partition- ter report, 68 percent of EU citi- with S. Pretanik, director of Science ing, and increased prolificacy zens (in twenty-two out of and Technology, National Chicken are the causes of some of the twenty-five countries) had visited Council, January 14, 2004), and worst animal welfare problems. animal production farms, and 2006’s turkeys reached thirty-five (Broom 2000, n.p.) nearly 40 percent of them had pounds in weight in 132 days,

130 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 done so more than three times. farms should be inspected by gov- mals, whatever the cost (Harp- These and other findings led the ernment officials to ensure laws er and Henson 2001). The find- authors to conclude that “[v]isits protecting animals from cruelty are ings expressed dissatisfaction to farms seem to increase the being followed (Zogby International with the level of significance gov- awareness [of] and concern for ani- 2003); 66 percent found farm ani- ernment attributed to the treat- mal welfare” (European Commis- mal exemption from state cruelty ment of farm animals, with 55 sion 2005b). laws to be unacceptable (Zogby percent stating that animal wel- International 2003); and 62 per- fare/protection does not receive cent supported passing strict laws enough importance in their Consumer concerning the treatment of farm countries’ agricultural policies animals (Moore 2003). (European Commission 2005b). Concern for the In Europe, in responding to spe- In this context it is important to Treatment of cific surveys, citizens say they no educate consumers about meas- longer view farming animals simply ures taken at the EU and interna- Farm Animals as a means of food production. tional levels to ensure improved “[C]onsumers are increasingly con- Instead, they see it as relevant to animal protection as well as any cerned by the quality of food they other key social goals, such as food extra costs associated with such buy, where it comes from and how it safety and quality, environmental initiatives. While 74 percent of was produced,” reported Scotland’s protection, sustainability, and the respondents believed that buying The Herald (Buglass 2006). Said T. humane treatment of animals. In animal welfare-friendly products Fowler, senior economist with the 2001 the results of an EU-funded could have a positive effect on ani- U.K. Meat and Livestock Commis- study on consumer concerns about mal welfare, only 43 percent stated sion and author of the study “Ethi- animal welfare and their impact on that they could identify such prod- cal Consumerism in the U.K.,” food choice showed that ucts from the label. Other similar Fair trade, organic, free range, [a]lthough consumers are surveys in the United Kingdom or cruelty free are the most concerned about farm animal have shown that consumers con- widely accepted understandings welfare, this concern is not a sidered production methods, such (of ethical consumerism).... priority in food choice...con- as organic or free-range, as more There is a surprisingly high pro- sumers use animal welfare as important for food choice than portion of consumers—52 per- an indicator of other, usually country of origin or brand name. cent—whose buying patterns more important product are determined by perceptions attributes, such as food safety, of what is ethical. (In Buglass quality and healthiness.... 2006, n.p.) Willingness to Pay Although the majority of con- As improvements in animal welfare Indeed, whether they have direct sumers report high level of are demanded at the farm level, the experience with animal production concerns about farm animal issue of consumers’ willingness to or have never visited a facility, welfare, such concerns are not absorb higher costs for products when asked, a majority of citizens translated into behavior, the becomes increasingly important— of the United States and the EU research identified a series of and controversial. The question of share concerns about the welfare barriers to purchasing animal who will bear any extra costs derived of farm animals. friendly products. (Harper from higher animal welfare stan- In the United States, a number of and Henson 2001) dards is commonly raised in both the surveys show that the majority of In 2005 and 2006, Eurobarome- EU and the United States. Increas- Americans favor the humane treat- ter surveys and Internet consulta- ing data show that investments in ment of farm animals: 81 percent of tions conducted on behalf of the good standards for animal welfare Americans polled agreed that birds European Commission highlighted are economically advantageous. should be included in the federal the importance of animal protec- Consumers in the EU and the Humane Methods of Slaughter Act, tion to European consumers: 60 United States report a willingness which would require them to be percent of respondents said they to pay higher prices for products rendered insensible to pain before were worried about farm animal sourced from more animal welfare- shackling and slaughtering (Penn, welfare, which scored higher than friendly production systems. In the Schoen, and Berland 2005); 82 per- concerns over BSE (bovine EU 57 percent of survey respon- cent agreed that effective laws spongiform encephalopathy, or dents in the Eurobarometer stated should protect farm animals against mad cow disease) or gaining they would pay a premium for more cruelty and abuse (Zogby Interna- weight, and previously 82 percent animal welfare-friendly eggs, for tional 2003); 72 percent believed felt they had a duty to protect ani- example. In the United States, sim-

Farm Animal Welfare: In Legislatures, Corporate Boardrooms, and Private Kitchens 131 ilar findings have been reported. In such animals are afforded protec- health and animal health organiza- a 2004 Golin/Harris poll for the tions denied to those reared in tions. As a result a number of rec- United Egg Producers, 54 percent industrial systems. Therefore, pri- ommendations, standards, direc- of consumers said they were willing vate consumption and public good tives, laws, and initiatives have to pay 5–10 percent more for eggs aspects need to be taken into ac- emerged at national and interna- labeled “Animal Care Certified,” count. Some have postulated that tional levels, providing guidelines without any information about Providing that consumers are or minimum standards to improve what the label actually meant; 10 fully informed about the ani- the well-being of animals in agricul- percent reported they were willing mal welfare implications of ture. These movements indicate an to pay 15–20 percent more; and 77 their purchasing decisions, the increasing awareness that human percent reported they would con- market will ensure that con- beings’ relationship with and treat- sider switching to a brand with sumers purchase animal prod- ment of farm animals are issues such a label (Golin/Harris Interna- ucts which will maximize their worthy of attention. tional 2004). Research suggests individual net benefits from In recent years such diverse enti- consumers are willing to pay an consumption. (Bennett 1997b, ties as the Austin, Texas-based gro- average of 17–60 percent more for 243) cer and Fortune 500 company, eggs from non-cage systems (Ben- and that “society is placing an Whole Foods Market, the Interna- nett and Larson 1996; Bennett implicit (money) value on animal tional Finance Corporation of the 1997a; Animals Australia 1998; suffering”(Bennett 1997b, 241). World Bank, the World Organiza- Rolfe 1999; Bennett and Blaney Consumers have identified a tion for Animal Health (OIE), and 2003). series of barriers to purchasing Google have helped to move farm Although survey data indicate a animal-friendly products—chiefly animal welfare to the foreground of clear willingness to pay for higher- lack of education and information public discourse with their respec- welfare products, the problem lies in about production methods, lack of tive policies or recommendations. putting these stated claims into transparency, lack of availability of For example, Whole Foods Market practice. Nevertheless, the concerns products, lack of belief in the abil- as of 2007 had not only made a of the majority of consumers regard- ity of individual consumers to commitment to offer welfare- ing the treatment of farm animals make a difference in animal wel- friendly products, but it had also have not yet been taken seriously. fare standards, disassociating the taken a leadership role in moving The public good benefits of product from the animal of origin, animal agribusiness toward more measures to improve animal wel- and the increased cost of animal- extensive production systems fare also deserve assessment. A friendly products. Consumers (those with non-intensive produc- study on moral intensity and will- expressed a preference for a com- tion practices) with its develop- ingness to pay with regard to farm bined strategy of setting minimum ment of Animal Compassionate animal welfare issues and the animal welfare standards and Standards (http://www.wholefoods implications for agricultural policy adapting present agricultural pol- market.com/issues/animalwelfare/ revealed that the value to society icy to provide farmers with incen- index.html). In October 2006 the of measures to improve animal wel- tives to change over to more International Finance Corporation fare must be considered in a cost- humane systems. (http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro. benefit framework—for example, nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/p_Animal the value of benefits to an individ- Welfare_GPN/$FILE/AnimalWelfare ual could be assessed in terms of Responses to _GPN.pdf) issued its Animal Wel- her willingness to pay for animal fare in Livestock Operations Good welfare improvements. Using such Growing Interest Practice Note, which begins models, various studies have shown in Farm Animal Animal welfare is gaining that the benefits of animal welfare increased recognition as an measures greatly outweigh the Welfare important element of com- costs of better farming practices Given increasing consumer con- mercial livestock operations over customary intensive systems cern over the treatment of animals around the world....Animal wel- that deprive animals of many be- raised for meat, eggs, and milk, it fare is just as important havioral and physiological needs. follows that animal welfare is to humans for reasons of In addition to those consumers increasingly on the agendas of gov- food security and nutrition.... who demand and purchase animal ernment agencies, academic insti- Higher animal welfare welfare-friendly products, others tutions, corporations, nongovern- standards are also increasingly can derive significant satisfaction mental organizations (NGOs), in- seen to be a prerequisite to derived from the knowledge that vestment banks, and leading public enhancing business efficiency

132 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 and profitability, satisfying in- eral all forms of cruelty to ani- Treaty of Amsterdam in 1999. This ternational markets, and meet- mals; whereas it appears desir- protocol recognizes that animals ing consumer expectations. able, as a first step, that this are “sentient beings” and obliges The OIE, a worldwide organiza- action should consist in laying the European institutions and tion with 167 member countries, down conditions such as to member states to pay full regard to adopted a complete set of guide- avoid all unnecessary suffering the welfare requirements of ani- lines in 2005 to protect animals on the part of animals when mals when formulating and imple- during transport by land and by sea, being slaughtered.... menting community legislation at slaughterhouses, and at killing Following the humane charge in agriculture, transport, internal for disease eradication. And in May outlined in the directive on pro- market, and research. 2006 Internet giant Google adopted tecting animals at slaughter- a corporate policy to discontinue houses, many other legislative the use of eggs from caged laying steps have been taken. As of 2006 The Socio- hens in all of its employee cafés. in the EU, calves older than eight weeks had to be kept in groups Economic Costs without tethering and muzzling, of Animal Welfare Legislative pregnant sows could no longer be It has been demonstrated that any kept in individual crates, and cages requirement implying investments Efforts: A for laying hens without materials and changes to existing production European for enrichment—animal produc- systems may have an impact on tion practices that remain custom- production costs. Perspective ary in the United States—were to In recent years, the European In the United States, animals be phased out. During transport, Commission has taken important reared by the meat, egg, or dairy animals in the EU could be trucked steps in developing specific studies industries are afforded no legal pro- for a maximum of eight hours; if and impact assessments on the so- tections while on the farm and only they must travel for longer, the ani- cioeconomic implications of animal minimal protection during trans- mals must do so in vehicles spe- welfare measures. These efforts port. USDA does not require the cially equipped for long-distance have been undertaken by several overwhelming majority of them journeys with water and food in public and private organizations. In (specifically birds, who account for sufficient quantity. Since 1993 spe- particular, important university nine of ten farm animals) to be ren- cific welfare requirements detail institutes in Europe have studied dered insensible to pain before protections for handling, manag- the impact of animal welfare on shackling and slaughter. In con- ing, and stunning or killing ani- the trade of animal products and on trast, the EU has adopted a specific mals in slaughterhouses. the European market, and the eco- legislative approach for the welfare Directive 98/58/EC on the pro- nomic impact of animal welfare of animals from the farm to the tection of animals kept for measures on products that are glob- slaughter plant. farming purposes underlines the ally competitive, such as eggs, pork, The first EU legislation on animal principles forming the basis of EU and poultry (see as examples Agra welfare, adopted in 1974, con- animal welfare legislation and CEAS Consulting 2004; DEFRA, cerned the stunning of animals highlights the need to treat ani- U.K. 2005; van Hoorne 2005). before slaughter (European Eco- mals according to their physiologi- In the United States, The Humane nomic Community 1974). While cal and ethological needs. Respect- Society of the United States has this initiative indicated the impor- ing the basic five freedoms1 prepared a series of analyses com- tance the European Economic —freedom from discomfort; from paring intensive production me- Community (EEC) already at- hunger and thirst; from fear and thods with more welfare-friendly tached to animal welfare and distress; from pain, injury and dis- systems (see http://www.farm the prevention of unnecessary ease; and freedom to express natu- animalwelfare.org). The findings suffering, its purpose was strictly ral behavior—is a fundamental indicate that practices that improve to reduce the impact on the inter- principle, and the EU has already animal well-being are economically nal market of different measures in taken various practical steps to viable. EEC member states that could cre- secure real improvements in ani- As the EU and U.S. poultry indus- ate additional costs. Despite the mal welfare. tries are very similar and inte- pure economic aim, the Directive of Also underpinning the EU’s ani- grated, analysis of broiler produc- 1974 (n.p.) posited: mal welfare policy is a specific pro- tion may be of interest, particularly Whereas the Community should tocol on the Protection and Wel- since poultry meat has become a also take action to avoid in gen- fare of Animals introduced via the global commodity.

Farm Animal Welfare: In Legislatures, Corporate Boardrooms, and Private Kitchens 133 Stocking Density welfare problems [of broiler million for broilers and $32 million In studies concerning a 2005 Euro- chickens]...will not be solved to $40 million for turkeys (Sullivan pean Commission proposal on the by environmental manipula- 1994). Adjusting for the increase welfare of chickens kept for meat tions. It is the bird that must in the value of poultry production production, it has been shown that be changed, and the long-term and assuming no change in the the price of a chicken would rise by solution is in the hands of the percentage of birds with leg prob- either 8 or 2.5 Euro cents to main- primary breeding companies. lems, annual losses could now run tain farmers’ earnings at the maxi- (Duncan 2004b, xii) $144 million to $216 million for mum stocking densities of 30 or The costs of poultry breeding broilers and $37 million to $46 38 kg/m2, respectively, foreseen in programs are negligible—around million for turkeys (USDA/ the European Commission’s recent 0.5 percent of live production National Agricultural Statistics legislative proposal on this issue. value (Arthur and Albers 2003). Service 1998, 2005b). Nevertheless, while this may seem However, adopting slower-growing negligible, the margins at which breeds does involve increased run- Catching of Poultry modern farms operate and interna- ning costs. The EU’s Scientific Customary catching and crating of tional trade competes also need to Committee on Animal Health and broiler chickens for transport to be considered. A U.K. study on Animal Welfare (SCAHAW) mod- slaughter involves manual efforts. broiler production calculated an eled the additional production Birds generally are caught by hand average overall net margin of 3.0 costs involved in adopting slower- and carried inverted by a single pence per bird for the 600 million growing poultry breeds (Scientific leg, three or four birds per hand. birds produced in England in 2002. Committee on Animal Health and During an average shift, a single Animal Welfare [SCAHAW] 2000), catcher will lift between five and Growth and found that slower growth ten tons of birds at a rate of 1,000 Virtually all chickens reared for would increase running costs pri- to 1,500 animals an hour (Nijdam meat are members of fast-growing marily by delaying the slaughter et al. 2004; Ramasamy, Benson, breeds selectively bred to reach age from forty one to fifty one days and Van Wicklen 2004). In the market weight as efficiently as pos- (in the European case). These United States, catching crews typi- sible—that is, in a shorter time costs would be partly offset by a 65 cally are paid by the shed (unit of with less feed. Eighty-five to 90 percent reduction in weekly mor- housing) or by weight, so there is percent of these significant reduc- tality rates, a 10 percent increase little incentive to be gentle in han- tions in time and feed intake is due in feed conversion ratios, and a dling (Grandin 2003). Nijdam et to genetics, and 10 percent to 15 lower chick price because of al. (2004) report that “[f]or a percent to nutritional changes improved breeder fertility and egg member of a catching team, it (Havenstein, Ferket, and Qureshi hatchability in slower-growing could be difficult to maintain con- 2003). Such rapid growth has con- breeds. SCAHAW concluded that centration and exercise care tributed to serious welfare chal- running production costs of slower- throughout a longer catching lenges for birds, including skeletal growing breeds would be about 5 time.” Rough handling, which and cardiovascular disease as well percent higher than those of con- causes birds to experience fear as chronic hunger in breeding ventional breeds (SCAHAW 2000). (Jones 1992), can increase as stock (Scientific Committee on In its model, SCAHAW did not crews become fatigued. Lacy and Animal Health and Animal Welfare include quality price premiums Czarick (1998) concluded that 2000; Duncan 2004a; Mench made possible through slower [A]s fatigue sets in, one’s pri- 2004). “Without a doubt, the growth, for example, color and mary motivation becomes just biggest [animal] welfare problems water-holding capacity are fre- getting the job over with. Catch- for meat birds are those associated quently reported to be poorer in ing and crating the birds as with fast growth,” concludes poul- faster-growing flocks (Remignon quickly as possible with the min- try welfare science expert I. Dun- and Le Bihan-Duval 2003). The imum effort possible becomes can (2004a, 310). SCAHAW model also did not in- the major focus. Careful han- It used to be thought that all clude the decrease in condemna- dling becomes secondary. farm animal welfare problems tions and downgrades due to bet- Birds raised for meat are typically could be solved by correct envi- ter bone health in slower-growing unaccustomed to being touched by ronmental design. Experience breeds, which could represent sig- humans. When handled, their with modern broilers and their nificant savings. A 1994 survey in plasma corticosterone levels ele- parent stock, broiler breeders, the United States estimated that vate, a physiological indicator of has cast doubt on this assump- losses to producers due to leg stress (Duncan 1989; Elrom 2000). tion....[T]o a large extent, the problems were $80 million to $120 The method of handling can also

134 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 affect stress. Kannan and Mench In contrast, birds harvested large animals at research facilities (1996) report that both being car- mechanically with machinery that throughout the world) estimated ried with other birds and being “catches” them via a ramp or rubber- that mechanical harvesting reduces inverted elevate plasma corticos- fingered rotors and pulls them labor costs by 67 percent (Thornton terone levels compared to the levels upright on a conveyer belt to trans- 1994), or around $183,000 a year in of birds carried singly and upright. port crates, had significantly lower current dollars. Thus, the payback In addition to stress and fear, birds rates of bruises, fractures, and dislo- period for a $200,000 harvester with suffer a number of injuries during cations than did conventionally man- $76,000 in annual running costs catching, including bruises, broken ually caught birds (Knierim and would be twenty-two months, with bones, torn skin, and dislocations. Gocke 2003). Leg, wing, and rump net savings thereafter. Similarly, Injuries associated with manual injuries were 50 percent, 22 percent, Lacy and Czarick (1998) estimated catching are well documented: and 27 percent lower, respectively, a payback time of fifteen months. • Kettlewell and Turner (1985) and the number of birds with one or The estimated payback period would found that as many as 20 per- more injuries was 30 percent lower. be even shorter if savings from cent of birds experienced in- Lacy and Czarick (1998) found that reduced bruising were considered, juries during catching that rates of leg bruising were 58 percent in addition to savings from reduced led to carcass downgrading. lower with mechanical harvesting, health care costs and compensation • The Wall Street Journal re- while Elrom (2000) reviewed studies claims due to improved catcher ported that “up to 25 percent finding that mechanically harvested safety (Ramasamy, Benson, and Van of broilers on some farms are birds had injury rates 25 percent to Wicklen 2004). hurt in the [catching] pro- 87 percent lower than manually cess” (Kilman 2003). caught birds. Poultry Slaughter • Five percent to 25 percent of The principal cost associated Typically, poultry are shackled and poultry carcasses at process- with adoption of mechanical har- electrically stunned in a water bath ing plants exhibit bruising of vesting is the capital investment in before slaughter. Raj et al. (1997) the breast, thighs, or wings a harvester—between $150,000 found that most broiler chickens (Farsaie, Carr, and Wabeck and $200,000 (Lacy and Czarik sustained at least one bone fracture 1983; McGuire 2003). 1998; Bellett 2003). These systems and one hemorrhage during shack- • Griffiths (1985) estimated reduce labor costs by employing ling and electrical stunning. During that 40 percent of bruises crews half the size of those used in electrical stunning, chickens can recorded at processing plants conventional manual catching, defecate and inhale water, contami- are caused by catching and while maintaining similar catch nating carcasses (Gregory and crating, while McGuire (2003) rates. Knierim and Gocke (2003) Whittington 1992). These factors estimated 90 percent. found that three-person mechani- lead to carcass downgrades and • Grandin (2003) recounted one cal harvesting teams loaded 8,000 condemnations, thereby decreasing operation in which 5 percent birds in an average of 55 to 60 min- processors’ revenue. of birds had broken wings utes, while six-person manual In contrast, many European caused by rough catching. catching teams loaded 8,000 birds processors are adopting controlled • Nijdam et al. (2006) reported in 40 to 50 minutes. Thus, the atmosphere stunning (CAS) slaugh- that 29.5 percent of dead-on- catch rate per person-hour for the ter of meat, egg, and breeding birds. arrival (DOA) broiler chickens mechanical harvester was 2,667 to In CAS live birds are kept in their at slaughterhouses exhibited 2,909 birds per person-hour—33 transport crates after reaching the trauma that the authors attrib- percent to 82 percent higher than slaughterhouse. While still crated, uted to catching and crating. that for the conventional manual they are passed through a chamber • Bayliss and Hinton (1990) re- catching team. Nijdam et al. containing gas—typically either 90 ported that 35 percent of DOA (2005) found that the catch rate percent argon in air or 30 percent broiler mortality was due to for mechanical harvesting was 114 CO2/60 percent argon in air. These catching and transport injuries. percent higher per person-hour mixtures are not poisonous; rather, In a review of poultry welfare prob- than the rate for conventional they cause the birds to die from lems caused during catching and manual catching. anoxia. The dead birds are then hung transport, Knowles and Broom Accounting for the different wage on shackles for processing. Accord- (1990) concluded, “[T]he most trau- scales of manual and mechanical ing to Raj (1998), CAS reduces: matic stages of the process and the catching workers, American Calan stress and trauma associated stages most likely to give rise to (a company that designs and builds with removing conscious birds physical damage, are the times when agricultural equipment used in from their transport contain- the birds are manually handled.” the feeding and data collection of ers, in particular, under the bird

Farm Animal Welfare: In Legislatures, Corporate Boardrooms, and Private Kitchens 135 handling systems which require tion and Control Bureau (EIPPCB), handling conscious birds. The Cana- tipping or dumping of live poul- the running costs of gas, using an dian Food Inspection Agency con- try on conveyors; the inevitable 80 percent nitrogen/20 percent cluded that “[t]he environment for stress, pain, and trauma associ- argon mixture, are between 51 and the [personnel] working in the poul- ated with shackling the con- 84 cents (in 2005 U.S. dollars) per try stunning area is also very much scious birds, i.e. compression of 100 birds (European Integrated improved with the use of controlled birds’ hock bones by metal Pollution Prevention and Control atmosphere stunning” (Canadian shackles; the stress and pain Bureau [EIPPCB] 2003). CAS also Food Inspection Agency 1999). associated with conveying con- results in cost savings and O’Keefe reports that for one CAS scious birds hanging up side increased revenues by decreasing plant, annual labor savings due to down on a shackle line which is carcass downgrades, contamina- easier handling in post-stun shack- a physiologically abnormal pos- tion, and refrigeration costs; ling more than offset increased ture for birds; the pain experi- increasing meat yields, quality, and operating costs (O’Keefe 2003). enced by some conscious birds shelf life; and improving worker Based on the estimates above, a that receive an electric shock conditions. Without live shackling plant that installs a CAS line at a before being stunned (pre-stun and electrical stunning, CAS cost of $1 million, with a capacity to shocks).… The pain and distress results in fewer broken bones and slaughter 1 million birds a week, experienced by some conscious less bruising and hemorrhaging would incur annual operating costs birds which miss being stunned (Raj et al. 1990; Raj and Gregory of between $265,200 and $436,800, adequately (due to wing flap- 1991; Raj et al. 1997; Hoen and along with increased revenue of ping at the entrance to the Lankhaar 1999; Canadian Food $1.87 million from increased meat water bath stunners) and then Inspection Agency 1999; EIPPCB yield. Payback would be achieved in pass through the neck cutting 2003). The reduction in carcass less than one year, with increased procedure; [and] the pain and defects increases boning yield and profits thereafter. Similarly, Shane distress associated with the deboned meat quality (Raj et al. found that U.K. producers adopting recovery of consciousness dur- 1990; Raj et al. 1997; Hoen and CAS were able to recoup their ing bleeding due to inadequate Lankhaar 1999; O’Keefe 2003). In capital investment in one year stunning and/or inappropriate addition, CAS has been shown to (Shane 2005). neck cutting procedure. reduce bruising by as much as 94 To that list should be added the percent and bone fractures by as pain and distress of some birds who much as 80 percent (Raj et al. The Global are still conscious when they enter 1990; Raj et al. 1997). Conserva- the scalding tanks for feather tively assuming that CAS increases Dimension It is clear that animal welfare has removal and then die by scalding yield by only 1 percent, a plant pro- extended far beyond European bor- or drowning (Duncan 1997). Dun- cessing 1 million broilers a week, ders; indeed, it is being accorded a can (1997) concludes that, with an average dressed carcass growing level of importance in civil [CAS] is the most stress-free, weight of 4.5 pounds and a whole- society around the world. The guid- humane method of killing sale price of $0.80 per pound, ing principles agreed upon by all of poultry ever developed. The would increase annual revenue by the 167 member countries of the birds are quiet throughout the $1.87 million after adopting CAS. OIE in 2004 and part of the intro- operation. They remain in the And as CAS increases the rate of duction to the guidelines for animal transport crate until dead and rigor development, it results in welfare recognize “that the use of the killing procedure itself faster carcass-maturation times animals in agriculture and science, is fast, painless, and efficient. and reduces handling, floor space, and for companionship, recreation, There is no risk of recovery and refrigeration costs (Raj et al. and entertainment, makes a major from unconsciousness. 1997; SCAHAW 1998; EIPPCB contribution to the well being of Adoption of CAS involves large 2003; O’Keefe 2003). Because gas- people” and “that the use of animals capital costs to purchase gas-stun- stunned chickens do not inhale carries with it an ethical responsibil- ning equipment. A system in the contaminated water as they do dur- ity to ensure the welfare of such ani- United States that processes ing electrical stunning, CAS also mals to the greatest extent practica- around 1 million birds a week (150 decreases contamination costs ble” (OIE Terrestrial Animal Health to 200 birds a minute) costs less (Gregory and Whittington 1992). Code 2006, Sec. 3.7, App. 3.7.1.). than $1 million and is compatible CAS can improve worker condi- Internationally there is a great with existing crates and loading tions and safety and decrease labor challenge to balance competition, equipment. According to the Euro- costs due to production line ineffi- productivity, and animal welfare in pean Integrated Pollution Preven- ciencies, injuries, and turnover from

136 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 the increasingly global trade in been active in promoting the EU agricultural products. The limited The Future: A perspective on the importance of international consensus on the Global Perspective animal welfare, including, among role of animal welfare in interna- Clearly the EU has taken the global other things, a specific submission tional trade was highlighted by a initiative in improving farm animal to the World Trade Organization report prepared by the European welfare—not only within its own (WTO) on animal welfare and agri- Commission (2002). member states, but abroad as well. cultural trade (WTO, Annex to The relationship among animal Complementing the OIE’s initia- COM 2002, 626 Final) stating, welfare, animal health, and food tive, the European Commission “[T]he objective of the EC [Euro- safety has also been recognized has started to negotiate animal pean Community] in raising ani- internationally. At present a particu- welfare standards to be incorpo- mal welfare issues in the context of lar trend is noticeable: the global rated into bilateral agreements the WTO negotiations is not to pro- confirmation from international between the EU and Third World vide a basis for the introduction of market trends that an increase of country suppliers of animals and new types of tariff barriers” but “to sales in sustainably derived products animal products. One of the OIE promote high animal welfare stan- is achievable in many countries guiding principles stating that dards, to provide clear information worldwide. Both of these trends are “[i]mprovements in farm animal to consumers, while at the same clearly facilitating continued im- welfare can often improve produc- time maintaining the competitive- provement of animals’ welfare con- tivity and food safety, and hence ness of the EC farming sector and ditions. Consumers, who already lead to economic benefits” is food industry.” The EU also made have increased interest in welfare- encouraging the adoption of ani- a submission to the WTO Special friendly products, need more informal welfare standards worldwide. Committee on Agriculture in De- mation to better understand the Achieving international aware- cember 2001 on mandatory label- added value of welfare standards ness about animal protection and ing for agricultural products, applied to each product and to facil- contributing actively to the devel- whose aim should be itate their purchasing choices. opment of international standards [T]o ensure that members can Recent years have seen important while respecting the ethical and pursue their legitimate policy new initiatives, such as the first cultural dimension of the issue is objectives, including relevant Global Conference on Animal Wel- one of the five main actions in- agriculture non-trade concerns, fare, held in 2004, and the 2005 cluded in the Community Action through labeling requirements adoption of OIE guidelines on ani- Plan on Animal Welfare. for food and agricultural prod- mal welfare discussed above. The Other initiatives are planned in ucts, thereby supporting mar- OIE strategy has been developed knowledge/training activities and ket led, least trade restrictive recognizing that “animal welfare is development of future strategies in approaches to international a complex, multi-faceted public pol- veterinary education, including e- trade. (WTO, Annex to COM icy issue that includes important learning initiatives. Taking the EU- 2002, 626 Final) scientific, ethical, economic and Chile Agreement as an example, In the European Commission’s political dimensions” (OIE Terres- one objective is to reach a common communication (2002), imports trial Animal Health Code 2006). By understanding concerning animal from countries outside the EU that Resolution No. XVII of 2004, the welfare standards based on develop- do not necessarily apply animal wel- OIE also established a World Animal ments in the competent interna- fare rules equivalent to those en- Health and Welfare Fund, whose tional standards organizations. The forced in the EU have already been purpose is to implement action, sci- agreement already covers stan- addressed. entific research, and training pro- dards concerning the stunning and A recent seminar organized grams; organize seminars, confer- slaughter of animals and will be by non-governmental observers ences, and workshops; produce extended to include their land and (NGOs) as part of the European information media; and support sea transport. Efforts have been Commission’s Civil Society dia- OIE Strategic Plans and activities of undertaken to exchange informa- logue initiative (to consult stake- developing countries in the fields tion and promote cooperation and holders in order to develop policies within the OIE’s purview, including exchange of expertise. The impor- on several trade-related issues: the promotion of animal welfare. tance of training has been high- http://trade-info.cec.eu.int/civilsoc/ lighted to promote awareness of meetdetails.cfm?meet-11116) had animal welfare and application of as its topic “Sustainable Agricul- relevant animal welfare guidelines. tural Production and Good Animal In trade and external relations, Welfare Practice: Trade Opportuni- the European Commission has ties for Developing Countries.”

Farm Animal Welfare: In Legislatures, Corporate Boardrooms, and Private Kitchens 137 Included in the seminar’s con- the differing approaches—primarily, clusions and recommendations Conclusions and legislation in the EU and voluntary were the following: Future Directions codes in the United States—have • Extensive and sustainable agri- Increasingly throughout Europe not been favorable in establishing cultural systems, with good and the United States, the farming cooperation nor in achieving rapid standards of animal welfare, of animals is no longer viewed sim- progress in improving the welfare of are still the predominant form ply as a means of food production. farmed animals. of livestock production in Instead it is seen as fundamental to Opportunities to cooperate in the many developing countries. other key social goals, such as food development of a common, science- • Products from such systems safety and quality, safeguarding en- based approach should be explored, would readily meet EU animal vironmental protection, sustain- taking advantage of the new frame- welfare requirements. ability, enhancing the quality of life work offered by multilateral organi- • Developing-country farmers in rural areas and the preservation zations such as the OIE and taking who use sustainable, humane of the countryside, and ensuring into consideration all stakeholders systems can find trading oppor- that animals are treated properly. who demand these improvements. tunities for welfare-friendly, Public authorities are obliged to quality products. take these demands into account The views expressed herein are • Developing-country farmers when formulating and implement- purely those of the authors and may should see good animal welfare ing relevant policy to ensure that not in any circumstance be regarded not as an obstacle, but as an animals are treated humanely. In as an official position of the Euro- opportunity for trade expan- response to this situation, a Com- pean Commission. sion, and good animal welfare munity Action Plan on the Protec- standards can give a country a tion and Welfare of Animals cover- Note significant advantage over its ing 2006 to 2010 has now been 1Defined in 1979 by the U.K. agricultural competitors in export markets. developed in Europe. This plan ministry’s advisory body, the Farm Animal Welfare Council. • The EU should ensure access seeks to define more clearly the to its markets for welfare- direction of EU policies for the friendly products by offering coming years, to continue to pro- trade-related assistance and mote high animal welfare stan- Literature Cited Agra CEAS Consulting, Ltd. 2004. capacity building to developing dards in the EU and at the interna- Study on the socio-economic countries, together with pref- tional level, and to provide greater implications of the various systems erential market access, as well coordination of existing resources to keep laying hens. Contract as information, training, and while identifying future needs. SANCO/2003/SPC.2003258. mentoring in the development A more consistent and coordi- Final report for the European and maintenance of good wel- nated approach to animal protec- Commission. December. http:// fare standards on-farm, during tion and welfare needs to be ec.europa.eu/food/animal/ transport, and at slaughter. ensured across several policy areas welfare/farm/socio_economic_ • The EU should work with its to respond to clear public concerns. study_revised_en.pdf. trading partners to develop a National authorities and major Animals Australia. 1998. Opinion voluntary labeling scheme for global players in the food chain poll: Battery hens. Summary of animal products that would have a duty and a responsibility to People Data (Australia) Pty. Ltd. enable welfare-friendly prod- respond to citizens’ demands con- December. ucts from developing coun- cerning and the shifting in atti- Arshad, M. 1999. An ecological tries to be identified as such tudes toward farming production. study of Red Junglefowl (Gallus and hence reap economic ben- As evidenced by polling consumers gallus spadiceus) in agricultural efits in EU markets. on both sides of the Atlantic, the areas. Malaysia: Universiti Putri In sum, animal welfare standards majority of citizens are concerned Malasia. represent opportunities for coun- about the humane treatment of ani- Arthur, J.A., and G.A.A. Albers. tries to access and compete in mals, and as the United States and 2003. Industrial perspective on worldwide markets on a more level the EU share common players in the problems and issues associated playing field. This can help to food market and country borders with poultry breeding. In Poultry increase trade and prosperity while blur due to globalization, the devel- genetics, breeding, and biotech- also giving due importance to ani- opment of strategic, international nology, ed. W.M. Muir and S.E. mal welfare. collaborations is critical in achieving Aggrey, 1–12. Wallingford, Eng- improved farm animal welfare (Euro- land: CABI Publishing. pean Commission 2006). Thus far,

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140 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Rollin, B.E. n.d. Farm factories. Zogby International. 2003. Nation- The Christian Century. www. wide views on the treatment of religion-online.org/showarticle. farm animals. Poll for the Animal asp?title=2194. Welfare Trust. Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare (SCAHAW). 1998. The use of mixtures of the gases CO2, O2, and N2 for stunning or killing poultry. europa.eu.int/comm./ food/fs/sc/scah/out08_en.html. ———. 2000. The welfare of chickens kept for meat production (broilers). Report for the European Commission, Health and Consumer Protection Direc- torate-General. SCAHAW. Shane, S. 2005. Future of gas stunning. WATT PoultryUSA 6(4): 16–23. Sullivan, T.W. 1994. Skeletal problems in poultry: Estimated annual cost and descriptions. Poultry Science 73: 879–882. Thornton, G.E. 1994. The race to automate broiler harvesting. Broiler Industry 57(12): 52–66. United Egg Producers. 2006. Industry history. uepcertified. com/inductryhistory.html. United States Department of Agri- culture (USDA), National Agri- cultural Statistics Service. 1998. Poultry production and value final estimates, 1994–97. Statis- tical Bulletin 958. jan.mannlib. cornell.edu/usda/reports/general/ sb/b9580399.txt. ———. 2005a. Chickens and eggs: 2004 summary. February. usda. mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/nassr/ poultry/pec-bbl/lyegan05.pdf. ———. 2005b. Poultry: Production and value, 2004 summary. usda. mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/nassr /poultry/pbh-bbp/plva0405.txt. van Hoorne, P.L.M. 2005. Impact of EU Council Directive 99/74 “Welfare of Laying Hens” on the competitiveness of the EU egg industry: Update base year 2003. LEI, The Hague: The Nether- lands, June. Webster, A.B. 2004. Welfare implications of avian osteoporosis. Poultry Science 83: 184–192.

Farm Animal Welfare: In Legislatures, Corporate Boardrooms, and Private Kitchens 141 The Steady State Economy, Habitat Stability, and the 8CHAPTER Humane Treatment of Wild Animals

Brian Czech

must expend precious time and Habitat destruction, meanwhile, Habitat Destruc- energy to regulate body tempera- occurs in the normal course of tion and Wild tures, decreasing or eliminating human affairs, and we often hear of other activities such as feeding, “human activity” being identified as Animal Suffering playing, or reproducing. When hid- the cause of many environmental hen we think about the ing cover is lost, wild animals enter problems. However, it behooves the inhumane treatment of a constant state of fear and stress, environmental and animal protec- wild animals, what typi- W instinctively seeking cover, in vain, tion communities to specify what cally comes to mind is the trapping from predators who may or may not type of human activity is problem- of a wolf, the clubbing of a seal, or be present. When an area of wild atic. For example, habitat destruc- some other iconic scenario from animal habitat contracts, over- tion is not typically a matter of the annals of animal welfare crowding and inhumane side spiritual, intellectual, or political activism. Invariably these scenarios effects ensue, culminating in canni- activity, at least not directly. Rather, involve direct, physical, even brutal balism, in some cases. the habitat destruction human actions that cause fear, pain, and Wild animals who are able to beings cause is virtually always a usually death. We often overlook an escape to nearby suitable habitats result of economic activity. The extremely important source of wild (assuming such habitats exist) face process of economic growth simply animal suffering: habitat destruc- the difficulty of competing with entails more economic activity and, tion. Habitat includes food, water, already-established individuals of therefore, more habitat destruction cover, and space. When any of their own species. The problems and more inhumane treatment of these components is eliminated faced by these animals are very simi- wild animals. or degraded, wild animals suffer lar to the problems faced by those Economic growth is not intended and many die, often in more insidi- who remain in an area where habitat to kill, torture, or harass animals, ous, protracted, and torturous ways has contracted. In general, popula- and in that respect is not as than if killed or crippled by a tions within an ecosystem tend to detestable as various other forms of hunter or natural predator. fluctuate near carrying capacity, so inhumanity. Yet economic growth is Many wild animals survive an ini- the immigration of displaced ani- surely the greatest of all forms of tial onslaught of habitat destruc- mals results in a stressful attempt for inhumanity in terms of the gross tion only to be stranded in a for- survival by all animals, including the amount of wild animal suffering eign, inhospitable environment. original inhabitants and the immi- that results. Therefore, for those When a food or water source is grating refugees. In other words, the concerned with the humane treat- eliminated or degraded, wild ani- stress, suffering, and mortality of ani- ment of wild animals, perhaps mals may starve, die of thirst, or mals resulting from habitat destruc- nothing is so important to address suffer agonizing debilities associ- tion reverberates outward from the as the policy and process of eco- ated with malnutrition. When ther- center of habitat destruction. nomic growth. mal cover is destroyed, wild animals

143 Economic Growth Table 1 and Habitat Causes of Endangerment for Species Destruction Classified as Threatened or Endangered Economic growth is an increase in in the United States Pursuant to the the production and consumption of goods and services. It entails in- Endangered Species Act creasing human populations, per Number of Species capita consumption, or both. The Cause of Endangerment Endangered, by Cause size of an economy is generally indi- Interactions with non-native species 305 cated by gross domestic product (GDP) or gross national product Urbanization 275 (GNP). (GDP and GNP are referred to collectively as GDP throughout Agriculture 224 this chapter.) The strengths and Outdoor recreation and tourism development 186 weaknesses, uses and misuses of GDP as an economic indicator are Domestic livestock and ranching activities 182 assessed in a later section. For now, Reservoirs and other running water diversions 161 suffice it to say that GDP is a very good indicator of the size, not the Modified fire regimes and silviculture 144 health, of an economy. Pollution of water, air, or soil 144 The relationship between economic growth and habitat destruc- Mineral, gas, oil, and geothermal tion is readily apparent when extraction or exploration 140 we consider the causes of species Industrial, institutional, and military activities 131 endangerment (Table 1). For example, in the United States Harvest, intentional and incidental 120 these causes include agriculture, Logging 109 domestic livestock production, mining, logging, and other extrac- Road presence, construction, and maintenance 94 tive sectors (Czech, Krausman, Genetic problems 92 and Devers 2000). These economic activities imperil species because Aquifer depletion, wetland draining or filling 77 they remove or degrade the food, Native species interactions, plant succession 77 water, cover, and space required to sustain wild animals. To put the Disease 19 scale of the problem into perspec- Vandalism (destruction without harvest) 12 tive, consider how many individual animals suffer when an entire Source: Modified from Czech, Krausman, and Devers (2000). species is imperiled by these economic activities. Yet this is precisely what has occurred when Another primary cause of able to carve a niche out of what is a species is listed as threatened species endangerment is urbaniza- left after the harvest. When a city or endangered pursuant to the tion. “Urbanization,” used here in expands, it usually does so by Endangered Species Act. As of the simplest sense of expanding adding pavement, buildings, and March 1, 2006, 1,272 species were urban area, reflects the growth of infrastructure, all of which are listed in the United States, includ- the national labor force and the absolutely inhospitable to most of ing 527 animal species and 745 consumer population as well as a the area’s original species. plant species (U.S. Fish and Wild- variety of industrial and service Economic infrastructure extends life Service 2006), with an addi- sectors. Few types of habitat far into the countryside, too, provid- tional 935 vertebrate species des- destruction are as thorough and ing the matrix of a national econ- ignated as “candidates” for listing. permanent as urbanization. While omy. Roads, reservoirs, pipelines, Now imagine all the individual ani- the logging of a forest, for exam- power lines, telecommunications mal suffering that has led to all ple, is a traumatic experience for facilities, and wind farms are exam- this endangerment. its wild denizens, some of them are ples and constitute another major

144 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 cause of species endangerment. lines, electric fences, and other American kestrels, great horned Many infrastructure projects are vir- electric infrastructure. owls, ferruginous hawks, and barn tual laboratories for the inhumane Power line collisions are also a owls. Birds of more than forty treatment of wild animals. significant source of bird crippling species have been killed at this sin- It is hard to imagine a more and death. As with electrocution, gle wind farm (Center for Biologi- omnipresent danger than roads, most instances of power line colli- cal Diversity 2006). upon which countless animals are sion go undocumented, and often Outdoor recreation is another mangled and left, during their final documentation occurs only for the threat to species and may be classi- hours, to be slowly, opportunisti- most studied species. For example, fied as a distinct economic sector cally picked apart by vertebrate power line collisions have been with many subsectors, including scavengers and insects. As The documented as a significant source hunting, fishing, hiking, biking, Humane Society of the United of mortality for waterfowl species four-wheeling, boating, and bird- States (2006, n.p.) noted, in many areas (Erickson, Johnson, watching. Americans spent $108 Millions upon millions of wild and Young 2005). billion in 2001 on wildlife-related animals are killed on our This is an opportune time to outdoor recreation (U.S. Fish and nation’s highways every year. mention an inevitable trade-off Wildlife Service 2002). Clearly Some scientists estimate that that occurs any time a habitat is these various forms of outdoor humans kill more wild animals transformed, lest we be charged recreation vary dramatically in with their cars than with any with bias. Power lines and power their impact on wild animals, but other instrument, including poles, as anyone who has driven a most typically, the direct threat of guns....The damage that high- country road can testify, do not outdoor recreation to wild animals ways inflict on wildlife is not only electrocute birds. They also is trampling, killing, or distur- limited to direct mortality. It provide perching habitats, as do bance. Certain forms and high lev- starts with the destruction of grain elevators, skyscrapers, and els of outdoor recreation have sub- habitat and continues with the even nuclear plants. All is relative, stantial effects on habitats in some construction of the road itself, however, and what concerns us areas, for example, with off-road which causes more wildlife mor- here is the net effect for wild ani- vehicle recreation in the Desert tality. Chemical and physical mal welfare. To understand net Southwest. Outdoor recreation alteration of the surrounding effects, we must keep in mind what constitutes the fourth most promi- environment and introduction our economic infrastructure has nent cause of species endanger- of potentially invasive species replaced. When a forest, for exam- ment in the United States (Czech, accompany construction and ple, is cleared of its trees, plowed, Krausman, and Devers 2000). use of roads....Perhaps the most and fragmented by roads and When we think of human eco- serious of all the negative power lines to feed the local econ- nomic activity, we often forget effects on wildlife is the high- omy, it is inane to conclude that about the “other side of the coin.” way's fragmentation of habitat. economic growth was good for Pollution is nothing but an in- Fragmentation confines wild birds because power lines provide evitable by-product of economic populations to areas too small perches. The effects of economic production. Along with the goods for their needs or forces ani- growth on wild animal welfare and services produced in an econ- mals to attempt road crossings must be considered in the aggre- omy, pollution may be classified in to locate food, cover, nesting gate and not by looking at isolated, economic terms as “co-produc- sites, and mates. incidental, minor examples. tion.” Pollution is an insidious, Power lines present the menace Wind farms, seen as a great hope ubiquitous, and constant threat to of electrocution, the outcome of for “green” economic growth, are wild animals, who are mostly help- which may be death or permanent the newest gauntlet in the routes less to understand when a pollu- crippling. Harness and Wilson of migratory birds. Wind farms are tant has permeated their environ- (2001) documented the electrocu- often situated in areas where winds ment, what the pollutant may do tions of 1,450 raptors representing are favorable not only to harvest- to them, and how to avoid the pol- sixteen species between 1986 and ing for energy, but also to birds for lutant, if indeed avoidance is possi- 1996. Golden eagles accounted for migrating. Substantial bird death ble. Whether it be respiratory fail- the largest percentage of fatalities. and injury is inevitable. For exam- ure stemming from pesticides, Data on power line electrocution ple, wind turbines at Altamont bone loss from lead poisoning, or are not easy to acquire, and it is Pass, California, kill approximately ataxia (loss of coordination) from logical to assume that a large one thousand birds of prey per organic chemicals, or any symp- number of birds, especially, are year, including hundreds of red- tom from a long, harrowing list, electrocuted each year on power tailed hawks, burrowing owls, pollutants ensure some of the

The Steady State Economy, Habitat Stability, and the Humane Treatment of Wild Animals 145 most torturous deaths in the animal kingdom (Table 2). All else Table 2 being equal, or ceteris paribus, as the economist would say, eco- Overview of Maladies Experienced nomic growth means more such by Wild Animals Exposed to torture, more such death. Environmental Contaminants Non-native invasive species, See Sheffield, Sullivan, and Hill (2005) for details. which disperse largely as a function of international trade and interstate Ataxia (Loss of coordination) Anemia commerce (Erickson, Johnson, and Muscular weakness Skin lesions Young 2005), constitute one of the Tremors Immunotoxic response biggest and most rapidly growing Convulsions Behavioral effects threats to ecological integrity and Lethargy Altered behavior animal welfare. Most wild animals, Hyperactivity Unkempt appearance including native species in pristine Reproductive effects Hypothermia environments, live lives of frequent Developmental abnormalities Coma or even constant danger. However, Reduced fertility Paralysis adaptation and evolution have Spontaneous abortions Internal bleeding equipped them to deal with other Excretory effects Dyspnea (Labored breathing) species in their natural ecosystems, Excess defecation Tachypnea (Rapid breathing) and the very existence of a species is Bloody feces Eye/Vision problems an indication of evolutionary suc- Diarrhea Blindness cess. However, when a totally for- Spasmodic contraction of Contraction of pupils eign species is introduced via ship anal sphincter Dilation of pupils ballast, cargo plane, or railway car, Emesis (Vomiting) Ptosis (Drooping of eyelids) native species may suddenly find Anorexia (Weight loss/Emaciation) Protrusion of eyes themselves in a nightmarish ecosys- Excessive thirst Lacrimation (Excessive tears) tem, occupied by one or more Nasal secretions species before whom they are Head and limbs arched back Epistaxis (Bleeding from nares) Piloerection (Erection of defenseless. Sea lampreys slowly Salivation contour feathers) sucking the life out of lake trout, Edema mice eating seabird chicks alive, and, most recently, giant pythons in Florida, constricting unsuspecting, mechanisms are less direct. Temper- The threats to wild animals are slow-reacting animals...the fisher- ature is a key variable in ecological essentially a who’s who of the man’s hook and the hunter’s bullet functioning and species composi- human economy. This is readily ex- are merciful in comparison. With tion. Global warming is “pushing” plained using basic principles of our focus on habitat destruction, polar species (such as polar bears) ecology. The principle of “competi- however, we should especially note off the ends of the earth and creating tive exclusion,” for example, states the wholesale ecosystem transfor- unprecedented niches near the that no species succeeds except at mations resulting in some areas equator that will only be filled the expense of other species with of the United States from the through the slow process of evolu- overlapping niches (Pianka 1974). introduction of kudzu, salt cedar, tion. It has also been implicated in Due to the tremendous breadth of Asian carp, water hyacinth, rats, increased incidences of human and the human niche, which expands via Old World climbing fern, zebra wildlife diseases (Harvell et al. new technology, the human econ- mussels, wild pigs, and a host of 2002). Global warming is largely a omy grows at the competitive exclu- other invasive keystone species. The function of greenhouse gas emis- sion of wild animals in the aggre- transformations resulting from the sions from the burning of fossil fuels. gate. To put it less technically, those invasion of such species are as life- The large, industrialized economies skyscrapers we alluded to earlier changing and inhumane for wild are primarily fossil-fueled; therefore, provide some habitat, especially for animals, as are other transformative global warming is also a function of pigeons, but not for the forest’s activities such as agriculture, log- economic growth. This is the real worth of species they displaced. ging, and ranching. “inconvenient truth” that even Al Another relevant aspect of ecol- Global warming is becoming rec- Gore skirts around—the eight hun- ogy is trophic theory. The entire ognized as another threat to species dred-pound gorilla in the room “economy of nature” (the produc- (Malcolm et al. 2006), although its where climate change is discussed. tion and consumption activities of

146 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 nonhuman species) is founded “service providers” that are not the whole economy of nature, upon the producers, or plants, that readily categorized in trophic levels. depends on the size of the pro- produce their own food via photo- These include decomposers, scav- ducer trophic level. Growth in the synthesis (Figure 1). Primary con- engers, and parasites. In addition, economy of nature requires growth sumers, or animals that eat plants, many species that do fit neatly into of the producer trophic level. It constitute the next trophic level. a particular trophic level also pro- requires an increase in primary Secondary consumers prey on pri- vide incidental services such as production (i.e., photosynthesis). mary consumers, and so forth. In pollination, soil aeration, and nutri- There is a limit to the size of the some ecosystems there may be six ent cycling. economy of nature imposed by pri- or seven trophic levels and, in all For our purposes, perhaps the mary production, which in turn is ecosystems the top trophic level is most important thing to be limited by solar energy and the called the “supercarnivores.” Mixed gleaned from trophic theory is that availability of resources such as throughout this trophic system are the size of the entire enterprise, soils, minerals, and water.

Figure 1 Figure 2 Basic Trophic Levels in Basic Trophic Levels in the Economy of Nature the Human Economy

Economy of Nature Human Economy

Super- Light Providers Carnivores manufacturing Sectors

Service Service Heavy Consumers manufacturing

Producers Producers (i.e., plants) (i.e., agriculture, extraction)

Mixed throughout the trophic system are service Mixed throughout the trophic system are service sectors providers such as decomposers, scavengers, and parasites. such as janitorial, banking, and health services.

Figure 3 Figure 4 Trophic Structure of Humans Economic Growth within the and Non-Humans Combined Context of Trophic Levels Human-inclusive Economy of Nature With Economic Growth

Humans Providers Providers Human Service Animals ServiceEconomy Animals Plants Plants Service providers are a mix of human and non-human Compare this figure with Figure 3: note the “trophic species. (For example, pest control is conducted by compression” resulting from economic growth. human firms and by many nonhuman species.)

The Steady State Economy, Habitat Stability, and the Humane Treatment of Wild Animals 147 The human economy is not highest priority in many. In the These levers are set for rapid eco- immune to the basic principles of United States, economic growth nomic growth of the American and ecology. It, too, has a trophic struc- has been an explicit bipartisan goal global economies. ture, with the entire enterprise since the Great Depression. The There are many scholarly critics founded on agricultural and extrac- diplomatically dark decades of the of economic growth as a national tive surplus (Figure 2). As Adam Cold War featured an epic struggle goal in the United States, but they Smith pointed out in The Wealth of in which the score was kept in GDP. are suppressed, censored, and cen- Nations, the origins of money are in For the United States, the logic was sured, and their arguments get very agricultural surplus. “No food, no stark and brutal. Staying ahead of little media attention. The Ameri- stock market,” we might say, along the Soviets militarily required eco- can public seldom hears about the with no video games, no outdoor nomic growth to finance the accu- environmental threats posed by eco- recreation, no sports, etc. The econ- mulation of weaponry. nomic growth, much less the inhu- omy is an integrated whole consist- When the Soviet Union collapsed mane treatment of wild animals ing of many and diverse sectors, but in 1988, the drive for economic that accompanies, and in some way none of them grows without con- growth in the United States con- exemplifies, economic growth. comitant growth in some or all of tinued, based on greedier goals Roper polls indicate that 58 percent the others. Most important, more with a sheen of nobler aspirations. of Americans believe there is no agricultural and extractive surplus There is still a significant populace limit to economic growth, and is required for the growth of the in the United States living in those who believe there is no limit economy at large. poverty, and instead of instituting to economic growth will naturally Philosophically, some prefer to progressive reforms for redistribut- believe there is no conflict between classify humans as part of the econ- ing wealth, the American govern- economic growth and the environ- omy of nature, in which case they ment has adopted supply-side eco- ment, including the habitats that clearly constitute the very highest nomics and the logic that “a rising provide for the humane treatment trophic level (Figure 3). They are the tide lifts all boats.” Supply-siders of wild animals. supercarnivore of the supercarni- fail to recognize a limit to the sup- vores. They can acquire for consump- ply of “water” or the number of tion virtually anything edible to them “boats” in the “tide.” Conventional and are rarely threatened themselves American economic philosophy, by predators, especially in developed theory, and policy are especially Economics nations. As the trophic level compris- important for several reasons. The and Economic ing humans expands in biomass, it American government and society exerts “trophic compression” on the remain the standards of capitalist Growth Theory Economics has a long history of lower trophic levels that comprise democracy in many parts of the being corrupted by vested interests the rest of the economy of nature world, although America’s image (Beder 2002). For example, in the (Figure 4). In other words, the grow- has been tarnished in recent years United States, economics depart- ing human economy puts the as the capitalist aspect has greatly ments were in their formative stages squeeze on the very trophic levels outpaced the democratic aspect. during a period when land barons that support it, like a building that More important, from the stand- were fighting the populist move- undergoes continual expansion with point of humane treatment of wild ment, which was based largely on no additional foundation. This is animals, the United States is by far Henry George’s proposal for major another way of illustrating the princi- the largest consumer in the world. land tax reform (George 1929). Mas- ple of competitive exclusion that The United States accounts for son Gaffney of the University of Cal- makes it even clearer that there is a one-fourth of the world’s marketed ifornia-Riverside documented how limit to human economic growth production and consumption, with land barons established or patron- imposed by the other, underlying GDP over $12 trillion and per ized leading economics depart- trophic levels and, ultimately, by pri- capita GDP at $41,800 in 2005. ments and hired economists to mary production. The economic might of the United undermine George and the pop- States gives it tremendous political ulists (Gaffney and Harrison 1994). power and influence over interna- Led by J.B. Clark at Columbia Uni- tional affairs and economic agree- Economic Growth versity and, eventually, by F. Knight ments. For example, the United at the University of Chicago, econo- as National Policy States controls the big levers in Economic growth is a high priority mists denied the importance of land the World Bank, International Mone- in the domestic policy arena of vir- as a distinct factor of production, tary Fund, and World Trade Organi- tually every nation, indeed the pointing instead to labor and espe- zation (Sardar and Davies 2003).

148 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 cially capital as the key productive forces. The old “land, labor, and cap- Figure 5 ital” of the classical economists rap- The Circular Flow of Money as the idly became “labor and capital,” where land was either ignored or Basic Model of the Human Economy considered the lowest form of capi- in Conventional or “Neoclassical” tal. The result was that land was paid Economics little attention to as the U.S. tax code was being developed. This episode in the corruption of economics also had a profound effect on the economic “production function,” a core concept in macroeconomics. Today, when we open a typical macroeconomics textbook, Household we find that “Y = f (K,L)”—produc- Business tion is a function of capital and labor. With land out of the equation, the corrupted production function constitutes a theory of economic growth that fails to recognize any limits to economic growth. Economic growth theory went Note the lack of ecological context. through several major stages after the anti-George backlash. John Maynard Keynes and Sir Roy Har- model: the only sure way to get ing we can have a stable, steady rod laid the foundation for modern more R&D is to have more people state economy on a perpetually economic growth theory, and sub- conducting it. Therefore, a common diminishing land mass. For exam- sequent stages are associated with interpretation of the Romer model ple, with technological progress, we the work of R. Solow (1950s), R. is that population growth is required could have the $40 trillion global Lucas (1980s), and D. Romer for per capita GDP growth (Jones economy contained first on a conti- (1990s). Modern theories of eco- 1998). This hypothesis is essentially nent, then in a city, and ultimately nomic growth tend to be centered the same argument made by in a corner saloon. This is precisely on the Romer model. J.L. Simon for a decade prece- as “ludicrous” as saying there is no The most important aspect of the ding Romer’s work (Simon 1981). limit to economic growth on Earth. Romer model, for our purposes, is Simon, erroneously called an “econ- Yet, we continually hear, “There is Romer’s treatment of technological omist” by fans and foes alike, had an no conflict between economic progress (Romer 1990). In eco- academic background in business. growth and environmental protec- nomic terms technological progress He famously claimed there was no tion.” It is easy to understand why refers to increasing output of goods limit to population growth because, this is the case when we consider and services per unit of material as population growth caused envi- the political economy of growth. and energy input. Romer correctly ronmental problems, more human pointed out that labor—the “L” in brains were available to solve those the production function—includes problems. In fact, Simon said, the The Iron Triangle a portion of the labor force that standard of living would forever con- conducts research and development tinue to increase, along with the of Economic (“R&D”), which gives rise to tech- population. The Romer model is Growth nological progress. Research and much more sophisticated, but is just After President Dwight D. Eisen- development, and the resulting as ecologically unsound as Simon’s hower warned Americans of the technological progress, is required “pop economics.” At its core is the “military-industrial complex” in for increasing per capita GDP corrupted production function and his famous 1960 farewell address growth and, therefore (as econo- the assumption of unlimited eco- (Eisenhower 1961), political scien- mists generally assume), increasing nomic growth. tists developed a concept called human welfare. To say there is no limit to eco- the “iron triangle.” An iron trian- It doesn’t take long to identify a nomic growth on a finite land mass gle consists of a special interest startling implication of the Romer is mathematically equivalent to say- group, a political faction, and a

The Steady State Economy, Habitat Stability, and the Humane Treatment of Wild Animals 149 profession or professional society most notably the International The Center for the Advance- that is well represented in one or Society for Ecological Economics. ment of the Steady State Economy more government agencies. Iron Those concerned with the (CASSE), a nonprofit organization triangles dominate policy arenas humane treatment of wild animals, based in Arlington, Virginia, has and fend off all comers. They mate- however, should use discretion in been instrumental in these efforts, rialize when interest groups, politi- their critiques of neoclassical eco- and its own position on economic cians, and professionals have simi- nomics. Neoclassical economics has growth is often used as a tem- lar perspectives and mutual produced some valuable approaches plate from which economic growth interests, especially economic and to habitat conservation, especially positions are developed. The political interests. They are not in the realm of microeconomics. CASSE position on economic necessarily conspiratorial, and Cost-benefit analysis, for example, growth has also been endorsed by probably seldom are, but they are coupled with studies that demon- several scientific and environmen- extremely effective in charting the strate the economic value of tal organizations. course of public policy. wildlife, has helped wildlife man- In the United States, the iron tri- agers make better decisions and angle most relevant to the conflict illustrate the importance of wild GDP: A Baby and between economic growth and the animals to American society. From humane treatment of wild animals is the perspective of the humane Its Bathwater A common critique of GDP is that it a virtual juggernaut in the policy treatment of wild animals, the is not a good indicator of economic arena. The “special interest” is the critique should be targeted prima- welfare, much less of overall human corporate community at large, and rily toward conventional macroeco- welfare. GDP does not account for the political “faction” is the political nomics, especially the theory of the vast collection of health and community at large. The corporate unlimited economic growth. To happiness parameters that cannot community is concerned primarily make a substantial contribution to be bought. Yet many economists with profits and is served by a the humane treatment of wild ani- and most politicians commonly national policy of aggressive eco- mals, we must have a seat at assume that GDP is a primary indi- nomic growth, while the campaign- the economic policy table, or at cator of welfare. In no way does financing system ensures political least influence what occurs at that GDP account for the humane treat- fealty to the corporate community table, but the iron triangle is a for- ment of wild animals. (Korten 2001). Most Americans have midable barrier. Despite the weakness of GDP as a vague suspicion about this corrupt- For accessing the macroeconomic an indicator of welfare, GDP is a ing influence in American politics. policy arena, a major ally is the eco- very good indicator of the size of That suspicion motivates the occa- logical economics movement, repre- an economy. It reflects the amount sional movements toward campaign sented by the International Society of economic activity taking place finance reform. for Ecological Economics and its and, given the trophic structure of The third side of the iron triangle various national chapters. Profes- the human economy, it also of economic growth policy com- sional natural resource societies are reflects the amount of natural prises conventional or “neoclassi- also beginning to scrutinize neoclas- resources reallocated from the cal” economics, which feeds the sical economics and the implica- “economy of nature” and its wild politicians the expedient theory of tions of economic growth for con- animals to the human economy. unlimited economic growth and the servation. The Wildlife Society That explains the tight connection corollary that there is no conflict (2003, 2) published a technical of GDP growth with energy and between economic growth and envi- review on economic growth that material use (Daly and Farley ronmental protection. The neoclas- described a “fundamental conflict 2003; Nørgård 2006) and with sical theory of unlimited growth between economic growth and environmental impacts such as bio- also helps maintain “consumer con- wildlife conservation” and adopted a diversity decline (The Wildlife Soci- fidence,” so necessary for hefty cor- position on economic growth. The ety 2003; Czech et al. 2005). porate profits and good days on Wall U.S. Society for Ecological Econom- Accounting for the economy of Street. The influence of neoclassical ics and the North America Section nature in the process of economic economic growth theory has dire of the Society for Conservation Biol- growth allows us to view the circu- implications for the humane treat- ogy have taken strong positions on lar flow of money in its ecological ment of wild animals. In response to economic growth. The American context (Figure 6). This in turn growing discontent with neoclassi- Fisheries Society, Ecological Society helps to clarify the impacts of eco- cal economics, various academic of America, and American Society of nomic growth on the environment reform movements, societies, and Mammalogists were all considering and wild animal welfare (Figure 7). schools of thought have arisen, related positions as of late 2006.

150 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 It is not in the interest of the humane treatment of wild animals Figure 6 to advocate abolishing GDP as a The Circular Flow of Money federal government calculation. Rather, GDP is a valuable tool and in Its Ecological Context a widely recognized model of consistency that allows scholars and policy makers to develop time series data for monitoring trends in the size of the economy. It is akin to a scale for measuring the weight of a person. The obese person needs to lose weight, not throw away the scale! However, it does behoove us to consistently and vocally note that a bigger economy is not necessarily a better one and, for the humane treatment of wild animals, is almost invariably worse. In other words, GDP is a negative indicator of the humane treatment of wild animals. A good doctor uses not only the scale but also the stethoscope, the blood pressure cuff, and other instruments to monitor health. Likewise, in recent years a number of alternative economic indicators, Figure 7 or indicators of broader social wel- The Circular Flow of Money Expanding fare, have been developed and in the Process of Economic Growth advocated, some of which are highly relevant to the humane treatment of wild animals. Alternative indicators generally fall under two categories. One category includes those indicators for which the “score” or the indication is expressed in monetary units. These are economic indicators per se. The other category includes indices that are not expressed in monetary terms, but rather involve a nonmonetary “scoring” of variables. These indicators vary widely in their foci but are not generally referred to as economic indicators. A notable example of an alternative to GDP is the Index of Sustain- able Economic Welfare (ISEW), developed by Daly and Cobb Compare this figure to Figure 6: note the depletion of natural capital, the (1989). The ISEW incorporates increase in pollutants and waste heat, and the larger “ecological footprint” GDP but also accounts for various upon the earth and wild animal habitats. aspects of economic welfare not represented by GDP, such as the resources depleted in the process growth, but rather an indicator of estimated costs of pollution to of economic production. The ISEW economic sustainability. As such, it society and the value of natural is not an indicator of economic is not so much an “alternative” to

The Steady State Economy, Habitat Stability, and the Humane Treatment of Wild Animals 151 GDP, which measures the size of monetary indicators of welfare what would be worse for wild ani- the economy, but a complement to should be advocated as better rep- mals, a “cleaner” but larger econ- GDP that measures sustainability. resenting the status of nations omy or a “dirtier” but smaller An equally notable example of an with regard to overall well-being. economy. Furthermore, a nation economic indicator of social welfare As with alternative monetary indi- would respond in such a fashion is the Genuine Progress Indicator cators such as the ISEW and the largely because of its goal of eco- (GPI). The GPI considers the mone- GPI, these nonmonetary indicators nomic growth. It is not logical to tary value of nonmarketed services of welfare are not indicators of eco- judge the effects of a recession such as housework, caring for chil- nomic growth. when the underlying goal is yet dren and the elderly, and volun- more economic growth. In any teerism. Such activities can be event, the negative effects of reces- viewed as good for society, despite The Steady State sion on wild animal welfare must their having no associated market be viewed logically as exceptional transactions. As with the ISEW, the Economy as an and short term when there is a fun- GPI is not intended to be an indica- Alternative to damental conflict between eco- tor of economic growth and is not nomic growth and the humane so much an alternative to GDP, Economic Growth treatment of wild animals. All else With economic growth as a primary which measures purely the size of being equal, recession would leave policy goal—and perhaps the the economy, but a complement to more habitat devoted to the hu- mother of all threats to wild animal GDP that measures social welfare, mane treatment of wild animals. welfare—it behooves us to consider or the quality of the economy. The second reason for dwelling a the alternatives to economic Tracking of indicators such as bit on the alternative of recession growth. This is not as complicated the ISEW and GPI suggests that, is that national and global reces- as it may seem when we keep in while the economy has continued sions—deep and protracted reces- mind that economic growth is noth- growing over the past few decades, sions—may be inevitable. By defi- ing but increasing production and economic welfare has not, and eco- nition, recession is inevitable for consumption of goods and services. logical and economic sustainability any economy that has exceeded its In fact, there are but two alterna- has been declining (Daly and Farley carrying capacity. Many scholars tives: decreasing production and 2003; Venetoulis and Cobb 2004). believe this is the case with the consumption and stabilized produc- (This is precisely to be expected $40 trillion global economy tion and consumption. Decreasing when we consider the principles of because of its dependence on production and consumption is also ecology most relevant to economic petroleum supplies, which appear known as “recession,” while stabi- growth, including competitive to be near or at their peak in per lized production and consumption exclusion and trophic levels). capita terms. This is the central goes by the less well-known “steady Alternative economic indicators issue of the burgeoning literature state economy.” such as these should be advocated, on “peak oil” (for example, Def- Recession, anathema in social, as long as care is taken not to con- feyes 2001). To the extent that political, and policy circles, may be flate trends in such indicators with recession comes to be viewed as referred to collectively as the trends in economic growth. inevitable, a dramatic transforma- “political economy.” We consider An example of a nonmonetary tion of the American and global recession here for two reasons, indicator of social welfare is the political economy is certain. Those however, in addition to simply Human Development Index (HDI). concerned with the humane treat- identifying it as an alternative to The HDI incorporates poverty, lit- ment of wild animals would do well economic growth. First, given the eracy, education, life expectancy, to participate in this transforma- principles of ecological economics childbirth, and other factors. It is a tion and to work toward political addressed above, recession would standard means of measuring solutions that do not entail, for generally result in more humane social well-being, with a focus on example, scrapping environmental treatment of wild animals. “Gener- child welfare. (There is nothing regulations. There are no such ally” means there would be excep- preventing the development of an solutions in the offing, however, if tions, for example, if a nation HDI-derived indicator that would economic growth remains the responded to recession by weaken- also incorporate considerations of higher priority. ing its environmental regulations. the humane treatment of wild ani- At this moment in American However, even this hypothetical mals.) Since 1993 the United political economy, it is unaccept- response would not necessarily Nations Development Programme able to advocate a recession for vir- result in a net loss of humane treat- has used the HDI in its annual tually any reason, much less for the ment, because we do not know report. The HDI and other non- humane treatment of wild animals.

152 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 This reality brings us to the other The noun, “state,” is not clearly dangers of economic growth, it may alternative to economic growth, defined in the ecological economics guide the state to stabilize the pro- the steady state economy. literature, but by implication it is duction and consumption of goods The phrase “steady state econ- clear enough. It refers primarily to and services, even with private own- omy” merits some linguistic clari- the political unit, or state, in which ership of capital. A stock market fication before discussing policy production and consumption are will still exist and will be neither tools. What is meant by “steady,” steady. Often, “steady state econ- “bullish” nor “bearish”; winners “state,” and the combination of omy” is shortened to “steady state” and losers will cancel out in the net. the two words with “economy”? once the context has been estab- Players’ prospects in the stock mar- The phrase “steady state econ- lished; we can refer, for example, to ket will be better than those in a omy” can be parsed in two ways. an “American steady state” or a casino (which has the house advan- Neither is household language yet. “global steady state.” tage), but they will be by no means The steady-state economy (usu- When the meaning of “steady guaranteed. People will still have ally hyphenated), used by neoclas- state economy” is clear, it naturally bank accounts and other assets. sical economists, especially growth evokes a number of skeptical, even Corporations and other businesses theorists, refers to a steady or sta- cynical questions, especially among will still make profits. The differ- ble ratio of economic variables, those with a particular view of “the ence between a steady state econ- most notably capital and labor. American way.” Some think that cap- omy and a growing economy is that, Recall, however, that in neoclassi- italism requires a growing economy in a steady state economy, profits cal economics no limit to eco- for its very existence. The American will not perpetually increase. nomic growth is acknowledged, so Constitution establishes a capitalist Instead, profits in the aggregate will that the steady ratio of capital to democracy for the United States, so stabilize at a level that is within the labor exists in a condition or any policy goal alternative to eco- regenerative capacity of the ecosys- “state” of growth. Therefore, nomic growth is cynically viewed as tem. This maintenance of profits is “steady-state economy” refers to a anti-American. This is a most unfor- most easily understood by consider- growing economy with a stable tunate misunderstanding. ing a renewable natural resource ratio of capital to labor, or “steady- Who says a capitalist economic such as timber. Profitable timber state growth,” a phrase we might system requires economic growth? harvesting may occur, but profits consider exceptionally oxymoronic One camp comprises corporate can only be maintained in the long in the long run. This term is highly interests that want economic run if the timber harvest stays technical and will presumably growth to be a national goal and, within maximum sustainable yield. remain an obscure bit of econom- therefore, that portray any other In a capitalist system, firms will ics jargon, similar to “steady-state goal as anti-American. The other compete for such profits whether or approximation” in physics. camp comprises what we might not the economy is growing. Some “Steady state economy” (without call “green Marxists,” who seek any will win and enjoy the profits, while the hyphen), more relevant to the critique of capitalism. Their argu- others will lose and move on to humane treatment of wild animals, ment is that, if economic growth is other ventures. The same principle has great potential for entering into bad for human welfare, and capital- applies to all other renewable the American and global vernacular, ism requires economic growth, resources, such as fisheries, live- by nature of its broad sweep of polit- then capitalism is bad for human stock forage, and agriculture crops. ical and economic implications. welfare. Both capitalist and Marx- Production in these agricultural “Steady” refers most directly to ist ideologues claim that economic and extractive sectors, which con- population and per capita consump- growth is a prerequisite for a capi- stitute the trophic foundation of tion. All else being equal, then, it talist system, but for very different the human economy, ultimately refers to a steady rate of the produc- political reasons. determines the size of the economy. tion and consumption of goods and Czech and Daly (2004) point out Still, skeptics ask, doesn’t the services and is indicated by steady, that the supposed choice between establishment of a steady state or stabilized, GDP. Given the princi- capitalism and a steady state econ- economy require some type of ples of ecology outlined above, it omy is a false one. All that capital- socialist government? Yes, in the should be abundantly clear that a ism truly requires is private owner- sense that virtually any check on steady state economy provides for a ship of capital, which may be the unbridled, laissez faire capitalism stable, secure, nondeclining base of case in a growing, receding, or is to some extent “socialist.” In the habitats that are required for the steady state economy. The Ameri- United States, for example, there humane treatment of wild animals. can constitution calls for a capital- is social ownership of lands such as This is the only meaning of steady ist democracy, and if the majority in national parks, forests, and wildlife state economy to be used hereafter. a democracy come to recognize the refuges. No, in the sense that pri-

The Steady State Economy, Habitat Stability, and the Humane Treatment of Wild Animals 153 vate ownership of land, labor, and economy with short life spans, development continues in a steady capital may still predominate in a high birth rates, and high death state economy so that, in the nation that sets its macroeco- rates. The same concept applies to extractive sector, oilfield rough- nomic policy levers for a steady capital and durable goods such as necks may decrease in number state economy. automobiles. Most of us would while wind-power facility atten- The rhetoric about capitalism probably prefer an economy with a dants may increase. In the arts, versus socialism in macroeco- relatively slow flow of high-quality, guitar playing may wax while flute nomic affairs has been overblown long-lasting goods to an economy playing wanes. In the sciences by ideologues. Such rhetoric is an with a fast flow of low-quality, industrial chemists may be re- aftermath of Cold War propa- short-lived goods. placed by wildlife biologists, etc. ganda, in which the United States Nothing about a steady state portrayed its economy as nearly economy precludes economic Will We Lose Our pure “capitalism,” and the Soviet development, where development Retirement Accounts? Union portrayed its economy as is defined as a qualitative process. For that matter, what will happen nearly pure “socialism.” In fact, Various sectors may come and go to bank accounts in general? both economies had capitalist and in the development of a steady Answering this question requires a socialist elements, as do all mod- state economy. For example, brief consideration of the origins of ern economies. The so-called organic farms may supplant fac- monetary income. Income reflects socialist democracies of Europe tory farms, the proportion of bicy- the use of natural resources and, are probably labeled most accu- cles to Humvees may increase, and therefore, the loss or conversion of rately, as both private and state professional soccer may attract wildlife habitats. This relationship entities control the factors of pro- more fans as NASCAR attracts of income to natural resource use is duction—land, labor, and capi- fewer. As long as the physical size observed most readily in agricul- tal—in a way that adheres to of the economy remains constant tural and extractive industries. majority support. in the long run, a developing econ- However, as pointed out by the Now that we have excised the omy is a steady state economy. physiocrats (predecessors of the biggest bugbears beleaguering Nor would any type of cultural classical economists), the origins the steady state economy, let’s stagnation result from a steady of all monetary income are in agri- consider four of the most fre- state economy. John Stuart Mill cultural surplus (Heilbroner 1992). quently asked questions, drawing (1806–1873), one of the greatest Without agricultural surplus, every- on the observations of Czech and economists and political philoso- one is too busy acquiring food Daly (2004). phers in history, emphasized that (hunting, gathering, or subsistence an economy in which physical farming) to specialize in the pro- How Is Quality of Life growth was no longer the goal duction of other goods (much Affected by a Steady would be more conducive to politi- less “higher” services such as en- State Economy? cal, ethical, and spiritual improve- tertainment) for wages. In other A steady state economy is similar ments (Mill 1900). words, everyone’s income and ex- to a stable, secure population of penditure, no matter the sector he wild animals. It stabilizes at or What Happens to or she works in, ultimately depends below the capacity of the environ- Jobs in a Steady on the use of natural resources and, ment to sustain it, and it avoids State Economy? therefore, wildlife habitat loss the fate of species that often In economic discussions, a com- (Czech 2002). exceed carrying capacity and mon qualifier is ceteris paribus, or Practitioners of ecological eco- crash, damaging the environment all else being equal. Ceteris nomics often elaborate on this by in the process and compromising paribus, a steady state economy introducing the term “natural capi- the prospects of its progeny. means a constant rate of employ- tal” (Daly and Farley 2003, 17). Wildlife biologists know that a ment. The “all else” remaining Natural capital is the stock of natu- wide variety of social structures equal includes such factors as ral resources (for example, a forest) may produce stable wildlife popu- salary and retirement age. For that yields a renewable flow of lations. The same holds true for a example, a steady state economy goods (for example, perches for steady state economy. For exam- may have higher rates of employ- birds, timber for humans). The car- ple, a steady state economy with ment when salary and retirement dinal sin of accounting is to count long human life spans entails low ages are lower. the liquidation of capital as income, birth and death rates. Most of us Ceteris paribus does not mean, yet our national income accounting would view this as preferable, however, that each particular job is (the process of calculating GDP and within reason, to a steady state retained in perpetuity. Economic GNP) routinely adds the money

154 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 derived from the liquidation of nat- lishing a steady state economy as animals. Humane treatment has ural capital. That component of soon as possible. not typically been a pressing con- GDP is more representative of cern in primitive economies reduced wild animal welfare than it How Big Should emerging from the wilderness. As is of increased income! a Steady State an economy grows, however, natu- In a steady state economy, the Economy Be? ral capital is liquidated, wildlife average amount of money in real This question always generates dis- habitats are lost, and wild animal dollars earned by workers from the cussion about the ultimate eco- welfare declines. Society begins current generation to the next nomic carrying capacity of the devoting fiscal resources to con- remains constant. “Real dol- global ecosystem. Global capacity, serving wildlife habitats and tend- lars” means that inflation has been indeed, is an important question ing to wild animal welfare, and accounted for. Because income and a focus of ecological econom- humane societies thrive. As vast reflects the use of natural re- ics. However, for our purposes, we areas become devoid of wildlife, sources, stabilized income reflects can ask a different question: how however, there is less wild animal a stabilized “ecological footprint,” much wild animal welfare should welfare to protect. For those con- which is the area of land required we maintain? Presumably many cerned with the humane treatment to support a human being (Wacker- animal protection advocates would of wild animals, the time for advo- nagel and Rees 1996). The ecologi- answer, “As much as possible of cating a steady state economy is cal footprint is another way of what is left.” This gives us the upon us. measuring the inhumane treat- answer to the original question, ment of wild animals. because maintaining as much wild If the steady state economy is animal welfare as possible requires Economic Growth established at a relatively low the establishment of a steady state human population level, the poten- economy as soon as possible and as and Animal tial exists for each worker, and his close to the current size as possi- Protection or her replacement in the next ble. In GDP terms this is an econ- Readers are now familiar with a se- generation, to earn a high income. omy of approximately $11 trillion quence of logic pertaining to the This scenario is similar to that of a for the United States. humane treatment of wild animals. low-density deer population with Some may assume that public (1) Wild animal welfare requires plenty of forage per deer. If, on the conservation lands will be sufficient wildlife habitats. (2) Economic other hand, the steady state econ- for wild animal welfare and that the growth occurs at the expense of omy is established at a high popu- ongoing protection of these lands wildlife habitats. (3) Stabilization of lation level, less income is available will result in the establishment of a wildlife habitats, and, therefore, the for the average worker, as with a steady state economy of the appro- humane treatment of wild animals, high-density deer population with priate size. This is an unlikely out- requires the establishment of a little forage per deer. come, however, as long as economic steady state economy. It remains Certainly for the humane treat- growth is a primary, perennial, and only to consider some of the means ment of wild animals, it is impor- bipartisan goal. In the context of a available to animal protection advo- tant that a steady state economy public and polity that prioritizes cates for pursuing the establish- be established at a relatively low economic growth, the political ment of a steady state economy. population level. This scenario is boundaries and protective mandates Fortunately, animal protection conducive to incomes high enough of our public lands are continually advocates do not have to start from to allow retirement savings and contested (Czech 2002). For exam- ground zero in this effort. Wildlife social security (in the generic ple, the drive for economic growth ecologists, conservation biologists, sense), while providing for the has resulted in an ongoing effort and ecological economists have habitat needs of wild animals. If to open more portions of Arctic been developing solidarity on this the steady state economy is estab- National Wildlife Refuge land to oil issue, informally for many years, lished within ecological carrying exploration and extraction, jeopard- and formally in more recent years. capacity, each new generation may izing the welfare of caribou calves For example, The Wildlife Society expect its workers to accumulate and other denizens of the Arctic. has described “a fundamental con- retirement savings of the same Ceteris paribus, then, there is an flict between economic growth and magnitude as those of the previous optimum size of the economy for wildlife conservation”; the Society generation, without continual ero- society as a whole. There is also an for Conservation Biology’s North sion of wild animal welfare. This optimal size, and certainly a America Section has taken a policy points to the importance of estab- smaller size, from the perspective position, “The Steady State Econ- of the humane treatment of wild omy as a Sustainable Alternative to

The Steady State Economy, Habitat Stability, and the Humane Treatment of Wild Animals 155 Economic Growth”; and the that comprise our economies. It is too. We can’t kill the goose that United States Society for Ecologi- left to animal welfare organizations lays the golden eggs. The American cal Economics (www.ussee.org) such as The Humane Society of the lexicon is laden with pithy proverbs has a policy position that identifies United States and The Fund for and apt anecdotes about the falla- “an economy with a relatively sta- Animals, the International Fund cies of perpetual economic growth ble, mildly fluctuating product of for Animal Welfare, and the Animal and the perils of pursuing it. The population and per capita con- Welfare Institute to occupy this iron triangle of economic growth sumption” (i.e., a steady state unique niche. There are many rea- will defend itself, primarily with a economy) as “a viable alternative sons beyond animal welfare for plethora of propaganda, but one to a growing economy and...a more developed nations, beginning with dollar’s worth of solid common appropriate goal for the U.S. and the United States, to adopt steady sense can defeat thousands of dol- other large, wealthy economies.” state economies, but there are just lars of propaganda. In other words, animal protec- as many commercial and political When we have engaged the pub- tion advocates have a foundation of barriers. It will take solidarity on lic’s common sense, there will professional, scientific findings the part of those advocating a remain a whole world of political and positions to stand on in edu- steady state economy, and the ani- work toward the establishment of a cating the public and policy mak- mal welfare community’s involve- steady state economy through pub- ers on the threat of economic ment is paramount in developing lic policy. This will entail macro- growth to wild animal welfare. This public support. Aside from the economic policy reform. Fiscal and is a crucial distinction from, for prospects of their own children monetary policy levers will have to example, the efforts of Friends of and grandchildren (prospects that be ratcheted down gradually, from the Earth in the 1970s. Friends are likewise threatened in the long the current expansionary settings of the Earth did a remarkable job run by economic growth), many to the steady state economy. of raising Americans’ awareness of Americans genuinely care about Macroeconomic policy reform is the perils of economic growth to the humane treatment of wild ani- off in the future, and we can’t get the environment and wildlife, gar- mals. They just need to see how there without the requisite public nering coverage in such main- this concern conflicts with the goal education and outreach. Yet that stream media as U.S. News and and process of economic growth. future is something to cherish, strive World Report, yet the effort seemed One may ask, “But what, specifi- for, and unite us. It’s the only future not to resonate in the American cally, can animal protection advo- that is wholly conducive to the psyche and certainly made even cates do to help in the establish- humane treatment of wild animals. less of an impact in the public pol- ment of a steady state economy?” icy arena. Why? A thorough answer requires a book One major reason is that Friends of its own, but a short answer is Literature Cited of the Earth had no backing from easy and in order. First, animal pro- Beder, S. 2002. Global spin: The the professional, scientific organiza- tection organizations can educate corporate assault on environ- tions that have established credibil- their members on the conflict mentalism, rev. ed. White River ity over the decades with the public between economic growth and the Junction, Vt.: Chelsea Green. and politicians. That situation has humane treatment of wild animals. Center for Biological Diversity. changed, and we can hope that Once their members are suffi- 2006. Altamont Pass Wind Friends of the Earth retrenches and ciently conversant with the sub- Resource Area. http://www. once again confronts the eight hun- ject, animal protection advocates biologicaldiversity.org/swcbd/ dred-pound gorilla of economic can begin to educate the general programs/bdes/altamont/ growth, along with other key con- public, beginning with the civic altamont.html. servation organizations such as the groups and organizations with Czech, B. 2002. A transdisciplinary National Wildlife Federation, De- which they already partner on approach to conservation land fenders of Wildlife, and the World other issues. A slightly more ad- acquisition. Conservation Biol- Wildlife Fund. vanced step is to develop educa- ogy 16(6): 1488–1497. Yet none of those organizations tional campaigns in cooperation Czech, B., and H. Daly. 2004. The will bring to the table in promi- with other animal welfare groups steady state economy: What it is, nent, urgent fashion the plight of and conservation organizations. entails, and connotes. Wildlife individual, innocent wild animals We can expect the public to “get Society Bulletin 32(2): 598–605. who are crushed under the plow, it” because, when we really think Czech, B., P.R. Krausman, and P. K. poisoned by pollution, or summar- about it, this is an issue of com- Devers. 2000. Economic associa- ily displaced by the roads, facto- mon sense. Nothing grows forever. tions among causes of species ries, and commercial metropolises We can’t have our cake and eat it, endangerment in the United

156 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 States. Bioscience 50(7): Humane Society of the United update). San Francisco, Calif.: 593–601. States, The. 2006. Wildlife cross- Redefining Progress. Czech, B., D.L. Trauger, J. Farley, ings—Wild animals and roads. Wackernagel, M., and W. Rees. R. Costanza, H.E. Daly, C.A.S. http://www.hsus.org/wildlife/ 1996. Our ecological footprint: Hall, R.F. Noss, L. Krall, and P.R. issues_facing_wildlife/wildlife_ Reducing human impact on Krausman. 2005. Establishing crossings_wild_animals_and_ the earth. Gabriola Island, B.C.: indicators for biodiversity. Sci- roads/. New Society. ence 308: 791–792. Jones, C.I. 1998. Introduction to The Wildlife Society. 2003. The rela- Daly, H., and J. Cobb. 1989. For the economic growth. New York: tionship of economic growth to common good: Redirecting the W.W. Norton. wildlife conservation. Wildlife Soci- economy towards community, Korten, D. 2001. When corpora- ety Technical Review 03-1. the environment and sustainable tions rule the world, 2d ed. Bethesda, Md.: The Wildlife Society. development. Boston: Beacon Bloomfield, Conn.: Kumarian Press. Press. Daly, H.E., and J. Farley. 2003. Eco- Malcolm, J.R., C. Liu, R.P. Neilson, logical economics: Principles and L. Hansen, and L. Hannah. 2006. applications. Washington, Global warming and extinctions D.C.: Island Press. of endemic species from biodi- Deffeyes, K.S. 2001. Hubbert’s versity hotspots. Conservation peak: The impending world oil Biology 20: 538–548. shortage. Princeton, N.J.: Prince- Mill, J.S. 1900. Principles of politi- ton University Press. cal economy, with some of their Eisenhower, D.D. 1961. Public applications to social philosophy, papers of the presidents. http:// rev. ed. New York: Colonial Press. coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/ Nørgård, J.S. 2006. Consumer effi- ~hst306/documents/indust.html. ciency in conflict with GDP Erickson, W.P., G.D. Johnson, and growth. Ecological Economics D.P. Young, Jr. 2005. A summary 57(1): 15–29. and comparison of bird mortality Ormerod, P. 1997. The death of eco- from anthropogenic causes with nomics. New York: John Wiley an emphasis on collisions. USDA and Sons. Forest Service General Technical Pianka, E.R. 1974. Evolutionary Report. PSW-GTR-191. ecology. New York: Harper and Gaffney, M., and F. Harrison. 1994. Row. The corruption of economics. Romer, P.M. 1990. Endogenous London: Shepheard-Walwyn. technological change. Journal of George, H. 1929. Progress and Political Economy 98(October): poverty. New York: Vanguard S71–S102. Press. Sardar, Z., and M.W. Davies. 2003. Harness, R.E., and K.R. Wilson. Why do people hate America? 2001. Electric-utility structures New York: Disinformation Com- associated with raptor electrocu- pany. tions in rural areas. Wildlife Soci- Simon, J.L. 1981. The ultimate ety Bulletin 29: 612–623. resource. Princeton, N.J.: Prince- Harvell, C.D., C.E. Mitchell, J.R. ton University Press. Ward, S. Altizer, A. Dobson, R.S. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Ostfeld, and M.D. Samuel. 2002. 2002. 2001 national survey of Climate warming and disease fishing, hunting, and wildlife- risks for terrestrial and marine associated recreation. Washing- biota. Science 296: 2158–2162. ton, D.C.: U.S. Department of Heilbroner, R.L. 1992. The worldly the Interior. philosophers: The lives, times, ———. 2006. Box score. Endan- and ideas of the great economic gered Species Bulletin 31(1): 36. thinkers, 6h ed. New York: Simon Venetoulis, J., and C. Cobb. and Schuster. 2004. Genuine Progress Indi- cator (GPI) 1950–2002 (2004

The Steady State Economy, Habitat Stability, and the Humane Treatment of Wild Animals 157 The Role of Economics in Achieving Welfare Gains for Animals 9CHAPTER

Jennifer Fearing and Gaverick Matheny

Introduction he demand for animal prod- schools of economic study, macro- product market. In the factor mar- ucts and services is a power- economics and microeconomics. ket, households (or firms) that Tful economic force in society, Most often references to “the own the factors of production sell and multibillion-dollar industries economy” are related to macroeco- their labor, land, and capital to are organized around this demand. nomic concerns: interest rates, firms that produce products in These industries often face in- employment figures, trade bal- exchange for wages, rent, and creased costs by improving animal ances, inflation levels, commodi- interest. In the factor market, welfare and are quick to use eco- ties prices, and other aggregate households are the sellers, and the nomic arguments against proposed measures of market behavior. companies are the buyers. welfare reforms (see sidebar on Macroeconomic figures are helpful In the product market, compa- page 169). These arguments, while for making broad comparisons nies sell the products they have often specious, can influence con- between today’s “economy” and produced to households that pay sumers, voters, and policy makers. that of earlier periods or the money to purchase them. The Citizens are less likely to support economies of other countries/ money flows in the opposite direc- animal welfare reforms they’ve been regions/states. Those who study tion this time: people buy products told will double their shopping bill microeconomics focus on the from firms that produce them. In or impoverish family farmers. behavior of, and interactions this way, money flows circularly— Animal welfare advocates cannot among, individual consumers, pro- creating an economic marketplace respond to these economic argu- ducers, and industries. where money goes from the produc- ments with moral rhetoric alone. Changes in the welfare of ani- ers to the workers in the form of Instead, non-governmental ob- mals—whether the animals are the wages and back to the producers in servers (NGOs) must challenge the products themselves (e.g., meat, the form of payment for products. economic assumptions, calcula- hunting trophies, fur coats) or Consider the market for eggs. In tions, and conclusions of animal in- whether animals are used in the factor market, an egg farmer dustries and produce reliable eco- process or production (e.g., eggs, needs factors of production, in- nomic arguments of their own. To dairy products, cosmetics testing, cluding land on which to build do so they should understand some circus entertainment)—are made structures and pens to house his basic economic principles, which at the firm level in response to hens; the hens themselves; equip- we review below, and, when possi- changes in costs (supply side) or ment to collect, sort, clean, and ble, enlist the help of economists. consumer preferences (demand package the eggs; feed and medi- side). As such, we focus here on cines to keep the hens alive; car- microeconomic principles. tons and packaging; trucks to ship The Economy In Figure 1, the economy is illus- the cartons; and employees to People often refer to “the econ- trated as two concentric circles. In assist with all aspects of produc- omy” without much understanding a market economy, there are two tion. Having invested in these fac- of its fundamentals. There are two markets: the factor market and the tors, the farmer produces eggs for 159 stores alongside thousands of other Figure 1 products, each with its own unique “The Economy” market at play. As such, firms cannot “price discriminate,” that is, set a different price for every consumer’s unique willingness to pay. Product Market Goods and Services Even though you might be willing to pay $2 for a bag of peanuts, and Money one of the authors is only willing to (Payments for goods pay $1, the selling firm must select and services) a single price–one it hopes will maximize its profits given our dif- Firms And don’t forget about the taxes.... ferent preferences. Households What becomes relevant then is the overall supply and demand Money schedules. Supply is measured as (Wages, rent, and interest) the sum of individual firm supply schedules, and demand is the sum Factors of Production Factor Market (Capital, land, and labor) of individual household demand schedules. The “market clearing” price and quantity for the good are sale to the public. In the product and subsidies that may further set by the intersection of the will- market, when the eggs are sold, alter his cost structure. We discuss ingness of suppliers to supply and the payments received by the egg the role of government in creating consumers demand for the product. farmer go to pay for the costs asso- or eliminating distortions in mar- This relationship is illustrated in ciated with producing the eggs. kets through use of the tax system, Figure 2. At any given price, the The farmer pays wages to his subsidies, or other policies later. firms in this product market are will- employees, rent to a property ing to supply some quantity of a owner (or bank, if there’s a mort- good that is demanded by con- gage), and interest on any loans Supply and sumers. The higher the price people taken to purchase the equipment are willing to pay, the higher quan- or otherwise manage cash flow. Demand tity a firm will be willing to supply. The relative volume of products The government’s role in these The converse is also true: if the will- and money that flows between markets is pervasive. Taxes are ingness to pay for a given product is households and firms in the econ- taken or expressly relieved at lower, firms will supply a lesser quan- omy is driven by supply (availability almost every juncture. The farmer tity. The demand curve declines of specific goods) and demand may be exempted from sales taxes because consumers are allocating (desire for those goods). Each that would otherwise be levied on among scarce resources. At higher product has its own market and his equipment purchases and also prices for any given goods, fewer supply and demand characteris- may deduct business expenses consumers are willing or able to pur- tics. Each firm in a given product from annual income taxes, but he chase them. Conversely, as goods market has its own supply curve pays taxes on wages paid to become widely available at lower driven by its cost structure—that employees and any profits earned prices, more people are willing or is, the firm can calculate for any from the business. Households, able to purchase them. given price what quantity of goods which pay taxes on other nonfood The market is said to “clear” at it can produce and still earn a rea- goods, are expressly exempt from equilibrium: supply and demand sonable profit margin. Each con- sales taxes on eggs because of gov- intersect where the amount de- sumer in a given product market ernment policy. The farmer’s work- manded equals the amount sup- has an individual demand curve: ers pay taxes on their income plied, at what’s called the “market each of us has a personal schedule earned, and the banks, landlords, clearing” price. In Figure 2, given of prices we’re willing to pay for and equipment makers also pay Demand , this happens at a quan- various quantities of that good. 1 taxes on any profits earned from tity of Q and a price of P , the In today’s complex product econ- 1 1 their business dealings with the product of which determines the omy, few buyers and sellers meet egg farmer. Finally, beyond the tax total revenue received by the firms. to negotiate specific terms. In- effect, the farmer may be eligible The slope of the two curves stead, most products are sold in for various government programs is determined by the degree of

160 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 increases. If the price of freshly Figure 2 baked bread from the bakery rose Supply and Demand somewhat, for example, many consumers would decide to switch to Supply processed bread from the bread aisle. On the supply side, firms have varying flexibility to respond to

P2 price changes with contraction or expansion of the number of goods supplied. For some products they

P1 may be able to expand supply rapidly to take advantage of higher prices in a market; for others, they might have more limited ability to react. Demand2 Short- and long-term scenarios can adjust the price elasticity of both

Demand1 supply and demand over time, but P x Q = Revenue measuring elasticity plays a key role in evaluating consumer and firm responses to changes in the market Q1 Q2 environment, including changing information, cost structures, and preferences relating to improving animal welfare. Figure 3 The characteristics and observa- Trade-off: Welfare and Efficiency tions that drive supply and demand curves can and do change in reaction to endogenous (within the market) and exogenous (be- B yond the market) factors. Endoge- A nous factors might be new ver- sions of products or marketing C campaigns that alter supply or Animal demand or both. Exogenous fac- Welfare tors can include new information (e.g., independent research show- D ing ill health effects associated with a given product), disasters (natural, disease outbreaks, ter- rorist attacks), or the introduction of competing products with different (better) characteristics. Minimum = Cruelty Production Efficiency When changes like this occur, supply and demand can shift in or out, causing a new equilibrium “elasticity” in the market. Elastic- these products tend to “need” to manifest. In Figure 2 demand ity indicates the degree of flexibility them, they are less sensitive to is shown to be shifting out; for in buying or selling an item at prices—as prices go up, they may every given price of the good, a higher prices. On the demand side, purchase somewhat fewer goods, higher quantity is demanded. Sup- consumers may have relatively but they will likely continue to pur- pliers, whose schedules did not inelastic demand for staples like chase them. A person has more change, react by shifting their pro- milk, flour, or eggs and for items elastic demand for less necessary duction to the quantity Q2 and like gas for their car, prescription (to them) goods. Luxury items or charging P2, and the total money medications, or cigarettes (if one is “splurge” products may quickly involved increases. a smoker). Because consumers of become off-limits if the price

The Role of Economics in Achieving Welfare Gains for Animals 161 indirectly by the extent to which function or cardiovascular and Applying human consumers value animal skeletal health. Animal mortality Economics to welfare when making their eco- caused by intensification is economic decisions. For instance, a nomically acceptable to producers, Animal Welfare hen’s preference not to be caged so long as the gains in efficiency Economics in its application may has market value only when a con- outpace the increase in mortality. seem a cold and hard science: in sumer recognizes this preference, If unregulated, producers moti- fact, it was famously deemed the feels some obligation to respect it, vated solely by efficiency will oper- “dismal science” by Thomas Carlyle and chooses not to buy eggs laid by ate at D. Beyond this point, ani- in the mid-1800s. But at its most caged hens. mals begin to fall sick or die in basic level, economics is fundamen- sufficiently large numbers that tally a study of what people value or total efficiency declines. prefer, thus it has its roots in moral Presumably to the left of D is a philosophy. Whereas moral philoso- Animal Production point C, where the welfare of ani- phy concerns itself with what pref- and Welfare mals is socially optimal from erences people ought to have, eco- A production process transforms humans’ point of view. For reasons nomics concerns itself with what inputs into outputs. In the case of discussed below, C is likely to be preferences people actually have, animal production, inputs such as much closer to B than it is to the and how they can best be satisfied. animals, feed, housing, human existing level of welfare provided by People do not always express labor, and veterinary services are producers in a free market. their preferences, making meas- transformed into outputs such as urement difficult. Modern econom- meat, eggs, milk, fur, zoo amuse- ics has sought to measure the pref- ments, and product testing assur- erences revealed by individuals’ ances. To maximize profits, animal Problems in behaviors in markets, where goods producers may attempt to maxi- the Market for and services are exchanged using mize the efficiency of this transfor- money. For example, if one is will- mation. The implications for ani- Animal Welfare A society’s attitudes toward animal ing to spend $2 for a bag of mal welfare are illustrated in welfare could be revealed by con- peanuts but only $1 for some pop- Figure 3 (McInerney 2004). The sumer demand for animal welfare- corn, one is said to reveal a vertical axis indicates animal wel- friendly products. However, the stronger preference for peanuts fare, while the horizontal axis indi- socially optimal level of animal wel- than for popcorn. More controver- cates the efficiency of animal pro- fare may not be achieved through sially, money may also be used as a duction in terms of some product the market because the market common currency to compare the for human consumption, such as suffers from a number of failures: preferences belonging to different eggs per unit of production cost. aspects of animal use and produc- people. If one is willing to spend $2 Point A represents a completely tion create “negative externali- on peanuts, but another is willing unmanaged, wild existence for ani- ties”; the “opportunity costs” of to spend only $1 on peanuts, then mals. Arguably, there is some level animal use are rarely, if ever, fac- the first is considered to have a of management that increases wel- tored in; the failure to consider stronger preference for peanuts fare above this level; for instance, “substitution effects” for compet- than the second has. (This is providing food, shelter, and protec- ing or alternative products; the imprecise, since $1 may have more tion from predators to otherwise high and increasing market con- value for the second person than it free-roaming animals. From the centration of many animal-using does for the first, if, for instance, animals’ perspective, the ideal industries; animal welfare, which the second has a lower income. level of welfare is B. has both public good and merit But economists argue about how Beyond B, producers sacrifice good characteristics; and con- such imprecision can be cor- animal welfare for the sake of sumers who are not well-informed rected.) A market is considered to increased productivity. This may about animal welfare. be economically efficient when, on involve intensive confinement, to the whole, society is able to maxi- decrease housing costs, and inten- Negative Externalities mize the satisfaction of its mem- sive breeding, to increase produc- A negative externality is a cost that bers’ preferences. tivity per animal. As more of an a product causes to society that is Because nonhuman animals do animal’s metabolism is dedicated not reflected in the product’s price. not participate in markets, within to production, less is available to For instance, a producer that an economic framework, their support central determinants of causes pollution in manufacturing preferences can be measured only animal welfare, such as immune a product may cause a negative

162 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 externality if neither the producer relative to hunters’ impact of $20.6 failing to account for substitution nor the consumer is taxed to offset billion (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- effects distorts the market and the pollution abatement costs. vice 2002). The opportunity costs potentially reduces opportunities Externalities can be corrected by of increased hunting, then, may be for increasing animal welfare. some form of government action. reduced wildlife watching, which For instance, a government can brings with it an offsetting, unfac- Increasing Market restrict or tax pollution or the sale tored economic impact. Concentration of polluting products. Left uncor- A truly competitive market is pos- rected, negative externalities push Substitution Effects sible only when enough buyers and adverse impacts onto people who In characterizing the economic sellers participate. When many are not party to the production or impact of a proposed increase in firms vie for the same consumers, consumption of the product. animal welfare, firms, trade associa- competition doesn’t just put down- Poor animal welfare causes sev- tions, or government officials often ward pressure on prices—which is eral negative externalities. A num- overlook the existence of “substitu- usually a good thing—but it also ber of consumers feel discomfort tion effects.” Consumer demand for creates pressure for individual about other people’s mistreatment a given good can and does change firms to react more quickly to of animals. People who live or work in response to changes in prices, changing consumer preferences. near concentrated animal-feeding laws, social mores, and the availabil- People are generally familiar with operations (or CAFOs, where ani- ity of alternative products. When the notion of monopoly: a single mals are raised indoors in large the market contracts due to lower firm produces a product, and no numbers at high densities), often consumer demand, the reduced rev- other firms find it profitable to are adversely affected by the air enue in that product market does enter the market (owing to patent and water pollution generated. Not not show the whole picture. Con- protection, scale economies, first- only is their health compromised, sumers likely have shifted their pur- mover advantages, or other fac- but often they find their property chases to another substitute prod- tors). A monopoly allows a firm to values are depressed, owing to the uct that is more desirable. To control the entire supply curve, pollution caused by their CAFO measure the true impact of an inputs upward pressure on prices, neighbors. Both the discomfort crease in animal welfare, these pur- and tends to be slower at innova- and the pollution are negative chases must be included. tion or product improvement externalities, genuine social costs For example, local officials have (hence, the characterization of the that are not reflected in the mar- defended continuing circus shows “lazy monopolist”). ket prices of the animal products. with exploitative animal acts in But a market doesn’t have to be publicly owned arenas because strictly monopolized by a single firm Opportunity Costs such shows generate revenue for to show signs of these failures. Mar- Justifications for animal use or the city and for proximate restau- kets with high levels of seller concen- reduced animal welfare rarely take rants, parking garages, and the tration (that is, with very few sellers) “opportunity costs” into account. like. But local officials rarely factor can significantly reduce their com- The opportunity cost of any deci- in the economic impact that might petitiveness and be slow to respond sion is what was forgone in favor be generated by animal-free cir- to changing consumer demands. of what was selected. For example, cuses or other children’s entertain- Livestock markets are particu- state government agencies with ment that would substitute for the larly concentrated and increasingly purview over natural resources animal events. In some cases the vertically integrated along the sup- often claim that providing new substitution effect might be so ply chain (i.e., where once farmers hunting opportunities (e.g., new great that it might more than off- sold to slaughterhouses, who sold species, new seasons, lower age set the loss of revenue from the cir- to packers, now one company owns requirements, or increased bag lim- cuses, especially in light of the all three levels). Rapid expansion its) provides economic benefits to decreasing popularity of such of industrial farming has dramati- states. But these officials do not shows with the public. In the cally reduced the number of meat, factor in the reduced opportunities absence of a traveling animal show, dairy, and egg producers, turning for wildlife enjoyment that neces- more families might opt to take the family farm into a novelty. A sarily result from more hunting. advantage of local attractions that March 2005 USDA study of market According to the latest U.S. Fish hire residents as employees, in structure in the meat, poultry, and Wildlife Service national sur- contrast to the circus employees dairy, and grain-processing indus- vey, wildlife watchers outnumber who reboard the train or bus and tries concluded that hunters by a factor of five to one spend their incomes in other parts [T]he drop in the number of and generate $38.4 billion per year of the country. What’s clear is that plants, sharp rise in plant size,

The Role of Economics in Achieving Welfare Gains for Animals 163 and a leveling or decline in the Public and Merit Goods believes that CAFOs are inhumane, per capita consumption of red Animal welfare has characteristics for example, those who do may be- meat, fluid milk, and flour of both public goods and merit lieve it so strongly that aggregate products led to a 50 percent goods. A public good is a good val- social welfare, as a whole, might be increase in average four-firm ued by everyone in society, whose increased by banning CAFOs. concentration levels—to about benefit is nonexcludable (it can be 46 percent for all nine indus- enjoyed by anyone) and non-rival Imperfect Information tries.(Ollinger et al. 2005, iv) (one person enjoying it has no The market for animal welfare also On average, four companies effect on another enjoying it). suffers from imperfect information. accounted for about half of the total Clean air is an example of a public Producers and retailers do not have production in each of these indus- good. When the air is clean, every- complete information about the tries. Perhaps the most notable ex- one can enjoy it: one person’s degree of consumer demand for ample of market concentration is enjoyment has no effect on animal welfare; producers often the hog industry. Between 1975 and another’s. Wildlife is another exam- lack full information about the 2005, the number of hog farmers ple of a public good. One person costs associated with improving in America fell from 660,000 to admiring the neighborhood mourn- animal welfare; and consumers are 67,300—nearly 90 percent (U.S. De- ing doves does not diminish a not given (and often cannot partment of Agriculture, National neighbor’s enjoyment from watch- obtain) accurate information about Agricultural Statistics Service ing the same birds. In a free mar- the animal welfare aspects of prod- [USDA/NASS] 2005). This is not ket, producers have no incentive to ucts they purchase. due to a decline in demand for pork supply public goods in sufficient Most consumers value animal products. The number of pigs raised quantities, since they cannot cap- welfare but may know little about on U.S. farms actually increased ture full payment. As a result, pub- how their purchases affect animals. over that same period—from 69 lic goods often must be provided— For instance, a recent poll found million pigs per year to 104 million or protected—by governments or that 71 percent of respondents pigs per year (USDA/NASS 2006). other collective bodies with the believe “in general, farm animals Four major companies control more power to regulate their use. Using are fairly treated in the United than 64.1 percent of the hog the mourning dove example, soci- States” (Zogby International 2003). slaughter and packing industry in ety must decide whether or how to But when asked about standard the United States (U.S. Congres- balance the interests of those who farming practices in the United sional Research Service 2006). favor watching or feeding the birds States, most of these same people Even the National Pork Produc- with the interests of those who deemed them objectionable. A ers Council, the trade association enjoy shooting them. 2000 Zogby poll found that 86 per- representing pork packers and pro- A merit good is a good that is not cent of adults feel the crowding of ducers, told Congress that this valued by everyone in society but hens in commercial egg production level of concentration raises issues: has broad social benefits. Public is “unacceptable” (Yahoo News While not a guarantee of con- schools and vaccinations are exam- 2000). A 1995 poll by Opinion duct that increases consumer ples of merit goods. All members of Research Corporation found that prices and/or reduces pro- society indirectly benefit from pro- 90 percent of respondents disap- ducer prices, these levels and vision of these goods, even if they proved of the standard practices of their trends increase the possi- are not a direct consumer of them. confining veal calves, pigs, and hens bility of such conduct and pro- A merit good may be provided or (Swanson and Mench 2000). The vide ample incentive for subsidized by governments if there majority of Americans object to heightened vigilance. (Caspers is sufficient public support for such standard agricultural practices— 2000, n.p.). action. Alternatively, governments but only after they’re told what As of mid-2006, federal antitrust may spend money increasing de- those practices are. This suggests officials were reviewing Smith- mand for merit goods by educating that Americans are largely ignorant field’s proposed acquisition of its society about the good’s merits. about factory farming, so their pur- biggest rival, Premium Standard Animal welfare has aspects of chases do not accurately reflect Farms, which followed on Smith- both public and merit goods. Some their stated preferences. field’s acquisition of ConAgra’s level of animal welfare is a public The problem is exacerbated by refrigerated meats subsidiaries good: nearly everyone in society the lack of transparency in animal earlier in the year (Associated believes animals should not be products. Animal welfare is a quality Press 2006). starved or beaten, for instance. But characteristic of a product, an some level of animal welfare is a aspect that consumers value and merit good. While not everyone use to differentiate competing

164 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 products. However, unlike some Last, it is worth noting a funda- from an improvement in animal characteristics—like taste, smell, mental market failure: the largest welfare. If this number is greater or touch—it can rarely be observed group of stakeholders in decisions than the total cost of the improve- in the final product. Consumers affecting animal welfare—the ani- ment, then the improvement is a cannot determine from an unla- mals, themselves—do not partici- net benefit to society and should beled product how animals were pate in the market. Their prefer- be instituted. treated during production. As a ences, and their suffering, are of Consumers report a willingness to result animal products are consid- no direct account. pay more for products labeled with ered “credence goods,” goods animal welfare assurances. In a 2004 whose characteristics (in this case, Willingness to Pay poll, three-quarters of respondents animal welfare) cannot be dis- A fundamental proposition in eco- said they were willing to spend two cerned by a consumer before or nomics is that the extent to which cents more for a fried-chicken meal after purchase. society values a good is indicated by with welfare assurances (Zogby Credence goods cause market the level of consumers’ willingness International 2004). In fact, the inefficiency, since consumers may to pay (WTP) for it. Some con- KFC Corporation (parent of Ken- inadvertently buy lower-quality (in sumers are not willing to pay much tucky Fried Chicken) has estimated terms of animal welfare) goods and, for animal welfare, while others are that meeting NGOs’ (nongovern- therefore, drive higher-quality (in willing to pay a considerable mental observers) demands for wel- terms of welfare) goods from the amount. From the perspective of fare improvements would increase market. The market failure sur- society, the optimal level of animal costs by less than this amount rounding credence goods is justifica- welfare is that which corresponds to (Blum 2004). tion for government intervention, society’s aggregate WTP. Other research suggests that typically in the form of standards Many consumers willing to pay consumers are willing to pay an and labeling requirements. Some considerable amounts for animal average 17–60 percent more for labeling programs have sought to welfare have no opportunity to do eggs from cage-free systems (HSUS provide information about animal so in the market. This includes 2006). One study found that con- welfare, though these are often consumers who choose not to par- sumers were willing to pay average found to be inadequate (at best) or ticipate in a market (for instance, taxes of $8 per person per year to deceptive (at worst). More complete vegans); consumers who cannot fund practices they believed would and accurate labeling improves eco- participate in the market because improve conditions for hens (Ben- nomic efficiency by helping con- the products they want to buy are nett and Larson 1996). This WTP sumers to target expenditures unavailable; and consumers who exceeds the additional cost of cage- toward products they most want. participate, and are willing to pay free production, as discussed in the The use of animals in cosmetics some amount for welfare improve- sidebar on page 170. testing provides a good example of ments, but not as much as what is Consumers’ statements do not improved labeling that has resulted currently charged. always translate into actual pur- in a more efficient market where Society’s revealed WTP for ani- chases, as revealed by the low market consumers’ purchases can accu- mal welfare, as embodied in mar- shares of non-CAFO products. The rately reflect their preferences. ket behavior, may thus be signifi- misfit between consumers’ inten- There are a number of different cantly lower than its actual WTP. tions and their behavior might owe labels, each providing different lev- To capture the residual WTP, econ- to the unavailability of non-CAFO els of assurances about the use of omists try to measure society’s products in many supermarkets and animals (as testers or ingredients). declared WTP by asking people restaurants; absent or poor labeling; Some labels indicate that animals what they would be willing to pay or perceptions that the responsibility were not tested for the finished to see a specific improvement take for animal welfare lies with govern- product (meaning the individual place, for instance, “How much ment, producers, or retailers (Bland- ingredients themselves may have would you be willing to pay to see ford et al. 2000). There are also con- been tested on animals), while a ban on whaling?” WTP research cerns about the accuracy of declared others assure not only no testing of typically involves the use of surveys WTP. People who feel strongly about the finished product or ingredients of a large sample to represent the an issue could declare a WTP that is but also the absence of animals as attitudes of society. unrealistically high. Therefore, a an ingredient. These labels give Society’s aggregate WTP can be number of research methods have consumers additional information derived from estimates of average been devised to improve the accu- about cosmetics products, which WTP multiplied by the total popu- racy of declarations. allows them to consider their pref- lation size. This number represents erences when they shop.1 the total benefit society receives

The Role of Economics in Achieving Welfare Gains for Animals 165 demanding as those applied in successfully negotiating welfare Taking Account their own countries (Poultry World gains with a major retailer can lead of Free Trade 2006). Trade restrictions are one to a “race to the top” and to a push Animal welfare legislation in Europe way to solve the problem, but inter- for harmonizing regulation so that and the states of Florida and Arizona national trade rules limit the kinds costs are shared. outlawed the use of particular ani- of restrictions that are possible. mal production systems within their Rather than modify trade rules, national or state boundaries. How- the most practical means of pro- How Animal ever, both sets of legislation may tecting animal welfare may be to have a limited effect on animal wel- educate consumers and to con- Welfare Campaigns fare as long as consumers continue vince retailers to carry only accept- Affect the to demand, and are supplied with, able products. While trade agree- products imported from other ments can force nations to allow Economics of nations or states that use the out- imports, they can’t force supermar- Animal Production lawed systems. Trade thus repre- kets or restaurants to sell them: NGOs can work to affect both the sents a special problem for animal Retailers are becoming the demand for and supply of animal welfare legislation. As the European most potent force in setting welfare. On the demand side, NGOs Commission noted, animal welfare standards and can educate consumers about ani- [A]nimal welfare standards, will be the major engine for mal welfare. On the supply side, notably those concerning farm influencing animal welfare NGOs can educate producers and animal welfare, could be under- change. They can move faster retailers about animal welfare; mined if there is no way of than governments, can cut off encourage voluntary production ensuring that agricultural and a supplier’s livelihoods by stop- and retail standards; promote food products produced to ping contracts, and can ignore research on alternative production domestic animal welfare stan- international trade agree- methods; promote subsidies for dards are not simply replaced by ments. While Europe as a animal welfare improvements and imports produced to lower stan- whole has to adhere to the challenge subsidies for animal wel- dards. (European Commission World Trade Organization and fare abuses; and help advance and 2000, 1) cannot bar imports on animal enforce regulations governing the This concern applies just as readily welfare grounds, retailers are treatment of animals and the sale to interstate trade within the United free to do so. (Bayvel 2005) of animal products. These strate- States. In Switzerland compliance with gies vary in the level of distortion As an example, the United King- animal welfare standards was lim- they introduce to the market. dom maintains higher animal wel- ited until the major retailers selling The least distorting strategy is to fare standards for sows than do most eggs, following pressure from con- allow producers to treat animals European Union (EU) countries. sumers and NGOs, announced they however they wish and allow con- Since the country’s ban on sow ges- would sell only eggs from cage-free sumers to purchase any level of ani- tation crates and tethers went into operations (Studer 2001). Swe- mal welfare they demand. Such an effect in 1999, U.K. pork costs den’s ban on battery cages has also approach is likely to create a variety increased and production volume been helped by retailers’ refusal to of welfare levels, catering to con- declined by 40 percent. In 2005 stock battery eggs (Agra CEAS sumers who care strongly about ani- more than half of all pork products Consulting 2004). Major Austrian mal welfare, those who care moder- in British supermarkets were im- supermarkets have volunteered to ately, and those who care weakly. ported, and more than two-thirds of end the sale of cage eggs by 2007 Such an approach is supported by these imports were produced using (M. Balluch, personal communica- farm assurance schemes that meet systems illegal in the United King- tion with G.M., April 14, 2006). And strictly enforced welfare standards dom (Meat News 2005). in the United Kingdom, Germany, and by government regulation of In one survey, 92 percent of Austria, and Switzerland, McDon- labeling. At the same time, NGOs British respondents believed im- ald’s, Europe’s largest food service and governments can work to edu- ported meat should be produced to operator, uses only free-range eggs cate consumers about the value of U.K. minimum standards (Meat (Pickett 2006). animal welfare, increasing demand News 2005). Similarly, 95 percent The visibility and name recogni- for higher-welfare products. of respondents in an EU-wide sur- tion of retailers make them sensi- Market distortions that now favor vey said that imported products tive targets of animal welfare cam- abusive industries can also be dis- should be produced under animal paigns. As retailers compete with mantled. For instance, feed grain welfare regulations at least as each other over public perception, subsidies disproportionately benefit

166 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 CAFOs that do not grow their own humane regulations concerning For example, suppose an NGO feed; research and extension serv- the slaughter and transport of has two projects, each of which lasts ices at land grant universities dispro- some farm animals. one year. Project A costs $100,000, portionately study and encourage brings in $80,000 in donations, and CAFO production; and CAFOs are saves an estimated two thousand offered tax breaks to purchase cages Cost-Benefit animals. Project B costs $200,000, and pens. Similarly, state fish and brings in $50,000 in donations, and game commissions subsidize hunt- Analysis saves an estimated five thousand Individuals, organizations, and soci- ing activities, including in many animals. The cost-benefit ratios for eties have an unlimited number of cases the purchase and provision of the projects are: preferences but have only limited “stocked” animals (e.g., fish, pheas- Project A: resources to invest in satisfying ants) to provide recreational animal ($100,000–$80,000)/2,000 = $10 these preferences. To satisfy the use activities that are in no way con- per animal saved greatest number of preferences, nected to conservation efforts. And Project B: people must choose the most effi- in the United States, the U.S. Food ($200,000–$50,000)/5,000 = $30 cient investments. Cost-benefit and Drug Administration continues per animal saved analysis (CBA) is an economic tool to require the institutional use of Project A has a lower cost-bene- used to measure efficiency. Here we animals in repetitive, uninformative, fit ratio and is thus more efficient. discuss how CBA can help organiza- or unnecessary testing of cleaning All else being equal, the organizations prioritize projects. products, cosmetics, or medicines— tion should invest its funds in Pro- With CBA the marginal costs where viable nonanimal alternatives ject A rather than Project B to save and benefits of a project are meas- or earlier research exists. the greater number of animals. ured and discounted. Marginal Because of the negative external- costs are typically measured in dol- ities of animal abuse, and the pub- lars and include any additional lic good and merit good aspects of expenses an organization incurs by Moving Forward animal welfare, some level of mar- If the objective is to do the great- funding a project. Future costs are ket distortion is justified. Produc- est good for the greatest number, often multiplied by a discount rate, ers and consumers could be taxed then animal protection NGOs (and as costs incurred in the present (subsidized) at an amount equal to the donors who support them) represent a greater loss for organi- the negative (positive) externality should invest their scarce re- zations, which could otherwise they create. The aim of this tax sources in projects that reduce invest the funds. (subsidy) is to compensate society misery most cost-effectively. A project’s marginal benefit can (the producer or consumer) for the Because farm animals represent 99 be measured in dollars saved or full value of the externality. In par- percent of all animals raised and gained (for instance, from increased allel to the “polluter pays” princi- killed in the United States each donations); and in noneconomic ple used in environmental policy, year, and because there is broad measures, such as the number of producers who abuse animals could public ignorance about standard animal lives or life-years saved or be expected to compensate society farming practices, efforts to some quality-adjusted measure of in some way—for instance, through improve farm animal welfare may animal welfare.2 Like costs, future taxes on less humane producers. In be especially cost-effective. benefits are often multiplied by a parallel, humane producers could Economists and policy makers discount rate, as benefits realized in receive a subsidy for the benefit generally prefer pull strategies the present can be reinvested. they provide society. over push strategies because they Net marginal cost is the differ- Last, governments can impose are less market-distorting. A pull ence between discounted eco- regulations that set minimum stan- strategy educates, informs, and nomic costs and discounted eco- dards of care and/or limit the pro- promotes changes in consumer or nomic benefits. A cost-benefit ratio duction or sale of certain products. producer behavior. A push strategy is calculated as the net marginal Throughout the world, this has regulates, forces, and demands cost divided by the noneconomic been the favored strategy for pro- such changes. A note of caution: marginal benefit. Projects with a tecting the welfare of pets. In campaigns against individual pro- lower cost-benefit ratio are more Europe this has also been the ducers, or groups of producers in efficient than are projects with a favored strategy for protecting the individual regions, can be ineffec- higher cost-benefit ratio and, all welfare of farm animals (supple- tive. If one producer is forced out other things being equal, ought to mented by subsidies). To a limited of business, another may simply be prioritized. extent, this is also true in the take its place, as long as the United States, where there are

The Role of Economics in Achieving Welfare Gains for Animals 167 demand for goods remains trade and trade agreements will unchanged. Research Needs affect animal welfare. The problem Targeted public education cam- Costs and Benefits of substitution needs to be studied paigns revealing standard animal of Animal Welfare to assess the effectiveness of state abuse could make substantial and national legislation. To argue that animal welfare im- progress toward improving animal provements are not economically welfare. Most Americans care Evaluation Research disastrous to producers, retailers, or deeply about animal welfare but Few animal welfare NGOs have consumers, better data are needed know little about animal abuse. sought to evaluate the effective- regarding the net economic effects Most would be appalled to see how ness of their projects. Cost-benefit of such improvements at each level animals are treated in agriculture, studies can help NGOs focus their of the market. Scant data exist on research, entertainment, and scarce resources on those projects the production costs of welfare im- other industries. NGOs can ask that are most cost-effective in pre- provements in the United States. consumers to consume fewer of venting misery. Better data are also needed on the those products and services that producer share of retail prices for cause animals the most misery. Social Marketing animal products to estimate the This advice is consistent with the NGOs are likely to increase the effect of production costs on these “Three Rs” approach used in other cost-effectiveness of their programs prices. There have been few studies animal welfare campaigns: refine, by using tools already employed in evaluating consumers’ WTP for ani- reduce, and replace (Russell and market research. Increasing con- mal welfare improvements, and even Burch 1959). sumers’ demand for animal welfare fewer studies have measured the The low market share of welfare- can be seen as a marketing problem actual behavior of such consumers friendly products probably has similar to that faced by any com- in price experiments. There are no more to do with consumers’ un- pany that wants to increase demand publicly available price elasticity awareness of these products and for its products. NGOs need to data on welfare-friendly products, so less to do with their limited avail- acquire better data about the low- it is difficult to estimate the prof- ability at retail outlets. If retailers est-hanging fruit in society—those itability of welfare improvements for thought there was sufficient consumers who can be persuaded producers and retailers and the demand for welfare-friendly prod- with the least amount of effort to additional costs faced by consumers. ucts, they would sell them out of adopt more humane purchases, and Unfortunately, few economists are self-interest. However, retailers can better data on how best to educate studying these problems. be encouraged to market actively these consumers about animal wel- welfare-friendly products to con- Subsidies fare. One approach would be to sumers, even in advance of signifi- measure how WTP varies with the To our knowledge there has been cant consumer demand. They may amount of information consumers no research on the extent to which be encouraged to do so to develop are given about animal products. public subsidies for CAFOs and a brand image as a responsible other animal industries distort the retailer or to protect themselves market for animal products and against future animal welfare cam- decrease animal welfare. Resources paigns. Retailers—especially large The reports and research tools ones—have considerable influence Externalities related to the economics of animal over production methods, are most welfare listed below are available Animal industries involve hidden vulnerable to consumer pressure, online, although they often require costs to society. There has been no and are immune to trade agree- users to be university affiliates or full accounting of these costs. ments.3 As more retailers require purchase subscriptions and/or pay audits of their suppliers, the need Market Concentration per-article fees. The descriptions for independent third-party audit- below are taken from the produc- More research on the impact of ing and for harmonized standards ing organizations. market consolidation in the agri- with simple, transparent labeling cultural sector would aid federal will increase (Thiermann and Bab- EconLit: According to the American regulators considering antitrust cock 2005). Economic Association, EconLit and other merger concerns. indexes more than thirty years of Trade economics literature from around the world. Compiled and abstracted Only recently has there been some in a searchable format, EconLit, a discussion of how international comprehensive index of journal arti-

168 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Common Economic Fallacies It’s in producers’ economic interests suffer because of the inability to common animal foods), producers, to protect animal welfare. move....Chickens are cheap, as a group, can maintain or increase As suggested by Figure 3, producers cages are expensive. (Rollin their revenue by raising prices. Pro- have an incentive to maintain welfare 1995, 119) ducers are hurt only when compet- only at point D, the point of maximum And Mench (1992) states: ing producers incur lower costs for production efficiency. In cases where It is now generally agreed that producing the same goods. improvements in animal welfare good productivity and health are decrease efficiency, efficiency usu- not necessarily indicators of Increasing production costs will ally wins. Animal morbidity and mor- good welfare....Productivity...is hurt consumers. tality are costly to producers but can often measured at the level of While consumers may have to pay be less costly than the improvements the unit (e.g., number of eggs or more for animal-friendly products and in breeding and management needed egg mass per hen-housed), and services, this does not “hurt” con- to reduce morbidity and mortality. As individual animals may be in a sumers any more than consumers two poultry scientists asked, comparatively poor state of wel- are “hurt” by paying more for safer Is it more profitable to grow the fare even though productivity automobiles. As McInerney (1991, biggest bird and have increased within the unit may be high. 18) says, mortality due to heart attacks, Moreover, when animals are no Good economic sense simply ascites [another illness caused longer productive—as is the case means ending up with the pat- by fast growth], and leg prob- with sick, injured, or “spent” animals tern of consumption goods and lems, or should birds be grown —there is no economic incentive for services that is preferred. It is slower so that birds are smaller, producers to care for them. It’s typi- very little to do with spending but have fewer heart, lung, and cally cheaper to let these animals die less money—if it were we skeletal problems? (Tabler and than it is to treat them. For instance, would all die cold, naked, and Mendenhall 2003) 99 percent of farm animals receive unhappy surrounded by our The researchers conclude that it no individual veterinary attention dur- cash! takes only “simple calculations” to ing their lives. In the whole United Consumers value animal welfare. find “it is better to get the weight and States, just 220 veterinarians are An efficient market is one in which ignore the mortality” (Tabler and responsible for the care of ten billion the aggregate WTP of consumers Mendenhall 2003). farm animals (National Institute for equals the aggregate value of the ani- Rollin notes that it is: Animal Agriculture 2005). mal welfare provided. WTP research more economically efficient to tells us that such a market is likely to put a greater number of birds Increasing production costs will be one where consumers pay more into each cage, accepting lower hurt producers. for goods and services than they productivity per bird but greater Producers can pass increased pro- presently do. productivity per cage....[I]ndivid- duction costs on to consumers in the ual animals may “produce,” for form of increased prices. As long as example gain weight, in part the price elasticity of demand for a because they are immobile, yet good is greater than –1 (as it is for all

Figure 4 Supply Chain Flowchart

Supply/Equipment Slaughterhouses/ Farmers Retailers Consumers Sellers Manufacturers

Percentage Percentage Increase Increase in Costs in Price

The Role of Economics in Achieving Welfare Gains for Animals 169 The Economics of Farm Animal Production Free-range meat and eggs are often prices, as farm costs typically repre- changes.4 Producers as a group can sold at two to three times the price sent less than half of the retail price pass increased costs on to con- of conventional cage eggs. This has of meat or eggs. Wholesalers and sumers without a loss in profits, as more to do with niche marketing and retailers add their own margins to the decrease in demand is more economies of scale in distribution each product (USDA Economic than compensated for by the than with production costs. In well- Research Service 2002). increase in unit price (Huang and Lin developed markets with significant For instance, given the 48 per- 2000). It is ultimately consumers competition, prices decrease signifi- cent farm value share of retail price who bear the costs of improved ani- cantly. For instance, in the United for poultry meat (USDA Economic mal welfare. Kingdom, where free-range eggs Research Service 2002), a 5 percent Assuming constant percentage enjoy a high market share, free- increase in production costs would marketing margins at the farm level range eggs often cost less than cage translate into a 2.4 percent increase and fixed marketing margins at the eggs (Farming UK 2006). Production in the retail price to the consumer--- retail level, by purchasing slow- costs associated with many farm a few pennies more per pound of growth chicken meat, barn eggs, animal welfare improvements are chicken to alleviate the “the single and pork from group-housed sows, modest and can be offset by margin- most severe, systematic example an American’s average annual food ally increased prices to consumers. of man’s inhumanity to another sen- spending would increase by only $5 As long as the playing field is leveled tient animal” (Webster 1994, 156). (HSUS 2006). Assuming free-range by regulation or adoption by pro- Assuming substitutable products meat, eggs, and milk would ducer or retailer associations, the were not available, increases in increase production costs on aver- effect on producers can be minimal. price would not be expected to age by 50 percent (an overesti- Several welfare improvements decrease producers’ profits. mate), purchasing only free-range increase production costs at the Demand for meat, eggs, and dairy animal products would increase farm level (Table l). But even signifi- products is said to be “price inelas- average per capita food spending by cant increases in production costs tic,” meaning consumers are rela- only $3 per week (Blisard 2001). may not significantly increase retail tively unresponsive to price

Table 1 Costs of Welfare Improvements

Housing System Cost Increase over Standard Practice (by percentage)

Group housing (sows) 0

Group housing (calves) 1–2

Slow-growth (broilers) 5

Free-range (turkeys) 30

Free-range (hogs) 8–47

Furnished cages (layers) 8–28

Barn (layers) 8–24

Free-range (layers) 26–59

Sources: Theuvsen, Essmann, and Brand-Sassen (2005); Eurogroup for Animal Welfare (2005); Andreasan, Spickler, and Jones (2005); The HSUS (2006).

170 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 cles, books, book reviews, collective resource economics, environmen- tories (private company and interna- volume articles, working papers, tal economics, policy issues, agri- tional company coverage), product/ and dissertations, is available at cultural trade, and economic devel- brand-name listings, competitors, libraries and on university websites opment. More information: http:// officers’ names and salaries, product throughout the world. It is licensed agecon.lib.umn.edu. segmentation data, subsidiaries, and from information service providers, CAB Abstracts: Available prima- financial data, including access to which provide search engines, links rily through university libraries, annual reports and Securities and to libraries’ full-text subscriptions, CAB Abstracts is described as the Exchange Commission (SEC) fil- and other enhancements to assist most comprehensive source of in- ings. Hoovers also profiles industries users in document retrieval. More ternational research information in and has an IPO watch calendar. information: www.econlit.org. agriculture and related applied life Financial data are available for pub- AgEcon Search: A website devel- science. Updated monthly, CAB lic companies only. More informa- oped and maintained at the Univer- Abstracts provides current, in- tion: www.hoovers.com. sity of Minnesota by Magrath depth coverage of global journal USDA Economic Research Service Library and the Department of articles, academic books, abstracts, (ERS): The ERS is a primary source Applied Economics, AgEcon Search published theses, conference proof economic information and collects, indexes, and electronically ceedings, bulletins, monographs, research in the U.S. Department distributes full-text copies of schol- and technical reports. More infor- of Agriculture. ERS conducts a arly research in the broadly defined mation: www.cabdirect.org. research program to inform public field of agricultural economics, Hoovers Online: Hoovers provides and private decision making on eco- including subdisciplines such as qualitative company profiles that nomic and policy issues involving agribusiness, food supply, natural contain company overviews and his- food, farming, natural resources, and rural development. ERS’s economists and social scientists conduct research, analyze food and commod- Dollars and Nonsense ity markets, produce policy studies, “Officials say Denver could lose $8 million if Ringling Bros. isn't allowed to and develop economic and statistical visit the city.” indicators. The agency’s research —ABC 7 News, “Opponents to ‘Circus Ban’ Bill Rally in Denver program is directed at the informa- Initiative 100 up for Vote in August Primary,” July 14, 2004 tion needs of USDA, other public policy officials, and the research com- “Voter Kim Douglas said the predicted economic impact affected her vote. munity. ERS information and ‘The state has lost so much business and revenue, and I was convinced analysis is also used by the media, that this would be yet another blow,’ she said.” trade associations, public interest —Bangor Daily News, “Bear-bait Measure groups, and the general public. Many Narrowly Rejected,” November 3, 2004 datasets, reports, and analyses are available online in real time and Fiscal effects include: “[P]otential sales tax revenue loss, to the extent this updates are available via email bill results in fewer dog shows in California. For example, if 10 percent through free subscriptions. More in- fewer dogs are shown in California, there is a potential for state and local formation: www.ers.usda.gov. sales tax revenue losses of more than $1 million annually.” U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service —California State Assembly, Committee on Appropriations, (USFWS): The USFWS has a Hunt- Analysis of AB 418 (Koretz), April 13, 2005 ing Statistics and Economics section, which sponsors a National “This year’s dove season will bring an additional $87 million to Michigan’s Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and economy.” Wildlife-Associated Recreation every —National Rifle Association news release, “Michigan Dove five years. The questions are devel- Hunting Legislation Headed to Governor,” June 8, 2004 oped in concert with technical committee members from every state “Pigs are their bread and butter and they must be treated humanely to be and with representatives of non- profitable for the company.” governmental organizations. The —Snowflake, Arizona, Councilwoman Sharon Tate, quoted in latest survey was conducted in 2006. “Snowflake Council Opposes Initiative Concerning More information: www.fws.gov/ Treatment of Female Pigs,” AZJournal.com, July 19, 2006 hunting/huntstat.html. The Humane Society of the United States: The Economic

The Role of Economics in Achieving Welfare Gains for Animals 171 Research Department maintains a total revenue for the seller of that good will Blum, J. 2004. Statement to U.S. not decrease, as the decrease in demand is searchable database of more than a more than compensated by the increase in Senate Judiciary Committee con- thousand collected articles and unit price. cerning animal rights: Activism reports focused on animal welfare vs. criminality. May 18. http:// and economics issues. Since the www.animalrights.net/archives/ department’s inception in mid- Literature Cited year/2004/000197.html. 2006, two relevant reports have Agra CEAS Consulting Ltd. 2004. Caspers, J. 2000. Concerning the been issued (one dealing with the Study on the socio-economic impact of agribusiness concen- economic impact issues related to implications of the various sys- tration on producers and con- circuses in Massachusetts, the other tems to keep laying hens, for the sumers. Testimony on behalf of with mourning dove hunting in European Commission. http:// the National Pork Producers Michigan). The Farm Animal Welfare europa.eu.int/comm/food/ Council before the Committee Department research library con- animal/welfare/farm/socio_ on Agriculture, Nutrition, and tains a number of current analyses economic_study_en.pdf. Forestry, U.S. Senate. April 27. of economic alternatives to specific Andreasan, C., A. Spickler, and http://www.nppc.org/public_ factory farming practices. More B.E. Jones. 2005. Swedish ani- policy/testimony/testimony information: www.hsus.org. mal welfare regulations and 000510.html. their impact on food animal pro- Eurogroup for Animal Welfare. See also the resources described in duction. Journal of the American 2005. Into the fold: Creating Chapter 1 of this volume. Veterinary Medical Association incentives for improved animal 227: 37–40. welfare under the Rural Develop- Notes Associated Press. 2006. Smithfield ment Regulation. http://www. 1While “cruelty-free” labels clearly provide Foods to buy Premium Standard. eurogroupanimalwelfare.org/ consumers with more information on which pdf/intothefold.pdf. to base their purchasing decisions, many con- September 18. http://biz.yahoo. sumers do not fully appreciate the key distinc- com/ap/060918/smithfield_foods European Commission. 2000. Euro- tions among these labels and may inadver- _premium_standard.html?.v=4. pean Communities proposal: Ani- tently purchase less welfare-friendly cosmetics mal welfare and trade in agricul- products. The experience of the cosmetics- Bayvel, A.C.D. 2005. The use of ani- labeling efforts suggests standardization of mals in agriculture and science: ture. World Trade Organization, definitions and regulation of terms like “cru- Historical context, international Committee on Agriculture Spe- elty-free” would result in even more efficient cial Session. June 28. Geneva, outcomes. considerations, and future direc- 2Ethical questions about animal welfare tion. Scientific and Technical Switzerland. depend on both the quality and duration of Review of the International Office Farming UK. 2006. Free range animals’ lives. Borrowing a measure used in retail price hits all-time low. April the health sciences, duration can be expressed of Epizootics (24): 791–797. in terms of “life-years,” equal to the number of Bennett, R.M., and D. Larson. 1996. 20. http://www.farminguk.com/ animal lives affected times the average life Contingent valuation of the per- bsp/10130/ews.asp?DBID=103- span in years. A life-year can also be weighted 281-013-096&iPage=1&id=4159. by a perceived level of welfare. While highly ceived benefits of farm animal subjective, as some welfare problems are more welfare legislation: An explana- Huang, S.K., and B.H. Lin. 2000. serious than others, estimating “quality- tory survey. Journal of Agricul- Estimation of food demand and adjusted life-years” can help to prioritize proj- nutrient elasticities from house- ects that relieve the most animal suffering. tural Economics 47: 224–235. 3In economic terms large retailers exercise Blandford, B., J.C. Bureau, L. hold survey data, for USDA Eco- what is called monopsony power. Their large Fulponi, and S. Henson. 2000. nomic Research Service. Septem- purchasing share from the wholesale or man- ber. http://www.ers.usda.gov/ ufacturing sector makes their preferences or Potential implications of animal requirements worth responding to. McDon- welfare concerns and public Publications/tb1887/. ald’s Corporation, for example, used its policies in industrialized coun- Humane Society of the United monopsony power as the number one pur- States, The (HSUS). 2006. The chaser of beef in the United States to exact tries for international trade. In animal welfare improvements at cattle slaugh- Global trade and consumer economic consequences of terhouses owned or contracted by companies demand for quality, ed. B. adopting alternative production wanting to continue selling beef to the fast systems. http://www.hsus.org/ food giant (see, for example, McDonald’s Cor- Kristoff, M. Bohman, and J. poration 2003). Caswell, 77–100. New York: farm/resources/research/. 4The price elasticity of demand is defined Kluwer. McDonald’s Corporation. 2003. as the percentage change in the quantity of a McDonald’s reaches animal wel- good purchased by consumers, in response to Blisard, N. 2001. Food spending in a 1 percent change in that good’s price. When American households: 1997–98, fare milestone: 500 global on-site a good’s price elasticity is between 0 and –1, for USDA Economic Research audits. Press release, May 15. demand is said to be inelastic with respect to http://www.mcdonalds.com/ price. An increase in price of, for example, 10 Service. http://www.ers.usda. percent will decrease demand less than 10 gov/publications/sb972/. corp/news/corppr/2003/cpr05 percent. This means that, in principle, the 152003.html.

172 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 McInerney, J.P. 1991. Assessing the Studer, H. 2001. How Switzerland http://www.census.gov/prod/ benefits of farm animal welfare. got rid of battery cages. Zurich: 2002pubs/FHW01.pdf. In Farm animals: It pays to be Pro Tier International. Webster, J. 1994. Animal welfare: A humane, ed. S.P. Caruthers. CAS Swanson, J.C., and J.A. Mench. cool eye towards Eden. Malden, Paper 22, Reading, England: 2000. Animal welfare: Consumer Mass.: Blackwell Science Ltd. Centre for Agricultural Strategy. viewpoints. In U.C. poultry sym- Yahoo News. 2000. Close quarters ———. 2004. Animal welfare, eco- posium and egg processing for chickens is unacceptable. nomics, and policy. Report on a workshops. http://animalscience. September 25. http://dailynews. study undertaken for the Farm ucdavis.edu/avian/swanson.pdf. yahoo.com/h/nm/20000925/ and Animal Health Economics Tabler, G.T., and A.M. Mendenhall. zo/chicken_2.html. Division of DEFRA. February. 2003. Broiler nutrition, feed Zogby International. 2003. Nation- http://statistics.defra.gov.uk/esg/ intake, and grower economics. wide views on the treatment of reports/animalwelfare.pdf. Avian Advice 5: 9. farm animals. October 22. http:// Meat News. 2005. Quality mark Theuvsen, L., S. Essmann, and H. animalwelfareadvocacy.org/ support. January 19. http:// Brand-Sassen. 2005. Livestock externals/AWT%20final%20% www.meatnews.com/index.cfm? husbandry between ethics and 20poll%20report%2010-22.pdf. fuseaction=Article&arNum= economics: Finding a feasible ———. 2004. Poll shows that fast- 8882. way out by target costing? Goet- food consumers care about Mench, J. 1992. The welfare of tingen, Germany: Institute for chickens’ welfare. June 2. http:// poultry in modern production Agricultural Economics, Univer- www.zogby.com/search/ systems. Poultry Science Review sity of Goettingen. ReadClips.dbm?ID=8379. 4: 112. Thiermann, A.B., and S. Babcock. National Institute for Animal Agri- 2005. Animal welfare and inter- culture. 2005. Vet schools to re- national trade. Scientific and shape curricula to meet 21st cen- Technical Review of the Interna- tury challenges. April ll. http:// tional Office of Epizootics (24): animalagriculture.org/headline/ 747–755. 2005NR/NR_2005Osburn.htm. U.S. Congressional Research Service. Ollinger, M., S.V. Nguyen, D. 2006. Livestock Marketing and Blayney, B. Chambers, and K. Competition Issues. March 20. Nelson. 2005. USDA Economic http://www.nationalaglawcenter. Research Service: Structural org/assets/crs/RL33325.pdf. change in the meat, poultry, U.S. Department of Agriculture Eco- dairy, and grain processing nomic Research Service. 2002. industries. March. http://www. Food marketing and price spreads: ers.usda.gov/publications/err3/ Farm-to-retail price spreads for err3.pdf. individual food items. http://www. Pickett, H. 2006. The way forward ers.usda.gov/Briefing/FoodPrice for Europe’s egg industry: Keep- Spreads/spreads/table1.htm. ing the ban on battery cages U.S. Department of Agriculture, in 2012. Compassion in World National Agricultural Statistics Farming Trust. http://ciwf. Service (USDA/NASS). 2005. U.S. org.uk/publications/reports/ hog operations, number by size Battery_Cages2006.pdf. group, 2004–2005. http://www. Poultry World. 2006. Shoppers nass.usda.gov/Charts_and_Maps want better welfare. Poultry /Hogs_and_Pigs/hopsze_e.asp. World 3 (March), 3. ———. 2006. Packers and stock- Rollin, B.E. 1995. Farm animal yards statistical report, 2004 re- welfare. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State porting year. February. Table 31. University Press. http://archive.gipsa.usda.gov/ Russell, W.H.S., and R.L. Burch. pubs/stat2004.pdf. 1959. The principles of humane U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. experimental technique. London: 2002. 2001 National survey of Methuen and Co., Ltd. fishing, hunting, and wildlife- associated recreation. October.

The Role of Economics in Achieving Welfare Gains for Animals 173 The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 10CHAPTER

Emily R. Kilby

Introduction n this demographic examina- How Many U.S. of Agriculture (USDA), the coun- tion of America’s equine popu- try’s equine inventory was 3.75 mil- Ilation, the numbers clearly Horses Are There? lion in 2002 (USDA 2002). NASS show upward trends in all things This most basic question of demo- reported 3.15 million horses, equestrian over the past fifty years. graphic research is yet to be ponies, donkeys, and mules in 1997 Will that trajectory continue, answered with satisfactory accu- and, in 1992, 2.12 million. In a sin- adding year after year to the cur- racy for the U.S. equine popula- gle decade, the equine population rent ten million population, or will tion. Horses and other equidae are jumped 1.63 million, or 77 percent, loss of open spaces turn the tide as no longer sufficiently critical at least according to USDA. it limits horse housing and riding to national well-being to warrant The American Veterinary Med- room? Will ownership patterns the close government oversight ical Association (AVMA) put the undergo fundamental changes afforded food-producing animals, 2001 horse population at 5.1 mil- when population density, land nor are they so much a part of the lion (AVMA 2002), a 28 percent costs, and escalating environmen- average American experience as to increase over the 4 million calcu- tal controls eliminate the “back- inspire close scrutiny of their num- lated for 1996, which had repre- yard”-keeping concept and make bers and condition. Instead, avail- sented an 18 percent decrease suburban boarding stables unten- able demographic data for horses from the 4.9 million estimated five able? Will horse production and their kin have arisen from spe- years before that. expenses rise in the face of land cial interests or within restricted pressures to the point that eques- populations, resulting in seemingly trian involvement, now a highly conflicting figures. Equine egalitarian pursuit in this coun- The American Horse Council Foundation (AHCF), a funding Census Taking try, truly becomes a rich person’s The American horse population is entity of the American Horse game? not nearly so volatile as these con- Council, commissioned a study in Horse people started fretting flicting figures seem to indicate. 2004 using data provided by horse over these sorts of questions not Indeed, vast changes have occurred owners for the previous year. The long after horses stopped being in equine numbers over the past resulting report put the American beasts of burden in this country century, with as many as six million horse population at 9.2 million in and became mostly recreational horses and mules disappearing in 2003, a 33 percent increase over partners and companions. So far, a single decade, but those losses the 6.9 million reported ten years the equine species has flourished were in response to the mechaniza- before (AHCF 2005). in its nonutilitarian role, but tion of farming and transportation According to the National Agri- there’s no end run around the fact (Table 1). (The lack of data from cultural Statistics Service (NASS), that horses are and always will be 1960 to the present is regrettable. an agency of the U.S. Department large animals in a shrinking natu- USDA surveys ceased to be an accu- ral world. 175 • The commerce of horse involve- Table 1 ment was the survey focus. Respondents in the owner U.S. Equine Population During group had to be at least eight- Mechanization of Agriculture een years old and owner or part- and Transportation owner of a horse(s). Data for youth involvement and for non- Year Number of Horses and Mules owning equestrians may be underreported or excluded. 1900 21,531,635 • The survey posed questions in terms of horses only. No input is 1905 22,077,000 explicitly solicited for other 1910 24,042,882 equidae, which include ponies, miniature horses, donkeys/bur- 1915 26,493,000 ros, and mules. It is not uncom- 1920 25,199,552 mon for recreational horse owners to maintain a mix of breeds 1925 22,081,520 and types, and if respondents 1930 18,885,856 answered the questions quite literally, the lesser but still sig- 1935 16,676,000 nificant population of ponies 1940 13,931,531 and asses is not included in the 9.2 million figure. Finally, it 1945 11,629,000 appears that owners and pro- 1950 7,604,000 ducers specializing in miniature horses might have been 1955 4,309,000 excluded entirely. 1960 3,089,000 • The survey sample was derived from equestrian membership Source: Adapted from Ensminger (1969). lists and business databases. The 18,648 usable owner/industry supplier responses from rate assessment because they did American Horse Council which the report data were sub- not take into account recreational The AHC has surveyed the eco- sequently derived (along with horses, and the horse industry has nomic activity associated with different surveys of horse show attempted only occasionally to horses and horse uses every and racing management) repre- undertake a national horse popula- decade since the mid-1980s. The sent a valid pool for studying tion assessment in the past thirty- data are collected primarily for economic matters, but the sam- six years.) However, it appears to political purposes. By specifying ple would have excluded owners be fairly safe to conclude that the dollars-and-cents figures for a spe- who maintain horses with little 1950s marked the low point of cialized and relatively small recre- or no organizational contact or American equine numbers, with ational and business entity, the commercial involvement. Horse horses and mules largely phased AHC, a lobbying organization, can population figures and activity out of agricultural production and better influence national and state profiles may have been skewed transportation but not yet filling legislatures in matters affecting by this selection process. significant recreational roles. Since horse breeders, owners, trainers, • The primary response mecha- then, the trend in equine numbers dealers, and recreational, sport- nism was through an Internet has been steadily upward. ing, and business users. The larger website, with a small proportion The surveys’ purposes, designs, the numbers shown, the more of mailed questionnaires for and sampling methodology account impact equestrian interests those without computer access. for the three divergent assessments appear to have. Again, the methodology selected of the American equine population The AHC’s population figures against owners outside main- cited above and most likely for the were shaped by the following stream culture, which would not relatively large shifts reportedly study characteristics, as ex- have much effect on an eco- occurring within short intervals plained in the study’s technical nomic impact study but probably as well. appendix (AHCF 2005): underrepresents “invisible” own-

176 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 ers in providing raw equine pop- son stables would be captured dur- vals and produces a demographics ulation figures. ing the list-building process. sourcebook to aid its members in The AHC report’s very precise The most recent USDA enumera- making business and marketing tally of U.S. horses in 2003— tion lists 3.64 million horses and decisions. The data for these reports 9,222,847—is actually the center ponies and 105,358 mules, burros, come from a statistically representa- point of a statistically determined and donkeys in the “other animal tive sample chosen from an estab- range defining a 95 percent confi- production category,” along with lished panel of U.S. households that dence interval. According to these the likes of bison, goats, rabbits, have agreed to participate in surveys calculations, if the same methodol- and bees. Horse/pony numbers on of this nature (Clancy and Rowan ogy were applied a hundred times, income-producing farms increased 2003). The most recent survey, per- ninety-five of the surveys would by one million between 1992 and formed in 2001, found 1.7 percent produce a U.S. horse population 1997 and by another half-million by of responding households reporting figure somewhere between 2002, a 78 percent increase overall. horse ownership, with an average of 8,869,858 and 9,575,837. Given During the same decade, ass num- 2.9 horses per owning household. the methodology’s exclusion of bers nearly doubled between 1992 Using data of this sort for the vari- certain types of horse owners and and 1997, rising from 67,692 to ous species, the AVMA can offer pop- some equine classes, the actual 123,211, then fell back to 105,358 ulation-estimating formulas for vet- equine population seems likely to in 2002. While the progression in erinarians to use in calculating be at the higher end of the range horse/pony numbers reflects the potential client pools in their com- or possibly exceeding that 9.6 mil- population trend reported by other munities. The AVMA’s equine for- lion (rounded) maximum figure. observers, the rather precipitous mula is therefore: divide the com- rise and retreat of ass numbers in a munity population by 2.69 to get U.S. Department single decade begs the question of the number of households, then of Agriculture a sampling or reporting anomaly in multiply the number of households USDA has kept tabs on agricultural one of the years. by 0.05. The national proportion production through periodic cen- Recognizing the shortcomings of of horses to households was deter- suses, starting in 1840. Every five the purely agricultural enumeration mined by this study. years, NASS attempts to survey all model for gathering equine data, Though it does provide a useful U.S. agricultural producers with a USDA conducted additional surveys business tool, the AVMA’s enumer- shorter form and chooses a sizable following the 1997 census to esti- ation method is too many steps sampling of them for a more detailed mate the number of all equidae in removed from an actual hooves-on- assessment of agricultural practices the country and their sales, not just the-ground count to generate reli- and expenses. For the most recent those on qualifying agricultural able population figures. enumeration, approximately 2.8 mil- establishments. By including • The survey goal was to charac- lion census packets were mailed in equine data estimated from enu- terize ownership patterns, not December 2002, and follow-up con- merations of sixteen thousand ran- perform a true count of pet tacts continued until each county domly selected square-mile areas species in the United States. had at least a 75 percent response across the country and surveys of • The survey focused on compan- rate. Such blanket coverage assures twenty thousand larger farms and ion/recreational owners and a very accurate count of most food- commercial operations, along with may have underrepresented or and fiber-producing units in the the basic findings from the standard excluded horses used for breed- country, but horses and their kin are census, NASS calculated the total ing, work, and competition. special case animals. number of equidae at the start of • The respondent pool was ini- USDA’s equine population figures 1998 to be 5,250,400 and a year tially skewed by the self-selection are significantly limited by the pri- later to be 5,317,400 (USDA 1999). of participants, then narrowed mary criterion for inclusion in the If that 1.3 percent annual increase further by selecting a sample enumeration: censuses are sent to continued until 2003, there would representative of the entire U.S. all agricultural operations that pro- be 5.6 million equidae by this sur- population, not one representa- duce or sell $1,000 or more of agri- vey model, still millions shy of the tive of U.S. horse owners. Horse cultural products annually or would AHC count for that year. ownership is a phenomenon do so in normal years. The large associated with rural areas and block of “backyard” owners who American Veterinary smaller communities whose maintain horses on a few acres or Medical Association populations may not have been nonagricultural “farmettes” would The professional association for U.S. sufficiently represented in the not be surveyed. It is also unclear if veterinarians conducts animal own- AVMA sample for accurate suburban boarding, training, and les- ership surveys at half-decade inter- equine data collection.

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 177 Applying the AVMA formula to Since passage of the Wild and As of March 2006 the BLM the 2003 U.S. estimated human Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act (2006) population included: population produces an estimated of 1971 and its implementation in • approximately thirty-two thou- 5,297,938 companion/recreational 1973, the Department of the Inte- sand horses and burros on equidae. Extrapolating an “agricul- rior’s Bureau of Land Management public range lands, exceeding tural” equid population for 2003 (BLM) has been responsible for the optimum total population by increasing USDA’s 2002 count overseeing herds on federal lands in of twenty-eight thousand by another 1.3 percent yields ten Western states (Arizona, Cali- four thousand and 3,798,381. Some overlap probably fornia, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, • twenty-six thousand in short- occurs between the AVMA and the Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, and long-term holding facilities. USDA respondent pools, but sam- and Wyoming). The agency is In fiscal year 2005, ending in Sep- pling procedures and criteria for in- charged with multipurpose manage- tember, 11,023 animals were re- clusion for each are quite distinct, ment of vast federal holdings for moved from the Western ranges. By producing data from two essentially recreation, logging, mining, graz- early 2006, 5,701 of them had been discrete groups of horse keepers. ing, and wildlife management, in adopted out, continuing the stream The total of these two estimated addition to the equine oversight, of 208,000 BLM horses and burros populations is 9,096,319, very close and at the same time sustaining the that have been placed with private to AHC’s count of 9,222,847 for health and productivity of public owners since 1973. The remainder 2003. The AHC’s broader-ranging lands (BLM 2006). left in BLM holding facilities were to sampling method appears to have Wild horse and burro popula- be offered for adoption three times captured both companion/recre- tions are now held to population before being deemed unadoptable ational and production owners limits that will prevent overgrazing and made available for unrestricted for the most accurate and com- or other destruction of their range sale. Until the December 2004 legis- plete numeric snapshot of today’s lands while still leaving adequate lation, unadoptable horses were equid population. herd numbers for a healthy gene kept as government property for the pool. Each management area has remainder of their lives. The BLM’s an upper population limit deter- 2005 budget for the Wild Horse and Wild Horses mined by available resources, and Burro Program was $39.6 million, herds are subject to periodic with $20.1 million used to maintain and Burros culling to maintain optimum pop- gathered animals in short- and long- None of the censuses cited above ulations. Additionally, birth control term holding facilities. The legisla- includes equidae roaming on federal measures are now being applied to tion allowing unrestricted sale was lands or maintained in government wild horses to lower their repro- intended to eliminate the expense of holding facilities. This unowned duction rates and reduce the num- lifetime care for the unadoptables. population originated from domesti- ber of excess animals needing Where it has jurisdiction over cated horses and burros who removal. The BLM (2006) disposes national seashores, the National escaped or were freed onto range of excess horses and burros from Park Service (NPS) either removes lands, starting in the sixteenth cen- federal lands as follows: feral horses there as non-native tury with the first Spanish explorers. • “adopting” them out to pri- species or attempts to maintain The Atlantic barrier islands, from vate citizens with restrictions barrier island horse populations at coastal Maryland down through the to assure adequate care and levels that do not harm the ecologi- Georgia coast, have also harbored prevent their being sold cal balance. On Assateague Island, feral herds since the colonial era. to slaughter; for instance, the NPS now uses con- Even under seemingly harsh condi- • maintaining them in holding traceptive injections to reduce the tions, these feral equidae reproduce facilities until adoption or in Maryland herd’s reproduction rate quite successfully, with modern-day long-range pasturage if they to maintain a population of 150 herds capable of doubling in size are not adopted; and adults (Kirkpatrick 2005). On the every five years, given the absence of • since December 2004 dispos- Virginia portion of Assateague, the natural predators in most of today’s ing of the unadoptable popula- Chincoteague Volunteer Fire Com- ranges (BLM 2006). Until the 1960s tion through unrestricted sale, pany conducts an annual July “pony free-ranging horses and burros were meaning that buyers can deal penning” to cull that herd to the considered wildlife of sorts, fair with the animals as they would same target number (NPS 2003). game for public taking for taming, after a private transaction, Horse herds on barrier islands far- selling for pet food or slaughter, or although challenges were sub- ther down the coast have met with killing to reduce grazing competi- sequently made to this man- a patchwork of population-control tion for domestic stock. agement change. measures as coastal development

178 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 has overrun their ranges, and of critters on hobby farms or as ported by a newspaper writer in awareness of their damage to the work animals on secluded proper- 2004 for the Yakima Indian Reser- fragile barrier-island ecology has ties. Not all horse owners compete, vation alone (Palmer 2004). By grown. Over the years some herds register, join up, subscribe, or shop BLM standards Washington State have been removed entirely from for horsey things and thus reveal has no “wild” horses because they the islands, others have been fenced their whereabouts for enumerators. are not on BLM-managed federal away from the new communities If these “below the radar” animals lands, but the herds kept on the built on their former ranges (with equal just 1 percent of the known vast reservation acreages there and only marginal success), and others equine population of the country, throughout the West and the Plains still are managed by the NPS or pri- that’s another hundred thousand are certainly less clearly defined vate entities to maintain a viable added to the true total. and probably more numerous than presence on their historic ranges Two more definable equine pop- the NASS count suggests. (Hause 2006). If the various target ulations are most likely under- populations have been met and reported because they are legally Amish Horses, maintained, the current horse pop- and/or culturally outside the Mules and Donkeys ulation on barrier islands along the American mainstream. These are canvassed for NASS enu- Atlantic coast appears to number merations, as long as they are on around a thousand, a far cry from Horses on Indian properties that meet the $1,000- the National Geographic Society’s Reservations production standard. While the 1926 estimate of six thousand wild These horses throughout the majority of the Amish in communi- horses roaming the Outer Banks country actually live in sovereign ties now spread across twenty-five just from Currituck to Shackleford lands and thus are not directly states do remain in agricultural (Hause 2006). subject to state or national regu- production to some degree, mem- Government agencies now man- lation or oversight. Many Western bers are increasingly turning to age most unowned horses roaming tribes maintain large numbers of carpentry, manufacturing, and free on public lands. The BLM’s horses for stock work on their other nonfarm work for their liveli- 2005 fiscal year count of wild horses range lands and also because of hoods (Milicia 2004), thus remov- in ten Western states was 27,369; deep cultural and ceremonial sig- ing them from the NASS survey the number of wild burros ranging nificance attached to the species. pool. With church tenants holding in five of those states totaled 4,391 For the 2002 agricultural census, them separate from the “English” (BLM 2005). With the East Coast which did survey reservations, (non-Amish) world, Amish horse barrier horses added in, approxi- NASS performed a special enu- owners may not respond readily to mately 33,000 free-roaming meration of Native American agricultural censuses and are un- equidae are currently in the United farms/ranches and merged those likely to have any presence at all in States. Another 27,000 are living as results with full reservation data other forms of polling. wards of the state, so to speak, in to produce “Appendix B,” detail- In lieu of reliable enumeration, holding facilities, for a total feral/ ing the agricultural characteris- the current number of Amish once-feral population of 60,000. tics of American Indian and horses and mules can be esti- Eskimo farm operations. mated by applying the horse-to- According to NASS, Native Amer- human ratio that existed in premo- “Invisible” icans on 12,174 properties produc- torized America. In 1910, two ing $1,000 or more in agricultural years after the first Model T rolled Populations goods owned 115,464 horses in onto the roads, there were As large as horses are, they do go 2002 (USDA 2002). Yet because 24,042,882 horses/mules and undetected by government and reservation horses are often han- 92,228,496 people for a 1:3.8 association enumerators alike. An dled as communal property rather ratio. Today’s Amish population, untold number of equidae live as than individually owned and be- 70 percent of which lives in Ohio, pets or pensioners in places, such cause large herds on Plains and Pennsylvania, and Indiana, is esti- as semisuburban smallholdings, Western reservations are often mated to number around 180,000 not normally associated with live- managed as range animals, that and is rapidly growing (Milicia stock keeping, and many urban enumeration may be very approxi- 2004). If this statistical time travel centers have an equestrian pres- mate. For instance, the NASS count has validity, there are at least ence, such as police horses, riding given for horses on Indian-operated 47,000 Amish horses and mules in stables, and carriage operators, ranches in Washington State in the United States. that exists outside the norm. Other 2002 was 4,018, yet that statewide equidae “hide” amid a menagerie figure is less than the 5,000 re-

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 179 in age between five and twenty. The which they could make mating deci- How Many U.S. random animal’s breeding, usually sions that would improve their ani- Horses Are There? discernible to experienced horse- mals’ production and performance. Although current equine enumera- people by its physical characteris- Today DNA testing is required by tions can be faulted for limitations tics, or conformation, would most the more rigorous organizations to in their focus, methodology, and likely be quarter horse, the coun- assure authenticity of parentage. results, their data, considered try’s preponderant type by all meas- The Thoroughbred studbook (The cumulatively, point to the accuracy ures. The second most likely en- Jockey Club), started in England in of the American Horse Council esti- counter would be with a somewhat the early seventeenth century, is the mate. Projecting the AHCF horse more streamlined-looking horse in oldest and most carefully main- population figure for 2003 two a “plain brown wrapper”—a sixteen- tained of any, closely guarding the years into the future (1.3 percent hand bay or dark brown Thorough- bloodlines and racing data of the growth in ’04 and ’05 = 9,464,200), bred type, with perhaps a touch of breed. Other studbooks are “open,” and adding overlooked ponies and white on face and foot. meaning that occasional outcross- asses (200,000), the country’s feral But in the United States, diversity ing is allowed with a few other spec- equidae (60,000) and the “invisi- rules the equine as well as the hu- ified breeds. The quarter horse stud- ble” populations (200,000) produce man population, so that random book, for instance, has permitted a figure of 9,924,000 for the 2006 sighting might instead be of a four- matings with Thoroughbreds, among U.S. equine population. foot-tall critter with a white and others, particularly in producing brown coat, very long ears, a bray, racing stock. Crossbred registries The Future not a neigh, and registration papers either specify one type of mating With institution of a National Ani- from an organization called the pattern (for instance, Andalusian + mal Identification System by 2010, American Council of Spotted Asses. quarter horse = Azteca horse, a reg- all uncertainty should be removed Or the sighting could be of a large, istrable “breed”) or register any from the equine-counting business. high-headed black horse with feath- type of offspring from the specified In the planning stages as of 2006, ery legs and flowing mane hitched purebred parent (for example, the this USDA initiative will permit to a cart: a Friesian, one of many im- half-Arabian registry). tracking of all U.S. livestock from ported sorts increasingly brought In addition to or in lieu of re- first breath to last for the sake of dis- into the country by horsepeople cording by bloodline, breeds are ease control and bioterrorism pro- seeking something more exotic now defined by other parameters. tection. Each animal will be identi- than the prevailing breeds for activ- Almost a quarter of the registries fied through a standard coding ities outside the norm. The United listed in the AHC directory accept system indicating place of origin, States unquestionably has the most horses on the basis of physical appear- along with an individual identifier. variegated collection of equidae on ance, usually coloration, such as Microchipping is the likely technol- earth. The American Horse Coun- palomino and buckskin, or marking ogy that will be applied to equidae, cil’s Horse Industry Directory listed patterns, such as Appaloosas and reporting all horses, ponies, and 106 registries for horses, ponies, or pintos, but there’s even a registry asses to a single database where asses (AHC 2003). Some are multi- for curly-coated horses. Pony and population figures will be actual ples drawing registrations from the miniature registries restrict entry hooves-on-the-ground numbers, not same pool of animals, but an equal by height as well as parentage. statistical extrapolations. number of smaller organizations Gaited horses who move in a vari- probably missed out on inclusion in ety of less common footfall patterns, What Does the U.S. the directory. with names like walker, paso, sin- Equine Population glefooter, mangalarga, and foxtrot- Look Like? ter, belong to a subset of registries In a random encounter with a mem- Breed Registries that have increased in popularity ber of the equine species in the Of the hundred or so U.S. registries, along with recreational horse use United States, this is the most likely most record bloodlines to maintain because they produce a bounce- sighting throughout much of the a “pure” genetic pool by requiring free ride. Sports and activities, such country: a riding horse, standing that newly registered animals be the as flat and harness racing and per- about fifteen hands (sixty inches offspring of two parents who are formance/sport horses bred for measured at the shoulders), either already in the studbook. The origi- eventing and jumping, are the female (a mare) or neutered male nal purpose of recording livestock organizing principle for some of (a gelding)—but certainly not a bloodlines and maintaining them the oldest and some of the newest stallion—probably sorrel, tending generation after generation was to registries. Finally, historically sig- toward a stocky build and ranging give breeders information with nificant and geographically distinc-

180 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 tive horses get their own associa- services and show-ring results than profiling the national equine popu- tions, including Spanish mustangs, with actual breed improvement. lation. Viewing registration trends Icelandic horses, and a recreated over time provides insights into the medieval charger going under the waxing and waning of particular name Spanish-Norman horse. In Registry Tallies horse types and equestrian inter- the modern proliferation of equine Tracking the tallies of annual regis- ests. In both 2006 and throughout registries, record-keeping more trations entered into the nine the past decades, American Quar- often has to do with membership major U.S. registries is one way of ter Horse Association (AQHA) reg-

Table 2 Annual New Registrations for the Nine Largest U.S. Horse Breed Registries

Tennessee Quarter Thorough- Standard- WalkingSaddle- Year Horse Paint bred Arabian Appaloosa bred Horse bred Morgan

1977 94,445 5,565 27,551 18,797 19,316 13,929 6,212 3,855 3,700

1983 168,346 14,626 43,787 18,391 22,184 20,298 7,561 2,787 5,317

1985 157,360 12,692 46,635 30,004 16,189 18,384 7,812 4,351 4,538

1988 128,352 14,929 45,256 24,578 12,317 17,393 8,400 3,811 3,526

1989 NA 14,930 44,250 21,723 10,746 16,896 8,850 3,708 3,732

1990* 115,000 15,000 40,333 13,000 10,000 15,000 8,000 3,700 3,400

1991 101,390 18,648 38,149 12,993 9,902 13,617 8,092 3,570 3,392

1992 102,843 22,396 35,050 12,544 10 033 13,029 8,123 3,048 2,408

1993 104,876 24,220 33,820 12,349 9,079 12,086 7,510 3,353 3,120

1994 106,017 27,549 32,117 12,962 10,104 12,204 7,856 3,192 3,038

1995 107,332 34,846 31,882 12,398 10,903 10,918 9,450 2,300 3,063

1996 108,604 41,491 32,242 11,645 10,067 11,589 10,991 2,142 3,053

1997 110,714 50,440 32,115 11,594 11,030 11,336 12,256 3,213 3,415

1998 125,308 55,356 32,944 11,320 9,100 10,881 13,250 2,952 3,100

1999 135,528 62,186 33,838 11,501 10,099 11,183 13,375 2,705 3,220

2000 145,936 62,511 34,719 9,660 10,906 11,281 14,387 2,908 3,654

2001 150,956 56,869 34,705 9,266 9,322 11,261 14,479 3,050 3,475

2002 156,199 60,000 32,941 9,394 9,092 11,699 14,865 2,931 3,976

2003 160,980 51,000 33,671 9,400 9,200 11,050 14,978 2,578 2,938

2004** 162,590 52,000 34,070 9,000 9,200 11,500 15,000 3,200 3,500

2005** 165,000 44,000 34,070 8,000 7,000 11,000 13,500 3,000 3,400

*Approximate, except for Thoroughbred. **Registry estimates.

Sources: Thoroughbred registrations for the U.S. only: The Jockey Club (2006); other breeds, years 1992–2001: AHC (2003); remaining years: EQUUS (1989, 1990, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2004).

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 181 istrations exceeded all others by study, supported largely by the ment, conducted in 1998 for the tens of thousands (Tables 2 and 3). Thoroughbred and quarter horse USDA’s National Animal Health Mon- The American Paint Horse Associ- associations, characterized the itoring System (NAHMS) (USDA ation (APHA), formed in 1965 to makeup of the 2003 U.S. horse pop- 1998). However, the 1998 sample of register quarter horse types with ulation using only three broad pro- owners, selected from twenty-eight more white coat markings than are files: Thoroughbred, quarter horse, states accounting for 78 percent of permitted for AQHA registration, is and “other,” which included other the national equine population enu- now the second-largest breed reg- registered and nonregistered merated by NASS for 1992, reported istry. During the past fifteen years, horses. The survey respondents an even greater concentration of registered quarter horses and paints reported ownership for 2003 in the quarter horses—40 percent—than combined made up almost three- following proportions (AHC 2005): the more recent AHC study. The quarters of all registrations in that • Thoroughbred—14 percent, NAHMS survey included all equidae nine-breed cohort. It is safe to say or 1,291,807 found on U.S. properties and de- that the multipurpose, American- • Quarter horse—35.6 percent, tailed the “other horses” that were made breed derived from bloodlines or 3,288,302 lumped together in the AHC study. that excelled in sprint racing during • Other horses—50.3 percent, Table 4 shows the NAHMS-deter- colonial days (hence the “quarter or 4,642,739 mined composition of the U.S. mile” designation), then seasoned Identical 50–50 proportions for equine population by type and breed as stock horses on the Western the combined Thoroughbred-quarter as percentages of the total and as ranges represents the preferred horse cohort and the other-horse current head counts, based on a using type for today’s American group were also found by the only 2005 population of ten million. owner. Quarter horses are just what scientific survey yet done of the U.S. Comparison of Tables 3 and 4 the recreational market wants: horse population and its manage- shows little agreement between medium in size, comparatively easy- going and low maintenance, and capable of performing a variety of Table 3 activities, particularly as the registry Fifteen-Year Total Registrations for has allowed outcrossing to create Nine Major U.S. Registries, 1991–2005 the more streamlined physiques favored in the “English” disciplines (an equestrian style based on a flat Association Percentage of Registry Total Nine-Breed Total saddle that includes hunters, jumpers, dressage, and polo, and American Quarter “saddleseat” style riding) to the Horse Association 2,844,273 59.6 original, stockier cattle-horse type. American Paint Horse Association 663,512 13.9

The Jockey Club Breed Numbers (Thoroughbreds) 506,333 10.6 Quarter horse/paint dominance is indisputable, but the diverse U.S. U.S. Trotting Association equine population cannot be char- (Standardbreds) 174,634 3.7 acterized by registration numbers Tenn. Walking Horse Breeders’ alone. Despite the opportunities to and Exhibitors’ Association 178,112 3.7 “paper” just about any variety of equid, a portion of the population— Arabian Horse Registry of America 164,026 3.4 probably a significant one—was never registered, or its registrations Appaloosa Horse Club 145,037 3.0 have gotten lost with changes of American Morgan ownership. Membership and regis- Horse Association 48,752 1.0 tration fees are expensive, and the majority of Americans are involved American Saddlebred in horse activities that don’t require Horse Association 44,142 0.9 registry/association affiliation, thus Total 4,768,821 papers are not a compelling need throughout the horse-owning popu- Source: Calculations from Table 2. lation. The AHC economic impact

182 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 the population percentages in the attempt to keep an exact count of face value, the breed populations two lists, but they diverge most each year’s new entries; the produced by NAHMS percentages strikingly for quarter horses and NAHMS percentages derived from and the two breed counts specified paints. The NAHMS quarter horse a sample consisting of fewer than in the AHC study cannot be recon- percentage derived from owner three thousand respondents taken ciled with reality. Even if every sin- data was 20 percentage points from little more than half the gle quarter horse and Thorough- lower than the registry’s share of states. Yet a more significant rea- bred registered in the past fifteen the nine-breed total; for paints the son for the differences is probably years were alive today, there would farm count was 5.4 percent, while timing. Since the 1998 survey was still have to be an additional the registry proportion equaled conducted, AQHA and APHA have 643,577 surviving older registered 13.4. Only the Standardbred was experienced strong growth, while quarter horses and another close to the same percentage on most of the remaining registries 394,327 aged Thoroughbreds to both lists, while the remaining have nudged upward very little, fulfill the NAHMS percentage allot- specified breeds were a little to a remained steady, or declined. ments. The overages are flipped lot higher on the farm than the The three windows onto U.S. using AHC calculations: 444,000 registry numbers would indicate. breed numbers seem impossibly for quarter horses and 785,400 for One explanation for this dispar- contradictory when actual popula- Thoroughbreds. All of the other ity is the methodologies. Registries tion figures are compared. Taken at breed counts derived from NAHMS percentages exceed the cumulative registry figures as well. Table 4 Horses do not really have to be U.S. Breed Distribution Using immortal to make these numbers work. The more realistic explana- Percentages Determined by tion for the breed population infla- USDA/National Animal Health tion reflected in survey results is Monitoring System, 1998* recreational horse owners’ disregard for the formal papering process. When questioned, as they Percentage Approximate Type/Breed of Population Population were on both surveys, about how many of each breed they own, they Donkeys/burros 2.7 270,000 usually respond with the animals’ known or suspected origins, not Mules 2.0 200,000 strictly with their registration sta- Miniature horses 1.6 160,000 tus. Given this tendency to report by type, not registry affiliation, the Ponies 5.4 540,000 U.S. horse population probably has Horses 88.3 8,830,000 a much greater proportion of unregistered horses than the 9 per- Quarter horse 39.5 3,487,850 cent designated “other, not regis- Thoroughbred 10.2 900,600 tered” in the NAHMS results. That particular group probably includes Other, registered 9.1 803,530 primarily horses, often called Other, not registered 9.0 794,700 “grade,” who are of unknown origin and no discernible type. All Arabian 7.8 688,740 others are probably enumerated in Appaloosa 5.9 520,970 whatever standard breed category they most closely resemble. Paint 5.4 476,820

Draft 4.8 423,840 Special Populations The NAHMS study was uncom- Tenn. Walking Horse 4.8 423,840 monly inclusive and provides a useful glimpse of less visible equidae Standardbred 3.5 309,050 found on U.S. equestrian proper- *Based on a current total equine population of ten million. ties. The nonhorse group, including ponies, miniature horses, and Source: USDA (1998) asses, represented little over 10

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 183 percent of the equine population Unless the retired Standardbred is only 13.8 percent under age five, on the surveyed properties in used for breeding—not an option compared to the 33.2 percent of 1998. Miniature horses, which con- for geldings—he or she must be con- the total sample and an exception- stituted the smallest fraction at verted to pleasure or carriage use or ally high percentage—81.7—in the 1.6 percent, are clearly the growth disposed of. As riding animals, five-to-twenty group and only 4.3 group in this niche. Between 1992 retired Thoroughbred runners percent over age twenty. Miniature and 2001, the American Miniature may have more opportunities horses and donkeys were well out- Horse Association recorded 83,361 for second careers as performers in side the age norms in the opposite new registrations, with the trajec- other sports or as recreational ani- direction (though the small sample tory being upward throughout the mals, but temperamentally they sizes leave room for larger standard decade (AHC 2003). Even though are not always suitable for pleasure errors): nearly half of each group they were the smallest population mounts. was in the eighteen-month to five- recorded by NAHMS in 1998, The NAHMS survey excluded race- year group, and they exceeded the annual registrations of these pet track populations from its analysis norms for the two younger groups equidae now exceed those for Ara- of age patterns in 1998. At that time as well; their percentages in the bians, Appaloosas, saddlebreds, the survey group fell into the follow- over-20 group were markedly less and Morgans. ing age ranges (USDA 1998): than the norm (2.7 for minis; 0.9 • 58.8 percent were five to for donkeys). Age Characteristics twenty years of age, the Today’s equine age profile no Equidae are quite long-lived com- horse’s average working life; doubt follows the same basic bell pared to livestock and small-pet • 23 percent were eighteen curve, but the percentages are likely species. They commonly live into months to five years, the to have undergone some adjust- their twenties, even into their forties maturing and training period; ments. Except for quarter horses and beyond. According to the Guin- • 8.9 percent were six to eight- and paints, production in the larger ness Book of World Records, the old- een months, horse adoles- American breeds has been pretty est documented horse was sixty-two, cence, so to speak; flat or in decline for the past decade the oldest pony, fifty-five (Equine • 7.8 percent were twenty or or longer. That would indicate an overall aging of the population. Yet World Records 2006). Health-care more years old, generally re- the loss of business in established advances and ownership attitudes tirement time; breeds may simply mean that Amer- have combined to extend the aver- • 1.3 percent were under six ican tastes/interests have splintered age life span of recreational/com- months, the period foals are off in many new directions, where panion equidae. In a 2000 special normally at their mothers’ smaller breeds registering a few report on the aged equine popula- side; and hundred horses annually and impor- tion, EQUUS magazine reported • 0.5 percent were of unknown age. tation of “exotics” from other coun- that, according to their registries, When applied to a current tries are taking up the production 52 percent of Arabians and 57 per- equine population of ten million, slack. Another possibility in the cent of Morgans were over fifteen these percentages would produce slowing of established registries is years of age, compared to 30 per- the following age profile: an increase in “backyard” cross- cent of quarter horses, 25 percent of • 8,180,000 of training and breeding. Pleasure owners have a saddlebreds, and 15 percent of paint using age; propensity to grow one or two of horses and Standardbreds (EQUUS • 1,020,000 under using age; and their own from a favorite companion 2000). In general, breeds register- • 780,000 over age twenty and mare. The motive usually has more ing an increasing number of animals likely in retirement. to do with sentiment than produc- in the last five to ten years would The different equid types in the ing to a breed standard, and regis- have a younger population than 1998 sample had some quite dis- trations would not be sought across would those with declining registra- tinctive age patterns. Horses, mak- the board. tions in the most recent decade. ing up nearly 90 percent of the sam- The Standardbred youthfulness ple, were right on the norm in all does not reflect recent breed growth, age groups. Ponies were the most The Future however. Instead, it is the conse- aged, with twice the percentage As of mid-2006, NAHMS was in the quence of the relatively short pro- (15.2) of over-twenties and half the process of preparing to publish a ductive life of racehorses. Standard- percentage (0.6) of sucklings in 2005 version of its horse manage- breds tend to race longer than their numbers, though they were ment and health survey. It will be Thoroughbreds, but even then a trot- close to the average in the five-to- interesting to see how the current ter or pacer still competing at age twenty age group. Mules also lacked from-the-farm population profiles twelve is considered an old-timer. an up-and-coming population, with differ from the 1998 findings in

184 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 light of changing production pat- The NAHMS study, another Someone driving through Mary- terns of registered stock during USDA effort but concerned not land would be twice as likely to the intervening years, shifts in so much with enumeration as encounter horses as would some- minor populations, particularly of with surveying horse manage- one traveling through Kentucky, miniature horses, and the aging— ment practices for health-monitor- and New Jersey and Connecticut or not—of U.S. equidae. ing purposes, reported 1998 pop- residents live with readier geo- ulation patterns by region graphical access to horses than do (USDA 1998): residents of Texas and California. Where Do U.S. • Ten southern states, including The human-to-horse ratio defines Texas, Florida, Oklahoma, the states’ horsiness in yet another Horses Live? and Kentucky, accounted for way. The ten locales with the Ranking states by the numbers of 40 percent of the surveyed fewest number of people for every horses residing within their bound- equine population. horse are aries is the usual way of examining • Seven Western states, includ- 1. Wyoming 5.1 people equine population patterns and ing California and Colorado, per horse their significance. Both the AHC’s accounted for 26 percent. 2. South Dakota 6.4 national economic impact study • Seven North-Central states, 3. Montana 7.1 and numerous state-generated eco- including Missouri, accounted 4. Idaho 8.8 nomic valuations use raw horse for 20 percent. 5. North Dakota 10.7 numbers as primary data on which • Four Northeastern states, includ- 6. Oklahoma 10.8 all other calculations are based. It ing Ohio and Pennsylvania, 7. Nebraska 11.6 makes sense that the more horses accounted for 13 percent. 8. New Mexico 12.9 who are maintained within a state, Any useful assessment of loca- 8. Kentucky 12.9 the more economic activity will tion’s effects on the lives horses 9. Iowa 14.8 take place around them. Reckoned lead has to take into account more Residents in these ten states are by head count only (AHCF 2005), than raw population numbers. The far more likely to have direct con- the top ten horsiest places in the very largest states in terms of land tact with horses than are people in country are area are going to hold more horses more populous areas. Kentucky is 1. Texas 978,822 horses than the medium to small states, the anomaly in the listing for not 2. California 698,345 but are horses also a large pres- being a wide-open-spaces Plains 3. Florida 500,124 ence to the human population in or Western state. Human-to-horse 4. Oklahoma 326,134 the very large state and of little ratio is better proof than the head 5. Kentucky 320,173 significance in the small state? count alone that a state is truly a 6. Ohio 306,898 The state tallies by themselves horsey area. In all the other low- 7. Missouri 281,255 don’t say. A more meaningful ratio states, both the human and 8. North Carolina 256,269 approach is to add two more fac- equine populations are sparse. 9. Pennsylvania 255,763 tors to the analysis: how many Even then, the two species knock- 10. Colorado 255,503 horses and how many people are ing around in an expansive land The USDA’s equine-specific census on how much land? Viewed area have closer associations than of 1998 and 1999 arrived at a rather through this multifocal lens, the do tiny Rhode Island’s 308 people different state ranking based on its U.S. horse population looks quite for every one horse. population estimates (USDA 1999). different (Table 5). New England, home of less than None of the state figures below is in The top ten horsiest states in 2 percent of the national horse any way comparable to the AHC’s terms of number of horses per population is, far and away, the numbers (see the earlier discussion square mile of land area are least horsey area in the forty-eight concerning methodologies): 1. Maryland 15.6 per square contiguous states. Expanding the 1. Texas 600,000 mile of land region to coincide with the U.S. 2. California 240,000 2. New Jersey 11.2 Census Bureau’s Northeast designa- 3. Tennessee 190,000 3. Connecticut 10.7 tion by including much horsier New 4. Florida 170,000 4. Florida 9.3 York and Pennsylvania and the little- 4. Pennsylvania 170,000 5. Kentucky 8.0 bit-horsier New Jersey improves the 4. Oklahoma 170,000 6. Ohio 7.5 horse presence to 8 percent of the 5. Ohio 160,000 7. Virginia 6.0 national total. At the same time, 6. Minnesota 155,000 8. Indiana 5.7 this region contains 19 percent of 6. New York 155,000 8. Pennsylvania 5.7 the human population (USCB 6. Washington 155,000 9. North Carolina 5.3 2000) and includes the nation’s

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 185 four most densely populated states: Table 5 New Jersey, at 1,134.4 people per State Horse Population Characteristics square mile; Rhode Island with 1,003.2; Massachusetts with 809.8; Horse Horses/ Number of People/ and Connecticut with 702.9. New Population* Square Mile Horse*** York is sixth and Pennsylvania tenth United States 9,222,847 2.7** 31.8 Northeast in population density. The conclu- Maine 37,854 1.2 34.8 sion seems unavoidable: a reverse Massachusetts 37,529 4.8 171.0 correlation exists between an area’s Rhode Island 3,509 3.4 308.0 human population density and its Vermont 24,540 2.7 25.3 equine population density. The New Hampshire 14,681 1.6 88.5 Connecticut 51,968 10.7 67.4 cause, too, seems obvious: more New York 201,906 4.3 95.2 human inhabitants per square mile New Jersey 82,982 11.2 104.8 mean less physical space for keep- Pennsylvania 255,763 5.7 48.5 ing large animals and for the Southern Region services, such as hay production, Delaware 11,083 5.7 74.9 Maryland 152,930 15.6 36.3 needed to sustain them. In addition, West Virginia 89,880 3.7 20.2 higher population density translates Virginia 239,102 6.0 31.2 to higher living costs, making horse North Carolina 256,269 5.3 33.3 hobbies less affordable. South Carolina 94,773 3.1 44.3 Georgia 179,512 3.1 49.2 As general principles, those con- Florida 500,124 9.3 34.8 clusions are true, but reality does Kentucky 320,173 8.0 12.9 not fall tidily into the either-peo- Tennessee 206,668 5.0 28.6 ple-or-horses dichotomy. Maine, for Alabama 148,152 2.9 30.6 instance, has the largest land area Mississippi 113,063 2.4 25.7 Louisiana 164,305 3.8 27.5 of all the New England states and Texas 978,822 3.7 23.0 is, in fact, almost the same size as Arkansas 168,014 3.2 16.4 South Carolina, with less than a Oklahoma 326,134 4.7 10.8 third of that state’s population. Midwest Region Even with plenty of room for lots of Ohio 306,898 7.5 37.3 Michigan 234,477 4.1 43.1 horses, this northernmost state Indiana 202,986 5.7 30.7 has only 1.2 horses per square mile Illinois 192,524 3.5 66.0 and just one for every 35 people, Wisconsin 178,636 3.3 30.8 a lower than middling placement Minnesota 182,229 2.3 28.0 Missouri 281,255 4.1 20.5 in the national ratio rankings. North Dakota 59,391 0.9 10.7 New Hampshire also has the physi- South Dakota 120,878 1.6 6.4 cal space for horses, but its per- Iowa 199,220 3.6 14.8 square-mile horse population is Nebraska 150,891 2.0 11.6 almost as low as Maine’s, and the Kansas 178,651 2.2 15.3 Western Region human-horse ratio, at 88.5:1, is New Mexico 147,181 1.2 12.9 one of the country’s highest. Yet Arizona 177,124 1.6 32.4 neighboring Vermont, sharing Nevada 51,619 0.5 42.1 many of New Hampshire’s charac- Colorado 255,503 2.5 18.0 Utah 120,183 1.5 19.9 teristics except for its spillover Idaho 158,458 1.9 8.8 population from Boston, is a much Montana 129,997 0.9 7.1 horsier place, still below the Wyoming 99,257 1.0 5.1 national average with only 2.7 California 698,345 4.5 51.4 horses per square mile but with Oregon 167,928 1.7 21.4 Washington 249,964 3.8 24.8 a better human-horse ratio. The Alaska 11,449 0.0**** 57.2 small state of Connecticut and very Hawaii 8,037 1.3 157.0 small state of New Jersey break the many humans/fewer horses *AHCF (2005). rule in the opposite direction **Land area for forty-eight contiguous states. ***USCB (2004). by fitting proportionately large ****Fewer than 0.1 percent horse populations into very suburbanized landscapes.

186 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 greatest concentration of the U.S. • Quarter horses were the domi- Culture equine population—41 percent—is nant breed everywhere except and Climate in the Southern region (AHCF the Northeast, where they rep- Physical space in a state or region 2005), where only 36 percent of resented 24 percent of the is a major equine population deter- the U.S. population lives (USCB population, 16 percent less miner, but human demand decides 2000). In twelve of the sixteen than the norm. If the survey the density rate. Maine, with its Southern states, the median house- had not included Ohio in this smallholdings of poor agricultural hold income in 1999 was a little— region, the proportion would land and New England rectitude, or a lot—lower than the national have been even less. has a comparatively short history median (USCB 2000). Along with • Draft breeds made up only 1 with horses as work animals and as its warmth, the Southern region is and 2 percent of the popula- recreational presences. Its climate historically horse country from its tions in the Southern and does not invite year-round horse long and, in some areas, continuing Western regions, respectively, enjoyment or make horse keeping dependence on live horsepower in but accounted for 11 percent an easy, inexpensive venture. Main- agricultural and ranch work and its in the Northeast and 12 per- ers would apparently rather be sail- horse-sport-and-socializing legacy. cent in the Central region. ing or snowshoeing than horseback The eleven Pacific Coast and • Standardbreds had a negligible riding. Vermont’s distinction as the Mountain states in the Western presence in the West (0.9 per- birthplace of the Morgan breed and region and the twelve states in the cent) and the South (2.1 per- continued home of its registry Midwest region (as defined by cent), but approached 10 per- probably contributes to that state’s USCB, not by the NAHMS study) are cent in the Northeast and 6 greater equestrian involvement. closely matched in horse numbers, percent in the Central region. Marylanders have no demographic with 25 and 26 percent, respectively, The inclusion of Ohio as a North- reasons for their higher-than-aver- as well as human population, with eastern state has distorted the age horse interest. They live in the 22 and 23 percent, respectively. In results, as the Standardbred reg- most densely populated state out- the northern tier of states, weather istry is located in Columbus, and side the Northeast, ranking fifth in may put a damper on horse enjoy- the breed has more of a follow- the country, with 541.9 people per ment, but both regions offer bound- ing in the Midwest. square mile. With less than a third less space for equestrian activities, • Thoroughbreds comprised the land area of Maine, Maryland and horses have always been an more of the Southern horse has four times its horse population essential element in Western and population than elsewhere and the nation’s highest horse den- Midwestern work and culture. In the (14.2 percent) and had the sity. The small state’s more congen- states in these two regions with the smallest presence in the Cen- ial climate and better soil are fac- lowest human-horse ratios, the tral states (4.3 percent). tors, but its historical associations median household incomes in 1999 • As could be expected, Ten- with horse sports back to the colo- were also below the national average nessee Walking Horses were nial era have encouraged commer- (USCB 2000). As long as an area has found in greatest concentration cial horse production and profes- lots of open space, horses are not in the Southern region (8.2 per- sional operations, and well-paid the luxury items that they are often cent of the population there), workers in two major metropolitan perceived to be. In fact, a state’s but their second strongest areas have the disposable income median income appears to be a poor showing was in the Northeast, to spend on horse enjoyment. predictor of horsiness, given the fact accounting for 4.3 percent of A warm climate apparently has that New Jersey, Connecticut, Mass- that area’s population. greater appeal to horse owners achusetts, and New Hampshire had • Arabians made up about 10 overall than do large incomes. among the highest median house- percent of the horse popula- Horses themselves adapt quite well hold incomes in the country in 1999 tion in the Northeast, Western, to cold climates and are probably (USCB 2000) and only a small frac- and Central regions, but only healthier in the north, where tion of its horses. 4.5 percent in the South. there’s less opportunity for biting • Appaloosas were consistent insects to spread several serious throughout, ranging from 5 equine diseases and where heat- Breeds by Region to 7 percent. associated conditions, infections, Regional breed differences re- • Paints had their greatest concen- and skin disorders are less com- ported in the NAHMS study (USDA tration in the Northeast, at 8.8 mon. But horses cluster where peo- 1998) reflect the use patterns and percent, while they accounted ple want to use/enjoy them, prima- equestrian preferences character- for around 5 percent of the rest rily in outdoor activities, and the istic of each area: of the regions.

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 187 • As for the nonhorse populations, to go directly to slaughter, al- there were fewer ponies but though the “nonpurebred” division Commercial more miniature horses in the could include performance horses Producers Southern region than there not intended for breeding [USDA The AHC Economic Impact Study were elsewhere in the country. 2006a; FAO 2006].) Instead of examined breeding in only the rac- Mules had the smallest presence shopping elsewhere, the nation’s ing and showing sectors, and then in the Northeast and the largest horsemen grow their own, compar- only for its financial implications. Of in the West, and donkeys/burros atively few of them on massive the country’s approximately eight made up 4 percent of Southern farms or ranches producing some- hundred fifty thousand Thorough- equidae but only 1.4 percent of times more than a hundred foals breds in the racing industry, about the Western population. annually, many more on moderate- half were in training/competition Wild horses and the “invisible” size operations with a dozen or two and the other half in the breeding populations are particularly tied broodmares, and, as discussed ear- sector, including mature producers, to their locales. Table 6 shows the lier, a great many on hobby proper- their immature offspring, and mares top locations for BLM, reservation, ties producing occasional foals for and stallions returning from the and Amish horses, with population personal satisfaction. track to become breeding stock. In figures where available. In their show horse production, the division geographical niches, they are pro- between competitors and breeders tected from mainstream assimila- Amateur was not at all even: more than two tion and influence. million were competing, while a Involvement third that many were producing new Size factors into the high level of show stock (AHCF 2005). Horses amateur involvement in U.S. horse bred to race have a much shorter Where Do U.S. production. In European countries competitive life than do most show breeding is generally left to the pro- Horses Originate? and competition horses, so produc- Despite economic- and tax-related fessionals, often with a national tion turnaround has to be quicker to slumps—and downright slides in standard and performance evalua- keep up a stream of starter horses. some of the major breed registration to ensure a quality product for Speed over short distances is not tions starting about twenty years specific uses. In the United States, enhanced by age, so successful run- ago—the U.S. horse population has the national tendency toward inde- ners are usually at their peak before expanded steadily overall since the pendence/self-reliance, combined age five. In other competitive disci- mid-twentieth century. As some big with plenty of rural and semirural plines requiring schooling in behav- bubbles burst, particularly for Ara- land, allows practically anyone with iors more “sophisticated” than bians and Appaloosas, and as race- the urge to do so to become a horse all-out running, age four or five is horse production reversed, particu- breeder. Perusal of reader profiles often the earliest starting point in larly for Standardbreds (Table 2), for four of the country’s largest gen- show careers. the small and medium breeds just eral interest, all-breeds horse publi- The NAHMS horse management kept on registering babies at the cations supports that assertion: study assessed the prevalence of usual rate and sometimes at a little • 39 percent of EQUUS’s professional or semiprofessional better than that. There was still 149,647 subscribers own one horse breeders among all equine that host of recreational owners or more broodmares (Equi- operations, but the percentage may and its every-now-and-then produc- Search.com 2006). well have changed in the intervention pattern. The U.S. market has • Almost half of Horse & Rider’s ing years. Of all sectors of the horse had plenty of horses to go around 169,077 subscribers report industry, larger-scale breeders not since the 1960s. Of that number, owning at least one broodmare backed by financial reserves from importation from other countries (EquiSearch.com 2006). other sources are most susceptible accounts for only a tiny fraction. • One-quarter of Practical to economic downturns and finan- In the past decade, only 19,541 Horseman’s 78,224 readers cial setbacks. Breeders’ production live horses classified as purebred own one or more broodmares decisions take place at least two breeding animals, divided about (EquiSearch.com 2006). years, and usually longer, before equally between mares and stal- • One-quarter of Western Horse- sales can bring in enough cash to lions, have come into the country man’s 181,764 horse-owning cover production costs. Equine ges- (USDA 2006a). (The remaining readers uses horses for breed- tation lasts eleven months, and the 300,000 or so live horses imported ing, whether professionally or foal is usually four to six months old during that same period appear to as a hobby not specified (West- at weaning. Occasional weanling have been brought into the country ern Horseman 2006). sales are made, but in the racehorse

188 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 Table 6 Primary Locations of Three Special Equine Populations and Population Numbers, Where Available

Bureau of Land Management Amish Horses Horses Burros Reservation Horses (top county)

Nevada 13,251 Arizona 1,542 Oklahoma 17,826 Ohio (Holmes)

Wyoming 3,991 Nevada 1,464 Arizona 15,598 Indiana (LaGrange)

California 3,079 California 1,228 South Dakota 10,695 Pennsylvania (Lancaster)

Oregon 2,670 Utah 142 Montana 8,230 Maryland (St. Mary’s)

Utah 2,420 Oregon 15 Texas 6,938 Communities in 20+/- other states

Sources: BLM (2005); USDA (2002); Milicia (2004). world, yearlings are the first marin the response to both oversupply for 1998, the under-six-months ketable commodity. In recreational and undersupply. In the former sit- group (1.3 percent of the total) sales buyers generally look for a lit- uation, the horses are likely to be would include 104,000 foals on the tle or a lot of training put into an caught in the squeeze when they ground during the polling. Yet the animal who can perform satisfacto- cannot be sold, and bills for their total new registrations (264,211) rily in the desired activity. Training care continue to mount. recorded by just nine registries for does not begin until the youngster that year was more than 2.5 times is at least two years of age, and the number suggested by the basic to intermediate training for Production NAHMS results. some disciplines can take years. If One explanation for the disparity the market shrinks in the interim Trends in foal production figures is the sur- At the time of the NAHMS survey, between the mating and the age at vey procedure, which gathered data almost ten years ago, horse produc- which the offspring can be sold, the through phone interviews between tion was beginning to regain some “product” continues to need expen- March 16 and April 10, 1998. Al- momentum after the 1980s bust, sive feed, shelter, and care without though many commercial breeders which resulted from a combination much prospect for recouping the aim to produce foals in the first of unfavorable tax changes, reces- expenses, let alone making enough quarter of the year for competitive sion in the oil industry and the U.S. to cover capital expenses. Even advantage in juvenile races and economy, and deflation of hyped when production is cut back or futurity competitions, May is the markets for some fancy show stock stopped in response to current mar- peak month for U.S. horse births, (Kilby 1989). The survey identified ket pressures, the foals conceived which then trail off in June and con- 5.2 percent of the sampled opera- just before the decision will still be tinue at a low rate into early fall. tions with breeding as their primary born and still need raising. During But even doubling the percentage function, the second-smallest sec- the shutdown, maintenance or disas compensation still does not add tor after boarding/training stables posal of the production “machin- up to the registration indicators of (USDA 1998). At the same time, ery”—mares and stallions valuable breeding activity in this country. the horses on these operations for their pedigrees, and often for Taking the major breeds’ 1998 total made up 14.8 percent of the total, emotional reasons as well—poses a and adding a conservative hundred for a higher-than-average per-farm further difficulty for strapped breed- thousand more for small-breed reg- count. As an indicator of U.S. breeders. When financial times and the istrations and the unregistered ing activity, the age profile for U.S. horse market improve, production foals produced in 1998 indicates a equidae produced by NAHMS raises is equally slow to rebound. Horse 4.6 percent reproduction rate for some questions when examined in reproduction, maturation, and that year. When applied to the 2003 light of breed registry figures. Using training to usefulness take no less population (9.2 million), that rate eight million as a generous esti- than three years, and there is no would indicate a foal crop of mated national equine population way around the resulting lag time 423,200. The known registrations

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 189 with the nine major breeds was mares would be expected to have ticated situations. Apparently minis, 265,795, leaving a remainder of at least 650,000 foals running at weighing much the same as their 157,405, which would have to be their sides by season’s end, which, handlers and standing considerably accounted for through unregistered of course, they did not. Two explana- shorter, do not inspire the same offspring and those entered into tions could account for the sur- urgency to eliminate the hormone- smaller studbooks. That remainder vey’s divergence from reality: either driven behavior with castration. may be an inflated version of the respondents cited the number of Interesting, too, is the above nor- production reality for the year, but, mares on their operations consid- mal number of entire asses (jacks) clearly, the U.S. foal crop has been ered to be breeding stock but not all in the gender profile but without a closer to 4 percent annually than to of them were pregnant at that time, corresponding rise in pregnant jen- 1.3 percent of the total population. or the sample of respondents over- nies (female asses). It may well be The gender makeup on NAHMS- represented the active breeding sec- that donkeys/burros are maintained surveyed equine operations for tor in the country as a whole. Ten as one-of-a-kinds on most horse 1998 (Table 7) shows some inter- percent of the U.S. horse population properties, whereas miniatures live esting differences among the sev- may be thought of as broodmares, in pairs or herds. Both of these small eral populations and again raises but they are not cranking out foals populations of small animals are the questions about its portrayal of every year. purest examples of what can be cat- U.S. horse-reproduction activity. Other than that unlikely percent- egorized as “pet” equidae, with little First, the questions. If 10.6 per- age of pregnant mares, the most use as typically defined. Their cent of the surveyed population striking feature in the NAHMS gen- diminutive size reduces the dan- were pregnant mares (754,720 of der profile is the reproductive impli- ger/difficulty of maintaining the an estimated horse population of cations for miniature horses. The males intact, saves on castration 7.12 million that year), the outcome fact that more than one-quarter of costs, and results in especially cute would be a virtual population ex- the males remain intact into breed- and not very expensive mini babies. plosion that year. The live foal rate ing age is mirrored in the high per- The reproductive picture of these in bred domesticated mares is not centage of pregnant females, a rate pet horses begins to resemble that 100 percent by any means, but it is that, in this special population, pre- of pet dogs and cats. no longer the dismal 50 percent sumably could be true, especially posited in the prereproductive tech- coupled with the upward trend in nology era (Loch and Massey 2006), annual registrations cited earlier. Reproduction so there is no way that many preg- Horse and even pony stallions, with nant mares could have produced the their large size and testosterone- Technologies likely number of foals born, starting driven behaviors, can range from dif- The physical risks and management with the 264,000 registered in the ficult to dangerous to handle and difficulties of dealing with the male nine breeds. That late in their gesta- manage, requiring special housing half of the reproductive effort has tions, more than 755,000 pregnant and separate turnout in most domes- pretty much disappeared through-

Table 7 Gender Makeup of a Sample Equine Population, Eighteen Months of Age and Older, 1998

Males Females Intact Castrated Not Pregnant Pregnant (Stallions) (Geldings)

Horses 7.4 40.4 39.7 10.6

Ponies 7.1 30.4 48.7 12.5

Miniature horses 27.0 26.8 24.7 14.5

Donkeys/burros 17.8 28.0 44.6 8.5

Note: Remaining percentages in each category “unknown.”

Source: USDA (1998).

190 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 out the equine industry. Horse produce some “worse” along with • Do all this in the company of breeders still produce foals the old- the “betters,” creating a popula- a half-dozen or so congenial fashioned way by what is called “live tion of reject animals and spurring herd mates. cover” (during which both animals another try for the next “better” if • Roam over topography suffi- are typically under human restraint not “perfect” horse. The accessibil- ciently varied and vegetated to during the mating to lessen the risk ity of modern reproductive technol- provide protection and comfort of injury), and some remain even ogy in U.S. horse breeding, not to zones throughout the seasons. more old-fashioned and “pasture mention the expense and manage- The open-air wanderings hold breed,” running a band of ten or so ment demands on owners who contagion and parasitism at bay, mares with a stallion and letting choose to use it, would seem to be while all the unshod footwork nature take its course. These two strong influences in reducing the keeps the hooves in trim, and the more or less natural methodologies wastage of “unwanted” horses pro- endless grazing of coarse roughage usually result in higher conception duced in this country. If every wears continuously erupting teeth rates, but there are more risks of equine pregnancy is planned so evenly for trouble-free nipping and injury—kicks, bites, falls, internal painstakingly and paid for so dearly, grinding. It’s a simple, healthy tears—to the animals in the process each offspring would be all the plan not often available in domesti- than some owners care to take. For more valuable than the foals mass- cation due to lack of space, con- safety’s sake, many breeders collect produced each year from mediocre flicting work schedules for the semen from stallions and inject it in stock in hopes that there will be a horses, and owners’ fear of injury the mares even when the two mat- standout or two in each crop. and blemishing. ing animals are on the same prop- Currently, all breed registries, Horses across the country can be erty. But the real incentives for except for The Jockey Club for found living entirely antithetical horse breeders’ interest in manipu- Thoroughbreds, allow some form existences—tethered without suste- lated matings is in widening breed- of reproductive manipulation in the nance amid junk and clutter; shut ing choices that previously were matings of their registered stock, if away perpetually in dark barns; limited by geography and extending only the use of artificial insemina- swaddled in blankets inside opulent, reproductive possibilities once lim- tion involving a mare and stallion heated stables; striving all day in ited by biology. on the same property. Most stud- harness, then standing in narrow tie Today any mare owner anywhere books accept foals produced by any stalls. But these are the extremes in who has sufficient funds, a capable of the modern means up to cloning, an equine population that usually veterinarian, and moderate dis- which is too recent and too uncom- gets at least a taste of the natural tance to an airport can breed to the mon for rule book action. After all, way for part of each day. The best (though stallion owners can the more foals registered, the bet- NAHMS survey found 85 percent of insist on a certain quality of mare) ter for the association. DNA tests its sample population living under by using cooled, live transported can now assure the parentage of their owners’ care either at nonagri- semen or, with somewhat less suc- foals no matter how the egg was fer- cultural residences or on farms/ cess, thawed frozen semen. Embryo tilized or whose uterus nourished ranches involved in other agricul- transplantation into surrogate the foal. That’s the fundamental tural pursuits. Northeastern horse dams allows competition mares to concern of all bloodline registries. owners were 12 percent less likely produce a foal or more each year than other regions’ owners to reside without having to miss any shows with their horses on farms/ranches, or allows good mares with faulty/ How Are U.S. producing related bumps in the per- damaged organs to reproduce. centage of horses at residences and Finally, the births in 2006 of the Horses Managed? boarding/training stables in the When horses manage themselves first commercially cloned horses region. Horses in the Central region in free-range situations, their take equine reproduction to the were the least likely to be under maintenance plan is simple: point where owners can produce commercial care, and Western • Drink at least five gallons of exactly the individual they want by horses were the least likely to be at fresh, unpolluted water daily, making an identical genetic copy breeding farms. Overall, the distri- more when sweating. of an existing horse. bution of U.S. horses according to • Take a lick or two of salt every Regardless of the technology, the their residences looked like Table 8 once in a while to sustain min- goal has been to make a better—or in 1998. eral levels. even perfect—racehorse, show The agricultural bent of this sur- • Graze sufficient forage to keep horse, polo pony, draft horse, or vey’s sampling technique, plus the a light layer of fat over the ribs miniature. Like unplanned mat- escalation of suburban ownership and backbone. ings, planned matings inevitably in more recent years, probably

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 191 fed concentrates specially for- Table 8 mulated for ease of chewing and better digestibility for geri- U.S. Horse Residence Patterns, 1998 atric horses. • Socialization, a very important Percentage Number of Resident aspect of herd-living equidae, of Equine Equines Per was guaranteed on at least half Location Population Location of the reporting operations and Residence with equidae probably to some degree on the for personal use 55.0 5 or fewer majority where three to twenty Farm or ranch 31.0 5 or fewer or more horses lived and thus offered ample intraspecies Breeding farm 5.2 6–19 awareness, if not direct con- Boarding/training stable 3.9 6–19 tact. Management on more than a third of operations did divide up the acreage into Sources: NAHMS (1998). smaller lots specifically to permit segregation of different means that a greater proportion of percent of operations that fed groups of residents, but even U.S. horses is kept in commercial hay at least three months of the visual contact satisfies the boarding establishments today. The year, the preferred variety was equine need for company. respondents in this survey may also grass hay but by only narrow Almost half of the noncommer- have been more experienced in margins over alfalfa, a protein- cial respondents reported keep- horse management than were the rich legume, and a grass-alfalfa ing just one or two equidae on full gamut of owners, as only 9 per- mix. Nutritionally, grass hay their residential or farm proper- cent of the reporting operations matches the horse’s digestive ties. In these small populations, were newer than three years old, needs most closely. Hay is usu- horses at least paired are often and the largest group had owned ally distributed twice daily, if not more content than horses kept horses for twenty years or longer. more frequently, or continually, solo, but socialization outside Keeping in mind, then, that the matching the natural plan most their own species, including NAHMS management findings closely. Minus the physical effort with owners, can make up for probably are not as suburbanized as needed in ranging to find the lone horses’ isolation. they should be and do not repre- food, domesticated horses tend • The freedom to range and the sent the naive, negligent, and unen- to overindulge and be over- responsibility to seek one’s own lightened sector of ownership, the weight. The feeding of grain, comforts were not year-round horse’s natural maintenance plan particularly in winter, also is options for many U.S. horses. in U.S. domestication has been commonplace in U.S. horse Instead, their cut of the exercise adjusted as follows (USDA 1998): keeping plans, but with no real areas (number of acres divided • Water for horses on at least 60 parallel in the natural model, by the number of animals graz- percent of operations came out other than occasional snacks ing/roaming there equals the of wells, except for those in the on the mature seed heads of stocking rate) on operations in Southern region, where surface grassy plants. These concen- all of the regions equaled about water (streams and ponds) was trated energy sources, primarily 1.25 acres. In most areas of the used more frequently than it was doled out from commercial country, they were confined in other areas of the country. bagged rations formulated to inside buildings for some part of • Along with essentially universal nutritional standards for differ- their days as protection against salt-block availability, close to 40 ent classes of horses, may be the weather, more so in some percent of horses receive supple- necessary to fuel hardworking areas than others. During mental vitamin-mineral mixes. horses. At least as often and for Northeastern winters, 40 per- • Feed is generally provided, as recreational owners particu- cent of operations kept their opposed to expecting the ani- larly, the addition of grain is animals confined more than mals to maintain themselves by more of a bonding mechanism half the time, and another 40 foraging alone. In fact, pas- than it is a nutritional necessity. percent stabled them fairly turage is more often thought Only 5.6 of operations reported often but less than half the of as exercise space than as a feeding no grain, while 7.6 time. In contrast, Western source of nourishment. On 87 percent of the large majority horses got the most freedom

192 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 year-round, rarely or never being breeding sectors. Hoof care, In imputation of state show activ- confined in summer in 86 per- one of the major sources of ity, for example, Alaska received a cent of management situations equine lameness and disability, 0.7 in the statistical weighting and remaining unstabled during was not surveyed. schema, while Maryland show winter in 76 percent of the oper- activity rated a 0.5; Maryland may ations. Central and Southern have fewer quarter horse shows, horses were about midway be- How Are U.S. but it certainly does not have less tween the two regional ex- overall show activity than Alaska. tremes in their confinement Horses Used? The NAHMS survey identified six Horses and their kin are the patterns—unconfined in sum- primary uses for horses in its sam- champs of multitasking among all mer on about 60 percent of ple, making breeding a separate the domesticated animals. They operations, with only a 5 per- activity as well as farm/ranch are partners in work, partners in cent increase in confinement work, which AHC included in play, professional athletes, ama- during winter. “other.” The respondents were teur athletes, beauty contestants, • Management practices on com- asked to identify the primary use cultural icons, beasts of burden, mercial operations reflected of the horses on their property, marathon runners, service ani- awareness of the health impli- but the specific count of animals mals, baby makers, boon compan- cations of unnatural confine- in the varous “occupations” was ions, basic transportation, school- ment of a large population of not solicited. masters, financial investments, equidae in relatively small With most pleasure respondents animated lawn ornaments, and areas. Residential and farm keeping five or fewer animals and more. The AHC economic impact owners with just one or two ani- the commercial operations gener- study boils their many roles down mals did the least to protect ally maintaining larger populations to four categories, folding breed- their animals against infectious (Table 8), U.S. horses are not ing animals into the activity for diseases through vaccinations nearly so removed from competi- which they’re producing, and cal- and potentially serious effects tion and commerce as the percent- culates their financial contribution of parasitism through routine ages might indicate at first glance to the gross domestic product. It deworming. Less than half of (Table 12). adds up to billions nationally. that group’s caretakers had at Even so, the AHCF and NAHMS Tables 9, 10, and 11 show the divi- least one animal vaccinated in surveys again seem to be reporting sion of all U.S. horses and those in the previous year, while 90 per- on two different horse worlds. selected states by their uses. cent of operations with more And, in fact, that was true to a The numbers given were not than twenty residents had met degree. The economic impact head counts but were calculated the same criterion. Deworming study follows the money (and pos- statistically, with extrapolation due was performed more universally sibly accentuates/inflates it, too) to poor response to the show man- (86.7 of all operations), most in the horse world; the NAHMS agement survey, which may have likely because owners can per- survey studied the minutia of produced some data flukes not form the treatment themselves horses’ everyday worlds, focusing reflected in the tables in states at small expense. Fecal testing not on show rings and racing ovals where quarter horses do not rule. found that 83 percent of the sampled horse populations were shedding only a low level Table 9 of parasite eggs or none at all, National Equine Use Patterns, 2003 suggesting the management programs were effective. The Western region, where confine- Use Percentage of Total Number of Horses ment was lowest, also had the Recreation 42 3,906,923 lowest levels detected of parasite eggs. Dental care for horses Showing/Competition 29 2,718,954 (primarily periodic filing, or Other 19 1,752,439 “floating,” of teeth to remove sharp protrusions and level the Racing 9 844,531 grinding surfaces) was sought Total 9,222,847 by only 44 percent of the total

sample, and most of that was Source: AHCF (2005). in the performance, racing, and

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 193 but on barns and fields. The like search for the perfect circle or Horses in the recreational/pleas- NAHMS vision sees the world the half pass (a lateral movement in ure category may do everything majority of U.S. horses inhabit— dressage) to the discovery of inner the pros do, though rarely so well out of the limelight and out on peace as a volunteer in a therapeu- and usually not quite so seriously. the trails or out to pasture. tic-riding program. The joiners They may be kept in top working have plenty of equestrian organiza- trim and put on as many miles as Recreational Horses tions, local to national, to add human commuters being trailered One woman’s recreational horse is some socializing to the picture. to various events or riding venues. in the trailer and on the go to a The reclusive types can ride off into The NAHMS study reported that trail ride here, an overnight camp- the sunset on solitary trails. That is the second most common reason ing adventure there, and a special a major appeal of horse involve- for trailering horses was attending training clinic way out there, week ment—something for everyone. shows/competitions (21 percent), in and week out. Another woman’s And for a surprising number, the with transportation to work being recreational horse is one of a half something is tending to their the first, and though practically all dozen at her home, and she might horses at least twice daily, forking commercial operations had trans- get a saddle on and ride over to the manure and heaving hay bales; wor- ported at least one horse during neighbor’s place a couple of times rying over ailments, injuries, and the previous year, 46 percent of the a month, if she is lucky enough to feeds bills 365 days of the year; and purely pleasure group had done so squeeze in some time for it. With having little time left over to actu- as well, the greatest portion of horses, recreation can be just ally use the animals. They do this which was for recreation (USDA about anything you please, from year after year, and, when asked 1998). That was almost ten years primping and pampering to rough- what they do with their horses, the ago; the rate of trailering by recre- ing it in the outback; from a zen- answer is “just for pleasure.” ational owners has increased

Table 10 Horse Involvement by Activity in Selected States, by Region

State Racing Showing Recreation Other Total

New York 23,216 60,746 89,223 28,721 201,906

New Jersey 7,271 27,061 39,581 9,070 82,982

Maryland 41,805 29,032 47,337 34,756 152,930

Florida 134,406 158,641 160,696 46,381 500,124

Kentucky 58,755 88,176 100,185 73,057 320,173

Louisiana 20,815 59,669 58,793 25,027 164,305

Texas 104,836 310,988 340,383 222,615 978,822

Oklahoma 22,225 118,513 113,776 71,620 326,134

Ohio 33,477 98,660 119,102 55,659 306,898

Indiana 14,339 61,024 105,695 21,929 202,986

Missouri 9,742 65,345 145,674 60,461 281,255

New Mexico 10,076 36,746 63,955 36,405 147,181

Colorado 10,113 76,979 106,624 61,787 255,503

California 82,236 191,945 315,261 108,903 698,345

Source: AHCF (2005), state breakouts.

194 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 steadily since, as they avail them- Table 11 selves of public trails, educational clinics, and riding vacations along Percentage of Selected States’ 2003 with showing. Recreational horses Horse Populations, by Primary Use* in the United States are often the center of a nonstop lifestyle. State Recreation Showing Other Racing On the other hand, recreational horses may do nothing at all except Northeast be the object of someone’s deepest New York 44 30 14 11 affections, naive neglect, or irra- tional cruelty. Not a single criterion New Jersey 48 33 11 9 exists for being a recreational/ South pleasure horse in the United States. Any breed, age, size, capability, or Maryland 31 19 23 27 appearance that catches a potential buyer’s interest or appears to Florida 32 32 9 16 match the requirements for the Kentucky 31 28 23 18 dreamed-of activity, and the buyer is a recreational horseperson after Louisiana 36 36 15 13 hundreds—or hundreds of thou- Texas 35 32 23 11 sands—of dollars change hands. Horses do not need to be well Oklahoma 35 36 22 7 trained or sound of limb, wind, or Midwest even mind for a recreational match to be made with a willing owner. Ohio 39 32 18 11 Too often the first-time buyer, par- Indiana 52 30 11 7 ticularly, sees the kind eye but not the puffy ankle and slight limp that Missouri 52 23 21 3 go with it, or the golden palomino West coat but not the head-flinging response to a hand approaching the New Mexico 43 25 25 7 lovely face. Perhaps he sees the Colorado 42 30 24 4 retired harness racer’s “snap” that will take the carriage down the road California 45 27 16 12 with style but not the trench worn along the paddock fence, indicative *Calculated from Table 9. Note: Rounding responsible for over/underages in percent totals. of a compulsive pacing that will make the horse a hard animal to keep weight on and/or live with in general. Worst of all, a well-mean- Table 12 ing parent may think a young, Primary Use of U.S. Horses, 1998 untrained horse will make an ideal mount for a young, inexperi- Primary Use of Percentage of enced child so “they can grow up Resident Horses Surveyed Operations and learn together.” Pleasure 66.0 Somehow, a lot of rank begin- ners and their inappropriate horses Farm/ranch 15.2 make it through the steep learning Showing/competition 6.5 curve of first-time ownership, and a lifetime hobby/need is estab- Breeding 6.0 lished. Of the nearly two million Other 3.6 horse owners in this country (chil- Racing 1.9 dren under eighteen were not included in the survey), as calcu-

Source: USDA (1998). lated by the AHCF study, 83 percent were over thirty, with the

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 195 largest block (41 percent) between and courses as they improve. Few the animal pays the fees to enter the ages of forty-five and fifty-nine rise to the international level, but a competition, even if it is only an (AHCF 2005). The elastic bound- equestrian sports such as these egg-and-spoon race with twelve- aries of recreational horsemanship that are physically and mentally year-old competitors. On any given have room for even truly elderly challenging and based on a long weekend, spring through fall, and people if they wish to go there. It’s working relationship with one maybe throughout the winter, the place for older horses, too. The horse appeal to many in the recre- too, hundreds of thousands of recreational sector takes in past- ational world. The past twenty horses and their handlers/riders/ their-prime pros from racing and years have seen large increases in drivers are going round and round upper-level sports and recycles most equestrian activities, but in dusty rings, being judged, get- their talents to compete at lower sports that test brains—training, ting pinned or shown the gate. levels of the same sport or retrains skill, and strategy—not just beauty Others are testing their limits on them for other activities. have seen some of the steepest challenging cross-country jump- Recreational riders and their rises (Table 13). ing courses or in polo arenas; horses make up the broad base of cutting cattle, roping calves, rac- Olympic sports, such as dressage, Show Horses ing cloverleaf patterns around eventing, and reining, taking on Every horse is potentially a show three barrels; or having their en- progressively more difficult tests horse if whoever happens to use durance tested in all-day judged

Table 13 Selected Competitive-Sport Association Memberships over Two Decades

1985 1995 2005

U.S. Equestrian Federation* 45,238 62,000 87,050 (multidiscipline oversight)

U.S. Pony Clubs 8,999 13,000 11,800 (youth horsemanship education)

American Driving Society 850 2,500 3,016 (international discipline)

U.S. Trotting Association 55,075 35,196 24,650 (harness racing)

U.S. Dressage Federation 18,543 40,000 33,044 (international discipline—English)

U.S. Eventing Association** 8,346 10,900 13,800 (international discipline—English)

National Cutting Horse Assoc. 14,363 11,500 16,000 (competitive cattle work)

National Reining Horse Association 2,050 7,000 13,000 (international discipline—Western)

American Endurance Ride Conference 2,000 5,050 6,570 (international discipline—100-mile contests)

Total 155,463 178,146 208,930

* Formerly American Horse Shows Association. **Formerly U.S. Combined Training Association.

Note: Members of all international disciplines who compete in their sports must also be members of the USEF; therefore, yearly totals include duplicate counts for those sports.

Sources: EQUUS (1995); EQUUS (2006).

196 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 trail rides. The AHC 2003 direc- millions more are currently in- and abusive training techniques tory listed forty horse association vested for the 2006–2011 funds are used when the characteristic, and event organizers that spon- (AQHA 2004). such as the “big lick” and the quar- sored more than 10,500 competi- Only a small fraction of U.S. ter horse’s automaton-like show- tions attracting in excess of ten horses are full-time show horses, ring movement, proved impossible million class entries. but they, in particular, are at risk to develop through genetics. Not all of these organizations pro- because of all that cash. The outlay vided their counts (AHC 2003). And of huge sums of money to partici- Racehorses countless tiny shows are put on by pate and/or the prospect of win- Although six registries conduct riding stables as a goal/reward for ning immense payoffs puts a some sort of racing program for the students or to bring in outside must-win cast on a competition their breeds, Thoroughbreds, Stan- participants and make some money originally intended to improve the dardbreds, and Quarter Horses are from entry fees. Many organizations breed through comparative evalua- historically the pari-mutuel con- mount elaborate multiday shows tion. As showing was conceived, tenders. Appaloosas, Paints, and each year, with income that some- the stallion who got the blue rib- Arabians do most of their running times goes to charities. Most sport- bon or whose offspring won the tro- at small venues, such as county fairs specific groups and larger breed phies had more mares brought to in the West. Internationally and in registries/associations encourage him, and the quality of the stock this country, Thoroughbreds, origi- participation and ownership by improved to everyone’s benefit. nating four hundred years ago in sanctioning restricted shows; re- But competition for cash and England, are the prestige runners, cording results; and creating point acclaim rarely improves human whose Triple Crown races—at the systems, futurities, jackpots, and nature, and the horses involved least, the Kentucky Derby—most the like to heighten competition can bear the brunt. In the 1990s, Americans would recognize. Har- and motivate continued participa- for instance, hunter-jumper train- ness racing (Standardbreds were so tion, often culminating in days-long ers were killing horses for insur- named because they had to trot or national championship events. ance money (Chronicle of the Horse pace to a certain time standard to The cost for a local riding-school 1998), and for decades, despite be entered into the registry regard- show might hit $50 a day; the big- laws specifically banning the prac- less of their parentage) grew out of time competitors can spend tens of tice, Tennessee Walking Horses’ this country’s democratic, agricul- thousands for a show season, and trainers have “sored” the horses’ tural heritage, which continues that’s not counting the horse. Tra- forefeet and legs to cause them to strongest in the Midwest, and Quar- ditionally, showing in the English move in an extreme fashion that ter Horse racing, though originally disciplines has been done for the wins the big prize. contested on East Coast main sole tangible reward of a ribbon, Shows can have a wider-reaching streets in Colonial times, evolved in if one was lucky enough to negative effect on all horses pro- the West with cowboys pitting their get pinned, and the pride in one’s duced for a particular competitive stock horses against each other in superior horsemanship. Western style even if they don’t ever enter a sprint races. competitions and some jumping show ring. Judging standards orig- When men and their horses events sweeten the pot with cash inated to define the ideal type for gather, it seems, racing is inevitable. winnings, usually derived from futu- that breed’s conformation and way Betting is, too, and throughout the rity money collected from breeders of moving, all based on a particular twentieth century, horseracing was early in their prospective competi- job the horse would be expected to the one legal outlet for the betting tors’ lives, then two or three years’ carry out in real life. Yet as the blue urge, at least in states that allowed worth is paid out in big bucks to ribbon, rather than the functional pari-mutuel meets. Until the 1980s, the top finishers in the event. The performance, came to be the ulti- horseracing was the most popular AQHA, a huge corporate operation mate concern, breeders produce sport of all in terms of attendance. sponsoring, among other things, what judges will pin, and when Only at the end of the century did 2,500-plus approved shows and judges select for extremes, such as state governments begin permitting events annually attracting close to the Tennessee Walking Horse’s other forms of legalized gambling ten thousand entries, oversees the exaggerated “big lick” gait, the and, by then, too, broadcasting was collection, investment, and dis- quarter horse’s bulging muscles offering a ceaseless parade of faster- bursement of an incentive fund, atop trim, tiny feet, or the Ara- moving spectator sports for every- based on points earned during rec- bian’s wild-eyed “animation,” the man’s entertainment. Racing has ognized competitions. Between nonfunctional or antifunctional been in decline for about twenty 1986 and 2003 the fund distrib- winning characteristics spread years. Since 1990 Thoroughbred uted $43,690,096.14, and many through the breed. Drugs, devices, races run annually in North America

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 197 (approximately 90 percent of them week after week just keep on going or all of their horses against in the United States; 10 percent in for as long as they bring in an occa- their wishes. Canada) declined steadily, from sional check. After that, they may • The animals become physically 79,971 to 57,495 in 2005, and the recycle into the recreational or show incapacitated and no longer number of North American Thor- world. With fewer races being fit for the intended purpose, oughbreds starting in races those offered, U.S. Thoroughbreds ran, on or they are too unruly or dan- same years went from 89,716 to average, only 6.5 races in 2005 (The gerous for the current owners 72,780 (The Jockey Club 2006). Jockey Club 2006). Racing appears to handle. Steeplechasing, in which Thorough- to be nearing its finish line, at least • Their special caretaking needs breds race over jumps on longer as the prestige sport of the eques- become a burden, particularly cross-country courses, has actually trian world. with the aged or those with enjoyed some growth during this chronic health conditions. same period, probably because of The NAHMS survey gathered the festival-like ambiance cultivated What Becomes data on the comings and goings of in the country settings. The thirty- of U.S. Horses? the resident populations of com- nine steeplechase events run in U.S. horses are as mobile as the mercial, work/ranch, and recre- twelve states in 2006, during prima- country’s human population. As ational establishments studied and rily spring and fall seasons, paid with the majority of people, horses found that in the previous year, just out a total of $4.5 million in purses rarely grow up and die where they 13.4 percent of the animals perma- (NSA 2006). Quarter Horse racing, were born or even in their home- nently left those operations (USDA mostly run in the West, has also suf- town. Unlike much of the pet pop- 1998). Table 14 ranks the destina- fered substantial declines in races ulation, which moves into human tions of the departed animals by and starters since 1990, but the homes at weaning time and percentage of the surveyed popula- recent trend is somewhat upward remains with the same people tion and converts the percentages (AQHA 2004). Harness racing has throughout the rest of their lives, to head counts based on a current been in free fall for years, as wit- horses tend to go through a series national population of 10 million. nessed by the deep membership of owners. The serial ownership of Table 15 does the same for the rea- drop in the U.S. Trotting Association horses occurs not just because sons the respondents gave for dis- (USTA), the Standardbred registry they are produced and dealt in as persing the animals. to which breeders, owners, trainers valuable commodities. Once they In the years since the study was and drivers must belong (Table 13). get into the equestrian pipeline, done, dispersal patterns have prob- The horses of the racing world are multiple factors cause them to ably remained consistent. Eco- exceptional athletes when bred well, move from owner to owner: nomic forces have not been suffi- trained intelligently, and managed • The animals’ size and manage- ciently negative to cause owners to carefully. They are also subject ment requirements restrict liquidate or trim their herds for to stress-related illnesses, such as where they can live. Even financial reasons. The most likely ulcers, from their unnatural though a great many horse- change in these percentages would lifestyle, and to stress injuries when people do arrange the rest of be an increase in the number of not well trained or if there’s a mis- their lives around the keeping horses sold privately for business step during the all-out gallop. The of horses, not all owners can profit to accommodate the rise in prime years for a runner are ages take the animals along when registered foal production since three to five. Most stallions with out- they must relocate. 1997. Assuming the study results standing race records in their three- • As owners’ interests change, are a true reflection of the larger year-old campaigns are retired to horses are traded in for new world, today’s horses change own- stud immediately afterward. Insur- models or dispersed when the ership, aside from commercial ing such animals against a fatal or hobby/business is abandoned. transactions, almost four times life-threatening injury, such as that This happens commonly with more frequently because of owners’ suffered by Kentucky Derby winner youth involvement, indulged by personal problems or, considerably Barbaro during the 2006 Preakness nonparticipating parents for less significantly, for financial rea- Stakes (Bloodhorse.com 2006), is the interest span or depend- sons, than because of the horses’ extremely expensive and the loss of ency of the child, then dissolved shortcomings. That only 10 per- breeding income from such an upon college attendance or cent of horses changed ownership occurrence makes the risk too great independent living. because of temperamental difficul- to bear. The everyday runners who • Personal or financial pressures ties, physical problems, and old age fill the lower-level “claiming” and force owners to give up some combined must mean either that “allowance” categories of races the country’s equine population is

198 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 just about perfect or the country’s Table 14 owners are pretty willing to stick with their horses for worse as well Destination of Permanently Removed as better. The latter is the likelier Equidae on Surveyed Operations, explanation, given the volume of by Percentage and Equivalent Count equine business attended to in university veterinary clinics in 2005. in Today’s National Population* As reported to Veterinary Medical Databases (VMDB), a central data- Destination Percentage 2006 Number base for clinical data contributed 1. Sold to private party 55.0 737,000 voluntarily by the nation’s 27 veterinary schools, 16,441 horses re- 2. Moved to another facility 17.5 234,500 ceived diagnosis/treatment at six institutions in 2005 (D. Folks- 3. Sold at public auction 13.3 178,220 Huber, personal communication, 4. Removed for other reasons 9.7 129,980 March 24, 2006). If the visitation rate applied across all schools, that 5. Given away to private party 2.5 33,500 would be 75,600 equine medical 6. Donated to charity/research 1.1 14,740 visits for generally expensive and/ or more heroic healthcare meas- 7. Sent direct to slaughter/ 0.8 10,720 slaughter buyer ures than most horses ever require. Horses who are sold in this coun- 8. Stolen 0.1 1,340 try have had three possible destinations: *Based on 13.4 percent permanently relocated in ten million population. • new residences, the majority Source: USDA (1998). in noncommercial operations, • slaughter in three U.S. plants (which were closed in 2007) for human consumption overseas; Table 15 • export to other countries, some as performance or breed- Reasons for Permanent Removal of ing stock, but the majority Equidae from Resident Operations, for slaughter either in Canada by Percentage and Equivalent Count or Mexico. Reports from USDA, the over- in Today’s National Population* sight agency for both animal imports/exports and slaughter in- Reasons Percentage 2006 Number spection, indicate that approxi- 1. Business profit 52.0 696,800 mately 10,000 purebred breeding animals are exported each year, but 2. Situation change (e.g., owner, a much greater number—approxi- children moved, owner illness) 34.9 467,660 mately 1 percent of the U.S. equine 3. Temperament problem 4.5 60,300 population in recent years—leaves the country intended for human 4. Aged 3.3 44,220 consumption. In 2004, 111,500 5. Too expensive to keep 2.6 34,840 horses met this fate, 60 percent exported as horse meat and the 6. Lameness/injury 1.2 16,080 rest live to neighboring countries 7. Problem with horse not for slaughter there (Table 16). otherwise listed 0.9 12,060 Without reliable national equine population counts through previ- 8. Reproduction problem 0.6 8,040 ous decades, it is difficult to deter- *Based on 13.4 percent permanently relocated in ten million population. mine earlier slaughter percentages with any accuracy, but it is safe to Source: USDA (1998). assume that a much greater percentage of U.S. horses was sold to

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 199 slaughter for human consumption 10,284 head in 1984, with a portion the surveyed operations during at the end of the 1980s and early of them exported as breeding and three twelve-month periods was 2 1990s than is the case in the cur- performance stock, after 66,886 to 2.5 percent. Adding some statis- rent decade. That was a peak live horses had been exported just tical wiggle room with a “confi- period in exports of metric ton- three years before (USDA 2006a; dence interval,” the study deter- nage of horse meat (1 metric ton FAO 2006). In the first quarter of mined that in any given year, 1.5 to equals 2,205 pounds, and horses 2006, almost 1,300 live slaughter- 3 percent of American horses die average 400 pounds of dressed bound horses entered Mexico from either of natural causes or euthana- meat, meaning 1 MT equals New Mexico and Texas (USDA sia in the following order of likeli- approximately 5.5 live horses) and 2006b), projecting a total of 5,200 hood (USDA 1998): for live nonpurebred animals as by year’s end. Canada, with four • age twenty or or older, well (Table 16). horse-slaughtering plants, was • between birth and 6 months, Following the reduction of expected to process at least five • between five and twenty years slaughter capability in this country times that number of U.S. animals of age, through the closing of plants in Tex- imported live (Dudley 2006), • between six months and five as and Illinois, live shipments for though previous years’ total exports years of age. slaughter, presumably all to Mex- would indicate well more than As with the human population, ico and Canada (ocean-going ship- 25,000 U.S. horses are processed the very old and the very young are ment for slaughter horses is in that country (USDA 2006a; most at risk for fatal health condi- banned and air freight for live ani- FAO 2006). tions. Foal deaths mostly went mals would be prohibitively expen- The bulk of the U.S. horses unexplained at the earliest stages, sive) have increased. Yet export num- remaining within the country are with a host of genetic and perinatal bers had been quite variable as of old, by equine standards, when they complications that could prove 2006 throughout the previous thirty die. The NAHMS study found that fatal. During the suckling stage, years, reaching the lowest count of the death rate of horses resident on however, respiratory conditions

Table 16 Twenty-Year High- and Low-Point Periods, U.S. Horses Sold to Slaughter

Peak Metric Tons Equivalent Live Exports Total Years, High Horse Meat Number Horses for Slaughter* Horses

1990 55,373 304,551 73,686 378,237

1991 48,284 265,562 81,994 347,556

1989 59,000 313,482 29,350 342,832

1988 51,864 285,252 18,063 303,315

Total 1,371,940

Peak Metric Tons Equivalent Live Exports Total Years, Low Horse Meat Number Horses for Slaughter** Horses

2002 8,094 44,517 38,540 83,057

2003 8,861 48,735 42,932 92,667

2001 11,940 65,670 35,993 101,663

2004 12,085 66,467 45,039 111,506

Total 388,893

*Slaughter exports calculated by subtracting 10,000 from total exports reported as the approximate number of performance and breeding animals included. **Actual numbers, USDA (2006a).

200 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 (often called “foal pneumonia”) out human intervention. When movement and rarely duplicated in were the most common cause of applied to current estimated popu- modern domestication and use. death, followed by injury/wounds/ lation of 10 million, the study’s trauma and leg/hoof problems. mortality figures would translate The elderly population contributed to between 150,000 and 300,000 How Are U.S. the single greatest cause of death “at home” deaths annually, the afflicting the entire population— preponderance of which would be Horses Faring? “old age” at 22 percent—but the at age twenty or over. Look hard enough in any commu- next most common mortal condi- The equine digestive tract and nity in the country, and you can find tions were colic (18 percent) and locomotion systems are the biggest individual horses, ponies, or asses in injury/wounds/trauma (14 per- problems during the lives and in the distress of one sort or another. You cent), which affect horses of all deaths of U.S. horses, according to may not have to look very hard at all ages. According to this study, 64 the NHMS survey (Table 17). Both in some places, but the nationwide percent of the horses dying of old systems are subject to management indicators disclosed in this exami- age were euthanized, most com- practices far removed from the nation reveal the resources and monly because of weight loss and species’ innate biology, which is capabilities for providing our equine the inability to ambulate, while the predicated on near-continuous population with better-than-ade- remainder died on their own with- grazing and moderately strenuous quate care. The equine species’ fence-straddling situation—half livestock, half companion animal— has produced a mix of benefits not Table 17 available to the “either-or” species. Prevalence of Equine Health Conditions Horses are commercially valuable by Percentage of Operations Affected* enough to earn agricultural-research funding from government sources that aren’t available to Conditions Affecting Conditions Affecting Foals Under Equidae Six Months purely pet species. At the same Six Months, and Older, time, the emotional attachments Percentage Operations Percentage All formed between many owners (and With Foals Operations Surveyed not just recreational owners exclu- Digestive/Diet-related problems: sively) and their horses assure a greater sensitivity to equine well- Colic 2.7 13.6 being than generally develops be- Diarrhea/Other digestive 13.4 2.8 tween livestock keepers and their animals. The larger American cul- Overweight/Obese 1.2 4.5 ture is also more inclined to hold Chronic weight loss 0.7 2.7 horses in higher regard than the food species and invest them with Total Digestive 18.0 23.6 somewhat more gravitas than the lap-pet set. Injury/wounds/trauma 12.7 17.9

Leg/hoof problems 2.8 16.0 Basic Management and Handling Respiratory problems 3.6 6.3 Horses today are well-served by Eye problems 1.3 7.4 their half-and-half status only when they’re maintained true to their Skin problems 1.5 6.0 nature, as neither feed animal nor Reproductive problems 1.8 3.2 pet. Some of the original nutritional research performed on Behavioral problems 0.1 1.7 horses in their new role as recre- Neurological problems 0.3 1.6 ational creatures in the 1960s chose the same goals for feeding Generalized infection 0.6 1.1 programs that applied to feeder

*Adapted from USDA (1998). cattle: grow ’em big, and grow ’em fast, getting the most inches and pounds added on in the shortest

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 201 time for the fewest dollars spent enough even to care that isn’t tool—the Coggins test (so named (Ensminger 1969). When you’re always in its biological best interest. for its developer and now required aiming to get a young steer to mar- These animals have also been for all equidae being transported to ket, that approach seems to have subject to a genuine revolution in events, sales, and across states no consequence because the steer handling and training, which is lines)—national and state agricul- won’t live long enough to go particularly interesting because it ture departments could identify through all the stages set up by the arose among Western horse han- and isolate or destroy carriers as the nutritional program. With young dlers, primarily associated with only means to eliminate the incur- horses, particularly easy gainers “breaking” horses in a tradition of able disease from the horse popula- like quarter horses and superath- animal handling based on domina- tion. In 1972 the infection rate, letes like Thoroughbreds, the tion, intimidation, and outright mostly inapparent carriers, was 3 results are ruinous. Most immedi- fear. In the past twenty years, a cot- percent of the horse population; in ate are serious digestive upsets, tage industry of “horse tamers,” 2004, only 333 samples from such as ulcers and colic, but also, able to connect with, gentle, and 2,013,376 horses were positive, an according to recent biologically climb aboard an unhandled horse infection rate of .017 percent based behavioral studies, the life- in a few hours, using no equipment (Cordes and Issle 1996; USDA long compulsive oral behavior other than body language and pos- 2006c). The destruction of seem- called “cribbing.” Worst of all, sibly some simple props makes the ingly healthy positive reactors was overfed youngsters often suffer rounds of the country teaching and is a hardship and aberration to developmental bone diseases, ordinary horse owners how to “join the people who care for the individ- sometimes requiring euthanasia up” (Dorrance 1994; Roberts ual animals, but elimination of a because the condition is not 1997; Miller, Lamb, and Downs once intractable killer and waster of reversible and the animals will 2005). A lot of what sells is the the- horses may result in a greater good. never be sound and comfortable ater, but for horses, the recogni- It’s unlikely that such medical for as long as they live. Horse own- tion and development of communi- measures could ever be taken to ers are still learning the hard way cation techniques derived from eradicate the similar feline about this nutritional truth. “Pet- their own “language” has made leukemia, for instance, partly fed” horses get too much of too training a lot more understandable because USDA funding does not many good things provided by too- and easier. apply to companion species but loving owners and suffer obesity mostly because pet owners would and all the attendant problems Health Care not allow test-and-destroy practices. (except for heart disease) that With twenty-seven U.S. university A more positive approach to human beings experience. Horses veterinary clinics and numerous pri- horse health occurs when new dis- have the additional difficulty of not vately owned equine hospitals oper- ease threats receive rapid responses being able to take excess weight off ating in the country, plus several in prevention. When Potomac horse their feet by sitting down, and their thousand practitioners specializing fever, a severe diarrheal condition soundness and mobility, the most in the species, diagnosis and treat- with often fatal secondary effects, essential ingredients in equine ment practically as sophisticated as was first recognized in central Mary- well-being, are compromised. those of their human counterparts land about twenty-five years ago, Feeding and nutritional problems are available for horses everywhere, the veterinary establishment saw are just one manifestation of a clus- if their owners care to seek them only variations of already named ter of common conditions that can out and pay for them. U.S. horses conditions. Only with great pres- be labeled diseases of modern don’t die en masse from plagues, sure from frightened and frustrated excess. An excess of horses crowded thanks to research attention paid to horse owners did the scientific com- into a small area increases para- equine diseases, primarily those munity begin to study the disease sitism, infectious-disease outbreaks, also affecting human beings and for cause and treatment. The cause injuries, and stress symptoms. The those with significant economic is still not entirely understood, but excess isolation experienced by implications, and strict monitoring the infection was eventually recog- horses kept solo out of their owners’ of animal health status. Equine nized to be a national problem, and ignorance or excess transportation infectious anemia (EIA), a blood- a vaccine was developed several for excess participation in competi- borne disease with some similarity years after the outbreaks began. tive events can sicken and possibly to AIDS in its mechanism and The most recent “new” equine kill horses. As witnessed by the good resilience, caused several large fatal threat, West Nile virus, arrived by survival rate of U.S. horses, however, outbreaks in the United States in airline via a mosquito “hitchhiking” the ever-adaptable equine species the middle of the twentieth century. from south Europe in 1999. Devel- appears to have adjusted well With the advent of a screening opment of an equine vaccine began

202 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 almost as soon as the regulatory Land Grant university system, is the 78, attack the problem of “unwant- community recognized the threat longest running educational institu- edness” in several ways: to both horse and human, and the tion regarding large-animal hus- • taking in equidae, through fatality rate dropped considerably in bandry. More recently, equine veteri- legal action and/or owner horses beginning in 2004. The dif- narians and their professional relinquishment, and placing ference in response had much to do organization, the AAEP, have incor- them in new, permanent pri- with the zoonotic capabilities of the porated formal healthcare and man- vate homes West Nile virus, but also can be agement programs into their prac- • taking in equidae by the same attributed to commercial and recre- tices along with the standard mechanisms and placing them ational horse owners having be- horse-side discussions. Equestrian in permanent sanctuaries come a block of educated con- magazines are generally a source of • purchasing animals in the sumers who demand responsive reliable medical and management pipeline for slaughter, at either health care for their investments information, but the Internet is now auction or another stop in the and their recreational partners. a primary information and advice- supply chain, and reselling seeking resource for horse owners, them to good homes at cost Disaster Management as well as a sale barn, stable-aisle • serving as brokers, of sorts, The Mississippi’s Great Flood chat site, and equestrian soapbox. between owners/trainers with of 1993, the West Coast’s perpet- The following sites offer a sampling horses, mostly from the track ual wildfire dangers, Hurricane of opportunities for electronic com- but sometimes specific breeds, Andrew’s devastation of south munity and commerce available to to dispose of and potential buy- Florida in 1992—natural disaster riders and owners. ers, leaving the transaction to is always looming somewhere in http://chronicleforums.com/ continue between those parties. this country. Forum/ In the grand scheme of things, Andrew was the first time a killer http://source.bloodhorse.com/ 400 grass-roots efforts intervening tropical storm threatened a large thehorse/ in cases of ten or twenty unwanted recreational horse population. The http://www.equisearch.com horses annually can’t make much of lessons learned at the time in pro- http://www.horseweb.com/ a dent in the number of slaughter- tecting, identifying, and reuniting http://ww.netequine.com/ bound animals, for instance, let animals and owners initiated com- horses-for-sale. alone all of the neglected and mis- munity and veterinary efforts to used horses in the country. Rescue develop coherent disaster plans for Humane Treatment efforts can improve the quality of life managing the domestic animal pop- The ready accessibility of equine for animals in their immediate vicin- ulation along with the human popu- information and equestrian com- ity, but the burnout rate has to be lation. When the megastorms Kat- munication provided by the Inter- high. From the web site descrip- rina, Rita, and Wilma hit in 2005, net is, in fact, probably the primary tions, many of these efforts begin as equine organizations, including the motivating force in a groundswell personal missions, with no long- American Association of Equine of action taken on behalf of horses term sources of income to pay for Practitioners (AAEP) and breed and their welfare. Twenty years rescued horses’ basic needs month associations, provided assistance, ago, only two national equine-wel- in and month out. Ryerss Farm for and rescue and animal-protection fare efforts had been organized: Aged Equines, the country’s longest organizations from other areas one to oppose soring of Tennessee running large-animal sanctuary, has moved in to stricken areas to assist. Walking show horses and the other an endowment to maintain the facil- The National Conference on Ani- to protect wild horses and burros. ity but still charges a lump sum of mals in Disasters, held in the Wash- Today, a few more equine-protec- several thousand dollars for horses ington, D.C., area in June 2006, tion groups operate on a national to enter the facility, then solicits included a session on large-animal level, but the real revolution is the donations for the continued upkeep issues in disasters (The Humane appearance, since the mid-’90s, of based on expenses of $15 a-day Society of the United States 2006) hundreds of mostly small, inde- (Ryerss Farm 2006). For concerned for horse and livestock owners/ pendent efforts focused on what but not rich rescuers to rely on responders. are often called “unwanted horses” uncertain volunteer labor, donated Horse owners who care to learn within their region. These organi- supplies, and cash donations while have every opportunity to become zations, approximately 300 of tending to ill, starved, difficult ani- expert in all horse-care and manage- which have attained Internal Rev- mals, with more needy ones always ment areas, and many amateurs do enue Service (IRS) tax-exempt stain the pipeline is a stressful life that just that. USDA’s agricultural exten- tus, as listed on IRS Publication most people cannot withstand indef- sion service, working within the initely, no matter how strong their

The Demographics of the U.S. Equine Population 203 will to help. Additionally, the mere jured. www.bloodhorse.com/ ———. 1991. Production jumps existence of Good Samaritans in an articleindex/article.asp?id= and slumps. Equus 169: 38. area tends to encourage less respon- 33651. ———. 1994. Trends at a glance. sible animal owners to dump their Bureau of Land Management Equus 205: 30–31. problems for the rescue to manage. (BLM). 2005. Herd area statis- ———. 1995. Trends at a glance. Results of a small, informal sur- tics, FY 05. http://www.wild Equus 217: 28–31. vey of these grass-roots rescues horseandburro.blm.gov. ———. 1997. Trends at a glance. showed a very similar set of motiva- ———. 2006. Fact sheet on the Equus 241: 102–103. tions behind the dispersal of BLM’s management of wild ———. 1999. Trends in breed reg- horses to rescues as applied for the horses and burros. http://www. istrations. Equus 193: 64. dispersal of horses in general, wildhorseandburro.blm.gov. ———. 2000. Trends at a glance. described in the NAHMS survey. Chronicle of the Horse, The. 1998. Equus 277: 56–57. Horses came to rescues not neces- Final insurance fraud defen- ———. 2004. Trends at a glance. sarily because they were treated dants have their day in court. Equus 325: 44–45. cruelly, or at least intentionally so. The Chronicle of the Horse, May ———.2006. A decade of change. They were generally not irreparably 29, n.p. Equus 339: 42–43. damaged goods, either physically Clancy, E.A., and A.N. Rowan. Food and Agriculture Organization or mentally. The weak links were 2003. Companion animal demo- (FAO) of the United Nations. mostly on the human side: igno- graphics in the United States: 2006. http://faostat.fao.org/ rance of proper care, personal and A historical perspective. In The fastat/serviet. financial difficulties, or failure to state of the animals II: 2003, Hause, Eric. 2006. The Corolla wild properly train the animals. Good ed. D.J. Salem and A.N. Rowan, horses. http://www.coastalguide. intentions and love of horses with- 9–26. Washington, D.C.: com/packet/thecorollawild out accompanying management Humane Society Press. horses.shtml. capabilities are as likely to move Cordes, T., D.V.M., and C. Issel, Humane Society of the United horses into rescue facilities as is D.V.M., Ph.D. 1996. EIA, equine States, The. 2006. National Con- pure commercial greed. infectious anemia: A status ference on Animals in Disaster The larger issue is balancing the report on its control. Riverdale, 2006 conference schedule. pressures of horse ownership, both Md.: U.S. Department of Agricul- http://www.hsus.org/hsus_field/ commercial and recreational, that ture. Animal and Plant Health hsus_disaster_center/national- arise from keeping a large species Inspection Service. conference-on-animals-in-disaster in a shrinking and increasingly Dorrance, T. 1994. True unity: Will- 2006/ncad06_schedule.html# costly world. ing communication between Wednesday_May_31_2006. horse and rider. Sanger, Calif.: Kilby, E. 1989. Progress...and pain. Word Dancer Press. EQUUS 145: 58–64, 106–109. Literature Cited Dudley, W. 2006. Horse slaughter Kirkpatrick, J.F. 2005. The wild American Horse Council (AHC). ban could lead to more neglect. horse fertility control program. 2003. 2003 Horse industry direc- The Alberta Express. Alberta, In Humane wildlife solutions, ed. tory. Washington, D.C.: AHC. Canada: January 31. http://www. A. Rutberg, 63–75. Washington, American Horse Council Founda- agcanada.com/custompages/. D.C.: Humane Society Press. tion (AHCF). 2005. The econom- DuTeil, K. 1992. The elusive recov- Loch, W., and J.W. Massey. 2006. ic impact of the horse indust r y ery. Equus 181: 36–37. Horse breeding arithmetic: 2 + 2 on the United States. Wash- Ensminger, E.M. 1969. Horses and = 1. Univ. of Missouri Extension. ington, D.C.: AHCF. horsemanship. Danville, Ill.: http://www.muextension. American Quarter Horse Associa- Interstate Printers and Publish- missouri.edu/explore/agguides/. tion (AQHA). 2004. Show statis- ers, Inc. Milicia, J. 2004. Rapid growth tics. 2004 AQHA Annual Report. Equine World Records. 2006. brings change to Amish commu- http://www.aqha.com/press http://www.ultimatehorsesite. nity. Dover-New Philadelphia room/index.html. com/info/worldrecords.html. (Ohio) Times Reporter. May 7. American Veterinary Medical Asso- EquiSearch.com. 2006. http://equi http://www.timesreporter.com. ciation (AVMA). 2002. Veteri- search.com/. Miller, R., R. Lamb, and H. Downs. nary market statistics. http:// Equus Magazine. 1989. Adjusting 2005. The revolution in horse- www.avma.membshp/market production. Equus 145: 61. manship: And what it means to stats/. ———. 1990. Production patterns. mankind. Guilford, Conn.: The Bloodhorse.com. 2006. Bernadini Equus 157: 61. Lyons Press. takes Preakness, Barbaro in-

204 The State of the Animals IV: 2007 National Park Service. 2003. Assa- teague’s wild horses. Assateague Island National Seashore. http:// www.nps.gov/asis/ horses.h t m . National Steeplechase Association. 2006. http://www.nsa.org. Palmer, L.L. 2004. A grandfather’s tales of wild horses come true. Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Decem- ber 18. http://www.seattlepi. nwsource.com. Roberts, M. 1997. The man who listens to horses. New York: Ran- dom House. Ryerss Farm for Aged Equines. 2006. http://www.ryerss.com. The Jockey Club 2006. Factbook. http://www.jockeyclub.com/fact book. U.S. Census Bureau (USCB). 2000, est. 2004. State and county quickfacts. http://quickfacts. census.gov/qfd/. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Vet- erinary Services, National Ani- mal Health Monitoring System. 1998. Equine ’98 study. http:// www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/ceah/ cahm. ______. 1999. 1999 U.S. equine estimates. http://www.nass. usda.gov/. ______. 2002. Census of Agricul- ture. http://www.nass.usda.gov/ Census_of_Agriculture. ______. 2006a. Foreign Agricul- tural Service (FAS). BICO Import Commodity Aggregates. Live horses. http://www.fas. usda.gov/ustrade/. ______. 2006b. Market News Ser- vice (MNS). http://www.ams. usda.gov./lsmnpubs/txHorse. htm#reports. ———2006c. National Animal Health Reporting System. http:// www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/ceah/ ncahs/. Western Horseman. 2006. Advertis- ing rate card. http://www. westernhorseman.com/ad_ rates/index.shtml.

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