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Causes of Groundwater Depletion

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Causes of Groundwater Depletion Number 63 Issue Paper February 2019 Aquifer Depletion and Potential Impacts on Long-term Irrigated Agricultural Productivity When developing policies that regulate groundwater systems that are being depleted, the potential consequences of groundwater depletion need to be fully assessed to determine the trade-offs that exist between the undesired impacts of groundwater depletion and whether these impacts outweigh the benefits associated with groundwater use. (Photo from Ed Hennigan/Shutterstock.) is even higher in arid and semi-arid ar- the Mississippi Embayment Aquifer ABSTRACT eas, where the only consistent source of (Mississippi River lowlands bordering Groundwater is the Earth’s most irrigation water is groundwater. In these Arkansas and Mississippi), aquifers in extracted raw material, with almost regions, however, the use of groundwa- southern Arizona, and smaller aquifers 1,000 cubic kilometers per year (800 ter typically far exceeds the rate at which in many western states. million acre-feet per year) of ground- it is naturally replenished, indicating The groundwater resource with the water pumped from aquifers around the that these critical groundwater resources greatest long-term depletion is the High world. Approximately 70% of ground- are being slowly depleted. Within the Plains (Ogallala) aquifer in the Great water withdrawals worldwide are used to United States, groundwater depletion has Plains Region of the United States, support agricultural production systems, occurred in many important agricultural where groundwater levels have declined and within the United States, about 71% production regions, including the Great by more than 50 meters (150 feet) of groundwater withdrawals are used for Plains Region (Nebraska, Colorado, in some areas. The Central Valley of irrigating croplands. This percentage of Oklahoma, New Mexico, and northern California, however, is experiencing the groundwater used to support agriculture Texas), the Central Valley of California, highest groundwater depletion intensity CAST Issue Paper 63 Task Force Members Authors Dana Osborne Porter, Department of Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis John Tracy, Chair, Texas A&M Texas A&M University, Lubbock Jay Lund, Department of Civil and AgriLife Research—Texas Water Zhuping Sheng, Texas A&M AgriLife Environmental Engineering, Univer- Resources Institute and Department Research Center at El Paso and Depart- sity of California–Davis of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M ment of Biological and Agricultural Engi- University, College Station C. G. Olson, U.S. Geological Survey, neering, Texas A&M University, El Paso Reston, Virginia (Emeritus Scientist) Jennifer Johnson, River and Reser- Steve Sibray, Conservation and Survey voir Operations, Bureau of Reclama- Division, School of Natural Resources, CAST Liaison tion, Boise, Idaho Institute of Agriculture and Natural Re- Leonard Konikow, U.S. Geological sources, University of Nebraska–Lincoln David Baltensperger, Department of Survey, Reston, Virginia (retired) Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M Gretchen Miller, Department of Civil Reviewers University, College Station Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station Michael Campana, College of Earth, because of increased use over the last economic incentives to encourage water extraction and availability and that much several decades. The most obvious conservation. All of these methods should extraction is from geologic formations consequences of depleting groundwater be considered when developing plans without significant recharge since mean- resources are the loss of a long-term to address the long-term consequences ingful groundwater pumpage to support water supply and the increased costs of of groundwater depletion. In addition, agricultural production has occurred (i.e., pumping groundwater as the water table when developing policies that regulate within the last 60 years). In addition, in declines further below the ground sur- groundwater systems that are being many areas of the world, including the face. There are many other consequences depleted, the potential consequences of United States, groundwater extraction is associated with groundwater deple- groundwater depletion need to be fully concentrated in semi-arid to arid regions, tion, however, including the loss of the assessed to determine the trade-offs that where the age of groundwater can range productivity of groundwater production exist between the undesired impacts of from hundreds to thousands of years, sug- wells (possibly requiring the construc- groundwater depletion and whether these gesting that this groundwater is not being tion of new wells); the depletion of the impacts outweigh the benefits associated replenished at the rate that it is being flow of water in rivers, creeks, and lakes with groundwater use. extracted and that these groundwater re- when they are hydrologically connected sources are being depleted. Consequences to underlying aquifers; the shifting and of the long-term depletion of groundwa- subsidence of land surfaces that can oc- INTRODUCTION ter resources include the direct impacts of cur when groundwater is extracted from Groundwater is the Earth’s most depleting the resource, which can reduce aquifers; and the intrusion of high saline, extracted raw material, with almost 1,000 water availability for local and regional or poor quality, water from other subsur- cubic kilometers per year (km3/yr) (800 societies, economies, and ecosystems, face formations. million acre-feet per year) of groundwa- and global impacts of groundwater being The most effective approaches for ter used to support agricultural, munici- released to the atmosphere and oceans addressing groundwater depletion focus pal, commercial, industrial, and energy once it is brought above ground, contrib- on reducing or eliminating the imbal- production (Margat and van der Gun uting approximately 0.3 to 0.4 millime- ance between the inflow and outflow of 2013). Approximately 70% of ground- ters (mm)/yr of sea level rise since 2000 water to an aquifer. Methods that focus water withdrawals are used for irrigated (Döll et al. 2014; Konikow 2011). on increasing the inflow to groundwater agriculture (71% in the United States) This issue paper reviews the causes resources include the development of (Margat and van der Gun 2013). The and consequences of groundwater deple- managed aquifer recharge systems and annual groundwater use is only a small tion1, with a focus on impacts to agricul- altering land-use practices to increase the fraction of total economically available ture as the largest sector of groundwater infiltration of water below the land sur- groundwater, estimated to be 0.00041%/ use. This understanding can aid in devel- face. Methods that focus on decreasing yr (Gleeson et al. 2016). Although this oping effective policies and practices for groundwater use include the implementa- appears to indicate that groundwater use tion of more efficient irrigation systems, could be sustained at its current levels 1 Italicized terms (except genus/species names and the development of agricultural crops for centuries to come, it does not reflect published material titles) are defined in the Glos- that require less water, and the creation of the spatial distribution of groundwater sary. 2 COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY groundwater development, use, and man- factors, including the well diameter, hydraulic gradient, the flow in an aquifer agement. Before groundwater depletion water level depth below the land surface, with a hydraulic conductivity of 10.0 can be addressed, however, a basic under- ease of water flow through soil or rock feet/day (ft/d) will be ten times the flow standing of the principles of groundwater near the well, and power of the pump as in an aquifer with the same hydraulic occurrence and behavior is necessary. used to extract the groundwater. gradient but in which the hydraulic con- Groundwater is rarely static, and it ductivity is 1.0 ft/d. In natural geologic Basic Principles of is generally in motion with natural flow materials, the hydraulic conductivity can rates (or flow velocities) being highly vary by more than ten orders of mag- Groundwater Occurrence variable and ranging from several tens of nitude (with clays, shales, and granitic and Behavior in Aquifers feet per day or more to less than several rocks having very low values and gravels Understanding Groundwater feet per century, depending on the type and some porous limestones and basalts Groundwater occurs almost every- of soil or rock that the groundwater is having very high values, for example). where, and it is generally defined as the flowing through, the proximity to surface In natural groundwater flow systems, occurrence of water in the soil, sedi- water bodies, and well depth. Groundwa- before people drilled wells and developed ment, and rock at pressures at or greater ter flow is always in three dimensions, groundwater for their water supply, there than atmospheric pressure. Practically and the magnitude and direction of the was always a dynamic balance between speaking, when a well is being drilled, flow depend on the hydraulic properties water entering the aquifer (recharge) and groundwater is encountered when water of the soil it is flowing through and the water leaving the aquifer (discharge). starts filling the well from surrounding steepness of the potentiometric surface, Although the water levels in the aquifer soil and rock.
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