UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO the Japanese in Multiracial

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO The Japanese in Multiracial Peru, 1899-1942 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Stephanie Carol Moore Committee in charge: Professor Christine Hunefeldt, Chair Professor Michael Monteon Professor Nayan Shah Professor Eric Van Young Professor Lisa Yoneyama 2009 Copyright Stephanie Carol Moore, 2009 All rights reserved. The dissertation of Stephanie Carol Moore is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ Chair University of California, San Diego 2009 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Signature Page .……………………………………………………………………… iii Table of Contents .…………………………………………………………………… iv List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………... v List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………....... vi Map …………………………………………………………………………………. vii Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………viii Vita …………………………………………………………………………………... xi Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………... xii Introduction …………………………………………………………………………... 1 Chapter One: The Historical and Hemispheric Context of Japanese Immigration to Peru: Independence to 1920s ……………………………..... 16 Chapter Two: Japanese Workers on Peru’s Sugar Plantations, 1890-1923 ………… 55 Chapter Three: Conflict and Collaboration: Yanaconas in the Chancay Valley ………………………………………….. 84 Chapter Four: The Butcher, The Baker, and the Hatmaker: Working Class Protests against the Japanese Limeños ……………………. 135 Chapter Five: Race, Economic Protection, and Yellow Peril: Local Anti-Asian Campaigns and National Policy ………………………... 198 Chapter Six: Peru’s “Racial Destiny”: Citizenship, Reproduction, and Yellow Peril ……………………………… 259 Epilogue …...………………………………………………………………………. 295 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………… 299 References ……………………………………………………………………........ 306 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 5.1: Anti-Asia cartoons …………………………………………………. 222 Figure 5.2: “The Asian Metamorphosis” ……………………………………… 225 Figure 5.3: Business License of Y. Nishimura, Tailor, Lima ………………….. 233 Figure 6.1: Mundo Gráfico Cartoon …………………………………………... 285 v LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Selected Professions of Peruvians and Foreigners (Lima 1908) …... 150 Table 4.2: 1940 Investigation of Japanese Bakeries, Lima …………………… 187 Table 6.1: Births to Japanese Women in Lima ……………………………….. 278 vi Map of Peru vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Throughout my graduate career at UCSD, numerous professors have guided me on the path to this dissertation. My advisor and mentor, Christine Hunefeldt, has not only challenged me intellectually, but has also unfailingly supported my research and me personally. Eric Van Young has given generously of his time over and over again, and I have become a better scholar as a result of his incisive comments. Conversations with Michael Monteon have helped me to sharpen my analysis, and I also thank him for his editing. Nayan Shah has been invaluable in guiding me through the theoretical literature on race and both he and Lisa Yoneyama have pushed me to conceptualize my dissertation within a global framework. Lisa has also been an essential resource for gender analysis. At UCSD, I also thank Takashi Fujitani and Stefan Tanaka for their advice and support. Although he has now left UCSD, I also appreciate the input provided to me by my former committee member, Takeyuki Tsuda. The staff at UCSD has also been of great assistance, especially Carol Larkin, Christine Miller, and librarian Karen Lindvall-Larson. From my undergraduate alma mater, the University of Illinois, I also thank Nils Jacobsen, O. Vernon Burton, and Charles Stewart who instilled in me a desire to become a historian. The former Japanese Peruvian internees inspired this dissertation, so I begin by expressing my deepest gratitude to those who shared their stories with me and supported this project. The list begins with the Higashide and Kudo families, especially Seiiche Higashide, whom I had the honor of meeting before his passing, as viii well as Angélica Shizuka Higashide and Elsa and Eigo Kudo. Thank you, Tami (Kudo) Harnish, for telling me your family’s story over twenty years ago. Grace Shimizu, the powerhouse of the Campaign for Justice, has also been a wonderful resource and friend. Wesley Ueunten, consultant on all things Okinawan, is a true colleague and has assisted me in analyzing the data for this dissertation. In Peru, I first and foremost thank Amelia Morimoto for stimulating conversations over chifa that helped me grapple with many of the issues in this dissertation. At the Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Carlos Contreras was always available to assist me as I wrestled with Peruvian history and Martín Tanaka provided me with all the facilities I needed to carry out my research. I thank the staff at the archives where I worked, particularly the archivists Yolanda, Matilde, and César at the Archivo General de la Nación, as well as Oscar Janampa and Director Iván Pinto Román at the Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Relations. The Asociación Peruana Japonesa also generously opened its archives. I finally thank the Okinawan Women’s Association, Carlos Yamashiro, Eloy Kikuchi Kikuchi, and Walter Huamán for their assistance on this project. This dissertation would not have been possible without the funding received from the Fulbright Fellowship and sources at UCSD, including: the History Department, the Center for Race and Ethnicity, the Frieda Daum Urey Award, and the Joseph Naiman Award. At UCSD, my fellow graduate students have been a great cadre of supporters, particularly Miguel La Serna who has given me hours of advice, Jesús Pérez who ix always welcomes me to San Diego, and those who kindly and repeatedly advised me on multiple matters: Matt O’Hara, Eddie Wright Ríos, and Adam Warren. As a mother and graduate student, I would not have made it without the support of the many friends who have watched my children while I pursued a graduate degree. I especially thank Alison McNee, Gloria Gandara, and Amber Welker. In Salisbury, Louise Detwiler, Todd Smith, Lucy Morrison, and Ivan Young helped me immensely in the final stages of writing by frequently inviting my daughter over to play For Alex, there are no words to express how much you and your unending support and love mean to me. Se dedica este “libro” a mi querida hija Ixchel y a mi querido hijo Adrián: Mami siempre les lleva en su corazón. x VITA 1987 B.A., History and Economics University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign 2002-2003 Foreign Language Area Studies Fellowship U.S. Department of Education and the Center for Iberian and Latin American Studies, University of California, San Diego 2003-2004 Teaching Assistant, Research Assistant, and Course Reader University of California, San Diego 2004-2005 Fulbright Fellowship, Peru Research and Travel Grants, UCSD Department of History 2005-2006 Joseph Naiman Fellowship for Japanese Studies, UCSD 2005 M.A. in History; with minor field in Gender and Migration University of California, San Diego 2006-2007 Frieda Daum Urey Academic Fellowship, UCSD Department of History Writing Fellowship, UCSD 2007-2008 Instructor, Department of Modern Languages and Intercultural Studies; Honors Program Salisbury University, Maryland 2009 Ph.D. in History; specialization in Latin America University of California, San Diego xi ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION The Japanese in Multiracial Peru by Stephanie Carol Moore Doctor of Philosophy in History University of California, San Diego, 2009 Professor Christine Hunefeldt, Chair This study analyzes the integration of the Japanese into the politics of race and nation in Peru during the period from 1899 to 1942. The first generation of Japanese immigrants arrived in Peru at the apex of debates on national racial identity and popular challenges to the white oligarchy’s exclusive hold on national political and economic power. This dissertation examines how not only elites, but also working- and middle-class movements advocated the exclusion of the Japanese as a way of staking their claims on the nation. In this study, I argue that Peru’s marginalization of the Japanese sprang from racist structures developed in the colonial and liberal xii republican eras as well as from global eugenic ideologies and discourses of “yellow peril” that had penetrated Peru. The Japanese were seen through Orientalist eyes, conceptualized and homogenized as a race that acted as a single organism and that would bring only detriment to the Peruvian racial “whitening” project. Eugenics conflated women with their reproduction, leading “racial science” advocates to portray Japanese women in Peru as the nation’s ultimate danger and accuse them of attempting to conquer Peru “through their wombs.” The Japanese men and women who settled in Peru, however, were also actors in their Peruvian communities. Many Japanese laborers, largely Okinawan, were participants in rural labor movements in Peru. Policymakers, hacienda owners, and local power holders, however, undermined class-based challenges to their authority by demonizing the Japanese as a cultural, racial, and political threat to the Peruvian nation. In stepping out of their rung on the racial hierarchy, the Japanese shop keepers also provoked resentment both among their fellow Peruvian business owners and elements within the urban labor movement. The deeper the

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