History Essentials

• The Invasion and Conquest of Britain • The • The Roman Army • Food, Homes and Everyday Life in Ancient • Slaves and Gladiators • Roads, Baths and Public Toilets The Romans: Invasion and Empire • Boudica, ’s Wall and Roman Step inside the world of the Romans!

Titles in this Series Ruth Owen

ISBN: 978-1-78856-037-5

£8.99 9 781788 560375 By Ruth Owen

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ISBN 978-1-78856-037-5

Printed in Poland by L&C Printing Group 978-1-78856-031-3 978-1-78856-038-2 Picture opposite: by Ruth Owen The in Rome, Consultant: Dr. Rebecca Redfern The Museum of London

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Map of the Roman Empire North Sea Hadrian’s Wall

BRITANNIA

Europe ATL ANTIC O CEAN (Modern-day France)

C a s MODERN-DAY p i B l a c k S e a a ITALY n

Rome S e a MODERN-DAY SPAIN GREECE MODERN-DAY TURKEY e M d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

EGYPT Africa

R e d

The Roman Empire at the S e beginning of the 2nd century AD a

Roman Bones The Invasion of Britannia Out andAboutinAncient Rome A Fighting Machine The Roman Empire Who Were theRomans? Roman Gladiators Family Life andHomes The Romans inBritain Boudica’s Revolt Hadrian’s Wall: The NorthernFrontier Everyday Food, Take-Aways andFeasts The Roman Baths Glossary Index ...... Contents ...... 30 20 26 28 24 32 22 10 16 18 14 12 6 8 4 3 The Invasion of Britannia A Triumphant Arrival Almost 2000 years ago, in the summer of AD 43, a vast army of General Plautius sent a messenger to Rome to Roman soldiers assembled on the beaches of Gaul. This was an announce that the invasion was a success. invasion force and it had one objective – to conquer Britannia! Rome’s leader, the Emperor , came to join his troops, even bringing a war with him. Triumphant, the Romans marched Under Attack! into (modern-day ), Under the command of the Roman General Aulus Plautius, hundreds of ships the capital of the people. carrying about 40,000 soldiers crossed the Channel and landed in . The Mighty Roman Army The Roman conquest The Roman name for Britain was Britannia. At this time, the island was inhabited by native Britons belonging to many different Celtic tribes. Emperor Claudius ruled of Britain had begun! As the Romans began their march through southeast England, Rome from AD 41 to 54. one of the first tribes to fight back were the Catuvellauni. The Celtic men were fearsome warriors, but they could not stop the advance of the mighty Roman army. War War elephants were used in battle by several ancient civilisations. Guided by human handlers, they were trained to charge at an enemy, panicking and crushing its soldiers and horses. By AD 43 the Romans rarely used war elephants in battle. But Claudius knew that to the Celtic people the giant, unfamiliar beast would be an impressive and truly terrifying symbol of Rome’s power.

Historians think that the Romans probably set sail from modern-day Boulogne in France. In AD 43, France was part of the Roman Empire in a region known as Gaul. No one is completely sure where the invaders landed in England. It may have been on the Kent coast at Richborough or possibly Chichester in West Sussex. 4 5 Slaves in Who Were the Romans? Most slaves in Rome were prisoners of war. Who Ruled Rome? The ancient Romans were a powerful group of Slave dealers followed the Roman armies • For many years after its ready to buy captured people and defeated founding, Rome was ruled by kings. people who lived more than 2000 years ago. enemy soldiers. After one battle in Belgium in • In 509 BC, Rome became a 57 BC, the Roman army took 53,000 people republic. It no longer had one Rome and the First Romans Citizens of Rome prisoner and sold them into ! leader but was ruled by The city of Rome was founded around the mid All free men were citizens of a powerful group of politicians 700s BC. Its inhabitants were people from different Rome. Women were citizens, called senators. tribes that lived in the region that is now modern- too, but they could not vote The Work of Slaves • Rule by the Roman Senate day Italy. They settled in Rome and became the first or become politicians. Slaves Roman slaves worked in homes caring for continued until a politician and were not free, but if they were children, cooking and washing clothes. army general named Romans. Over time, Rome grew in size and power. obedient and hardworking Child slaves were sometimes trained as decided he wanted to rule and Its armies went to war with neighbouring tribes they might be able to buy their hairdressers. Patrician families often made himself leader of and Rome took control of the whole of Italy. freedom or have it granted owned highly educated Greek slaves who Rome in 49 BC. by their owners. Then they tutored their sons in literature, history, • Some of the senators were not were known as a mathematics and public speaking. Some happy about this new system, or freedwoman. slaves even worked as doctors. however, and murdered Caesar on 15 March 44 BC. • The idea of having one great leader did not go away, however, and in 27 BC Julius Caesar’s Inside the home of a nephew and adopted son patrician family. Caesar became the first emperor of Rome. • With the rise of Augustus Slaves at work Caesar, the Roman Empire was born. While the Roman Senate still existed, most of the ruling power shifted to the emperor.

Augustus Caesar ruled Rome from 27 BC to AD 14.

Roman Society

Roman society was chiefly made up of three main Many slaves did back-breaking groups of people – patricians, and slaves. work in quarries, cutting stone Patricians were the wealthy, upper-class members of society. such as marble for buildings. Plebeians, or plebs, were the working class of Rome. They worked as They also worked underground in copper, lead and silver mines. builders, craftsmen, bakers and farmers. 6 7 Roman Rule Sometimes, the Roman forces met The Roman Empire resistance. But often the people they The Romans were empire builders who wanted invaded did not fight back and soon more than just Italy. became used to life under Roman rule. As long as people obeyed Roman laws and paid their taxes, they were allowed Empire Builders to live pretty much as they had before. The Romans invaded the lands of the ancient Greeks and Egyptians. A showing a Roman warship They conquered parts of North Africa. They marched into many The New Romans areas of Europe, including the modern-day nations of France, Spain and Germany. They headed east to In time, it became possible for foreigners Speaking “Roman” The Romans spoke and wrote in . modern-day Turkey, Israel and Syria. And eventually, from conquered countries to become Roman citizens. Men from across the In many of the places they invaded, they invaded Britain. such as Britain, few people could empire joined the army. And in AD 98, read and write. Once their countries The Secret of Success a Spanish-born general named became part of the empire, many even became people learned to read and speak The main reason that Rome became so Roman emperor. the Romans’ language. powerful was the Roman army. Highly trained and disciplined, Roman soldiers could march Roman numerals are still used 32 kilometres in a day, swim rivers in full today. We see them on clocks and armour and weaponry and face enemy forces they often appear in names where 10 times their size in battle – and win! numbers are used, such as World War II, Jurassic Park III, Henry VIII The remains of a Roman and Super Bowl LIII. road in modern-day Algeria in North Africa. With hundreds of thousands of I V X L C D M troops on the move, the Romans 1 5 10 50 100 500 1000 needed to build roads – lots of roads! It’s estimated that the Roman army built more than 400,000 kilometres of roads across the empire, connecting It was possible to use Roman coins ports, cities and military bases. throughout the empire. A denarius Whenever possible, the roads were from Rome could be used to buy made long and straight, taking the fish in Egypt, wine in Spain, spices shortest route from A to B. in Turkey or sheep in Britain!

A denarius with the head of Emperor Some roads were just dirt and Trajan gravel, while others were paved with large flat stones. 8 9 Into Battle In battle, Roman soldiers marched steadily towards the enemy in a tight formation protected by their shields. At the last minute, they would unleash a A Fighting Machine hail of spears, before charging in for hand-to-hand fighting with swords. The Roman army was made up of two kinds The cavalry (soldiers on horseback) would chase after enemy soldiers who of soldiers – and auxiliaries. tried to escape. After a battle, doctors and soldiers with medical training treated the wounded and the men dug graves and buried their dead comrades. The Roman Army Legionaries were Roman citizens. These men were Rome’s elite fighting force. Auxiliaries were usually A Roman soldier’s armour, weapons not citizens. These soldiers were often used to and other kit, such as tools and cooking equipment, weighed about 35 kg. guard the frontiers of the empire. Roman soldiers didn’t only fight. They also built roads, bridges and fortresses, from where they An iron helmet that could guard the territories they’d conquered. protected the back of the neck and cheeks. Roman Legions The Roman army was divided into legions, Lorica segmentata groups of 4000 to 6000 soldiers. A legion was Body armour A large then sub-divided into cohorts of 480 men each. of overlapping rectangular metal plates shield curved And then every cohort was divided into centuries to protect the body of 80 soldiers led by a commander known as a centurion.

Roman soldiers fought with pilums, wooden spears with sharp iron spikes. B B A re-enactment of the testudo formation. Testudo is the Latin word for “tortoise”.

Making Camp When on the march, the Roman army made camp each night. If the legions A short, light were in enemy territory, thousands sword for of soldiers would get to work digging close-range a wide defensive ditch around the stabbing. camp’s perimeter. Then cookhouses, stable areas for the horses and thousands of tents were erected. A camp big enough for several legions might cover an area the size of 80 football pitches! 10 11 13 . This . This atrium an insula of to small shops. to apartment block apartment was home was an insula The ground floor of of floor ground The . At the. At frescoes A cutaway diagram diagram A cutaway

lares A Luxurious Home A Luxurious rainwater to fall into a pond below. a into fall to rainwater library. Pictures made from mosaics from made Pictures library. ceiling with an opening that allowed allowed withthat an opening ceiling This painting from the 1800s shows This painting from wealthy Roman home. the atrium in a toilets, a bath and even an office and and an office even and bath a toilets, covered the floors and the walls were were the walls floors and the covered beautifully decorated room had a high a had room decorated beautifully centre of the villa was thewas villa the of centre painted withpainted colourful A Roman villa had a kitchen, bedrooms, bedrooms, kitchen, a had villa Roman A B Spirit of the Home people placed offerings such as , cakes, cakes, wheat, such as offerings people placed in their home. their shrine in small wine on a fruit and The Romans believed that a spirit called a spirit called a a that believed Romans The lares, the protected their home and kept the family safe. To please please To safe. thefamily home and kept their protected B Insulae had no running water or toilets. nearby Residents collected water from fountains or wells. They used public toilets, or a pot that was then emptied into the street! . insulae . When the dirt, smell and domus poverty before they were 10. were they before poverty Babies and Children

of all Roman children died from illness or illness or from died children Roman all of babies because they could not afford another another afford could not they because babies be picked up and raised as a slave. About half About half slave. as a up and raised be picked year. Sometimes poor families abandoned their their abandoned families poor Sometimes year. In ancient Rome, many babies died in their first first their died in babies many Rome, ancient In

mouth to feed. They left them on rubbish dumps left They feed. mouthto or at a special place in the city where they might might they where the in place city special a at or Badly built from wood and wood Badly built from mud bricks, the buildings often collapsed! or fire caught The plebs, or poor workers, The plebs, or poor workers, in cramped of Rome lived apartment blocks called Homes for Rome’s Poor Homes for noise of Rome became too much, they would would too much, they noise of Rome became visit their beautiful villa in the countryside. A wealthy Roman family would live in a city live would Roman family A wealthy a house called Homes for the Rich Homes for Women had very little independence or freedom. little independence very had Women In ancient Rome, men were in charge of the family. family. of the in charge men were Rome, In ancient Some women had jobs, such as hairdressers or midwives. But most or midwives. such as hairdressers had jobs, Some women and caring children clothes, raising making cooking, spent their lives at home, spending their also stayed women Wealthy the home. for who did their household chores. days managing the slaves The life of a young woman was controlled by her father. Once she Once father. her by controlled was woman of a young The life telling took control, in her early teens, her husband married, usually her. decisions for do and making could her what she A Woman’s World A Woman’s Family Life and Homes and Life Family 12 An Extravagant Dinner The wealthiest members of Roman society threw Flamingo Everyday Food, lavish feasts to impress their friends and business associates. The meal was served by slaves in a dining room called the triclinium. Take-Aways and Feasts The diners lounged In ancient Rome, breakfast and lunch were small light meals. on couches and ate The main meal of the day was cena, which was eaten in the evening. with their fingers, which they washed in Food for the Poor perfumed water. Hosts competed to serve the most exotic foods to For the plebs, cena usually consisted of a kind of porridge made from their guests, such as sea urchins, wheat, water, salt, animal fat or olive oil and sometimes vegetables. flamingo, ostrich, giraffe or even a dish of peacock tongues! Food for the Wealthy Sea urchin meat The evening meal of wealthier Romans Both rich and poor Romans drank might include bread, olives, vegetables, white, yellow, red and black wine. cheese, eggs, fish, shellfish or meat such Getting drunk was considered to A terracotta be the behaviour of a . glirarium as sausages. This was followed by fruit So the Romans drank their wine and cakes baked with honey, cheese, fruit, mixed with water. Ancient Fast Food nuts, wine or spices. The poor in Rome lived in tiny Air apartments that usually did not holes have kitchens. However, Rome had lots of food stalls and cafes where even the poor could afford to eat. Take-away restaurants Ancient Roman Crops called thermopolia also served cheap, ready-cooked food such Pomegranates as fish with bread or sausages Figs with beans. Wheat Courgettes Asparagus A Furry Snack The ruins of a In Roman times people kept cute, furry thermopolium dormice – but not as pets. Known as edible dormice, they were caught in Grapes the wild and then placed in pottery containers called glirarium. The little animals were fed on a diet of walnuts, chestnuts and acorns. Once they were Lentils fattened up, the dormice were roasted, dipped in honey and seeds and eaten as a delicious snack! Counter These holes held Peas Olives large jars of wine Peaches and foods, such 14 as nuts. 15 The Pont du Gard aqueduct in France Going Together Out and About in In ancient Rome there were many public toilets that were actually very public! As many as 20 people Ancient Rome might “go” at the same time in a At the centre of day-to-day life in communal loo – even using it as an ancient Rome was the Forum. opportunity to chat or talk business. Aqueducts: A Roman public toilet The Forum in Rome Bringing Water to Rome The Forum was a large marketplace To bring water into Rome, The Romans built aqueducts engineers built 11 aqueducts. Marble toilet seats surrounded by temples, government throughout their empire. An aqueduct is a system of buildings and statues of the gods and great pipes that carries water from men from Rome’s history. People came to a source, such as a mountain the Forum to take part in elections, hear spring, over many kilometres Ancient Roman public speeches, watch criminal trials and on a slight downward slope. Temples celebrate religious festivals. The Romans tunnelled Like all Roman cities and towns, through hillsides to lay the Rome was home to many beautiful pipes for their aqueducts. temples built to honour the A Place to Meet And when they reached a Romans’ many gods. Inside a Romans met in the Forum to socialise with valley or river, they built an temple there was a statue or arched bridge with a channel friends and do business. They also visited carved stone image of the god to along its highest level whom the temple was dedicated. Water ran beneath the seats the many small shops and market stalls that through which the water Religious ceremonies took place carrying the waste away nestled among the important buildings. could keep flowing. outdoors in front of the temple. into underground drains. Sometimes, an animal was sacrificed outside on an altar as an offering to please the god. When people had finished their Remains of the business, they used a sponge on Forum in Rome a stick called a tersorium to wipe themselves clean.

The Pantheon is a Roman temple that still stands in Rome today.

After using the tersorium , the god of sky and thunder, you’d rinse it in a bucket of was king of the Roman gods. vinegar or salty water so it His queen, Juno, was the goddess would be ready for the next of marriage and childbirth. person to use! 16 17

18 19

.

and three-pronged three-pronged and

with a net, dagger dagger net, a with

soak up the blood. the up soak

fought fought A

was covered with sand to to sand with covered was

had a wooden floor that that floor wooden a had B

In Roman times, the arena arena the times, Roman In

the sword.” sword.” the

means “a man of of man “a means

gladiator word The

for them to stand. to them for

would make it impossible impossible it make would

of an opponent’s knees knees opponent’s an of spectators on stone seats. stone on spectators

back the across slash A and could seat more than 50,000 50,000 than more seat could and to let spectators in and out. and in spectators let to

sand. the onto intestines ground as three football pitches pitches football three as ground vomitoria , , called entrances, wide

could release their their release could The Colosseum covers as much much as covers Colosseum The still be visited today. It had many many had It today. visited be still

across a fighter’s stomach stomach fighter’s a across The ruins of the Colosseum can can Colosseum the of ruins The

their opponents. A cut cut A opponents. their

do maximum damage to to damage maximum do

to how learned also They they could retire. could they blow to his or her opponent. her or his to blow

to protect their own bodies. bodies. own their protect to winning gladiator dealt a final killer killer final a dealt gladiator winning , or wooden sword. This meant meant This sword. wooden or , rudis

blows block to how learn made his decision. If it was death, the the death, was it If decision. his made

and lived long enough to receive the the receive to enough long lived and

to had Trainees death. emperor listened to his people and and people his to listened emperor

a sword and shield. and sword a

Some gladiators were very successful successful very were gladiators Some B

Gladiators fought to the the to fought Gladiators the losing gladiator’s death. The The death. gladiator’s losing the

Trained to Kill Kill to Trained with fought A

the time they trained for hours each day. day. each hours for trained they time the The crowd shouted for mercy or for for or mercy for shouted crowd The

fight just three times a year. The rest of of rest The year. a times three just fight pair would fall to the ground. the to fall would pair

Gladiators might go into the arena to to arena the into go might Gladiators badly injured, one fighter from each each from fighter one injured, badly known as the Colosseum. the as known

entered the arena to fight. Eventually, Eventually, fight. to arena the entered

open-air an – all of arena greatest the in fight would Rome in Avoiding Death Avoiding

Two by two, pairs of gladiators gladiators of pairs two, by Two

owned all the gladiators at his his at gladiators the all owned ludus , or training school. A gladiator who trained trained who gladiator A school. training or ,

Afternoon: The Main Event Main The Afternoon:

A gladiator became the property of a manager called a a called manager a of property the became gladiator A lanista The . lanista

be torn apart by the wild animals. animals. wild the by apart torn be

Gladiator School Gladiator

death were thrown into the arena to to arena the into thrown were death

was too hard to resist! to hard too was

Criminals who had been sentenced to to sentenced been had who Criminals

The excitement of life in the arena arena the in life of excitement The

Lunchtime: Executions Lunchtime: execution , these men, and sometimes women, chose to become gladiators. become to chose women, sometimes and men, these , signed up to become gladiators. gladiators. become to up signed

especially from the upper classes, classes, upper the from especially were criminals sentenced to death for serious crimes such as murder. Instead of of Instead murder. as such crimes serious for death to sentenced criminals were terrified creatures. terrified

freedom and many young women, women, young many and freedom the with fought also Most gladiators had no choice! Some were prisoners captured in wars. Others Others wars. in captured prisoners were Some choice! no had gladiators Most

1st century AD, women had more more had women AD, century 1st Trained animal fighters called called fighters animal Trained

Why Become a Gladiator? a Become Why modern-day sportstar. By the the By sportstar. modern-day

to attack and kill each other. each kill and attack to

could become famous – like a a like – famous become could

elephants, were set loose in the arena arena the in loose set were elephants,

life, but a successful gladiator gladiator successful a but life, history’s most bloody and deadly sport – the gladiator games. gladiator the – sport deadly and bloody most history’s Wild animals, such as lions, and and tigers lions, as such animals, Wild

this career. It was a dangerous dangerous a was It career. this

In Roman times, cheering crowds packed large stadiums to watch watch to stadiums large packed crowds cheering times, Roman In Morning: Animal Fights Animal Morning:

Some gladiators actually chose chose actually gladiators Some

Roman Gladiators Roman

An Exciting Career! Exciting An and violent treat. violent and

A day at the Colosseum was a bloody bloody a was Colosseum the at day A A Day at the Games the at Day A This illustration shows the Roman town of The Romans in Britain Silchester in England, in the 300s AD. After its successful invasion of Britain in AD 43, the Roman army marched on through southern England and into .

Resistance and Peace Some local tribes chose to fight and defy the invaders. But others made peace. In return, their leaders were allowed to live on in their kingdoms and rule them Forum on behalf of Rome.

Villages and Towns in Why Did Claudius In the AD, most Britons lived Invade Britain? in small villages of wooden houses with Britain was rich in resources. thatched roofs. It had gold, iron, copper, tin, When the Romans came they built towns cattle and lush farmland. But there was also another reason. with a forum, temples, shops and homes Powerful people in Rome did not made of stone and bricks. They built roads, think of Emperor Claudius as a and large country villas. strong military leader. Claudius wanted to conquer Britannia to This illustration shows the village of Silchester show he was worthy of being Life in Roman Britain in England at the time of the Roman invasion. Rome’s emperor. Some native Britons began to enjoy the The First Roman Roman way of life. Now they could go to Invasions a Roman town to sell their farm produce, Emperor Claudius wasn’t the first Roman leader to invade Britain. visit bath houses and buy goods from all In 55 BC (almost 90 years before over the empire. Claudius’s invasion), Julius Caesar In many places, Roman settlers and the landed in Kent with 20,000 Roman native Britons lived peacefully, even soldiers. However, the Roman army was met on the beaches by worshipping each other’s gods. But peace thousands of Celtic warriors and in Britannia wouldn’t last. . . . it was forced to retreat. In 54 BC, Caesar tried again – this time with 50,000 soldiers. For about three months the Londinium Romans battled many tribes in In the south of England, in around AD 47, southern England. But then the the Romans built a settlement beside a Roman legions were needed to great river. Merchants from many parts control rebellious tribes in Gaul. of the empire came here to trade goods The Romans had to withdraw from and the settlement grew into a city. The Britain once again and wouldn’t Romans called their new city Londinium return until AD 43. and it would become modern-day London. 20 21 22 Boudica’s Revolt and fightback! warriors. Itwas timetorevolt a great army of200,000Celtic kingdom. TheIceni queen raised now theinvaders hadstolentheir suffered years ofRomanruleand Boudica andherpeoplehad AGreat Army flogged hisqueen,Boudica. everything. They attacked hisdaughtersandbrutally But ’s wisheswere ignored. Romanofficialstook be divided–halftohisdaughtersandEmperor inRome. The thathislandandwealth kinghadleftinstructions were to ABrutalBetrayal Prasutagus, died,unleashingadevastating chainofevents. under Romanrule.InaboutAD60,however, theirking, In theeastofEngland,Iceni peoplelived peacefully warriors stiffened theirhairwith their facesandbodiesbluewith Finally Boudica’s army faced thehatedRomans. fighting in Wales, but they rushedbacktoEngland tostopthe revolt. the ground andmassacred theinhabitants. MostoftheRomanforces were (modern-dayStAlbans). They burnedtheRomantowns to Boudica andherforces stormedCamulodunum,Londiniumand TimeForRevenge white, chalkylimeandpainted To lookmore terrifying, Celtic a plantdyecalledwoad.

B queen killedherselfby takingpoison. historian namedTacitus wrote thattheproud, warrior No oneknows whathappenedtoBoudica. ButaRoman the battle,itissaidthat80,000Britonslaydeadandjust400Romans. organisation andfightingskillsoftheRomans won theday. Attheendof The Celticwarriors vastly outnumbered theRomanlegions,butsuperior AProud Warrior Queen [reddish] hair”. Was hisdescription Dio described Boudica as“very tall”, and “a great massof tawniestthe queen for himself –he wasn’t with “fierce eyes”, “fierce with a “harsh voice” correct? We can’t say for sure. born until almost 100 years What we doknow is that Dio never actually saw Iceni the A Roman historiannamedCassius after Boudica’s revolt! When archaeologists diginLondon, they find evidence 7 metres underground isathere layer of burnedbrick took place somewhere along a stretch of Roman road known as . As yet, archaeologists have and soil. and soil. The great battle Romans probablythe with of Boudica’s attack onRoman Londinium. About not discovered exactly where. Ancient Evidence 23 Healing Powers The Roman Baths Visitors to the baths at Aquae would A Goddess get clean in the baths’ steam rooms and Wealthy Romans loved to have a bath every day. for Wishes pools. They would also spend time in The Romans believed that the So they built bath houses throughout the empire. the Great Bath swimming or goddess Sulis could cure them of relaxing. It was believed that troubles such as constipation, skin A Sacred Spring diseases and unhappiness. At Aquae the warm waters had healing Sulis, they threw coins, jewellery The city of Bath in England grew up on a spot where powers and could make a and valuable objects such as silver a naturally hot spring bubbled up from underground. person healthier. cups into the spring to please the The spring was a sacred place to the native Britons where goddess and ask for her help. they worshipped the goddess Sulis. When the Romans came to the region, they built a bath house at the spring so they could enjoy the hot waters. Getting Clean They were also happy to worship the goddess of the Both men and women visited bath houses. spring, just like the local people. First they spent time in a tepidarium (warm steam room) followed by a visit to The baths and settlement that grew up the caldarium (hot around the spring became known as Aquae room). Next they were Sulis, “the waters of Sulis”. Tourists can massaged with olive still visit the baths today. oil by a slave. Then a tool called a strigil was used to scrape off the oil along with dirt, sweat and dead skin. Finally, they plunged into a cold pool called a frigidarium to wash off the oil. The Romans called the goddess Sulis . A strigil A Goddess for Curses A Visit to the Baths If a person had stolen from you At the baths, people did exercise, or wronged you in some other met with friends or held business way, you could scratch a curse on There were walkways meetings. They discussed politics, a small piece of lead or pewter and seats around the gambled, played board games and and throw it into the sacred Great Bath. ate and drank. They also had beauty waters at . Then the treatments such as manicures goddess Sulis would help you by The Great Bath was and having the hairs from their punishing the wrongdoer. 1.5 metres deep. armpits plucked out! 24 25 Small, tower-like Letters from Home Hadrian’s Wall: stone forts called In Roman times Archaeologists at the milecastles were the wall was about fort at Hadrian’s constructed every 6 metres high. Wall found the remains of mile along the wall. The Northern Frontier letters between the troops By the end of the 1st century AD, most of southern Britain was and their friends and families back home. One letter tells under Roman control. However, the northern part of Britain, a soldier that the writer is modern-day Scotland, was proving much harder to conquer! sending him two pairs of sandals, two pairs of socks The Wild North and two pairs of underpants! The Romans called the north Caledonia. It was home to warrior tribes, many of whom refused to give in to Roman rule. Unable to conquer the north and under the constant threat of raids by the fierce northern tribes, the Roman Emperor Hadrian built a great wall to separate Roman Britain from Caledonia. The milecastles were also gateways Work began on Hadrian’s Wall in AD 122. It was an enormous endeavour where people could that would take 15,000 legionaries about six years. The Roman forces cross the frontier – also built around 15 forts for the thousands of troops that would and pay taxes! defend the frontier. When it was complete, the wall stretched from sea to sea across northern Britain.

About 30 soldiers were The soldiers stationed at Hadrian’s Wall stationed (in barracks) came from all over the empire and included at each milecastle ready to defend the wall. men from France, Spain, Belgium, Romania The letters found at and even Syria. Some soldiers married Vindolanda were written local girls and over time, settlements grew on thin, postcard-sized up along the wall that were home to the pieces of wood. soldiers’ families and other local people. The End of Roman Rule Roman rule in Britain came to an end in AD 410. Rome Hadrian’s Wall was under attack from tribes is 117 km long. of nomadic people called the . Elsewhere in The wall was mostly the world the empire was built of stone, but in crumbling. The Roman army had some places blocks to pull out of Britain because it of turf were used. was needed in Italy to defend The address was the heart of the empire. Message written written on the in ink on one side 26 other side. 27 Roman Bones One Young Londoner One of the Roman skeletons that have been investigated is nicknamed the Lant Roman people from all over the empire made Britain their home. Street girl after the place where she was found. By studying her skeleton, DNA and chemicals in her skeleton, the young girl’s story has been revealed. Roman Migrants Romans came to Britain as merchants, sailors, soldiers or slaves. • The Lant Street girl was 14 years old when she died. Women and children travelled with husbands and fathers. And when these Roman people died in Britain, they left behind fascinating evidence about • She was born in the southern their lives and histories deep within their bones. • She had Mediterranean, perhaps in an • She was White blue eyes. area that is now European with White The First Londoners modern-day European ancestry. Now an international team of scientists are studying Roman skeletons Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, or that were buried in London almost 2000 years ago. They are discovering Morocco. the Romans’ ancestry, where they were born, and even information about their diets.

• The Lant Street girl had been eating fish, Evidence from Bones meat and vegetables and Teeth from the London area • Ancient DNA (aDNA) can be for about four to five extracted from a bone and from the years. This shows she soft, brown dentine inside a tooth. came to London at the age of nine or ten. This aDNA can show a person’s hair and eye colour. • Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) tells scientists about a person’s family stretching back many hundreds of years. • Chemicals in food and drinking water are captured in bones, Did the Lant Street girl travel to London with her merchant father? Perhaps dentine and in the enamel of a she was brought to Britain as a slave or to be the bride of a Roman soldier. person’s teeth. By studying these chemicals it’s possible to know what a person ate and use that information to figure out whether they were eating foods from the local area. Ancient and Modern Britain

Scientist Rebecca The analysis of ancient skeletons has shown that Romans came to Redfern examines the Britain from many different parts of Europe, Africa and the Middle damaged skull of a East. In fact, just like modern-day Britain, Roman Britain was home man who may have to people from all over the world. fought as a gladiator 28 in Roman London. 29 Glossary altar DNA merchant A large table or flat-topped block of The material that carries all the A person (usually from history) who buys and stone used in religious ceremonies for information about how a living thing sells goods. Merchants often travelled from making offerings. will look and function. DNA is short for place to place to do business. deoxyribonucleic acid. amphitheatre mosaic A circular stadium where people watched elite A picture or pattern made from tiny pieces of theatre performances or events such as Special with superior skills. coloured glass or pottery. gladiator fights. emperor patrician ancestry The leader of the Roman Empire. A person from the upper, ruling class A person’s family and ethnic history. of ancient Rome. evidence archaeologist Information that can be used to show plebeian A scientist who studies the past by that something is true. A working class person in ancient Rome. examining the physical remains left Plebs were citizens of Rome. behind, such as buildings and skeletons. execution The carrying out of a death sentence. quarry auxiliary A large deep hole from which rock is dug. A professional Roman soldier who was forum not a Roman citizen. A marketplace and meeting area republic surrounded by temples and other A country where the power is held by the people and barbarian buildings in a Roman town. their elected politicians, rather than a king or queen. A person who lived outside the Roman Empire who the Romans believed was Roman Empire violent and uncivilised. A mural (large painting on a wall) that The parts of the world that were conquered was painted onto wet plaster. and ruled over by the Romans. bath house A public building where Romans went to frontier sacrifice have baths and take exercise. The border of a country or territory. To kill an animal or person as part of a ritual or as an offering to a god. citizen In the Roman Empire, a man or woman A professional Roman soldier who was shrine who was free (not a slave). a Roman citizen. A special or sacred place where a god or spirit is worshipped. A shrine might be simple – for example, disciplined a small table with candles and a statue of a god. Having a controlled way of behaving or working.

30 31 Published in 2019 by RubyIndex Tuesday Books Ltd. Titles in this series A G R Copyright © 2019 Ruby Tuesday Books Ltd. Africa 8, 29 Gaul 4, 21 Redfern, Rebecca 28 amphitheatres 18–19, 20 gladiators 18–19, 21, 28 roads, Roman 8–9, 10, 20, 23 aqueductsAll rights 16–17 reserved. No partgods of and this goddesses publication 16–17, may be reproducedRoman Empire in whole4, 7, 8–9, 10, archaeologistsor in part, 23, stored 27 in any retrieval 21, 24–25 system, or transmitted in17, any 21, form24, 26–27, or by 28 Augustus Caesar 7 Greeks, ancient 7, 8 7 any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, auxiliaries 10 Roman Senate 7 without written permissionH from the publisher. Romans in Britain 4–5, 8–9, B Hadrian’s Wall 26–27 20–21, 22–23, 24–25, Bath (Britain)Design: 24–25 Emma Randall homes 6–7, 12–13, 15, 20, 26 26-27, 28–29 baths 13, 21, 24–25 BelgiumEditor: 7, 26 Mark J. Sachner I S BoudicaProduction: 22–23 John LinghamIceni 22–23 Scotland and Caledonia Britain and Britannia 4–5, Italy 6, 8, 27 26–27 8–9,Picture 20–21, Credits: 26–27, 28–29 slaves 6–7, 12, 15, 25, 28 Britons, native 4, 20–21, J soldiers and warriors 4–5, Alamy: 20, 21, 27 (top); Cosmographics: 2; Creative Commons: 5 (top), 23, 24 Julius Caesar 7, 21 6–7, 8–9, 10–11, 20–21, 978-1-78856-039-9 978-1-78856-040-5 978-1-78856-037-5 buildings9 (top), 7, 10, 13 12–13, (top), 16–17, 15 (centre), 17 (bottom right), 25 (left), 2522–23, (right), 26–27, 27 28–29 19,(bottom); 20, 24, 26–27 Getty Images: KCover (left); Kim Jones: 5 (bottom);Spain 8,Museum 26 Kent (Britain) 4, 21 Sulis 24–25 of London: 28 (Rebecca Redfern), 29 (right); Shutterstock: Cover, 1, 4, 7 C Camulodunum(bottom), and 8–9, Colchester 8 (bottom), L 9 (bottom), 10 (bottom), 10–11,T 11 (right), 14, (Britain)15, 16, 5, 17 23 (top left), 17 (bottomLant Street left), girl 17 29 (top right), 18, 19,toilets 22, 12–13,23, 24, 17 26, 29 Catuvellauni(left), 30–31; 4–5 Sol90 Images:Latin 6–7, 9, 11 12–13. Trajan 8–9 4–5, 21, 22–23 legionaries 10–11, 26 centurions 10 legions 10, 21, 23 V childrenBritish 7, 12, Library 28 CataloguingLondinium In Publication and London Data (CIP) Verulamium and 23 citizens,is available Roman 6, 9,for 10 this title. (Britain) 21, 23, 28–29 villas 12–13, 20 Claudius 5, 20–21 Vindolanda 27 Colosseum, the 18–19 M ISBN 978-1-78856-037-5men 6, 9, 12, 18, 25, 28 W E money and coins 8, 18, 25 Wales 20, 22 Egypt,Printed ancient in8, Poland29 by L&C Printing Group weapons and armour 8, emperors 5, 7, 8–9, 19, P 10–11, 18–19 978-1-78856-031-3 978-1-78856-038-2 20–21, 22, 26 Pantheon, the 17 women 6, 12, 18, 19, 25, England 4, 20–21, 22–23, 24 patricians 6–7 28–29Picture opposite: Plautius, General Aulus The4–5 Colosseum in Rome, Italy F plebeians (plebs) 6, 12, 14 food and drink 7, 14–15, Prasutagus 22 25, 28–29 Forum, the 16 France 4, 8, 17, 26 www.rubytuesdaybooks.com www.rubytuesdaybooks.com

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