I’M BETTER THAN YOU, AND I CAN PROVE IT: GAMES, EXPERTISE, AND THE CULTURE OF COMPETITION A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE PROGRAM IN MODERN THOUGHT & LITERATURE AND THE COMMITTEE ON GRADUATE STUDIES OF STANFORD UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFULLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY James Brian Thompson December 2014 © 2014 by James Brian Thompson. All Rights Reserved. Re-distributed by Stanford University under license with the author. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- Noncommercial 3.0 United States License. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/us/ This dissertation is online at: http://purl.stanford.edu/nx375vx4610 ii I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. H. Alim, Co-Adviser I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Andrea Lunsford, Co-Adviser I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Henry Lowood Approved for the Stanford University Committee on Graduate Studies. Patricia J. Gumport, Vice Provost for Graduate Education This signature page was generated electronically upon submission of this dissertation in electronic format. An original signed hard copy of the signature page is on file in University Archives. iii iv Abstract This dissertation examines the relationships between and among video games as media objects, player communities, and the development of expertise using the competitive fighting game community (FGC) as its point of departure. Having self- organized around a shared gaming fandom and desire for competition, the FGC has developed into a robust subculture that challenges and encourages its members, most of whom are outsiders, providing them with a sense of belonging while also facilitating the development of both abstract and concrete skills useful beyond the sphere of their chosen games. Taking the FGC as a model, I theorize that many of its principles of motivation might be repurposed toward other kinds of learning. I begin in chapter I by proposing a new theory for analyzing video games as texts which takes into account their overt narrative elements, the implicit narrative of their rules, and the ways in which both of those shape players’ reception practices. I suggest that the clearest notion of what a game “means” can be gleaned from where these threads intersect with one another. Chapter II addresses the FGC more directly as a subculture, engaging with its members’ beliefs and practices, tracing their origin back to the influence of fighting games themselves and of urban arcade culture. I propose in chapter III that the FGC constitutes what I call a “community of expertise,” or a social group wherein not only shared practice, but shared proficiency is required for membership, and I highlight the ways in which FGC practices align with what research tells us are the optimal methods for developing expert-like abilities in various fields. v Finally, in chapter IV, I propose a means of designing for expertise by borrowing from proven elements within the FGC’s mode of operation. vi Acknowledgments A dissertation such as this is at once a solitary and a communal endeavor. The actual writing is fairly lonely, consisting as it does of hour after hour hunched in front of a keyboard poring over notes, typing endlessly, and staring bemusedly at the wall in an attempt to find the perfect way to express an idea while fending off dark suspicions about the relative wisdom of one’s life choices. The wherewithal to sit in that chair, however, comes primarily from the help and encouragement of the family, friends, and mentors who prop up that lonely writer with their encouragement and support. To the surprisingly large network of unsung heroes who kept me rooted firmly in place long enough to finish this thing, you have my eternal gratitude. No one at Stanford has done as much to keep me trudging along as Andrea Lunsford. Her feedback, willingness to engage with my weird new ideas, and more than anything her belief in me all go above and beyond the call of duty. Absolutely none of this would have been possible without her help, support, and a few well- placed kicks. Apart from Andrea’s illustrious self, I’d be remiss if I failed to thank not only my other committee members, Henry Lowood and Samy Alim, but also every professor with whom I’ve worked or with whom I’ve talked shop throughout my time here—sometimes even the smallest of interactions can have a profound effect on the shaping of an idea. I’d also like to thank my colleagues in the Program in Modern Thought & Literature for providing similar advice and discussion, of course, especially vii those with whom I’ve formed the close friendships which have sustained me through this process. Beyond the academic crowd, I’d also like to thank my mom, Jana Thompson, who is objectively the best mother on planet earth (apologies to everyone else), and my late father, David Thompson, who always inspired me to achieve as much as I could—first in order to prove him wrong, but then in order to prove him right. Thanks also to my dear friend Julie, who is essentially family at this point, and without whom I’d be both literally and figuratively somewhere significantly less pleasant. Lastly, my eternal gratitude goes out to all of my gamer friends: the Dallas Goons (you guys are family, too), the 8wayrun forum-dwellers, the Norcal crew, and all of the FGC members who took the time to engage with my research and endure my questioning. viii Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….iv Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………………………………………………..v Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………1 Chapter 1…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………17 Chapter 2……………………………………………………………………………………………….………………..78 Chapter 3.………………………………………………………………………………………………………………127 Chapter 4……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….169 Final Thoughts……………………………………………………………………………………………………….211 References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….215 Table of Figures Fig. 1………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..19 Fig. 2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..20 Fig. 3………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..33 Fig. 4………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..35 Fig. 5………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..40 Fig. 6………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..42 ix Fig. 7………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..45 Fig. 8………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..47 Fig. 9………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..58 Fig. 10………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………59 Fig. 11………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………60 Fig. 12………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………65 Fig. 13………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………72 Fig. 14………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………98 Fig. 15……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………110 Fig. 16……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………110 Fig. 17……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………162 Fig. 18……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………163 Fig. 19……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………163 Fig. 20……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………164 Fig. 21……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………165 Fig. 22……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………208 1 Introduction In Medias Res A white lie for the sake of simplicity: this dissertation is about competitive video gamers. It’s actually more complicated than that—talking about players in a relevant way ideally means engaging with them as individuals and as an entire community (or communities), looking closely at the games they play and why those games are important to them, and then situating all of that within a larger social context that makes the examination worthwhile beyond the narrowband scope of game scholarship, all of which I hope to accomplish. I don’t want to get ahead of myself, though, nor do I want to launch immediately into lofty theoretical discussions which leave the practical realities of my subject behind. For all that they’re artificial, video games give us real, visceral experiences, particularly when played with or against another living, breathing human being. That visceral nature—the palpable experience of my pulse quickening, my adrenaline pumping, the flashing lights before my eyes and the unholy roar of friends’ voices in my ears—drew me into the world of competitive gaming to begin with, and I can think of no better starting point than right there in the thick of things. My own thick of things began in a local arcade in Tulsa, Oklahoma, sometime in 2001. Imagine, if you can, the typical arcade atmosphere: rows of machines pressed close together, their screens flashing, speakers beeping and whirring in an 2 audiovisual assault that makes any space, no matter how large, feel cramped. It’s somehow dark despite the lights. Almost every flat surface turns out to be shining plastic scrawled with colorful logos and pictures reflecting the ambient glow. No matter the time of day, you get a distinct impression of twilight on a busy street. Now fill this space with people. They’re mostly on the younger side—teenagers, twenty-somethings—but beyond that there’s little commonality in the way they look or dress. Take the crowd and bunch them up around one particular