international higher education the boston college center for international higher education number 51 spring 2008

International Issues 2 The “Subprime” Market and International Higher Education Philip G. Altbach 3 Foreign-Backed Universities: A New Trend Ute Lanzendorf 5 Academic Freedom in Muslim Societies Richard Kraince Private Developments 6 China’s Private Universities Ruth Hayhoe and Jing Lin 8 Demand-Absorbing Private Institutions in Mexico Juan Carlos Silas African Perspectives 9 African Higher Education: Projecting the Future Damtew Teferra 11 International Providers in Nigeria Isaac N. Obasi, Olamide E. Adesina, and Susan N. Obasi 12 Trends in Eritrea Ravinder Rena India 14 India at a Crossroads Pawan Agarwal 15 Vedanta University: A Flawed Pipe Dream Philip G. Altbach Israel 17 Crisis in Israel: Payback Time for the Original Sin Roxana Reichman 18 Israel’s New Private College Daniel C. Levy European Trends 19 Rankings, Diversity, and Excellence: A European Policy Challenge? Ellen Hazelkorn 21 Performance Funding in Italy Tommaso Agasisti Countries and Regions 22 Entance Exam Crisis in Iran Shahrzad Kamyab Departments 24 New Publications 27 News of the Center international higher education 2 international issues

The “Subprime” Market and ness—such as, branch campuses, collaborative linkages, and joint-degree arrangements. International Higher Education The Landscape Philip G. Altbach We know a few things about the international higher education Philip G. Altbach is Monan professor of higher education and director of landscape. There are perhaps 3 million students studying out- the Center for International Higher Education at Boston College side their own countries—with the most from from Asia— with the largest number matriculating in the major English- speaking academic powers. An Australian study estimated that t may be illuminating to compare the current subprime there will be 8 million international students by 2025, since Imortgage and housing-sector crisis in the United States and cross-border study continues to be big business. No one knows developments in international higher education. First, buyers how many branch campuses exist, but estimates are in the and the housing and financial industries wanted to participate many hundreds—almost all of them located in developing or in a growing and lucrative housing market, just as many middle-income countries. The growth of “American University groups in the higher education industry now want to be play- of . . . (fill in the blank)” is rapid as well. In addition to old and ers in international higher education. Housing prices were ris- respected American-linked universities in Cairo and Beirut, ing fast, and not many questions were asked about products, institutions using the term “American” and often teaching in sellers, or buyers. This market was allowed to function without English are proliferating throughout the developing world, constraint. Then, a certain “irrational exuberance” set in, with joined recently by institutions with “German,” “French,” or the market becoming saturated and many speculators enter- “Canadian” in their names. The expansion of academic offer- ing—in a way, a “bubble” mentality. Some buyers wanted to ings in English worldwide has created a new market for pro- make a quick profit while others failed to recognize the risks of grams and for professorial mobility. The global higher educa- the new loans. Financial institutions got caught up and invent- tion marketplace is large, growing, and basically unregulated. ed ever more complicated loan structures to spread risk global- It is indeed the “Wild West” or, more appropriately, the “Wild ly. There was soon a growing recognition of the problems with East.” the overheated housing and mortgage markets—inadequate supervision, oversupply of products, unsustainable costs, The Problems unfulfillable promises, and other challenges. In the mort- In higher education, one might take the view that “the market gage/housing environment, the bubble has burst and many will sort itself out” and thus leave hands off. Here again the countries face very serious economic and social consequences. subprime mortgage crisis represents a certain analogy regard- It is also noteworthy that the mortgage and housing crisis start- ing higher education. By permitting unscrupulous players to ed in the largest market, the United States, and is spreading perform and by encouraging more respectable banks to buy up worldwide. risky debt without much regulation or restriction, the world International higher education stands somewhere in the has reached today's crisis. The financial instruments being middle of the cycle—somewhere between irrational exuber- used are very complex, and institutions worldwide have pur- ance and a bubble. Now is the time to look at what actions are chased them, reducing whatever accountability might have sustainable and what are not, what policy will serve the inter- previously existed. ests of students and the academic community, and what There is a similar mentality in the world of international actions constitute mistaken policy or simple greed. higher education. Everyone can get into the market for interna- The academic community is committed to internationaliza- tional higher education. Sellers, including academic institu- tion, although motivations differ and some institutions have tions and for-profit education providers, can easily enter the no clear idea why they are involved. A recent survey by the global market by selling educational products and services in a International Association of Universities of academic leaders largely unregulated marketplace. Some of the sellers are pres- worldwide shows a huge variation of motivations, ranging tigious universities hoping to build links overseas, recruit top from more internationally oriented students and staff, curricu- students to their home campuses, and strengthen their name lar improvement, building a “name brand,” global collabora- brands in the world market. Many of the sellers are themselves tion, providing opportunities for research, and many others. Curiously, only a small minority of academic leaders cited Erratum earning income from international initiatives—an especially surprising point of view given that the Australian and British Our last issue, Number 50, was labeled as Winter governments have emphasized earning money as a key goal of 2007. It is actually the Winter 2008 issue. We regret internationalization. University presidents, vice chancellors, any misunderstanding. and rectors from Europe and North America have been troop- ing to China and India prospecting for international busi- international higher education international issues 3

subprime institutions—sleazy recruiters, degree packagers, also help academic institutions themselves think about their low-end private institutions seeking to stave off bankruptcy motivations for entry into the global education market. through the export market and even a few respectable univer- Internationalization, including student mobility, cross-border sities forced by government funding cutbacks to enter foreign educational provision, and involvement in the global knowl- markets for profit making. edge economy of the 21st century is a positive and inevitable Buyers, such as students but also including some academic element of global higher education. What academe needs to institutions in developing countries, are similarly unregulated, avoid is succumbing to subprime practices and the inevitable sometimes ill-informed and often naive. Most tragically, stu- crisis that will ensue. dents and their families buy international educational services (This article was published in Times Higher Education, without much information or understanding. Sometimes London.) recruited to study abroad at subprime schools or motivated more by the desire to seek employment than to study, students may be shortchanged. Uninformed or simply avaricious insti- tutions in developing countries may partner with low-quality colleges and universities in, for example, the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom and receive substandard teach- Foreign-Backed Universities: A ing or degree courses. Regulatory agencies may be entirely missing or inappropriate, thus making quality assurance New Trend impossible to achieve. There are not enough top-quality uni- Ute Lanzendorf versities in countries like China and India to absorb all of the potential overseas partners. Further, most academic institu- Ute Lanzendorf is researcher and manager at the International Center for tions worldwide lack the infrastructures to successfully engage Higher Education Research, University of Kassel, Germany. E-mail: in sophisticated international programs and initiatives. [email protected].

How to Avoid a Crisis n the last decade, discussions about transnational universi- Transparency is a key step for building a healthy international Ities concentrated on the branch campus model. In recent higher education environment. This approach means obtain- years, another type of transnational institutions has expanded ing accurate information about the scope and extent of interna- rapidly: the foreign-backed university. tional higher education—by governments, international and regional organizations, and by universities. Information about Beyond Branch Campuses motives and policies would also be useful, although now very In contrast to a branch campus, a foreign-backed university is little reliable information is available. The market should not set up not by a foreign academic institution but rather by be left to determine the success or failure of international high- (wealthy) local individuals, local governments, or enterprises. The local founders provide or organize the basic financial endowment for a new university but also delegate academic International higher education stands somewhere development to one or several “academic mentor” or “patron” in the middle of the cycle—somewhere between universities abroad. Thus, foreign-backed institutions are irrational exuberance and a bubble. legally independent local universities that are academically affiliated with one or several universities in another country. Mentor universities typically take care of the development of er education. Some interests, especially the governments of the curricula and quality assurance measures, support the develop- major “sellers” (such as the United States, Australia, and the ment of infrastructures, and assist in the training of lecturers. United Kingdom and the for-profit education industry) argue They often send their own teaching staff to the foreign institu- that the doors to international commerce in higher education tion and engage in fund-raising in their home country. should be open and that this openness should be legislated by Foreign-backed universities grant their own national degrees. the World Trade Organization through the General Agreement In some cases, the degrees of mentor institutions are granted on Trade in Services. Such forced openness would leave the in addition to national ones. Mentor universities generally world subject to whatever irrational exuberance and bubble receive remuneration from the founders of the university. They mentality that is now evident in the mortgage industry and is normally do not benefit from the revenue generated from increasingly in higher education. tuition fees. The world also needs clear regulation, probably by govern- Mentor universities may withdraw once the new institution ment authority, to ensure that national interests are served and is fully operational, although they as well as the governments students and their families are not subjected to shoddy busi- of their countries are usually permanently represented on the ness practices by unscrupulous education providers. This will boards of foreign-backed universities. The function of rector or international higher education 4 international issues

president of foreign-backed universities is sometimes shared, Europe and central Asia, local university founders usually draw at least during establishment of an institution, by a local per- upon international development funds for basic institutional son and a scholar from the backing country. Nevertheless, the endowment. At present, Egypt has the most-diverse foreign- ultimate responsibility for financial and operational decisions backed provisions in the world, with institutions backed by normally rests with the founders. German, British, French, and Canadian universities. The US- backed Jacobs University in Germany illustrates that the for- The Why and Wherefore of Affiliations eign backing of newly set-up universities is not only of interest From a local perspective, foreign-backed institutions are not for developing higher education systems but also for mature only expected to contribute to the expansion of study places, systems under modernization. A further expansion of the for- the reduction of study-abroad numbers, and the prevention of eign-backed university sector is under way: Pakistan, a country brain drain. Primarily, their founders intended to enrich the that has always been cautious to maintain tight control over national higher education system by implementing foreign foreign provisions, has recently requested several countries to educational and organizational expertise and innovation. back the establishment of new universities in the country. Often, the goal of introducing labor-market-oriented programs The most significant home countries of mentor universities plays a major role. In some cases, foreign academic affiliation are Germany and the United States, followed by the United is seen as an opportunity to introduce research-based study Kingdom. Interestingly, Australia, a leading provider of branch programs. campuses, is not represented. The Swiss-German University Without foreign ownership, the founders of foreign-backed in Indonesia is the only foreign-backed university that receives universities can determine and easily limit the degree of for- academic support from mentors located in more than one for- eign influence on the academic development of their institu- eign country. Currently, the three by far largest foreign-backed tions. In comparison to branch campuses, foreign-backed pro- universities (3,000 to 5,000 students) are the American visions draw upon the expertise of well-developed institutions University of Sharjah (first enrollments in 1997) in the United while at the same time maintaining local ownership and Arab Emirates, the US-backed Gulf University for Science and ensuring full adherence to national higher education legisla- Technology (first enrollments in 2002) in Kuwait, and the German University in Cairo (first enrollments in 2003). All types of universities represent mentor institutions of In contrast to a branch campus, a foreign-backed foreign-backed universities: from internationally renowned university is set up not by a foreign academic insti- research-intensive universities like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Malaysia University of Science and Technology) tution but rather by (wealthy) local individuals, or RWTH Aachen University (Oman-German University of local governments, or enterprises. Technology) to small, highly specialized institutions with a focus on teaching. Selection by founders is often based on the universities' specific teaching models. Some founders of aca- tion and quality-assurance regulations. Many countries with demically affiliated universities select different foreign part- foreign-backed provisions explicitly do not allow the establish- ners for each faculty, to ensure particular strength. ment of branch campuses (notably Egypt, Nigeria, and Generally, foreign-backed institutions receive accreditation Indonesia). Only the United Arab Emirates and Malaysia host or are licensed by the country where they are located. US- both types of transnational institutions. backed universities tend to strive for additional US accredita- From the perspective of foreign-patron institutions, the aca- tion. German-backed universities plan to have their programs demic support of new institutions abroad constitutes a relative- accredited by German agencies; institutional accreditation ly weak form of involvement in transnational higher educa- does not exist in Germany. tion. For them, it is an attractive way to strengthen their inter- With few exceptions, foreign-backed universities offer pro- national presence with limited organizational and financial grams up to or at the master's level or plan to do so in the near risks but with a rather large development potential. future. The British University in Egypt and the Malaysia University of Science and Technology were designed as post- Overview of Foreign-Backed Provisions graduate universities. Several foreign-backed universities plan A recent report for the Observatory on Borderless Higher to offer (joint) PhD programs. Most institutions plan to engage Education (www.obhe.ac.uk, February 2008) identified 24 for- in applied research and consultancy, which provide access to eign-backed universities in different parts of the world. Among external funding. the countries setting up foreign-backed universities, those in the Arab world (especially Egypt, but also the Gulf states and Conclusion the Middle East), eastern Europe, and central Asia stand out. Developing and running a foreign-backed university consti- In the Arab world, private capital or government resources aid tutes a complex challenge. It requires close cooperation the establishment of foreign-backed universities. In eastern between local founders and foreign academic mentors. An international higher education international issues 5

intensive dialogue is necessary for the integration of a foreign- have been central to the success of dynamic societies across the modeled institution into a national higher education system. globe. Like Justinian's forces, however, some Islamic political Two national quality approaches to the programs offered have groups view the establishment of these traditions as a threat to to be respected. The expectations of stakeholders with respect their efforts to dominate social order. to success factors of a foreign-backed institution need to be coordinated. Whereas the founders may tend to favor high Islam and Authoritarianism enrollment as well as the involvement of industry, applied The major obstacle to building respect for academic freedom research, and consultancy, the academic patrons may rather be in Muslim societies is the persistence of authoritarian culture. interested in high teaching standards and academic rather Given that most Muslim-majority countries remain under a than entrepreneurial ownership of institutional development. form of authoritarian rule, Muslim academics largely face the If foreign-backed provision works well, however, it offers an same kinds of pressures that scholars confront in other author- opportunity for amalgamation and adaptation of different itarian states. In Syria, Sudan, and Saudi Arabia, for example, national types of teaching and higher education organization regime leaders dominate university governance and restrict to engender truly “transnational” higher education. campus environments in much the same way that secular regimes endeavor to control academia in Belarus, Ethiopia, and Burma. It is thus unsurprising that the opponents of aca- demic freedom in all of these countries tend to question the appropriateness of critical intellectualism most stridently when demands for freedom of political expression are raised. Academic Freedom in Muslim In Muslim societies, to a unique extent, religio-political ide- ology has come to animate both authoritarian powers and Societies opposition groups. Regime leaders commonly call on favored richard kraince Richard Kraince directed Ohio University's Inter-Religious Dialogue Project Given that most Muslim-majority countries remain from 2003 to 2006. He will begin a new position as assistant professor of under a form of authoritarian rule, Muslim aca- Southeast Asian Humanities at El Colegio de México in Fall 2008. E-mail: [email protected]. demics largely face the same kinds of pressures that scholars confront in other authoritarian states. t has been nearly 15 centuries since Plato's Academy became Ia casualty of religious zealotry. Emperor Justinian's efforts to impose a standardized version of Christianity throughout the clerics for support, while consortia of Islamic groups—some Byzantine Empire resulted not only in widespread persecution with histories of violent resistance—constitute major forms of of religious minorities but also in the closure of the classical political opposition. Since all sides eagerly seek to build con- world's preeminent academic institution, after 900 years of stituencies within the higher education community, the strug- educational activity. In this era, the tragedy evolved from (1) the gle for academic freedom is often overshadowed by political bitter contestation between emergent socioreligious move- conflict. In Egypt, Pakistan, and Algeria, for example, authori- ments, (2) the arrival of a ruling elite eager to side with a par- tarian regimes have greatly curtailed campus freedoms to limit ticular religious faction rather than to enforce tolerance among the influence of Islamic resistance groups. Similarly, in coun- competing groups, and (3) the identification of free inquiry as tries where Islamists have gained control as in present-day a threat to the consolidation of theocratic rule. Today, as glob- Iran (or in Pakistan during the rule of General Mohammed alization has enhanced the potential of religion to become a Zia-ul-Haq from 1977 to 1988), campus controls are intended source of conflict, scholars in different societies continue to to restrict the activities of secular forces. The common theme face persecution for pursuing lines of thought at odds with reli- in nearly all of these situations includes not simply the domi- gio-political forces. nation of the academy but the use of religion as a means to jus- In many Muslim societies academic freedom is now a par- tify the persecution of scholars who dare to question the legit- ticularly important topic of debate. It can be defined as the imacy of religio-political authority. right of scholars to pursue intellectual inquiry and to comment publicly without the threat of reprisal on matters within their Persecution areas of expertise. Although frequently conflated with the The persecution of scholars takes many forms. In some cases, ongoing Danish cartoon controversy—essentially a protracted faculty members have been targeted by shadowy militias, as dispute over what constitutes hate speech—debates over aca- was Humayun Azad, who was a professor of language and lit- demic freedom in Muslim societies involve efforts to establish erature at the University of Dhaka in Bangladesh. The eminent the traditions of empirical analysis and critical thought that professor was an expert on Bengali linguistics and authored international higher education 6 private developments

scores of publications, including one of the first serious books Scholars in the Netherlands have brought academic free- on women's issues in Bangladesh. He narrowly survived a dom issues into focus recently through a series of symposia machete assault by a group of thugs in 2004 after depicting publications (e.g., William B. Drees and Pieter Sjoerd van both Islamist and nationalist extremists as objectionable char- Koningsveld, eds. The Study of Religion and the Training of acters in a recently published novel. Azad died six months later Muslim Clergy in Europe: Academic and Religious Freedom in the in Germany, where he had fled to escape further attacks. 21st Century, 2008). Perhaps the most significant trend is grow- In other cases, the infringement of scholars' rights takes ing concern about academic freedom within Islamic education place through the courts or other government institutions. For circles. Resolutions drafted by Islamic educators at the example, Hashem Aghajari, a history professor at Tarbiat International Seminar on Religious Curricula in the Muslim Modarres University in Tehran was convicted of apostasy by a World held at the International Islamic University in Kuala conservative regional court and sentenced to death in 2004 for Lumpur, Malaysia, in September 2005 (http: presenting an academic paper in which he described Iranian //www.iiu.edu.my/iimu/info.php?infoid=26) suggest mount- clerical rule as inconsistent with the original teachings of ing frustration with the intolerance expressed by some Islamic Islam. Although the death sentence was eventually reversed by groups. Educators there asserted the idea of broadening reli- gious curricula and promoting freedom of thought and expres- sion, while at the same time discouraging discussion of differ- A growing trend concerning academic freedom in ences among ideological and jurisprudential schools is para- Muslim societies is an awareness of the need to doxical. For this reason, while such resolutions do reflect progress, they also suggest that the Justinian urge to establish address the persecution and intimidation of aca- orthodoxy continues to thrive. demics.

Iran's Supreme Court, Aghajari spent two years in jail and was only released after posting a sizable bail. The well-known case of Egyptian scholar Nasr Hamid Abu- China's Private Universities: A Zayd provides an example of how the Islamic legal system has been used in efforts to silence critical scholarship within the Successful Case Study field of Islamic studies. Abu-Zayd, a former professor of Ruth Hayhoe and Jing Lin Islamic studies at the University of Cairo, was put on trial by an Islamic Family Court after he published criticism of the Ruth Hayhoe is professor in the Department of Theory and Policy Studies, relationship between contemporary Islamic discourse and Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto; Jing Lin is what he called the “social and economic scandal” within professor in the Department of Educational Policy and Leadership, Egypt's Islamic banking sector. The court declared Abu-Zayd University of Maryland. Address: OISE/UT, 252 Bloor St. West, 6/F, an apostate on the grounds of his scholarly work on Qur'anic Toronto, ON, Canada M5S 1V6. E-mail: [email protected]; hermeneutics. It also successfully argued that it held the right [email protected]. See also http://chinesehighereducation.org/. to declare Abu-Zayd's marriage annulled, ostensibly to protect his Muslim wife from the sin of being married to a non- s China has moved rapidly to mass higher education since Muslim. As legal wrangling continued in his home country, Aits groundbreaking 1999 decision on expansion, private Abu-Zayd and his wife immigrated to the Netherlands, where universities have come to account for about 6.6 percent of stu- he now holds the Averroës Chair for Humanism and Islamic dent enrollments, or about 1.34 million of the 20.2 million stu- Studies at the University for Humanistics in Utrecht. dents enrolled in formal higher education in 2006. Major pub- lic universities have also contributed, not only by expanding Trends their regular enrollments but also by setting up second-tier col- A growing trend concerning academic freedom in Muslim leges, which are income-generating extensions, that benefit societies is an awareness of the need to address the persecu- from the university's self-accrediting status and its qualified tion and intimidation of academics. Several human rights faculty. These effective private institutions have enrollments of organizations are working to martial support for scholars 1.47 million students, around 7.3 percent of the total. under threat. In particular, the Scholars at Risk Network coor- Given the advantaged position of second-tier colleges, how dinates a system through which universities can offer sanctu- have independent private universities managed to compete? ary to scholars. Extremely important for the individuals The case of Yellow River University of Science and Technology involved, such efforts also help to reveal academic freedom vio- in Henan Province may provide some answers to this ques- lations and encourage long-term advocacy efforts by members tion. It was the first private university to enroll government- of the international academic community in a variety of fields. approved diploma students in 1994 and the first to enroll international higher education private developments 7 degree students in 1999, with a rapid expansion of degree pro- less favorable contracts. grams in response to the massification decision taken that From the university's founding, teaching excellence has year. By 2007, this university had 13,000 students enrolled in been strongly emphasized, as essential to attracting students. 37 degree programs, as well as another 5,000 in diploma and At present, major efforts are going into teaching improvement, certificate programs and 1,500 in adult education programs. It with experienced professors invited as consultants from out- was also cooperating with two top public universities, Tongji in side and various supports for teaching enhancement being put Shanghai and Huazhong University of Science and in place. In June of 2008, the university will undergo its first Technology in Wuhan, to run a small number of master's formal teaching evaluation by the national Ministry of degree programs. These numbers make it a leader among Education, an important milestone in public recognition, fol- China's independent private universities, as only 24 are now lowing the approval of an expanding number of degree pro- accredited to run degree programs, with more than 1,250 oth- grams. Teaching is the main focus of faculty work, and teach- ers focusing on teaching at the subdegree level. ing loads are high, averaging 12 classes per week. Research is just beginning, with 19 projects recently registered with the Origins and Quality of Students Seventy percent of the students at Yellow River come from Student fees average at around 10,000 yuan, much Henan Province, with a population of 97 million, and the higher than the average of 3,000 for public univer- majority are from rural areas. Another 30 percent come from other parts of China. These students tend to have marks in the sity programs in Henan, but lower than the 13,000 lower levels of the national entry examinations, and university charged for second-tier colleges locally. leaders are well aware of the need to bolster their confidence and provide learning opportunities that emphasize practical and employment-related knowledge. Thus, niche areas have provincial education bureau and the Henan Academy of Social been developed such as television and radio broadcasting, Sciences. This is the way Yellow River has gained public advertising and design, engineering and construction geared approval for its research, in a situation where funding is pro- to county-level technical employment needs, and music educa- vided internally. The 46 faculty members who developed these tion oriented to self-employment. Student fees average at projects are rewarded with lowered teaching loads and expect- around 10,000 yuan, much higher than the average of 3,000 ed to build a nascent research culture. for public university programs in Henan, but lower than the 13,000 charged for second-tier colleges locally, also a competi- Governance and Finance tive level for attracting students from outside the province. China's 1998 higher education law stipulates that universities Students are given many opportunities for internships and stu- are legal persons, and its 2003 law on minban (people-run) dent-organized activities on campus, while discipline is stricter higher education states that “the government allows a reason- than in public universities, and most live in campus dormito- able return on private school investment.” University property ries closely supervised by counselors under the head of student is owned by the institution, two large campuses in Yellow affairs, who is also vice-secretary of the university's River's case, but many services may be separately incorporated Communist Party Committee. and become a source of income. There is no direct government supervision over the budget, and the issue of profit, or a rea- Teaching and Research sonable return on investment, remains a grey area. The 2002 Attracting and keeping qualified faculty is a challenge for pri- law stipulates that a board of trustees is to oversee university vate universities, and Yellow River's faculty profile gives some governance, and Yellow River has recently established such a insights into how this is done. With a full-time faculty of 800, board, but its members consist mainly of internal leaders, and another 500 part-time teachers cross-appointed from including the president and several other founding members. other institutions, there is a faculty/student ratio of about 1:19. While adhering to the law and claiming its protection is impor- Senior faculty, including deans and department chairs, are tant, good relations with local government and political leaders mostly retired professors from public institutions, with sound are also seen as crucial. Thus the founding president became a qualifications and experience. Many younger faculty have been Communist Party member in 1995 and established a Party appointed with master's degrees from public universities and Committee on the campus in 1997. She has also worked close- are given initial five-year contracts, with a promotion to lectur- ly with family members in building up the university, appoint- er possible after two years. In the autumn of 2006, for exam- ing her daughter as executive vice-president, responsible for ple, 130 new appointees had been attracted from a double external affairs, and recently bringing her son back from a cohort of graduating master's students, as China's master's career in finance in the United States to serve as chief financial degree programs had been reduced from three to two years. officer. This kind of family “responsibility system” is fairly Some teachers with first degrees are appointed, often in recog- common in China's private institutions. nition of relevant professional experience, but they are given Yellow River is not a typical private university, however, but international higher education 8 private developments

one of a very few with the kind of strong leadership that has nity to obtain a college degree. made it a major player. Government policy has kept most in a subordinate position, where it is extremely difficult to compete The Growth of the Subsector with the second-tier colleges of public universities, and few are Empirical evidence links most demand-absorbing institutions permitted to offer degree programs. to the diversification and growth of the private sector, which now contains about 16 percent of total Mexican enrollment. The diversification of institutions, models, and programs is related to the demographic pressure and a paradigm change about the functions of higher education that seems to give higher value to the development of professional and vocation- Demand-Absorbing Private al skills linked to the job market. In the new programs and institutions, instruction does not measure up with the idea of Institutions in Mexico university-like education and rather than professional educa- tors requires practitioners knowledgeable about the practical Juan Carlos Silas profession and prepared to polish job-related skills. Demand- absorbing institutions appeal to students who select their insti- Juan Carlos Silas is a PROPHE Affiliate and professor in the Department tution and program of study according to their calculation of of Education at the Universidad de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico. E-mail: lesser perceived effort, opportunities for staying active in the [email protected]. labor market while studying, and expected return of time and money invested. IHE devotes a column in each issue to a contribution from In the last 25 years, nonuniversity private higher education PROPHE, the Program for Research on Private Higher institutions have mushroomed, another trend found in other Education, headquartered at the University at Albany. See countries as well. One form occurs where organizations focus http://www.albany.edu/. their programs on a specific area (communications sciences, psychology and psychotherapy, or gastronomy). A second form exican higher education is very dynamic and has occurs where smaller institutions emerge, usually created by Mreshaped itself due to demographic, social, and political entrepreneurs and with a geographical coverage circumscribed changes. The expansion of the country's most-rapid-growing to specific urban areas. These institutions offer traditional pro- subsector has included dramatic growth of enrollments and grams at a low cost and are usually directed to the service sec- institutions, and diversification of institutions.

The Demand-Absorbing Subsector Some common elements foster the start-up of The term and basic characteristics of “demand-absorbing” demand-absorbing institutions in Mexico and many were introduced in Daniel Levy's pioneering study two decades other countries: a large unsatisfied demand from ago. He found demand-absorbers to be academically flimsy, narrow, usually small, and not seeking prominence in the aca- secondary education diploma-holders.. demic disciplines—quite nonelite. Compared to other institu- tions they are tuition based (though they charge less than other tor of the economy. In Mexico and beyond, this expansion privates do), seldom receive donations, survive largely by hir- seems to be known and tolerated by national governments and ing professors from public institutions interested in additional educational systems as a way to provide low-income students income, and hold operational costs to a minimum. with access to higher education. Some common elements foster the start-up of demand- absorbing institutions in Mexico and many other countries: a The Current Demand-Absorbing Subsector large unsatisfied demand from secondary education diploma- Data from the 2005/06 school year shows 87 percent of the holders trying to further their education, insufficient regula- private higher education institutions in Mexico constitute tion for limiting the development of lower-quality institutions, demand-absorbing ones. With 328,803 undergraduates they and financial constraints preventing public institutions from enroll almost half (48.5%) the students registered in the private enhancing their intake of qualified students. It follows that in sector and 16 percent of the national enrollment. Most of these a context of high demand, lax regulation, and financial con- institutions are small; 40 percent of them enroll 100 students straints, both the educational providers and students seeking or fewer. However, one can find eight institutions enrolling an available place are forced to look for different options. The more than 5,000 students—one of which reports having more result of this quest includes the establishment of institutions than 16,000 students at 33 sites. offering vocational-like and affordable education that provides Mexico's contemporary demand-absorbing subsector relies students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds the opportu- on noncontract teaching personnel and a strong focus on licen- international higher education african perspectives 9

ciatura (four-year undergraduate degrees). Representing 65 tion, in effect emancipating the system in the region. This percent of the 777 total demand-absorbing ones, 506 institu- approach has created the opportunity for the bank, other devel- tions report 100 percent “hourlies” (part-timers) as the compo- opment partners, and respective governments to revitalize and sition of their teaching staff. Seventy-nine percent of the insti- expand the higher education system on the continent. One tutions offer only licenciatura, while the remaining 21 percent may mark this major policy shift as the most important devel- of institutions offer licenciatura plus some master's degrees. opment in African higher education landscape over the last Few of these degrees require a costly infrastructure for labora- decade. tories or technology, and most of them are in the fields of administrative sciences, humanities, and education, or com- Private Expansion: Public Influence puter sciences, with aspirations of a fast immersion into the In many countries, upgraded and brand-new public institu- job market. tions have experienced hikes in student enrollment. Even more so, the growth of private institutions has been phenomenal. For example, in Ethiopia, where virtually no such institution existed a decade ago, over 60 operate now. There are 18 in Kenya, 20 in Tanzania, and 32 in Nigeria. One of the most remarkable developments in the continent's higher education African Higher Education: system is the mushrooming of private colleges. However, the demand for access is still far from fulfilled, with a total 5 per- Projecting the Future cent enrollment in the region. Damtew Teferra As the liberalized global economic policies encouraged the growth of private institutions on the continent, the expansion had a direct and indirect impact on the funding of public high- Damtew Teferra is Director for Africa and the Middle East at the Ford er education institutions. In response, the trend provided pub- Foundation International Fellowships Program based in New York. He lic institutions an impetus for practicing several cost-sharing directs the International Network for Higher Education in Africa. E-mail: initiatives that some observers dub as the “privatization” of [email protected]. public institutions. The taboo regarding revenue generation has eased up, and controversies surrounding cost sharing have n the last decade, higher education in Africa has seen policy Ishifts in favor of higher education, massive demand and As access to higher education is rapidly expanding major growth in providers, and unprecedented progress in information and communications technologies. However, the in the region, quality has emerged as a growing region has also faced large numbers of unemployed and concern for stakeholders—students, parents, unemployable graduates, uncertainty due to international guardians, employers, and governments. regimes such as the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), diminishing faculty numbers, and massive brain drain. been muted. These developments, however, are being re-evalu- ated as issues of equity, quality, and access are being raised. Emancipation and Revitalization Even more so, the private expansion has fostered negligence of African higher education survived under the shadow of inter- public higher education expansion by financially strapped gov- national sanctions for several decades following the rate-of- ernments, limiting their support to the subsector. return study supported by the World Bank in mid-1980s that Numerous threads are shared among the recently estab- defined higher education as a luxury the continent could ill lished nonsectarian private institutions in the region—and afford. The World Bank dropped loan requests for higher edu- around the world. These institutions are generally smaller in cation development on the continent. Other international size, limited to programs of popular demand, market oriented, development partners and major philanthropic organizations, and fee and tuition dependent. They often rely on staff from even some considered to be fiercely independent, followed the major public institutions, largely part-timers, virtually none of same policy track, dropping higher education from their devel- whom pursue research; postgraduate programs are rarely opment agenda. African governments themselves neglected offered. universities largely due to external influence. Private higher education institutions, especially those With the publications of Higher Education and Developing dependent on tuition and fees are generally unstable, precari- Countries: Peril and Promise (World Bank, 2000) and ous, and resource challenged. Yet, private higher education Constructing Knowledge Societies (World Bank, 2002), which providers in the region that are established, funded, and run by affirmed the role of higher education in the globalized world, religious groups are growing in number and significance. the World Bank's position has shifted in favor of higher educa-

international higher education 10 african perspectives

Expanding Access and Quality more tolerant toward academic freedom and autonomy of uni- As access to higher education is rapidly expanding in the versities. region, quality has emerged as a growing concern for stake- holders—students, parents, guardians, employers, and govern- ICT: Successes and Glitches ments. The concern acutely affects private institutions, whose Brain drain, the exodus of highly skilled personnel, remains a credibility on the continent is not yet established given the chronic challenge to higher education and general develop- questions of the public and governments on the sector's fast ment. However, the innovations in information and communi- growth, delivery, and accountability. cations technology (ICT) have enabled migrant intellectuals to Over the last several years, many countries have established participate in the academic and scholarly initiatives of their home countries—in terms of teaching, joint research and pub- lishing, and consultancy. Whereas Africa remains as the least wired (and Whereas Africa remains as the least wired (and wireless) wireless) region in the world, the transformation region in the world, the transformation brought about by ICT has considerably contributed to teaching, research, and pub- brought about by ICT has considerably contributed lishing in the region's institutions. to teaching, research, and publishing in the region's Access to e-mail, the Internet, and e-journals has helped institutions. address the isolation the African intelligentsia has long faced. Communication among fellow scholars and researchers has been dramatically boosted, enabling effective links across the quality assurance and accreditation offices that have already region—and the world. made some progress in registering and accrediting, as well as Yet, low bandwidth, the high cost of service, erratic and revoking licenses of providers. The status and operational stan- unreliable power supply, poor technical support, the short life dards of these institutions in the region leave a lot to be span of software and hardware, and constant demand for their desired. upgrade will continue to challenge ICT experience in the In this environment, private providers in some countries region. are proactively policing themselves, protecting their interests, shaping pertinent dialogue, and collectively raising their griev- Conclusion ances. One such example is the Association of Private The liberation from the longstanding unfavorable policies of Institutions in Ethiopia, established in 2005. external agencies, the synergy generated by the knowledge economy, the liberalizing regional economy, and the unprece- Public Funding: A Diminishing Trend? dented ICT developments have had a considerable impact Higher education in Africa is still mainly a public affair, upon higher education development on the continent over the though this situation is changing fast. Funding will remain the past decade. ongoing issue for the expansion and reinvigoration of the high- er education system in Africa. Low economic growth rates, weak investment outlooks, unsustainable unemployment Higher education in Africa is still mainly a public rates, grinding poverty, and rampant disease (e.g., HIV-AIDS) affair, though this situation is changing fast. will continue to constrain Africa's ability to generate meaning- ful revenues in the context of a deregulated education subsys- tem, which until recently was dubbed “a luxury.” The outstanding challenges that remain include low enroll- ment rates (accompanied by inequity) and massive demand, Academic Freedom and Autonomy: Winds of Change? limited funding capability, diminishing faculty (due to age and Africa has largely been known as a bastion of military and mortality), poor-quality teaching and low research output, authoritarian dictatorships that represses its population—and “unfit” graduates, massive brain drain, and uncertainty of its intellectuals. As the wind of democratization blows across international initiatives such GATS. the region, chipping away one dictator after another, the As higher education takes a central position in the knowl- human rights and intellectual space of nations are budding— edge economy, establishing dynamic institutions has become abeit slowly. crucial. To become a meaningful player, Africa thus must As opposition movements and civic organizations on the make a serious effort to build a strong higher education sys- continent are flourishing, the role of universities as a vanguard tem. of social movements has considerably diminished. Indeed, many of the recent leaders and opposition politicians had been university professors, intellectuals, and other high-level profes- sionals who have themselves fought tyranny and tend to be international higher education african perspectives 11

International Education that offer educational support services to prospective students for overseas institutions, particularly those in the United Providers in Nigeria Kingdom. The hosting of educational exhibitions and fairs by some of these firms has now become annual rituals during Isaac N. Obasi, Olamide E. Adesina, and Susan N. which the admissions procedures for potential students are Obasi fast-tracked. A typical example is the EduWorld International, Isaac N. Obasi is associate professor in the Department of Political and which serves as a major recruitment agency for universities in Administrative Studies, University of Botswana, and a regular columnist on Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United higher education for the Daily Champion newspaper, in Lagos, Nigeria. E- States. Other leading education recruitment agencies include mail: [email protected] and [email protected]. Olamide E. the British Educational Training and Admission Services; the Adesina is Chief Academic Standards Officer and Acting Head, in the Abel Wright College; and the IBT Education Group (an Division of Curriculum Development, National Universities Commission, Australia-based education company), which recruits students in Abuja, Nigeria. E-mail: [email protected]. Susan N. Obasi is a for the United Kingdom-based LIBT and HIBT colleges that in lecturer in the Department of Adult Education and Extra-Mural Studies, turn maintain partnership with the Brunel University at University of Nigeria, in Nsukka, Nigeria. E-mail: [email protected]. Uxbridge and the University of Hertfordshire, respectively. One disturbing dimension of their activities is the promise of fast-tracked degree programs for foreign students for dubious he current literature illustrates that cross-border higher reasons. For instance, the IBT UK college program promises Teducation is not a new development. In Nigeria, the the reduction of course duration by up to one year. University of Ibadan originated in 1948 as a college of the The fourth level, the primary focus of this paper, is made University of London, during British colonial rule. Recognized up of recognized and nonrecognized providers, as well as com- international providers have always been partners in Nigeria's mercial company higher education institutions. higher education development. Yet, under globalization cross- border higher education has undergone a major transforma- Rogue Cross-Border Providers tion due largely to technologically sophisticated methods of The National Universities Commission (NUC) is the sole delivery and a dominant profit-driven motive. The situation in agency responsible for registering and accrediting all institu- Nigeria also reflects this new global trend and the listing of tions offering university degrees in Nigeria. Any higher educa- education as a tradable commodity in the General Agreement tion institution not licensed and accredited by the NUC is ille- on Trade in Services (GATS) under the World Trade gal. A growing number of local commercial education enter- Organization. prises and foreign education consulting firms offer various kinds of degrees on behalf of foreign universities in Nigeria. A Levels of International Providers typical example of such a case is the New Idea Consultants, The international providers in Nigeria can be classified into which has operated since 1997 as a “degree mill” for St. four levels. In the first level there are providers of primary and Clements University. In 2005, the NUC ordered the closure of secondary education with international standards. Two exam- ples of this group include the Loyola Jesuit College and the The third level comprises foreign commercial com- Lekki British School. panies that offer educational support services to The second level consists of enterprises providing certificate and diploma-based programs, as well as lifelong-education prospective students for overseas institutions, par- information-technology (IT)-related courses, which are carried ticularly those in the United Kingdom. out electronically or by physical contact. This group operates outside the regulatory ambit of the national higher education licensing and quality-assurance agency. Some examples of its illegal offshore programs in Nigeria, taking this measure these providers are the NCC Education Nigeria, which adver- after its investigation and discovery that in addition to operat- tises itself as “bringing British Education” to its customers and ing illegally this organization was running a distance-mode runs diploma programs, leading to degrees of some United PhD degree program for 24 months and distance-mode MBA Kingdom-based universities; the International Baccalaureate and MSc degrees for 9 to 15 months. Organization, in Geneva, which operates through the Lagos- In 2005, Nigeria's minister of education announced the dis- based private school (the D-Ivy College) and offers a two-year covery of an illegal university in the federal capital territory of diploma program; the Informatics Institute, which awards an Abuja, offering medical programs on behalf of a foreign uni- international diploma in computing; and the APTECH Ltd. versity. Although the government did not take this lightly, there which prides itself as a Global Learning Solutions Company, is have been countless numbers of advertisements of their pro- from India and is listed in its Stock Exchange. grams by international providers in daily newspapers and on The third level comprises foreign commercial companies the Internet. However, more worrisome is our finding that international higher education 12 african perspectives

EduWorld International in its Internet advertisement of a PhD latory framework. However, this process has been somewhat program offered by one of its clients (Trinity College), prom- slow, and thus we recommend that actions be swiftly taken as ised its completion in six months (with an escaping phrase “or some reputable foreign providers would have a positive role to more years”)—and to be executed “via 100% Online Distance play in the broader higher education landscape in Nigeria. Learning.” These fraudulent cases in Nigeria corroborate some of the findings elsewhere already reported internationally. There are also offshore master's programs operated by some other foreign universities. An MBA program of the Lincoln University, in California, is offered through the SKB Executive Marketing Nigeria Ltd. and a master's program is presented by Higher Education Trends in the Netherlands Business School (Universiteit Nyenrode). Both of these programs come from low-end educational insti- Eritrea tutions, and their programs do not have the official approval of Ravinder Rena the NUC. Ravinder Rena is associate professor in the Department of Business and Positive Developments Economics, Eritrea Institute of Technology-Mai Nefhi. Address: Post Box In spite of these reported illegal cases, there are also legally No. 7956, Asmara, Eritrea. E-mail: [email protected]; drravin- sanctioned activities of international providers in Nigeria's [email protected]. fast-growing private higher education industry, which are reflective of some positive aspects of globalization. Some ritrea got its independence in 1991 after a 30-year freedom providers operate in partnership with locally licensed private Estruggle. It is a small country located in the Horn of Africa universities in a manner that probably meets the with an estimated population of about 4 million. It is also one UNESCO/OECD Guidelines on Cross-border Higher of the poorest countries in the world, with the per capita Education or some of the expectations of the Association of income estimated at around US$200 and a 66.5 percent African Universities in the Accra Declaration (2004) on GATS poverty rate. and the Internationalization of Higher Education in Africa. One of these providers is the American University of Nigeria, Colleges in Eritrea Yola, which has a partnership with the American University in In order to develop education in general and higher education Washington, DC, modeled after the American University of in particular, the government has exerted efforts to develop its Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates. human resources after independence. In line with this, the University of Asmara, the only university in the country, has supplied a workforce of about 12,000 graduates from 1992 to There is no detailed NUC policy to check the activ- 2007 (including 1,505 graduated in September 2007), of whom more than half are graduates at the bachelor's level and ities of illegally operating cross-border providers at employed in different government and private sectors. Further, the lower levels of the higher education system. in 2004, the university began master's programs in six differ- ent fields. These programs are being run through funds obtained from the government and bilateral cooperation agree- The Nigerian Regulatory Environment ments. The university has also expanded its undergraduate Nigeria currently has both tight (strict or restrictive) and loose programs. Currently, the university has 260 faculty members regulatory frameworks. At the higher education level, the reg- with about 120 PhD holders, over 50 of whom are Eritreans ulatory framework is restrictive even when it has some limita- teaching in 43 departments. The University of Asmara has tions in its capacity to monitor cases of illegal Internet-based been temporarily closed, and thus all these staff have been cross-border actions. But at the lower level of diploma and IT- transferred to the Eritrea Institute of Technology and other col- related programs, Nigeria appears unable to check the activi- leges. Since the local manpower is insufficient in the higher ties of unrecognized and rogue cross-border providers. learning institutions, the government has hired (on a contract basis) about 300 expatriates from India and 10 from Pakistan. A Comprehensive Regulatory Framework The expatriate teaching staff constitutes about 60 percent of Although there is no detailed NUC policy to check the activi- the total teaching staff in the colleges. All the staff, both locals ties of illegally operating cross-border providers at the lower and expatriates, are full-time employees. In 2004, nakfa 35.89 levels of the higher education system, in contrast to the legally million (US$2.39 million) has been spent on Asmara operating ones at the higher level, the current government University. thinking is against the rogue cross-border providers. However, In 2004, eight other new colleges were established at the since 2005 NUC has been working on a comprehensive regu- tertiary level in different parts of Eritrea. These colleges are

international higher education african perspectives 13

offering various English-medium degree and diploma pro- sponsoring institutions. Domestic graduate programs will not grams. It is estimated that about 15,000 students are attending only save a substantial amount of foreign currency but will also these colleges, of which about 25 percent complete their grad- help retain the trained workforce in the country. uation and the remaining earn certificates and diplomas. Eventually, the University of Asmara may transform itself These new colleges are established under the $200 million from a teaching university into one devoted to both teaching World Bank loan project. and research because the graduate degrees involve research as In July 2004, the University of Asmara established the well as teaching. According to the policy of the university, to School of Graduate Studies to administer the graduate pro- grams within various colleges. In 1995, 12 years ago, it was estimated that Eritrea needed to produce up to 1,000 persons The research-based, graduate programs have to be trained at the master's level. This requirement has increased as designed to enable graduate students to undertake Eritrea has been facing a crisis in manpower development. research in areas of national priority. In September 2004, 35 students were enrolled in six fields of study: agronomy, horticulture, applied soil science, sustain- able livestock production, development economics, and organ- start a graduate program a department must have at least a ic chemistry. Of these, 27 graduated in 2006. In 2005 35 stu- core staff of three nationals with a PhD. Thus the College of dents were enrolled in the existing fields, and 29 graduated Science, Faculty of Arts, College of Social Sciences, College of with a master's degree in 2007. However, no students were Agriculture, and College of Business and Economics have enrolled in 2006. Graduate and undergraduate programs are started their programs with limited intake. taught in English. As stated earlier, the University of Asmara has remained closed since September 2006, with a conviction Strategic Principles that it will restart as a full-fledged university with only master's The principle of relevance concerns the issues and goals that and other research programs. interest Eritrea and its development programs. These pro- grams should be meant not only to pursue knowledge but also Objectives of the Master's Programs to solve socioeconomic and scientific problems in the country. The university has faced many challenges while seeking to Thus, local stakeholders are involved in workshops organized supply productive manpower and relevant knowledge through by each college to evaluate their draft curricula. This may graduate research. The master's program has been launched enable departments to tune their curricula and research agen- with a number of objectives. da to the needs of the country. The local stakeholders may also Eritrea has problems related to food security; exploration contribute to the programs by making their facilities available and management of natural resources; economic, social, and to graduate students. cultural development; and health, gender, and other issues. The principle of quality has to be addressed by involving The research-based, graduate programs have to be designed to external linkage partners in the whole process of planning and enable graduate students to undertake research in areas of drafting of the curricula. As far as possible, graduate training national priority. It is believed that the graduate research may has to be envisaged as joint programs between the University help meet the major developmental challenges and constraints of Asmara and partner institutions of higher learning in the afflicting the country. It may also improve the quality and rele- North and South (Dutch, Swedish, Indian, and South African vance of education at all levels in the university and the newly universities). The quality of the program can be pegged to the established institutes of higher learning. standards of these institutions. Each department can be Building graduate programs will help save the foreign cur- encouraged to invite at least one professor from partner uni- rency now spent on graduate-level training at foreign universi- versities to offer courses and to cosupervise graduate students ties. Until 2005, over US$17 million has been spent on train- and their research. ing more than 1,100 Eritreans at foreign universities. Most of While education is free at all levels in Eritrea, the principle these funds are donated by the development partners and non- of sustainability can be addressed through the introduction of governmental organizations. A homegrown graduate program student fees. The annual tuition fees for every student in the that will eventually create opportunities for research at the doc- laboratory-based and non-laboratory-based disciplines are, toral level will allow the use of funds for building research and respectively, US$5,000 and US$3,500. Since the students can- educational infrastructure in Eritrea. not afford to pay the fees, the government may make necessary Curbing brain drain will save the qualified manpower of the agreements with the partners to resolve this problem. nation as well as the huge sum of foreign currency spent. Of Furthermore, together with the research centers, the program the total 1,100 persons sent abroad with government funding aims at generating 20 percent of their budget through consul- for higher-level education, 35 to 40 percent decided to remain tancy and research contracts. However, until the graduate pro- in the developed nations after completing their studies. This grams reach a level of maturity, they will require budgetary has had a negative impact on the development plans of the support from the government, and that task is not easy. international higher education 14 india

Indian Higher Education at the first universities and colleges for modern higher education in the mid-19th century, the focus has been on arts and humani- Crossroads ties. As a result, half of the graduates have degrees in arts and humanities and almost four-fifths of graduates have no Pawan Agarwal employable skills. Thus, India (like many other countries of Pawan Agarwal is Secretary of the Department of Science and Technology the world) suffers a situation where critical levels of graduates' and Minority Affairs, government of West Bengal (India). He was a unemployment and skill shortages coexist. In contrast, for Fulbright New Century Scholar. E-mail: [email protected]. instance in the United States, despite a strong focus on liberal arts education, the growth of higher education over the cen- turies has had a strong vocational emphasis. or the past few years, India has seen high rates of econom- Another issue involves the rigidity of the archaic system that Fic growth attributed to skill-based activities. The country's affiliates more than 18,000 colleges to 120 universities. The huge pool of qualified manpower fed by its large and growing remaining 250 universities are nonaffiliating. The affiliating higher education system is widely seen as contributing to this system was useful for rapid expansion of professional pro- development. While attracting a significant interest overseas, grams in engineering and medicine; the norms of profession- Indian higher education is in focus at home for other reasons. al practice were defined nationally. But in cases where academ- Several sectors of the Indian economy face severe skill ic autonomy is of paramount importance for defining curricu- shortages perceived as caused by the inadequacy of the higher lum and course content, an affiliating system becomes a bottle- education system. Institutions of higher education produce neck, stifling innovation and experimentation. Today's labor ordinary graduates with hardly any employable skills. The market requires a large diversity of skills in the graduates. The quality of academic research is low and declining. Overall, aca- affiliating system has also resulted in small and nonviable col- demic standards do not compare favorably with the average leges. Poorly resourced, such colleges are at best tutorial class- standards in advanced countries. There are only small peaks of es, where learning takes place on the basis of a fixed curricu- excellence. The reputed Indian Institutes of Technology and lum for the purpose of cracking exams. the Indian Institutes of Management that represent this peak The current accountability system of public institutions is have been embroiled in many controversies in recent years. A extensive and cumbersome. With the purpose of higher educa- unilateral decision of the government to impose a numerical tion only ambiguously defined and with quality difficult to quota-based reservation for the other backward classes on measure, public institutions often cover themselves with a fig these institutions created an impasse that raises many prickly leaf of autonomy wherever asked to deliver specific programs. issues. The heavily unionized academic community, a powerful polit- In its November 2006 report to the Indian prime minister, ical constituency, is divorced from reality and resists change. the National Knowledge Commission pointed out the “quiet Poorly financed and having teachers with low motivation lev- crises” in Indian higher education. While addressing a gather- els, the standards of public institutions are deteriorating rapid- ing of vice chancellors in New Delhi, the national human ly. Unfortunately, more public funding only addresses part of resource minister recently lamented that Indian higher educa- the problem. tion is the “sick child” of Indian education. Thus, not surpris- ingly government is significantly increasing the public funding Several sectors of the Indian economy face severe and setting up many new institutions. The country aspires to raise enrollment levels from a current 11 percent of the eligible skill shortages perceived as caused by the inadequa- age group to 20 percent by 2012. cy of the higher education system. The growth of public funding, new institutions, and increased enrollment all constitute progress. However, the cur- rent perceived crisis in Indian higher education involves failed expectations rather than something suddenly going wrong Addressing Concerns with the system. At a time when the economy is booming, Thus, the causes of Indian higher education's crisis stem from increased expectations are placed upon higher education. The the system's structure rooted in its history and relate to the large and growing middle class uses education to improve nature of higher education itself where purpose and quality are their children's earnings and provide upward mobility. difficult to define. However, in response to societal pressure Aspirations have risen very rapidly. Rigidity of the system and and market forces, Indian higher education has undergone a its inability to fulfill raised aspirations are a cause of concern. transformation over the past two decades in the explosive growth of private higher education. Even the public institu- Elements of Concern tions have a large chunk of self-financing programs, most of The system of Indian higher education has evolved over the them with a professional focus. This approach ensures a better centuries, rooted in the country's history and culture. Since the matching of the graduates' skills with their own preferences international higher education india 15 and the demands of the labor market. Vedanta University: A Flawed The growth of private institutions has created concerns about equity, quality, and exploitation. Since tuition fees are Pipe Dream high for almost all professional education (whether at public or private institutions)—most people find only professional edu- Philip G. Altbach cation useful—useful higher education is now inaccessible to Philip G. Altbach is Monan professor of higher education and director of the poor. Besides preventing the fees to rise in general higher the Center for International Higher Education at Boston College. education in the name of equity, very little is being done to introduce an adequately funded scholarship and loan scheme for the poor. Such an intervention is urgently required to pro- he latest grandiose and probably unrealistic idea for estab- mote access to higher education and address equity issues. Tlishing a world-class university is Anil Agarwal's Vedanta Accreditation agencies have been put in place to ensure University, which is planned to be opened in 2008 in the state quality and tightly regulated admissions and fees. Yet, progress of Orissa, India. Mining magnate Agarwal has pledged an ini- has been limited due to a hiatus between what is said and what tial $1 billion for this project. International architects have actually gets done. Due to lack of transparency and fair play (or been hired, the authorities in Orissa are on board, and a group perceptions of the same), private institutions lack the incentive of academic leaders is being hired from around the world. The to do the right things. Standards continue to fall and some pri- idea is to create a university with 100,000 students, offering vate institutions indulge in gross malpractices, creating a poor degrees in the major fields and stressing an interdisciplinary overall image of private higher education. approach. While the details of the university's organization Rather than dismantling the affiliating system (as some have not been revealed, it is intended to look like Harvard and people suggest), the strengths of the system should be used to Stanford. While it is always a good deed when one of the disperse higher education opportunities geographically world's richest men takes an interest in higher education, it is through both a conventional and distance mode to address the unlikely that Vedanta University will achieve the desired quality issue. Consolidation of higher education requires the results, no matter how much money Mr. Agarwal spends on merging and clustering of universities and colleges, for intel- it. lectual exchange, synergy, and a sharing of infrastructure and In India, where so much of the emerging private higher facilities. And each such merged entity should be given full education sector is de facto for-profit and narrowly focuses on academic autonomy to experiment and innovate. a few high-demand vocational fields, it is positive that a major industrialist is investing in higher education. The clear public Conclusion interest motivation for Vedanta is also heartening as is the goal Overall, a four-pronged approach is required to meet the rising of planning a university that will offer an array of disciplines expectations and aspirations of the people. First, the private and not just business administration or information technolo- sector needs to be based on the current realities and applied in gy. a fair and transparent manner. Second, the affiliating system Does Vedanta have an overarching educational philosophy needs to be designed to achieve geographical dispersal and to and strategy to obtain the goal of building a world-class univer- establish the optimum size of institutions. Third, increased sity? Is there an educational vision behind the money? funding and innovative financing mechanisms must create Building impressive physical facilities are a start but will by no incentives for public institutions to do the right things and means ensure success. The heart of any university consists of change with time. Fourth, an adequately funded scholarship its faculty—the professors who do the actual academic work and loan scheme should be put in place so that no one is and who must have the autonomy to shape the institution's denied the opportunity for higher education just because of programs. Academic leadership is also a necessity—leadership poverty. Pragmatism requires understanding that the Indian with an intellectual vision as well as the ability to build and government could at best set up more top-quality institutions manage a complex organization. and support public research, while sustained support for high- A billion dollars sounds like a lot of money, but when er education and its growth would occur through private spread around a university of 100,000 students, it is in fact a finance. Equity issues can be addressed through properly more modest sum. One must separate the cost of building the designed income-contingent loans and scholarships for the campus from the operating costs of a major research universi- very poor. Private growth in the Indian context helps to correct ty. The annual budgets of universities like Harvard and the country's historical and undesirable bias for liberal arts Stanford are about $1 billion; the major European universities education. Thus, at a time when the Indian economy is at take- spend less but are in this league. An average American off stage, the government should direct and accelerate changes research university typically has an operating budget of close to in Indian higher education to support the economy. a half billion. No research university in the world has 100,000 students or even anything close. The University of Chicago, one of the few international higher education 16 india

top-ranking universities that was established in 1890 with the against their geographical isolation to maintain their excel- idea of being a world-class research university, today has lence. It is difficult to lure academics and students to out-of- 13,700 students, 4,000 of them undergraduates and an annu- the-way places and to support intellectual and cultural institu- al budget of more than $1 billion. Its major benefactor, John D. tions. Even in the age of the Internet, location matters a great Rockefeller, at the time the world's richest man, spent several deal. Indeed, it can be argued that in the era of globalization, billion dollars in the currency equivalent of the time. Even location is even more important because all top universities more signficantly, Chicago's founding president, William must attract the best and brightest talent from around the Rainey Harper, had a vision for the university that he was able world. It is unlikely that in rural Orissa Vedanta will be a sig- to implement. The idea came first, the money second. It was nificant lure. also possible to lure many of the world's best scholars to the Will Vedanta University be a public or a private institution? new university with top salaries and the promise of academic With hardly any exceptions, there are no successful private freedom and autonomy. The university was located in one of research universities outside of the United States and Japan. America's fastest-growing cities—a center of the emerging All the rest are public, state-supported institutions. The reason technologies of the early 20th century. Stanford University, for this is the high cost of sustaining research universities over time. It is not enough to pour money into the development of a campus and the initial start-up costs. Distinguished research While it is always a good deed when one of the universities need massive financial resources over time. Some world's richest men takes an interest in higher edu- of this support must come from public sources. Other funds can be generated from student tuition and fees and from cation, it is unlikely that Vedanta University will research grants from public and private sources obtained by achieve the desired results, no matter how much the professors. Many research universities around the world money Mr. Agarwal spends on it. have not achieved their goals because of the lack of sustained financial backing. While $1 or $3 billion dollars is a large investment and will go far to establishing world-class facilities, established in 1891, took longer to mature. It did not become a additional funds will be needed to sustain the university, espe- major research university until after World War II, benefiting cially in its early years, once it is up and running. from innovative leadership and the development of the high- tech industries of the Silicon Valley of northern California. While $1 or $3 billion dollars is a large investment Stanford's enrollment and budget are similar to the University of Chicago. and will go far to establishing world-class facilities, The Chicago and Stanford examples have several lessons for additional funds will be needed to sustain the uni- Vedanta, as do the realities of Indian higher education. The versity, especially in its early years, once it is up goal of serving 100,000 students will doom Vedanta University. Indeed, the University of California, Berkeley, one and running. of the largest highly ranked research universities in the United States, enrolls 33,000 students, and its size has been capped. Will Vedanta become a global university located in Orissa or One of the reasons for the success of the Indian Institutes of an Indian university with significant global influences? If it is Technology, the Birla Institute of Science and Technology a global institution, then how will it contribute to India's devel- (BITS), and a few others has been their small size. These insti- opment? If it is Indian, will it be overwhelmed by the well- tutions have been able to maintain high standards and create a known problems of bureaucratic control, minor corruption, real academic community in part because of a manageable and other issues that affect most of Indian higher education? size. Given contemporary realities, one cannot be very optimistic Location is also a significant element. It is hard to imagine about Vedanta's chances for success. Let us hope that the fun- a world-class university emerging in rural Orissa. Most of the ders of this project will have the foresight to anticipate the world's distinguished universities are in or at least near metro- problems and maximize the chances for success. politan centers. India's highly regarded Institutes of Technology are near major cities for the most part. There are a few exceptions to this metropolitan rule. Several of America's major public universities were established in the 19th century in rural areas at a time when the United States was still an agri- cultural society. Examples include the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and Pennsylvania State University or the Russian academic complex around Novosibirsk. BITS has done well in Pilani. But all of these institutions struggle international higher education israel 17

Education Crisis in Israel— gagement of the Israeli government is real and seen as a direct result of the repeated budget cuts of higher education at alarm- Payback Time for the Original ing proportions. The figures say it all: the number of Israeli researchers who work in American universities is higher than Sin those in Britain, France, and Canada combined; the statistics for 2003/04 show that the number of Israeli senior faculty who work in American institutions of higher education, not as Roxana Reichman part of their sabbatical, is 25 percent of the number of senior faculty who work in Israeli institutions—in certain fields even Roxana Reichman is Academic Coordinator of Graduate Studies, Gordon higher (e.g., 33% in computer science and 29% in economics). College of Education, Haifa, Israel. E-mail: [email protected] and In comparison, 1.3 percent of Spanish senior faculty, 2.1 per- [email protected]. cent of the British, and 2.9 percent of the French academics work abroad. A cut of 800 tenured positions represents the equivalent of closing one entire university in a country as small he Israeli education sector has recently faced the danger of as Israel, with a total of seven research universities. Tbeing paralyzed by the longest strike in the country's high- Israel became an independent state 60 years ago, and dur- er education system. The 4,500 senior faculty members who ing the first three decades governments invested in education work at the seven research universities have demanded to in general and higher education in particular, making strategic receive compensation for the 35 percent wage erosion over the planning for the benefit of a young nation. During the next last decade since the expiration of their contract in 2001. three decades the different governments invested less and less in education and higher education. As a result, the number of Brain Drain: Ways of Treatment senior faculty in Israeli institutions is only 10 percent higher The professors demanded a pay increase and presented the today than 30 years ago, which considering the population strike as a battle for stopping the brain drain that is a direct increase actually equals a 50 percent cut. result of the erosion in working conditions at Israeli universi- ties. The treasury claimed that the solution for receiving more funds is to fully implement the Shochat Committee reform, The professors demanded a pay increase and pre- which the students have already rejected, because it might lead to the government raising the tuition by 100 percent instead of sented the strike as a battle for stopping the brain a 50 percent reduction in tuition fees to which the government drain that is a direct result of the erosion in working had previously agreed. conditions at Israeli universities. The senior faculty members have convincingly warned about the dangers of brain drain and the deteriorating condi- tions in universities after more than a decade of budget cuts. Yet, professors turned the other way when more adjunct facul- Working Conditions ty members were hired without any basic rights. They were Instead of having to seek part-time additional work in order to happy to decrease their teaching load without focusing too improve their income, senior faculty members should receive much on the students' interest or on the labor conditions of a decent salary enabling them to devote all their time and effort the adjunct faculty. to academic work. Nobody expects Israel to compete with the Two major strikes took place on Israeli campuses in the last salary the academics can receive elsewhere, but senior faculty couple of years. Students organized the first strike when the do enjoy tenure and decent working conditions. Young faculty government attempted to fund higher education by raising the should also have the right to expect reasonable chances for tuition by 100 percent. The second strike was organized by the tenure and promotion in academe, although at this point the adjunct faculty to improve their working conditions and to options of young researchers to find a position in Israeli uni- receive a paid vacation and pension. In none of these cases did versities are slim to nonexistent. the senior faculty join the strike or offer any support. Likewise, During the academic strike, high school teachers carried out when the government cut the equivalent of 800 tenure posi- the longest strike ever (63 days) to improve their working con- tions, professors did not go on strike lamenting the brain drain ditions. The professors obtained a 24 percent pay increase as long as their own positions were not endangered. As a without asking for any social reforms or for an increase in the result, the professors had to fight their battle on their own; the budget of universities, while the high school teachers obtained public support was lower than ever; and this was the result of only an 8.5 percent pay increase after having fought for small- the original sin of apathy and indifference the professors have er classes, which benefit all students. shown in the past during other strikes in academe. The danger related to the brain drain caused by the disen- international higher education 18 israel

Conclusion ing Israeli private colleges and their supporters. One defiant It is unfortunate that the strikers have failed to work together private college declares it will soon call itself a university. for the improvement of education at the secondary and post- Another uses stationery showing an address of University secondary levels. The best strategy would have been to join Road. forces toward the common goal of saving the education system Compared to the rest of the Middle East, Israel was early on before it is too late. Unfortunately, instead, the principle of the initiating private higher education. It is also regionally strong survival of the fittest worked once again. in terms of its share of private/national total enrollment. The government has treated both strikes with apathy and However, almost all surrounding countries have now launched indifference at best, conceivably as part of a larger plan to pri- private sectors. And if compared globally, Israeli private higher vatize all social aspects of society. Israel has an economy that is education is a late developer, and its 13.1 percent share of knowledge based. Thus, it is of concern that with an economy national enrollment is less than half that of the world average. less problematic than in the past, the government is unwilling to invest in education, which everybody understands to be cru- Comparing Private and Public Colleges cial to Israel's future. Most of Israel's private-public comparisons concur with pri- vate-public contrasts in other countries. Private institutions tend to be smaller and more geographically concentrated; not uncommonly they have higher student socioeconomic levels. Perhaps the most prestigious Israeli private college may depend on tuition for 80 percent of its income, a far higher The Relative Strength of Israel's rate than in public institutions. While, there is no government funding, private colleges would like to be able to compete for Private Colleges public research funding and have government directly subsi- Daniel C. Levy dize students, although they do not ask for regular institution- al subsidy. So, even amid the partial privatization of public Daniel C. Levy is Distinguished Professor, SUNY, and Director of PROPHE, institutions, private-public financial contrasts remain strong. University at Albany. E-mail: [email protected]. Perhaps the most striking Israeli private-public distinction lies in fields studied. Even leaving universities aside, the differ- IHE devotes a column in each issue to a contribution from ences far outpace the notable global differences. A good exam- PROPHE, the Program for Research on Private Higher ple is concentrated enrollment in a few fields. Israel's private Education, headquartered at the University at Albany. See http://www.albany.edu/. Until the 1990s, the system had no private higher he development of private higher education in Israel has education; yet it now includes 9 institutions, with 6 Tbeen strong. Until the 1990s, the system had no private more seeking government authorization. higher education; yet it now includes 9 institutions, with 6 more seeking government authorization. The institutions hold 26,860 enrollments, 13.1 percent of the country's total of colleges have 79 percent of their enrollment in just two 310,937 (2005), and that percentage is increasing. fields—legal studies (49 percent) and business management Israel's public sector, however, remains much stronger than (30 percent). The comparative figures for public colleges are 0 its private sector. Israel still lacks private universities, only col- and 11 percent, respectively. The Israeli private higher educa- leges (usually without notable research orientation). In con- tion network remains mostly in a narrow niche. As in the great trast, the public sector's 87 percent share of total enrollment is majority of countries, the peak and breadth of the academic located not only in colleges but mostly in universities; the 7 system lies on the public side. public universities, all research institutions, are listed among Yet, in other respects, private-public differences do not the world's top 500 institutions. Thus, a theme that private appear so sharp in Israeli colleges. For example, while 62 per- higher education now has noteworthy strength is not based on cent of private students are in Tel Aviv and the rest of the rather cross-sector comparison but on comparison with the past, even privileged geographical center of the country, 41 percent of the recent past. public students are there as well. Sixty-five percent of private Officially, private colleges are labeled “nonbudgeted,” mean- students are identified as from the upper strata, but public stu- ing not subsidized by government. The label avoids the use of dents are not a close reflection of the Israeli class and demo- “private,” regarded by many citizens as an illegitimate concept graphic profile either. Only 2 percent of private students are for higher education. Such circumvention is found in other new immigrants, but the public figure is only 5 percent. In countries as well, often settling on “nonpublic.” That private some respects, then, Israel's private-public gaps are not so “universities” are not permitted is a sore point for some aspir- large. international higher education european trends 19

of increasing higher education access without additional pub- Private Colleges and Global Patterns lic cost and of service to the job market. In contrast, the private Comparisons between the private sector in Israel and else- colleges believe that the council focuses largely on academic where show the relative strength of Israel's private colleges. concerns more appropriate for public universities and colleges, Considering quality, while most of the country's private col- thus establishing restrictions and undercutting the speed, flex- leges are not so well regarded academically, they appear to post ibility, and innovation private colleges need, as well as system good results for students entering the job market—a typical differentiation, experimentation, access without public goal of private higher education institutions worldwide. expense, and market tests for determining the value of private Moreover, if at least 4 of Israel's 9 private colleges are credited colleges. with academic soundness, that is a rather large share in the Public higher education institutions often oppose private global context, where most private institutions are regarded as colleges' aspirations to strengthen themselves as they wish. quite low. These Israeli institutions may even be candidates to Public institutions sometimes do assert that regulation can claim “semi-elite” status within the private sector—based on a help the private colleges, as with quality assurance. Often, how- reasonable degree of academic quality, appeal, seriousness, ever, they seek to protect public institutions and values in soci- credibility, and entrepreneurialism. Such achievements do not ety at large. They further argue that private colleges in fact characterize most of the world's private institutions. enjoy ample autonomy (setting enrollment numbers, tuition Extraordinary in the global context is that some of Israel's levels, and faculty wages and opening new programs). In other private colleges have high-quality faculty, even figures of vaunt- words, private colleges already have the autonomy to strength- ed national stature. Indeed, Israel's public universities com- en themselves. plain that they find it increasingly difficult to recruit top talent Echoing a common international tendency, public universi- as some private colleges can pay much more. Related and ties are vocal proponents of regulation over private institu- equally extraordinary is that Israel's private higher education tions; but public colleges are especially fearful of private com- receives substantial philanthropy, so rare outside the United petition, which focuses on teaching and training in popular States. This policy helps provide ability to hire their esteemed fields. Unlike universities, the public colleges do not sit at the faculty and also to build very attractive facilities, provide flexi- system's academic pinnacle, far above private colleges. bility, and gain credibility. Instead, private colleges' strength is a threat to public colleges. Not only do Israel's private colleges have enviable positive

Private institutions tend to be smaller and more geographically concentrated; not uncommonly they have higher student socioeconomic levels. Rankings, Diversity, and characteristics uncommon in most of the world, they also lack Excellence: A European Policy the most negative characteristics. Israel does have the fly-by- night demand-absorbing private institutions. Additionally, Challenge? Israel remains apart from the burgeoning international ten- Ellen Hazelkorn dency to permit for-profit education, though it conforms to a wider reality wherein several of the nonprofit institutions have Ellen Hazelkorn is Director of the Higher Education Policy Research Unit for-profit characteristics and are charged by critics with being and Dean of the Faculty of Applied Arts, Dublin Institute of Technology, for-profit in reality. Ireland. E-mail: [email protected].

The Government Role he headline in the International Herald Tribune (November As commonly found in other countries, private colleges com- T23, 2007) said it all: “To compete, Germany aims to rebuild plain that their strength is undermined by government regula- strength in research.” The article recounted how, having tion. In fact Israel's regulatory debate largely follows contours assessed the performance of German higher education institu- rather common elsewhere. tions in worldwide rankings, the government started a pro- Israeli private colleges regard the national Council of gram to create its own “Ivy League.” The “excellence initiative” Higher Education as a greater obstacle than the Ministry of follows similar moves by France, Russia, and Denmark, among Education. Yes, they find government difficult to deal with as others. On the same day, the European Union passed a resolu- political coalitions transform and ministers change often, but tion reaffirming the need to “accelerate reform of universities at least government is sometimes responsive to political pres- in order to . . . foster the emergence and strengthening of sures from private colleges and their families and likes the idea European higher education institutions which can demon- international higher education 20 european trends

strate their excellence at the international level.” End of the Binary System? In other instances, higher education institutions are taking In the post–World War II massification era, many European the initiative themselves, merging competitive institutions to governments used legislative mechanisms to enforce mission create a larger critical mass (e.g., the University of North diversity, dividing higher education into two distinct institu- London and London Guildhall University formed London tional types or sectors—a binary system. Unlike “traditional” Metropolitan University, and University of Manchester universities, polytechnics, Fachhochschulen, hogescholen, insti- Institute of Science and Technology and Victoria University of tutes of technology, and university colleges provided vocation- Manchester formed the University of Manchester) and creat- ally or professionally relevant education responsive to regional ing global networks of research-intensive universities (e.g., needs. Over time, credentialism and the growth of research to Universitas 21, Coimbra Group, League of European Research underpin advanced qualifications, and recently the Bologna Universities, Worldwide Universities Network, and process, have weakened the boundaries between elite and International Alliance of Research Universities). mass education, vocational and academic, and technological Worldwide higher education rankings, of which the and traditional education. The “mission drift” has involved Shanghai Jiao Tong Academic Ranking of World Universities both universities and new higher education institutions and is now a leading example, have highlighted research intensity contributed to rising tension between the de jure and de facto as the defining characteristic of higher education. Around the research function among these institutions. Today, nomencla- world, governments and higher education institutions are ture often owes more to political rather than accreditation con- responding, and these developments are forcing changes in cerns. higher education systems. This trend is especially true in Higher education policy has reflected these developments. Europe where efforts to establish the European higher educa- Until recently, importance was placed on massification/democ- tion area and the European research area are challenging tradi- ratization and access—getting more people well educated. tional assumptions about higher education systems and the There was little discrimination of various universities by the balance between equity, diversity, and excellence. public or government, although polytechnics or Fachhochschulen were always considered and treated different- ly, and few countries imposed barriers to student entry. The While rankings have been dismissed by many peo- emphasis is on quality and world-class excellence and selection ple because of methodological flaws, they cannot rather than recruitment. Many states are turning away from regulatory mechanisms toward more opaque steerage and be ignored and have become a driver of policy and competition to foster vertical differentiation. institutional strategy. Few governments have followed the United Kingdom's 1992 decision to convert all polytechnics overnight, but change is occurring and the pace is quickening. For example, Norway's 1955 legislation allowing state colleges to apply for university Impact of Rankings status opened up a minor floodgate, and a commission is now Rankings both manifest and drive the competitive global high- seeking to balance institutional ambitions with national strate- er education environment. Despite criticism of the methodolo- gies. Ireland faces similar pressures but has currently chosen gies used, higher education leaders believe rankings help to boost research capacity or capability by giving funding for maintain and build institutional reputation; good students use cross-sector infrastructural and research projects and regional rankings to shortlist university choice, especially at the post- collaborations. Flanders has established “university associa- graduate level; and rankings influence national and interna- tions” bridging hogescholen and universities, to encourage tional partnerships and collaborations. Key stakeholders also research partnerships. Fachhochschulen and hogescholen in the use rankings to influence their own decisions about accredita- Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland have adopted the title tion, funding, sponsorship, and employee recruitment. “University of Applied Sciences” to align themselves with the While rankings have been dismissed by many people post-Bologna world and compete internationally. Both the because of methodological flaws, they cannot be ignored and Dutch and the Swiss have been reconsidering the usefulness have become a driver of policy and institutional strategy. Given of their binary system. The forthcoming Swiss legislation sug- the cost of achieving “world-class” excellence, many govern- gests a compromise: a formal binary but within a single high- ments question whether research should be concentrated in er education system. some higher education institutions or in clusters of institu- These changes are provoking a political response. The tions. The pace of higher education reform is quickening in European University Association recently debated broadening the belief that better and more competitive higher education membership beyond traditional universities but met some institutions determine being more highly ranked. resistance from universities concerned with competitiveness and spreading resources more widely or thinly. Such reactions may indicate reluctance formally to “end the binary” or rede- international higher education european trends 21

fine it. Irish universities are differentiated between tertiary strong control by the central government. Starting in the (undergraduate) and fourth (postgraduate) level activity or 1990s, numerous reforms have taken place in Italian higher institutions and UK universities between teaching-only and education. The objectives of these reforms ranged from research universities. At the same time, a new network for improving the financial autonomy of universities, giving them Universities of Applied Sciences (http://www.uasnet.org) looks autonomy in the organization of teaching matters, and estab- likely to flex its muscle. lishing procedures for higher education assessment. The most

A New Shape? The details in each country vary but do represent a growing The objectives of these reforms ranged from improv- urgency to reform Europe's higher education institutions for ing the financial autonomy of universities, giving competitiveness, while acknowledging that traditional univer- sities can no longer meet all the geopolitical demands for them autonomy in the organization of teaching research, development, and innovation. As part of this process, matters, and establishing procedures for higher the European Commission is funding the development of a education assessment. European “Carnegie Classification” with emphasis on broad- ening both horizontal and vertical differentiation. European societies have hitherto perceived education as a important change involved the budget situation. A law social public good, available to everyone at little or no addition- approved in 1993 defined new principles for allocating al cost. While rankings are not the cause of the changes, they resources from the central government to universities. The tra- are fueling a reputational “arms race” and exploiting tensions ditional procedure was based on line-item budgets: the central between equity and excellence. Governments are using a com- government allocated to each university budgets for each activ- bination of market mechanisms and competitive or perform- ity (e.g., teachers' wages and buying scientific facilities). This ance- and output-based funding, with clear institutional mis- system had many problems since it did not encourage univer- sion descriptors or performance contracts. While the de jure sities to form their own strategies about resource utilization. binary may linger in some countries, the creation of a broad- This mechanism was replaced by a lump-sum (block grant) ened and unified higher education system will further under- budget, autonomously managed by each university. This mine its veracity. This will be a game of survival of the fittest. reform forced universities to become more accountable. Now they have to manage resources without bounds and sugges- tions set by the Ministry of Education, Universities, and Research.

The First Allocation Model After a period in which the allocation of public funds to uni- Performance-Based Funding of versities was decided through a completely discretionary polit- ical process, in 1997 a formula-based funding model was intro- Universities: The Italian duced. The formula had the explicit goal to equilibrate the resources among universities. The previous situation was char- Experience acterized by allocations related not to indicators about univer- Tommaso Agasisti sities' activities but rather to their political ability in contract- ing with the ministry, creating an imbalance across institu- Tommaso Agasisti is a junior researcher in the Department of tions. Management, Economics, and Industrial Engineering at the Politecnico di The formula was adopted from 1997 to 2003, but it was Milano, Via G. Colombo, 40, 20133 Milan, Italy. E-mail: tommaso.aga- used for allocating only a part of the public budget: the main [email protected]. part of it was still distributed according to traditional proce- dures. The amount actually allocated through the formula was common international trend in higher education systems only 1.5 percent in 1997, but it increased to about 10 percent in Ais the growing autonomy of universities, especially in 2003. financial matters. The role of central governments has become This formula faced two main problems. It did not consider setting political priorities and financial incentives for stimulat- research activities, which are important for all the Italian insti- ing autonomous universities to accept these priorities as objec- tutions. Moreover, the weight attached to the number of stu- tives. It is important to design good models to allocate public dents (70%) excessively benefited large universities. Because resources among universities. of these problems, the government abandoned this formula This trend is particularly relevant in Italy, where traditional- and commissioned the National Evaluation Committee for a ly universities have held little autonomy and were subject to new one. The committee has rigorously worked on a perform- international higher education 22 countries and regions

ance-based model for many years, trying several methodolo- National Evaluation Committee for a qualitative assessment of gies for measuring universities' activities and involving groups research products (publications, patents, etc.) seem a feasible of experts at many universities. The committee's suggestions way for improving the data available. were seriously considered both by academic communities and Last but not least, the issue of differentiation must be con- by politicians. sidered. Giving the same incentives to all universities means accepting the uniformity of their activities. Based on the for- The New Model for Financing Universities mula, each university should improve the quantity and the In 2004, following the advice of the National Evaluation quality of its teaching and research to obtain a good score. Committee, the government adopted a new formula. The main Instead, internationally, the diversity of universities' offerings concept of this new formula represents the three groups of and their differentiation seem to be a positive trend, to indicators: number of students (33%), results of teaching activ- improve efficiency and effectiveness of higher education per- ities (33%), and the amount and results of research activities formance as a whole—especially because the demand for high- (33%). er education is increasingly differentiated. Perhaps, a possible In the first indicator, the number of students is weighted option to face this challenge would be to separate research and according to different programs to reflect instructional costs teaching funds and to distribute them according to different (e.g., students in medicine are weighted more than students in formulas. economics). The second indicator, results of teaching activities, Examining these three issues can lead to a reconsideration is measured by the number of credits obtained by students and of some important characteristics of the present performance- by the number of graduates (weighted using “time for gradua- based formula in the Italian university system and can con- tion”). tribute to a wider international debate about the fundamental The final indicator, results of research activities, is meas- topic of better models for distributing public resources among ured by comparing the number of teachers and researchers universities. (also research assistants and PhD students) with the ability to obtain research-targeted financial resources from public and private companies and organizations and the rate of success in winning research funds from the ministry. The University Entrance Exam Policy Implications The new model seems to respond well to the challenges Crisis in Iran faced by Italian universities, even though critiques of the poli- Shahrzad Kamyab cy are ongoing. The indicators in the formula are coherent with national political strategies (increasing the number of stu- Shahrzad Kamyab is an international education consultant. E-mail: dents and graduates and also improving the quality of research [email protected]. through resources obtained by companies) and also address the multidimensional characteristics of universities' activities. n Iran, as in many other countries where a university A few reflections can be drawn from the Italian experience, Ientrance exam is the sole criterion for student selection, lim- perhaps with international relevance, in terms of a possible ited space and resources have restricted many talented and agenda to be followed to develop a good performance-based enthusiastic applicants seeking access to higher education. system. First, the amount of resources allocated through the Consequently, the phenomenon of the university entrance formula must be quite high, while in Italy it is definitely too exam has caused discontent and conflict. low, because the formula is used for allocating only a part of In June each year, high school graduates in Iran take a strin- the total public budget. In 2006 and 2007, about 99.5 percent gent, centralized nationwide university entrance exam, called of the budget was allocated according to traditional procedures the Konkur, seeking a place in one of the public universities. and only 0.5 percent according to the formula. To improve the The semiprivate Azad University holds a separate entrance effects of incentives, the formula must be rapidly used for dis- exam. The competition is fierce, the exam content rigorous, tributing at least 10 to 15 percent of the public budget. and the seats at universities limited. In recent years, although Second, the indicators for research must be as increasingly the government has responded to demands for improved accurate as possible, including measures of quality. In Italy the access and to a rapid increase in the rising number of appli- indicators adopted are still quite rough (e.g., publication cants by enlarging the capacity of universities and creating counts are not considered at all). The difficulty in adopting Azad University, public universities are still only able to accept accurate measures is well known, but if one of the objectives 10 percent of all applicants. Last year 150,000 students among remains to improve quantitatively and qualitatively the 1.4 million participants were admitted. Almost 60 percent of research relevance of Italian universities, adequate incentives accepted applicants were women, as the participation of must be established. The recent initiatives of the Italian women in higher education has doubled over the last two international higher education countries and regions 23

decades. In contrast to public universities, which require no Ongoing Problems fees, Azad University charges high fees and administers its Despite attempts made in recent years to reform university own entrance exam, which is very similar to the Konkur but selection criteria and to promote the equalization of education- somewhat less stringent. Although Azad University is one of al opportunities, the Konkur remains an impediment to equal the largest universities in the world, with almost a million stu- education access. Both quantitatively and qualitatively, the dents in campuses around the country, the percentage of stu- quota criteria have worked against students whose academic dents admitted is comparable to public universities. Applicants performance is superior to those favored by the quota system. are willing to pay such a high fee to enter Azad University to Another factor that contributes to the phenomenon of student gain employment and a higher status in the society upon grad- elimination is the lack of infrastructure and facilities in spite of uation. the expansion of infrastructure and establishment of an “open” university, Azad University. Azad University, a semiprivate History and Trends university, favors its autonomy in governance, but its degrees Konkur is a comprehensive, 4.5-hour multiple-choice exam that and curriculum are overseen by the Ministry of Science, covers all subjects taught in Iranian high schools—from math Research, and Technology. and science to Islamic studies and foreign language. The exam The other drawback is the nature of the test itself. As in is so stringent that normally students spend a year preparing many other countries where only a long multiple-choice, most- for it; those who fail are allowed to repeat the test in the follow- ly memory-based exam is used to select qualified applicants to ing years until they pass it. enter universities, Iranian schools have been turned into facto- A very lucrative cram industry offers courses to enthusiastic ries for exam cramming. students. The Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology Konkur, especially in recent years, has further contributed to has established the Education Evaluation Organization to over- the massive brain drain from Iran and has created psychologi- see all aspects of the test. cal and social problems such as anxiety, boredom, and hope- As the sole criterion for student admissions into universi- lessness among the youth who fail the test. ties in Iran, Konkur has gone through many phases. In prerev- olutionary Iran, the exam was—as currently—a comprehen- Reform Options sive test of knowledge and assessment of academic achieve- In Iran, admission to university—especially prestigious public ment for admissions. However, the problem in this era was universities like Tehran University or the highly selective that the selection methods provide advantages to candidates Sharif Polytechnical University—remains a means of achiev- from urban areas, especially those from the upper and upper- ing elevated status in a society where education is a major middle classes with better education and preparation. Thus, determinant of class mobility. Graduates of such universities almost 70 to 80 percent of university entrants came from large have a better chance of securing the increasingly limited jobs urban cities. in the prestigious professions in Iran—medicine, engineering, In the early years of postrevolutionary Iran, the purpose of law—making success in the entrance exam the first and per- testing shifted from being just a mere test of knowledge to an haps the most important hoop through which Iranian youths instrument to ensure the “Islamization of universities,” aimed must jump. at admitting students committed to the ideology of the revolu- As the Konkur crisis persists, authorities are contemplating tion. The university entrance exam judged admissions candi- a replacement mechanism for student selection. One of the dates not only by their academic test score but also by their options being considered is to use the cumulative grade-point social and political background and loyalty to the Islamic gov- average (GPA) of the final three years of high school to admit ernment. students. While this policy seems more humanistic and fair In the early 1980s, a quota system was introduced to further than using a single exam to measure students' preparedness, democratize the selection criteria by allowing preferential it still cannot ensure fairness or reveal students' aptitude for treatments to underprivileged students. A year after the Iran- further learning. Perhaps incorporating interviews, essay writ- Iraq war ended, a law was passed to help handicapped and vol- ing, and aptitude tests, in addition to GPA would be a more unteer veterans to enter universities, reserving 40 percent of effective way of measuring students' qualifications to enter university seats for war veterans. universities. An additional criterion for student selection was introduced Another long-term approach to remedy the Konkur crisis in in the early 1990s to localize the student population, giving Iran would be to rely on midcareer education and training in priority to candidates who applied to study in their native place of the precareer pattern of university education by intro- provinces. This policy was to prevent student migration into ducing the community college concept into the education sys- the larger cities. The requirement of service after graduation tem of Iran. This approach could serve to divert less academi- also was instrumental in providing education and health to the cally inclined students from participating in the university needy areas. entrance exams and hopefully eventually alleviate the Konkur crisis. international higher education 24 departments

New Publications contemporary higher education issues. analysis of current trends. Among the topics Among the themes are the evolution of high- considered are the research environment in Albornoz, Orlando. La Libertad Académica y er education systems, equity and employabil- Korean universities, the emergence of the la Mentalidad Autoritaria [Academic freedom ity in the United Kingdom, external quality academic profession, research attitudes and and authoritarian mindset]. Caracas, assessment in the Netherlands, markets and practices of Korean faculty, the academic Venezuela: Universidad Central de higher education, and doctoral training in workplace, and historical perspectives on Venezuela, Ediciones de la Biblioteca, 2007. Finland. Korean higher education. Over the course of seven essays, the author explores the tension he identifies between Kogan, Maurice, and Ulrich Teichler, eds. Key Leisyte, Liudvika. University Governance and those who would use the university as a tool Challenges to the Academic Profession. Kassel, Academic Research: Case Studies of Research to advance the “Bolivarian revolution” of the Germany: International Center for Higher Units in Dutch and English Universities. current government of Venezuela and those Education Research, 2007. 211 pp. (pb). Enschede, Netherlands: CHEPS/UT, 2007. who seek to defend the norms and values of ISBN 978-3-934377-59-2. This publication is 427 pp. (pb). ISBN 978-90-365-2586-2. E- democratic and academically governed high- available electronically from http://www.uni- mail: [email protected]. er education institutions in that country. kassel.de/incher/v_pub/cap1.pdf. Focusing on how changes in university (Laura Rumbley) A multifaceted analysis of current trends governance affects the working of research in the academic profession, this book focus- units (in medieval history and biotechnolo- Fallis, George. Multiversities, Ideas, and es on such themes as the expectation of rele- gy), this volume discusses the relationship Democracy. Toronto, Canada: University of vance from the professoriate (with case stud- between governance and the research units. Toronto Press, 2007. 469 pp. $65 (hb). ISBN ies from Japan and Mexico), internationaliza- Based on interviews, the internal workings of 978-0-8020-9240-3. Address: University of tion (Japan, Norway, and Australia), academ- the units as well as their relationship with Toronto Press, 10 St. Mary St., Toronto ON ic management and the professoriate, and the university are examined. M4Y 2W8, Canada. doctoral training. Economist Fallis analyzes the modern Locke, William, and Ulrich Teichler, eds. The research university, which he calls the multi- Krishna, Sridhar, ed. Internationalization of Changing Conditions of Academic Work and versity, from a historical and contemporary Higher Education: Perspectives and Country Careers in Select Countries. Kassel, Germany: perspective. He argues that the multiversity Experiences. Hyderabad, India: Icfai International Center for Higher Education is a central institution of the postindustrial University Press, 2007.234 pp. $17 (pb). Research, 2007. 240 pp. (pb). ISBN 978-3- era and that it has a special responsibility to ISBN 81-314-1174-4. Web site: www.icfai.org. 934377-55-4. This publication is available society. It must resist some of the pressures The impact of globalization on universities electronically from http://www.uni-kassel.de of the age, such as commercialism, and keep is becoming of concern in many countries. /incher/v_pub/cap2.pdf. the tradition of the liberal arts alive. This book focuses on India. It provides sever- Analysis of current trends in the academic al essays discussing the broader themes of profession in a variety of countries, this vol- Greenberg, Daniel S. Science for Sale: The globalization and internationalization and ume focuses particularly on how the profes- Perils, Rewards, and Delusions of Campus chapters about internationalization in select- soriate has been affected by external pres- Capitalism. Chicago: University of Chicago ed countries and regions—including the sures and new campus conditions. Among Press, 2008. 324 pp. $25 (hb). ISBN United States, Africa, Japan, and China. The the countries featured are Hong Kong, 0226306259. Web site: www. press.uchica- Indian experience is also discussed. Brazil, South Africa, the Czech Republic, go. edu. Australia, Malaysia, the United Kingdom, A thorough analysis by a well-known jour- Kronman, Anthony T. Education's End: Why Norway, Finland, and Portugal. nalist, this book analyzes how science is Our Colleges and Universities Have Given Up funded in American research universities. on the Meaning of Life. New Haven, CT: Yale Maher, Frances A., and Mary Kay Thompson There is a special focus on the commercial- University Press, 2007. 308 pp. $27.50 (hb). Tetreault. Privilege and Diversity in the ization of science in higher education and ISBN 978300122886. Web site: yalebooks Academy. New York: Routledge, 2007. 232 the various problems that have occurred .com. pp. (pb). ISBN 0-415-94665-4. Web site: tay- because of this trend in recent years. The An extended argument for the importance lorandfrancisgroup.com. book is based on careful research and inter- of the philosophical analysis of the meaning Examining how American universities views at major US institutions and provides of life by individuals in the context of have become more complex, three case stud- some of the most important analyses of this American higher education, this book dis- ies—a private research university (Stanford), key topic in recent years. cusses the reasons why universities have a public research university (University of weakened the humanities and largely given Michigan), and a comprehensive urban uni- Kehm, Barbara, ed. Looking Back to Look up teaching in this area. versity (Rutgers University-Newark)—focus Forward: Analyses of Higher Education after the on issues relating to diversity in the context Turn of the Millennium. Kassel, Germany: Lee, Sungho H. Korean Higher Education: Its of academic institutions seeking to improve International Center for Higher Education Emergence, Development and Future their image and prestige. Research, 2007. 192 pp. (pb). ISBN 978-3- Challenges. Seoul, Korea: Hakjisa, 2006. 319 934377-56-1. This publication is available pp. (pb). Korean won 20,000. ISBN 89-5891- Marshall, Stephanie, ed. Strategic Leadership electronically from http://www.uni- 335-5. Web site: www/hakjisa.co.kr. of Change in Higher Education: What's New? kassel.de/incher/v_pub/. A series of research-based essays on Korean New York: Routledge, 2007. 227 pp. $44.95 This book provides a series of essays on higher education, this volume provides an (pb). ISBN 978-0-415-41173-8. Web site: international higher education departments 25

www.routledge.com. mainly Malaysia but some chapters deal with This book discusses the practical lessons of Southeast Asia as well. Among the themes Stephan, Paula E., and Ronald G. Ehrenberg, leadership for change in higher education. are gender differences in graduate employ- eds. Science and the University. Madison, WI: Feedback from stakeholders and the British ment in Malaysia, English-language teach- University of Wisconsin Press, 2007. 304 pp. case studies provide a perspective on how ing, gender differences in learning for engi- $50 (ph). ISBN 978-0-224480-6. Web site: change is implemented and some of the neers, learning experiences of postgraduate www.wisc.edu/wisconsinpress. problems encountered. students, and some others. A wide-ranging discussion of the increas- ingly complex role of scientific research in Martin, Michaela, and Antony Stella. Mugabushaka, Alexis-Michel, Harald American universities, this volume focuses External Quality Assurance in Higher Schomburg, and Ulrich Teichler, eds. Higher on such trends as financing science and Education: Making Choices. Paris: UNESCO: Education and Work in Africa: A Comparative engineering research, the commercialization International Institute for Educational Empirical Study in Selected Countries. Kassel, of science, the role of foreign students and Planning, 2007. 111 pp. (pb). ISBN 978-92- Germany: International Center for Higher scholars, and the competitiveness of 803-1304-8. Address: UNESCO, 7 Pl. de Education Research, 2007. 137 pp. (pb). American science. The chapters will be of Fontenoy, 75352 Paris, France. ISBN 978-3-93437-54-7. This publication is interest to an international audience. A brief practical guide for decision makers, available electronically from http://www.uni- this book discusses approaches to external kassel.de/incher/v_pub/wb69.pdf. Stevens, Mitchell L. Creating a Class: College quality assurance in an international context. This volume presents data from the first Admissions and the Education of Elites. This analysis is in the context of the current comparative survey of graduate employment Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, emphasis on quality assurance—the focus is in Africa. Six English-speaking countries are 2007. 308 pp. $25.95 (hb). ISBN 978-0-674- on how external agencies can assist universi- included: Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, 02673-5. Web site: www.hup. harvard.edu. ties to assess quality. Links between institu- Tanzania, and Uganda. Based on a common A careful study based on more than a year tion—based quality assurance mechanisms survey, the chapters examine different of participant observation, this book analyzes and external accountability are featured. aspects of employment—including, among the admissions process at a selective other things, job satisfaction, self-employ- American college. It provides detailed infor- Matthews, Joseph R. Library Assessment in ment, and perceptions of the quality of high- mation and analysis on how the college Higher Education. Westport, CT: Libraries er education. attracts applicants and selects its entering Unlimited, 2007. 156 pp. $45 (hb). ISBN 1- class. 59158-531-7. Web site: www.lu.com. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Written for library managers, this book pro- Development. Cross-border Tertiary Education: Teichler, Ulrich. Higher Education Systems: vides a guide to the assessment of academic A Way Towards Capacity Development. Paris: Conceptual Frameworks, Comparative institutions. The process and theory of OECD Publishing, 2007. 199 pp. (pb). ISBN Perspectives, Empirical Findings. Rotterdam, assessment of both the institution and the 978-92-64-03363-4. Web site: www.oecd. Netherlands: Sense Publishers, 2007. 289 library are discussed. While the context of org/publishing. pp. $49 (pb). ISBN 978-90-8790-137-0. Web the book is American, there are useful les- An analysis of several of the elements of site: www.sensepublishers.com. sons for library administrators elsewhere. cross-border higher education, this book A collection of essays by Ulrich Teichler, focuses on the contribution of cross-border one of Europe's most prominent higher edu- Morrill, Richard L. Strategic Leadership: higher education to enhance capacity, mainly cation researchers, this book covers the peri- Integrating Strategy and Leadership in Colleges in developing countries. Among the topics od between the 1990s and the present. and Universities. Westport,CT: Praeger, 2007. considered are the role of trade liberalization Among the topics considered are the chang- 288 pp. $59.95 (hb). ISBN 0-275-99391-4. and the General Agreement on Trade in ing roles of higher education in Europe, Web site: www.praeger.com. Services in expanding cross-border activity, access and admissions, diversity in academic A former US university president, Morrill the role of quality assurance, and the broader institutions, the Bologna process, changing argues that developing a careful strategic analysis of cross-border activity worldwide. concepts of excellence in the European con- approach can help academic leaders deal text, and structures of European higher edu- with funding crises, market realities, global- Sanaghan, Patrick, Larry Goldstein, and cation systems. ization, and other challenges. An analysis of Kathleen D. Gaval. Presidential Transitions: the values and beliefs that underlie academic It's Not Just the Position, It's the Transition. Tierney, William G., and Guilbert C. decision making helps to inform strategic Westport, CT: Praeger, 2007. 224 pp. $49.50 Hentschke. New Players, Different Game: thinking. (hb). ISBN 0-275-99408-2. Web site: Understanding the Rise of For-Profit Colleges www.praeger.com. and Universities. Baltimore, MD: Johns Moris, Zailan, Hajar Abdul Rahim, and Based on interviews with American senior Hopkins University Press, 2007. 215 pp. $38 Shakila Abdul Manan, eds. Higher Education academic officials, this book focuses on the (hb). ISBN 0-8018-8657-0. Web site: in the Asia Pacific: Emerging Trends in topic of presidential transitions—a theme www.press.jhu.edu. Teaching and Learning. Pulau Penang, that the authors argue is very important to Comparing for-profit and nonprofit higher Malaysia: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia, ensure the success of leadership in education in the United States can provide a 2008. 309 pp. (pb). ISBN 978-983-3986-13- American universities. They point out that useful way of understanding the changing 2. poorly managed transitions can harm aca- roles of both kinds of institutions. This book The broad focus of this volume is on teach- demic institutions. Practical advice is provid- focuses on the for-profit sector—such ing and learning. The geographical focus is ed. themes as faculty roles, students, finance and governance—and institutional cultures are international higher education 26 departments

analyzed by comparing the for-profits with to have an impact on future directions. themes and a series of essays on specific top- traditional institutions. This innovative ics—including quality assurance, redistribu- approach to analysis provides useful The following two books are from the publi- tion and public finance, distance education, insights. cation series from the National Higher the experiences of international students, Education Research Institute, Malaysia. and others. Walker, George, et al. The Formation of Information can be obtained from the Scholars: Rethinking Doctoral Education in the IPPTN, Eureka Complex, Universiti Sains Shuib, Munir, Sarjit Kaur, and Rozinah 21st Century. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia. Jamaludin, eds. Governance and Leadership in 2008. 232 pp. (hb). ISBN 978-0-470-19743-1. E-mail: [email protected]. Higher Education. Pulau Penang, Malaysia: Web site: www.josseybass.com. Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2008. Based on a major analysis of the problems Kaur, Sarjit, Morshidi, and Norzaini 367 pp. (pb). ISBN 978-983-861-343-9. and prospects for doctoral education in the Azmanb, eds. Globalization and The broad themes of higher education pol- United States, this volume suggests reforms Internationalization of Higher Education in icy and quality in higher education are the for the improvement of the doctorate— Malaysia. Pulau Penang, Malaysia: Penerbit foci of this book. Chapters discuss academic including reconsidering the apprenticeship Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2008. 373 pp. (pb). freedom, public university governance, the system, broadening the purposes of the doc- ISBN 978-983-861-345-3. role of Arabic in Malaysia, performance indi- torate, and others. Sponsored by the influen- A broad consideration of how globalization cators for governance of universities in tial Carnegie Foundation for the affects higher education in Malaysia, this vol- Malaysia, and several studies of Australian Advancement of Teaching, this book is likely ume features several broad considerations of higher education.

The Podcast Initiative

Launched in mid-2007, the CIHE Podcast Initiative provides a unique forum for policymakers and scholars to discuss issues of concern to the higher education community around the world. The Center’s online audio archive currently consists of nearly a dozen interviews conducted between April 2007 and February 2008. Also available is a special audio supplement featuring a November 2007 presentation by Dr. Philip Altbach at Indiana University on the subject of research universities in Asia. Upcoming podcasts will focus on higher education developments in Africa and the Muslim world, with more installments to come throughout the year. Following is a complete list of our currently available podcasts. We welcome suggestions and feedback sent to [email protected].

—Jorge Balán: World Class and Research Universities in Asia and Latin America —Jane Knight: IAU Global Survey Report on Internationalization of Higher Education —Peggy Blumenthal: Assessing US Study-Abroad Capacity for Growth and Diversification —Philip G. Altbach: US Government Interest in Internationalization and the International Branch– Campus Phenomenon —Brian Whalen: Spotlight on the US Study Abroad Enterprise and Standards for Good Practice —Michael (Mick) Vande Berg: Quality, Accountability, and Research in US Study Abroad —David Crosier: The Bologna Process in European Higher Education —Hans de Wit: International Student Circulation in a Global Context —Alan Contreras: Diploma Mills and Degree Fraud —D. Bruce Johnstone: Higher Education Finance, Access, and Equity —Patti McGill Peterson: Perspectives on the International Mobility of Scholars international higher education departments 27

CIHE Staff David Fields Philip G. Altbach Graduate Assistant Director Leslie Bozeman Laura Rumbley Graduate Assistant Research Associate Iván Pacheco Liz Reisberg Graduate Assistant Research Associate Julie Margetta Salina Kopellas Graduate Assistant Staff Assistant Gilton E. J. Lee Edith Hoshino Web master and Visiting Scholar Publications Editor

News of the Center

Behind the scenes, the Center's widely used Web site is getting a makeover. Using the site will soon be easier, more intuitive, and more interactive. Center research associate Liz Reisberg is leading this activity along with visiting scholar Gilton E. J. Lee and with the assistance of the Boston College information technology department. Several Center staff and students presented papers at the annual conference of the Comparative and International Education Society in New York in March. A panel consisting of Philip Altbach, research associates Liz Reisberg and Laura Rumbley, research assistant Iván Pacheco, and Center alumna Alma Maldonado of the University of Arizona focused on higher education themes. Center director Philip Altbach recently gave a keynote at a regional conference on higher education in the Arab region in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. He also spoke at the seminar on international higher education, organized by the European Association for International Education in Berlin, and will speak at the Global University Network for Innovation's international conference in Barcelona, Spain. He will chair an international advisory committee for the new Graduate School of Education at Shanghai Jiao Tong University in China. World Class Worldwide: Transforming Research Universities in Asia and Latin America, coedited by Philip Altbach and Jorge Balán, has recently been published in Korean and in a Chinese-language edition by the Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. Work on a Japanese translation is also proceeding.

Your Subscriber Profile

Please visit the CIHE Web site to complete your subscriber profile (especially your e-mail and subscription preferences!). Consider signing up as an “expert” in your field to be included in our new online Experts Database. The database will allow students and col- leagues to locate scholars worldwide by their area(s) of research. The form is available at: http://www.bc.edu/cihe_subscription. international higher education 28 departments

THE CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION reports, trends, databases, online newsletters, announce- editor (CIHE) ments of upcoming international conferences, links to profes- Philip G. Altbach The Boston College Center for International Higher Education sional associations, and resources on developments in the assistant editor brings an international consciousness to the analysis of high- Bologna Process and the GATS. The Higher Education Salina Kopellas er education. We believe that an international perspective will Corruption Monitor provides information from sources editorial office contribute to enlightened policy and practice. To serve this around the world, including a selection of news articles, a bib- Center for International goal, the Center publishes the International Higher Education liography, and links to other agencies. The International Higher Education quarterly newsletter, a book series, and other publications; Network for Higher Education in Africa (INHEA), is an infor- Campion Hall sponsors conferences; and welcomes visiting scholars. We mation clearinghouse on research, development, and advoca- Boston College have a special concern for academic institutions in the Jesuit cy activities related to postsecondary education in Africa. Chestnut Hill, MA 02467 tradition worldwide and, more broadly, with Catholic universi- USA ties. THE PROGRAM IN HIGHER EDUCATION AT THE LYNCH Tel: (617) 552–4236 SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON COLLEGE Fax: (617) 552–8422 The Center promotes dialogue and cooperation among aca- The Center is closely related to the graduate program in high- E-Mail: [email protected] demic institutions throughout the world. We believe that the er education at Boston College. The program offers master’s http://www.bc.edu/cihe future depends on effective collaboration and the creation of and doctoral degrees that feature a social science–based We welcome correspondence, an international community focused on the improvement of approach to the study of higher education. The Administrative ideas for articles, and reports. higher education in the public interest. Fellows initiative provides financial assistance as well as work If you would like to subscribe, experience in a variety of administrative settings. please send an e-mail to: high- CIHE WEB SITE Specializations are offered in higher education administra- [email protected], including your The different sections of the Center Web site support the work tion, student affairs and development, and international edu- institutional affiliation, your of scholars and professionals in international higher educa- cation. For additional information, please contact Dr. Karen position (graduate student, professor, administrator, tion, with links to key resources in the field. All issues of Arnold ([email protected]) or visit our Web site: researcher, policy maker, etc.), International Higher Education are available online, with a http://www.bc.edu/schools/lsoe/. and area of interest or expert- searchable archive. In addition, the International Higher ise. There is no charge for a Education Clearinghouse (IHEC) is a source of articles, subscription. ISSN: 1084-0613 Our work is supported by the Ford Foundation and the Lynch School of Education at Boston College We are indebted to these funders for core sponsorship.

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