NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES • VOLUME 5 NUMBER 2 • APRIL 1984

Sidney Hook: Humanist, Pragmatist, Democrat, American

Just as John Dewey is widely re­ rate footnotes to Plato, Aristotle, garded as the preeminent American Locke, the Founding Fathers, philosopher of the twentieth century, Tocqueville, et al. It is the genius of so his favorite and most notable stu­ Sidney Hook, following the lead of dent, Sidney Hook, can be fairly re­ John Dewey, to have enlarged the garded as the preeminent American democratic idea so as to give it a so­ social philosopher of the twentieth cial dimension that transcends while century. In both cases, that word encompassing the purely political. It "American” has far more than a is because of this endeavor that, merely geographical significance. when we talk about democracy in Both Dewey and Hook are so pro­ America, we can talk quite unself­ foundly in the American grain that it consciously about "the democratic is only a slight exaggeration to say faith" or "democracy as a way of that one cannot understand what it life." This is not, for the most part, means to be an American without the way democracy has been talked appreciating them. Similarly, one about by political philosophers of the cannot understand them without past. Nor is it, for the most part, the knowing, in some instinctive and way democracy is talked about in subliminal way, what it means to be other nations today, not even in na­ an American. This does not mean tions with healthy democratic institu­ that they are in any sense parochial tions. Democracy is a "faith" and a thinkers. On the contrary, their ideas "way of life" for Americans, and their mode of discourse are uni­ whereas for Englishmen or French­ versal in form and intent. But just as men or Italians it is a highly desira­ one has to be steeped in the Ger­ ble political system. man language, German culture, and One sees this most clearly in the German history really to understand American settlement of the West Hegel and Heidegger (as distinct between 1750 and 1900. All of the from simply appropriating a few of new communities—founded, it their ideas), so one has to be must be remembered, by groups of steeped in the American language, individuals, not by governmental American culture, and American his­ enterprise—were strikingly similar to tory to feel at home with the think­ one another, and quickly became ing of Dewey and Hook. This ex­ rough replicas of the communities plains why it is that in Europe of origin. Each established a neither Dewey nor Hook is as well recognizable "American way of life," known or as fully appreciated as and not merely democratic political over here. But, then, Europeans institutions. The central buildings have never been able to regard the were always the courthouse, the Federalist Papers as a serious exer­ church, and the school—institutions cise in political theory. Sidney that remain at the core of American Hook's conception of democracy is democratic life. one of the main qualities that is so I do not mean to suggest that specifically and peculiarly American non-Americans are deficient in their about him. This conception was de­ understanding of democracy. Indeed, rived from Dewey but has been so it is possible that their more limited fully articulated by Hook that it is conception of democracy as some­ fair to say that, in his later decades, thing more properly and strictly ap­ Dewey was Hook's student in social plicable to a polity rather than to the thought. whole of a society will be shown by Democracy, of course, is an old history to be more valid than the idea in political theory, and within American idea, which may be the confines of political theory there judged in retrospect as visionary to is almost nothing new that can be the point of being utopian. Perhaps. said about it. Indeed, much of what But it is also a fact that Americans is now written about democratic po­ have believed passionately in this litical theory consists largely of elabo­ idea for some two centuries now, that it seems to have "worked" not any case, unless one appreciates the matist, and to the best of my knowl­ too badly, all things considered, and powerful role played by this sense of edge there has never been one. This Editor's Notes that in any case one cannot truly community, one will have trouble is not to say that pragmatists are in­ understand American politics, Amer­ understanding the philosophical en­ sensitive to what one calls "the The wide-ranging essays in this issue ican policies, or the essence of life in deavor of Dewey and Hook—that tragic sense of life." William James, of Humanities are connected by a America without grasping that idea philosophical school known as we know, was acutely sensitive to common thread. They recall and firmly. Toward such an understand­ "pragmatism." this dimension of the human condi­ describe some of the major events in ing of democracy in America, the Europeans have had as much diffi­ tion, and Sidney Hook has actually which Sidney Hook played an im­ writings of Sidney Hook make an culty with this school of philosophy written a fine essay on that very portant role. The 1984 Jefferson Lec­ invaluable contribution. as with the American idea of democ­ subject. But typically, Hook's essay turer in the Humanities has been an Another way of defining this phe­ racy, and for good reason, since the ends on a forward-looking note: intellectual leader in many of the nomenon is to say that both Dewey two are most intimately connected. Having taken account of the inher­ great political and social controver­ and Hook conceived of America not The founder of pragmatism, William ently tragic aspects of the human sies of our times. Often these ideo­ simply as a polity, not even simply James, was himself a quintessential condition, he goes on to urge us to logical struggles have generated as a society, but as a democratic American—not at all anti-European, accept what life has to offer us, and strong feelings about the nature and community. It is truly extraordinary one hastens to add, and certainly to improve ourselves and our cir­ direction of American society. that the thinking of these two men, not anti-intellectual, as some critics cumstances as best we can. To some Irving Kristol writes of Hook's of such very different origins and have asserted. But the distinctive pragmatism as a product of the extent this may reflect the incurably background, should converge at this qualities of this philosophy are more cheerful and melioristic bent of American experience. "It is the ge­ point. Dewey, of course, always re­ easily found in the American experi­ Hook's own temperament. Philos­ nius of Sidney Hook,” Kristol says, tained about himself the aura of ence than among the thinkers of the ophic contemplation for its own "to have enlarged the democratic small-town America—a man who past who have combined to create a idea so as to give it a social dimen­ sake, as a kind of individualistic lit­ would have been perfectly at home tradition of Western philosophical erary activity, is something that he sion that transcends while encom­ in Thornton Wilder's Our Tozvn. thought. Obviously, pragmatism as a can appreciate as a reader but that is passing the purely political.” Page 1. Hook, in contrast, was a New York philosophy could not exist were it not congenial to him as a writer. To Tracing the history of pragmatism urban intellectual, the son of not for this tradition. James, for in­ some extent, too, it may reflect his from James and Peirce through Russian-Jewish immigrants, the pro­ stance, owed much to the British Jewish heritage which, in the face of Dewey to Hook, David Sidorsky duct of Boys High School and the empiricists (Hobbes, Locke, Hume) cites the force of Hook's social and endless tragedy, has always insisted tuition-free City College, and from while Dewey, oddly enough, was cultural criticism. Page 4. And in de­ on man's obligation to do God's his earliest youth a socialist. Could it much influenced by Hegel. But it good work in this world. And prob­ scribing the ebb and flow of com­ have been the socialist tradition, so needed the addition of America for ably, to a still larger extent, this opti­ munism and anti-communism in powerful among the Russian-Jewish pragmatism, as a distinctive mode of mistic meliorism is so profoundly at America, cultural historian Leo settlers in New York City, that pro­ philosophical thinking, to emerge. the heart of American philosophic Ribuffo explains why the intellectual vided Hook with a comparable sense What is distinctive in pragmatism? pragmatism that it becomes almost wars of the 1930s (in which Sidney of community? Stranger things have Well, to begin with, it is close to im­ second nature to its exponents. It is Hook was an early anti-Stalinist) still happened in the history of ideas. In possible to imagine a pessimistic prag­ a progressive frame of mind for a smolder in the 1980s. Discussing the student revolt of progressive community. the late 1960s, during which Sidney Another distinctive feature of prag­ Hook was a strong defender of aca­ matism, and one widely misunder­ demic freedom, Nathan Glazer ex­ stood, is its emphasis on "intelli­ plores the relationships between gence" as the preferred way of higher education and the American thinking about all spheres of human society that could have produced activity, from science to education to such an explosion. Page 10. politics. This, of course, has nothing By applying his critical intelligence to do with intelligence in the sense to these emotionally charged issues, of I.Q. Nor is it simply another way Sidney Hook has helped shape the of saying that we can and ought to debate and sharpen its focus. solve all problems posed by nature —Judith Chayes Neiman and society through the application of something called "scientific method." Pragmatism does indeed believe that the basic approach of Humanities the physical scientist to his problems A bimonthly review published by the is a model of disinterested human National Endowment for the Humanities inquiry at its best. But it is not a Chairman: William J. Bennett model that can be mechanically Director of Public Affairs: Marion Blakey transported out of the laboratory to Assistant Director for Publications: other human activities. Rather, it is Caroline Taylor the spirit of scientific inquiry, not Editor: Judith Chayes Neiman Managing Editor: Linda Blanken any precise paradigm of scientific Editorial Board: James Blessing, Harold • method, that is (or should be) rele­ Cannon, Richard Ekman, Donald Gibson, vant to all human affairs. Thomas Kingston, Armen Tashdinian, What is this spirit? To put it sim­ Carole Watson ple: It is the spirit of reflective inquiry, Production Manager: Robert Stock of continually matching our thoughts Designed by Maria josephy Schoolman about reality (natural, political, social) with the evidence with which reality, The opinions and conclusions expressed in Humanities are those of the authors and do not ever recalcitrant to full human com­ necessarily reflect Endowment policy. Material prehension, confronts us. The "intel­ appearing in Humanities may be freely ligence" incarnated in reflective in­ reproduced although the editor would appreci­ ate notice and copies for the Endowment's quiry involves a willingness, even a reference. Use of funds for printing this readiness, to learn from experience, publication has been approved by the Office a balancing of prior conviction with of Management and Budget. Send address changes and requests for subscriptions to the open-mindedness. Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Govern­ Pragmatism emphatically does not ment Printing Office, Washington, D C. 20402. proclaim, as some of its critics seem (USPS 521-090) Other communications should to think, that "what works is true." be addressed to Editor, Humanities, National Endowment for the Humanities, 1100 Pennsyl­ It does insist, however, that what vania Avenue, NW, Washington, D C. 20506. "works" or does not "work" in the Telephone 202/786-0435. ISSN 0018-7526. real world is evidence that has to be taken into account in deciding 2 Photograph by Lou Carol Lecce The originality of Hook's writings in this field is the kind of originality as­ sociated with the recapturing and re­ The Jefferson " Those who say life is worth living at affirmation of older, democratic, con­ stitutional verities that are in danger Lecture any cost have already written for of being washed away by an enthu­ siasm for radical innovation. And themselves an epitaph of infamy, for that is why his writings appeal to so many people, people who are not there is no cause and no person they will legal or political theorists but who recognize "common sense" when not betray to stay alive. Man's vocation they see it. should be the use of the art of "Common sense," refined by re­ flection and enlightened by analysis: intelligence in behalf of freedom." that is the ineradicable mark of Hook's thinking on just about every topic. His immunity to the vagaries of political metaphysics and political romanticism is to be found even in Sidney Hook, emeritus professor his earlier writings, when he consid­ of philosophy at New York Univer­ whether one's ideas have truth in man activities—politics, science, the ered himself to be a Marxist of sorts. sity and senior research fellow at them or not. Truth is not an arts, the study of the humanities— Hook's "Marxism" of that period Stanford University's Hoover Institu­ absolute—or, put another way, no are modes of self-education on the probably caused more young intellec­ tion, will deliver the 1984 Jefferson truth is an absolute—because human part of the citizenry. These citizens tuals to become ex-Marxists than any Lecture in the Humanities. knowledge is never comprehensive are free individuals because authentic explicitly anti-Marxist polemics. For Mr. Hook, whose topic is the rela­ and final. self-education demands freedom. his Marxism was but a radical exten­ tionship of the humanities to the To be sure, one can always ask, They must be free from all those of­ sion of Dewey's pragmatism, and preservation of a free society, will ironically: And why is this pragmatic ficial circumscriptions that frustrate once the radical fever had passed, speak on May 14 in Washington and conception of truth more true than such self-education. But freedom the pragmatism remained. It is not on May 17 at New York University. any other? It is a clever question, from only makes sense as a prelude surprising, therefore, that Hook has The Jefferson lectureship, which but not an unanswerable one. Prag­ to freedom to. Freedom, like any always been immune to the totalitar­ carries a $10,000 stipend, is the high­ matism does not assume, as so other good, can suffer from an ex­ ianism inherent in Marxist-Leninism, est honor conferred by the federal much of Continertal philosophy al­ cess that represents a form of self­ to the "opium of the intellectuals" government for outstanding achieve­ ways has, that philosophy is some­ abuse. Not all instances of free ex­ as the late Raymond Aron was to ment in the humanities. Established thing a solitary thinker "does" as he pression or uninhibited action are call it. Indeed, it is fair to say that, in 1972, the Jefferson Lecture pro­ contemplates the world about him. meritorious, or even tolerable. Some of all American thinkers of his time, vides an opportunity for distin­ This is not the philosophic enterprise minimum of official circumscription, Sidney Hook has been the most ar­ guished thinkers to explore matters as Dewey and Hook conceive it. Just representing self-regulation and self- ticulate, eloquent, energetic, fearless of broad concern in a public forum. as the truths of science emerge from control by the citizenry, is inevitable critic of totalitarianism and of all Previous Jefferson lecturers were a collective enterprise on the part of and necessary. Just how much, and modes of thinking that are congenial Jaroslav Pelikan, Emily T. Vermeule, the scientific community, rather than of what kind, is a matter for practi­ to, or apologetic of, totalitarianism. Gerald Holton, Barbara Tuchman, from the mind of a solitary scientist, cal reasoning, judicious and judicial A distinctively American humanist, Edward Shils, C. Vann Woodward, so truths in all areas of life, accord­ reasoning, not abstract theorizing pragmatist, and democrat, Sidney Saul Bellow, John Hope Franklin, ing to pragmatism, arise within a about "rights." Hook has bequeathed to us a pre­ Paul A. Freund, Erik H. Erikson and community whose thinking is not This traditional American thinking cious intellectual legacy. It will not Lionel Trilling. bound by dogma but is open to re­ about constitutional liberties is found be easy for future American genera­ Sidney Hook, who will be 82 in flective, self-correcting inquiry: in in The Federalist. It is a cast of mind tions to measure up to the terms of December, was born in New York short, in the kind of liberal political that, by now, constitutes the "com­ that bequest. City, where he attended public community that the United States is mon sense" of the American people —Irving Kristol schools. In 1923, he received his B.S. and, most of the time, has been. on the matter. Sidney Hook's writ­ Mr. Kristol is professor of social thought with a major in philosophy from the Pragmatism as a philosophy makes ings on civil liberties and civil rights at New York University's Graduate College of the City of New York, little sense unless human beings— are notably in this vein—"notably," School of Business Administration and where he studied under Morris R. not just an individual thinker here or because so much of the theorizing of coeditor of Public Interest. Author of Cohen. He studied philosophy un­ there, and not just scientists—are the past couple of decades repre­ On the Democratic Idea in America der John Dewey at Columbia Uni­ willing members of such a commun­ sents a sophistical effort to evade the and Two Cheers for Capitalism, he is versity. Columbia awarded him an ity. There is indeed a kind of meta­ moral obligations and moral respon­ a member of the board of contributors of M.A. in 1925 and the Ph.D. in 1927. physics here, a "democratic faith" in sibility that freedom itself imposes. the Wall Street Journal. Professor Hook taught philosophy the nature of human potentiality, but Courtesy of Mr. and Mrs. Irving Kristol at New York University from 1927 to it is not deduced from any specula­ 1969, heading the department for tive propositions. It is a metaphysic twenty-one years. He has also created by the American experience taught at the New School for Social itself, the American way of life, and Research, Columbia University, Har­ then articulated by James, Dewey, vard University, and the Santa Bar­ and Hook. One can even go so far bara and San Diego campuses of the as to say—Dewey explicitly did say University of California. it—that this democratic fatih, this His most influential works are: The "common faith;" is a kind of overall Quest for Being, Pragmatism and the religious commitment. What is Tragic Sense of Life, Philosophy and unique about it is its willingness to Public Policy, and The Hero in History, tolerate other religious commitments for which he received Columbia Uni­ as part of itself. America is pluralis­ versity's Nicholas Murray Butler tic, not by accident nor merely for Silver Medal for distinction in the reasons of expediency, but because it field of philosophy and education. cannot be other than pluralistic with­ Mr. Hook has played an important out being untrue to itself. role in organizing many intellectual In Sidney Hook's philosophy, and professional organizations, and everything hangs together because it he has been awarded a host of hon­ flows from one source, the American orary degrees. From 1972 until 1978, experience, and points to one end, he was a member of the National the preservation and successful en­ The author, a long-time friend of 1984 Jefferson Lecturer Sidney Hook, shares a happy Council on the Humanities. richment of this experience. All hu­ occasion with his colleague. 3 h cs fr aeils derived materialism for case The Drawing courtesy of Southern Illinois University Press n universe. ent coher­ a in believers tender-minded the of bastion philosophical last skep­ of persons "tough-minded" by through replacement the be to was tical temperament, and idealism, the the idealism, and temperament, tical phrase James's in championed ism, material­ systems: metaphysical nant domi­ two the of criticism pragmatic doubt no entertained James which Metaphysics Empirical aeils, daim and Idealism, Materialism, pragmatic that and definitive been c, pseooy n ethics. and epistemology ics, metaphys­ like philosophy of fields major the in contested remain theses not has pragmatism of triumph that the evident also is it Yet, century. some­ be to it believe whatever,—I intellectual agenda at the turn of the the of turn the at agenda intellectual remains thinking of way the pragmatic about prophecy James's of truth reformation. protestant the like quite thing doubt no entertain can I of thinking way general that of triumph tive James: Henry ae h pioohcl sus f the of issues philosophical the late reformu­ did philosophers which pragmatic in sense a is There equivocal. to wrote James William prodigy, e yas ec i sol b ra as read be should it hence years ten eohmkn, fr f h defini­ the of for "epoch-making," edn .. solnt e upie if surprised be shouldn't I ... reading "Pragma­ called book little a finished h "euir a" f rtn o a of writing of way" "peculiar the tism" which even you may enjoy enjoy may you even which tism" 4 I h dfntv timh about triumph definitive The lot ih dcds ae, the later, decades eight Almost But a truce, a truce! ... I have just just have I ... truce! a truce, a But 10, n n extraordinary an in 1907, n etr caatrsial replete characteristically letter, al avsr cmet on comments advisory cally criti­ brother's older an with

rm h ipesv ad cumulative and impressive the from lcto o te as f atr in matter of laws the of plication ap­ extended the by explained tually even­ be not could that existed mind sci­ the of progress the of evidence et N ett lk su, prt or spirit soul, like entity No ment. argu­ metaphysical a of form the in presented was it though ences, language. This truth of idealism was was idealism of truth This language. con­ with observer, an by as framed percepts with subject, a categor­ or by ized "taken" as objects with a of "givens" the with begin not did all after Science mind. presupposed knowledge all that ways subtle and diverse in demonstration the was period the of argument philosophical motion. eein n noKnin philoso­ neo-Kantian and Hegelian great the of conclusion shared the in formulated as numbers and cepts hs suet icue TS Eliot T.S. included students whose Germany in School Marburg the and Italy, in Croce Benedetto land, Royce Josiah like period the of phers but confusion," blooming "buzzing ble, regardless of the future progress progress future the of regardless ble, a of operation prior the requires reality of structuring any since ists, Ideal­ the For Pasternak. Boris and Eng­ in Bradley F.H. America, in id a ieiial ad irreduci­ and ineliminable was mind of status metaphysical the mind, f h ntrl sciences. natural the of Dewey, and Charles Peirce, argued argued Peirce, Charles and Dewey, we a ehooia taiin that tradition technological a tween be­ split was that culture American an for view of point integrative In options. both of rejection the for grounds providing by idealism the resolve could pragmatism that John James, generation, founding doing so, it would develop a new new a develop would it so, doing and materialism between dispute n h ohr ad te ruling the hand, other the On h Aeia pamtss f the of pragmatists American The John Dewey John tradition that remained steadfastly steadfastly remained that tradition idealist. ethical or religious a and activities, industrial its in materialism asserted James cited "Peirce's principle, the the principle, "Peirce's cited James verifi­ of degree a implying or jecting consequences. future by verified be for guiding future experience, or can can or experience, future guiding for explain to sought is, that ward," the in idealism, and materialism Both experience. future by mation confir­ to open be should statement, metaphysical a or law scientific a judgment, moral a whether prop­ osition, any that meant truth of theory a as or method a as pragmatism eiiblt ws is fruae by formulated first was verifiability etl ehd o te oiie sci­ positive the of methods mental experi­ the by testable not are that assertions all of elimination the for the in Berlin and Vienna in ists positiv­ logical the by criterion this of reformulation The later. years thirty in truth of theory ... for anyone by unnoticed entirely "lay that pragmatism" of principle experience. future in cation pro­ of criterion pragmatic the meet guments ar­ metaphysical provide each could instrument an is it if only adopted be to ought hypothesis physical meta­ a that was challenge The pragmatic mind. of or matter of structures antecedent the in experience of tions presupposi­ necessary the seeking by events experienced empirically back­ "looked account pragmatic clarity of ideas in an article in the the in article an in ideas of clarity attaining for rule a as Peirce Charles 90 tasomd t no criterion a into it transformed 1920s own his presenting in decades" idealism and materialism while So, Popular Science Monthly Science Popular For Peirce, James and Dewey, Dewey, and James Peirce, For hs rgai ciein f future of criterion pragmatic This Shifts in the in Shifts after the fact, the after Pragmatism, Pragmatic ete could neither o 1878. of nearly nearly

in n uue xeine Accord­ experience. future in tion espe­ metaphysics, empirical an that believed Each exclusionary. so not ingly, their criticism of materialism materialism of criticism their ingly, verifica­ of criterion the meet could perva­ of descriptive were it if cially and idealism did not rest on the the on rest not did idealism and experience, of characteristics sive judgments are not verifiable. Their Their verifiable. not are judgments metaphysical all that ground general ences, not just those of metaphysical metaphysical of those just not ences, Any deterministic system, however, however, system, deterministic Any f h daetcl atrs f mind. of patterns dialectical the of aeils ad idealism. and materialism ble by future experience, then truth truth then experience, future by ble truth. of nature the of count ac­ pragmatic a with conflict in is of laws the to appeal an by events subsequent all explain to sought they systems, monistic as since, deterministic were idealism and materialism that was charge specific matter in motion or to the unfolding unfolding the to or motion in matter opie tee re yohss re­ hypotheses true these comprises that knowledge human that follows It environment. future the of control and prediction for instrument an is eoe nur. o ol a metaphys­ a only So, inquiry. before determined completely be never can that ways in environment the shapes nwih nweg cn fet ex­ affect can knowledge which in ways the recognizes that theory ical ou hs hfe fo te metaphys­ the from shifted has locus pragmatism. with consistent be could will, free for room has is and pluralistic which theory a is, that perience, rgait dd rnfr te philo­ the transform the did sense, pragmatists this In true. the of na­ ture the to real the with concern ical hdlgcl eae nte relation­ the on debate me­ a thodological to manner grand the in tem traditional the from agenda sophical Scene: eosrto o a eahscl sys­ metaphysical a of demonstration

Peirce, James, and Dewey were were Dewey and James, Peirce, o, f re yohss r verifia­ are hypotheses true if For, n h cus o te icsin the discussion, the of course the In

William James

ship between truth and verification. did not intend psychological or social you and through you, to the world; John Dewey's focus was upon consequences to count as verifica­ but perhaps I do not sufficiently take clarification of the nature of the pro­ The Pragmatic Theory of Truth tion, but only experimental conse­ account of other psychical conditions cess of inquiry through identifying The central theme of the pragmatic quences in a process of inquiry. In than purely rational ones... the biological, cultural, social and theory of truth on which there are connecting the concept of truth, Peirce's statement of the pragmatic psychological contexts of any in­ many variations, is the connection however, with the condition under theory was formulated in a way that quiry. For Dewey, inquiry always between truth and verification in ex­ which hypotheses ought to be be­ combined the rigor of mathematical began with a problematic situation. perience. James suggested the identi­ lieved rather than with the condi­ expression with the idioms of ro­ Scientific hypotheses were instru­ fication of the hypothesis that ought tions of verification, James was par­ mantic evolutionism. Thus, the for­ ments for resolving the indetermin- to be accepted, or is true, with the tially responsible for the critical mal properties of a "belief" are as­ acies of the problematic situation. useful. attack that pragmatists failed to dis­ serted quasi-axiomatically, but Peirce The hypothesis that was most ef­ Thus, James wrote, supplying his tinguish between the consequences also adds that a belief is the "demi- fective in doing so could be asserted own emphasis: of a person's belief in a hypothesis cadence which closes a musical justifiably on the basis of the inquiry The true is the name of whatever proves —the standard example was the be­ phrase in the symphony of our intel­ and could be considered the true hy­ itself to be good in the way of belief, and lief that God exists—and the experi­ lectual life." pothesis, subject always to revision good, too, for definite, assignable reasons. mental verification that would For Peirce, the process of scientific by further inquiry. These and similar Jamesian formu­ confirm the truth of a hypothesis. inquiry was the major movement of Dewey's interpretation of the pro­ lations brought forth an avalanche of This criticism of James's efforts to that symphony. Through a process cess of inquiry led him to the con­ criticism. James Joyce, who had criti­ formulate the pragmatic theory of of inquiry, scientific hypotheses clusion that there was a single cally reviewed an early work of truth came from his fellow pragma­ could be verified, so that although method common to all of the sci­ pragmatic philosophy for a Dublin tists as well. Perhaps the most dra­ never certain, they achieved an ever ences. This scientific method that daily, commented to his brother matic illustration is the letter that higher degree of confirmation. Truth, had been so successfully used in the Stanislaus Joyce that he preferred Charles Peirce wrote to James on therefore, was defined by Peirce as understanding of the natural envi­ the Italian encyclopedia to the "Brit- reading Pragmatism in 1907. the limit of this degree of confirma­ ronment should be extended to the tanica" for the " antipragmatic'' rea­ study of the cultural and social My dearest William, tion. In his phrase: "The opinion environment. Such an extension son that it contained many more ex­ I have just this minute received which is fated to be ultimately amples of truths that were useless. your book Pragmatism. I have turned agreed to by all who investigate is represented the urgently needed ap­ James's philosophical critics, like to the index and looked out Peirce, what we mean by the truth..." plication of critical intelligence to Bertrand Russell in an essay titled C. Santiago [a name adopted by John Dewey followed Peirce in the contemporary cultural and moral is­ "Transatlantic Truth," and G.E. Peirce presumably in honor of approach that defined truth as the sues. Thus, there was a second shift Moore, charged James with the re- James], I found a statement of my outcome of the process of scientific in the locus of pragmatic philosophy. ductio of asserting that if an idea own thoughts which I can appreci­ investigation. For Peirce, in a sense, While developing the pragmatic ate, having been laboring and made the person who believed it truth was the asymptotic limit of a theory of truth, James and Peirce crowding ... through throngs of happier, then the idea became true. necessarily progressive and conver­ had retained an interest in meta­ technicalities, objections, and stupid­ The social activists who were inter­ physics; Dewey continued the analy­ ities - to try to express. There you gent series of degrees of confirma­ ested in pragmatism, like the revolu­ sis of the nature of the true, but have put it on your page with the tion. Thus, broadly speaking, for moved the center of concern to the tionary syndicalist George Sorel, utmost lucidity and apparent facility. Dewey and Peirce, a contemporary argued that ideas that were to be ef­ Nothing could be more satisfactory... scientific theory is not more accept­ characterization and construction of the good. fective in the social or historical The postscript, however, sharply re­ able than its predecessor because it arena, would be made true in a kind verses the approbation. fits contemporary fashion or is of of verification through action. Ethical Naturalism P.S. ... I have just one lingering more up-to-date vintage but because James's protestations that these it has explained all of the evidence Dewey's primary task in moral wish, for your sake. It is that you, if philosophy, a task to which he had criticisms were caricatures of his you are not too old, would try to that justified the earlier views and, been committed since his writing on view as well as his insistence that learn to think with more exactitude. in addition, has provided new exper­ pragmatism was contiguous with sci­ If you had a fortnight to spare, I be­ imental predictions that have been ethics in the first decade of the cen­ entific method suggest that James lieve that I could do something for verified. tury, was the justification of moral 5 John Dewey(left), Robert M. LaFollette(center), and Sumner Welles(right), before a 1944 radio broadcast, "Time for Americans." One of a series of programs hosted by Welles, it was described by Newsweek as discussing "the significance of events both political and economic which have a bearing on international relations." judgments as empirical, naturalistic pragmatists was only one of several of moral thought. Any definition of of an emotive attitude toward hypotheses. For Dewey, ethical judg­ competing conceptions of the appli­ good, in terms of such natural prop­ murder. ments can be empirical since they cation of science and reason in erties as the satisfaction of human One illustration of emotive lan­ are the outcome of the scientific ethics. needs or desires, is fallacious. guage in explicit expressive context method if inquiry applied to prob­ The major work that first set the For Moore, goodness could be in­ can reinforce the moral example. lematic moral situations. Ethical terms of that debate was G.E. tuited directly by all morally sensi­ Thus, "April is the fourth month of judgments can be naturalistic since Moore's Principia Ethica in 1903. The tive persons, a view particularly ap­ the year" is a truth of conventional they are derived from an inquiry in­ imposing title of the work with its preciated by the cultivated individ­ nomenclature, while "April is the to the needs and desires of human analogy to revolutionary Newtonian ualistic moral sensibilities of Blooms­ rainiest month" is a hypothesis to be beings and into the factual appraisal natural philosophy suggests the bury. Moral appraisals were not, verified in meteorological investiga­ of the consequences of competing sense of excitement about a new in­ therefore, empirical hypotheses to be tion. "April is the cruellest month" proposals or policies that are means terpretation of ethics. Among the lit­ verified by scientific method. does not admit of an empirical con­ for the satisfaction of human needs erary evidence from Bloomsbury fig­ This criticism of Dewey's interpre­ firmation, for its function is an emo­ and desires. ures like Keynes, Woolf, Foster and tation of ethics as empirical received tively expressive assertion. In the cultural context of the twen­ others of the great impact of further support from a different di­ There is an element of irony that tieth century, the Deweyan philo­ Moore's ethical views is this letter rection on completely different the original Peircean pragmatic prin­ sophical enterprise can provide a from Lytton Strachey: grounds in the Logical Positivist ef­ ciple should be applied in a manner basis for ethical action in societies Dear Moore, fort to clarify the significance of sci­ that denies verifiability to ethical where the traditional religious foun­ I have read your book and ... on entific method for ethics. In their statements. There is an even greater dation for morals has eroded or lost this occasion I am carried away. I ambitious and systematic program of irony Of an ad hominem type. For the intellectual authority or legitimacy. In think your book has not only applying the reformulated Peircean straightforward moral assertion that Dewey's view, moral judgments can wrecked and shattered all writers on criterion of verifiability to the lan­ "Nazism is wrong" could not be af­ be neither absolute nor subjective. Ethics from Aristotle and Christ to guages of the sciences, the positivists firmed by Logical Positivists in the On the one hand, there is no tran­ Herbert Spencer and Mr. Bradley, it classified all assertive propositions 1930s when virtually every leading scendental source from which ab­ has not only laid the true founda­ into three classes. These three classes positivist was being exiled from tions of Ethics, it has not only left all solute moral imperative can be com­ are, roughly speaking: logical, empir­ Europe by Nazism. modern philosophy bafouee — these manded or ideals can be derived. ical, and emotive statements. seem to me small achievements com­ In addition to the criticisms of And on the other hand, the alterna­ pared to the establishment of that To give a specific illustration that Moore and of the positivists, Marx­ tive to such a transcendental source Method which shines like a sword is relevant for moral discussion, the ists, particularly in the 1930s, argued is not subjective taste or the ethically between the lines. It is the scientific classification would hold that a state­ that their moral truths were the re­ nihilistic view that if God is dead, method deliberately applied for the ment like "Murder is premeditated sult of a scientific inquiry into the then all is permitted. On the con­ first time to Reasoning. Is it not? ... killing" is true or false by virtue of a nature of history. Unlike the prag­ trary, naturalistic moral judgments The truth, there can be no doubt, is definitional or logical rule. By con­ matic interpretation, the Marxist that are the fallible and corrigible re­ really now upon the march. I date trast, "Murder is bloody and guilt- moral assertions, were not put for­ sults of scientific method are more from Oct. 1903 the beginning of the inducing" is true or false, as the ward as hypotheses to be tested ex­ adequate than arbitrary preference or Age of Reason. ... case may be for Lady Macbeth, perimentally by their consequences traditional authority in the resolution Moore's ethical theory clashed di­ Raskolnikoff or others, by virture of in a process of scientific inquiry. of the moral conflicts of our times. rectly with Dewey precisely on ethi­ empirical evidence. The moral asser­ Rather, Marxism asserted an absolute In the philosophical debate on cal naturalism. Moore had argued tion that "Murder is evil" is not, moral end generated by the dia­ morals in the twentieth century, the that good was indefinable, since it however, in this view an empirical lectical laws of history, which was ethical naturalist position of the was an ultimate and simple concept hypothesis at all. It is an expression not testable by such empirical conse- 6 quences as the satisfaction of ex­ of an experience. Accordingly, apply critical intelligence to the gate" as Peirce had asserted, or pressed human needs. Dewey stressed that moral appraisals moral and cultural issues of his day. Dewey had hoped for in his elucida­ There is a particular work in ethics are true or false, in contradiction to In one sense, then, the "definitive tion of a single instrumentalist scien­ by John Dewey whose genesis pro­ the positivist thesis. triumph" that James had hoped for tific method. vides interesting evidence for the In Theory of Valuation, Dewey could not be the establishment of The trends of intellectual fashion, continued intellectual force of showed how moral judgments were particular theses about naturalistic the misperceptions of the media of Deweyan pragmatism in this debate used both to determine choices metaphysics, instrumental theory of observation or communication, the on the philosophical status of moral among competing means as well as truth, or even an empirical ethics. prevalent bias of long-held views judgments. In the late 1930s, Otto to evaluate projected ends in an in­ The vindication of pragmatism cannot be overcome by an institu­ Neurath visited John Dewey to ask divisible continuum of means and would be found in the continuous tionalization of a method of inquiry. him to write the monograph on ends. This approach had special rele­ application of critical intelligence to The Deweyan faith in cultural criti­ ethics for the Encyclopedia of Unified vance to the crisis within Marxism at the appreciation, criticism and recon­ cism, so crucial to the survival and Science. Neurath had been a recog­ that period, when the justification of struction of American institutions. well-being of a sockty, depends nized figure in German Marxism brutalized means for the sake of a In that activity, Dewey's work was upon the moral courage and the crit­ since he had been president of the utopian goal was both accepted and to be continued in its distinctive ical sensibility of its philosophical short-lived revolutionary government contested. Dewey's demonstration of philosophical way by his pragmatist practitioners. of Bavaria in 1919. Neurath was also the continuum between means and successors, particularly in social and —David Sidorsky a leading philosopher of Logical ends was a critical foil for the views cultural criticism, by Sidney Hook. Positivism. Since the "Ency­ of G.E. Moore as well. Since, on In the enterprise of moral and cul­ Mr. Sidorsky is professor of philosophy clopedia," as its name suggests, was this account, contrary to Moore, the tural criticism, however, it seems at Columbia University and the author to be a definitive statement of the intrinsic goodness of an object could clear that there is no methodological of numerous articles on moral and politi­ views of positivism, the decision to not be intuited, cut off from any ref­ guarantee of progressive convergence cal philosophy that have appeared in have Dewey contribute the single erence to its instrumental and future toward the hypothesis that is "fated Mind, The Journal of Philosophy, study of ethics marked a turning consequence. to be agreed to by all who investi­ and Social Philosophy. point. The publication of Theory of Valua­ Bailey-Howe Library, University of Vermont Since Dewey was not a positivist, tion in 1939 was a landmark for the however, his inclination was to re­ continued vitality of pragmatic fuse the assignment. Accompanying thought in the United States. In­ Neurath to discuss the proposal with deed, in that year, Alfred North Dewey were two of Dewey's most Whitehead, Russell's collaborator and distinguished students: Ernest Nagel Moore's colleague at Cambridge, and Sidney Hook. Whether chosen wrote that Dewey's ideas were "the for this reason or not, they were chief ... force" in providing the each uniquely able to build bridges American intellectual "environment between Neurath and Dewey. Ernest with coherent purpose." Nagel had earlier developed the dia­ The victory of ethical naturalism logue between positivism and prag­ over its antagonists came in the matism through his methodological post-war period. It was very far, analyses of the questions that they however, from a "definitive tri­ shared in common. Among other umph" for pragmatism. Internal dif­ studies in the philosophy of science, ficulties in the theory of Logical Posi­ Nagel had explored the ways in tivism led its partisans to abandon which scientific theories are, or are their claim of a tripartite classification not, interpreted as instruments of all propositions in favor of an al­ tested by experimental prediction. ternative, pluralist analysis of lan­ Nagel had also analyzed particular guage. As a result, moral statements methods of inquiry in the sciences to were understood and interpreted in clarify how these methods were sim­ their linguistic context and by their ilar or different in particular empiri­ functional uses. On this account, to cal investigations. say that some policy is good may Sidney Hook had previously exam­ occasionally be meant as an expres­ ined the relevant analogies between sion of emotive attitude but charac­ instrumentalism in the pragmatist teristically, as Dewey had argued, it theory of knowledge and the Marxist is a commendatory appraisal of its view that knowledge was to be in­ ongoing value in practice. There is a terpreted as an active instrument in readily analyzable linguistic differ­ any attempt to change the world. ence between shouting "hoorah" for Hook had also become the foremost an object and asserting its value. The pragmatic critic of the totalitarian central agreement of the linguistic character of the Marxist political es­ analysts' view of good with Dewey's tablishment and of its absolutistic earlier view lay in their stress on the distortion of moral ideals. good reasons that are referred to By the end of the evening's dis­ when a policy is approved of and cussion, Dewey had agreed to write judged to be good. the monograph, subsequently pub­ Accordingly, the convergent trends lished as Theory of Valuation. Thus, of the post-war period led away the canonic encyclopedia of Logical from positivism, Marxism or Positivism contains a work on ethics Moorean intuitionism toward an eth­ which affirms the role of scientific ical naturalism that paralleled the method for ethical inquiry in a man­ position of Dewey. There was also a ner markedly different from the recognition, however, that scientific standard view of the positivists. method, in any strict sense of that In that work, Dewey drew the dis­ term, could not be applied to the tinction between "prizing" and "ap­ resolution of moral issues. praising." While ethical judgments may originate in emotive expressions Cultural Criticism of prizing particular objects or exper­ Dewey had used scientific method iences as the positivists argued, any in its broad and looser sense as the moral assertion, upon reflection and application of critical intelligence in Detail of a letter from John Dewey to H. A. P. Torrey, Dewey's professor of moral inquiry, becomes an appraisal of the the process of inquiry. Thus, many philosophy at the University of Vermont. The letter describes the graduate work that value or future worth of an object or of his own writings were attempts to Dewey was beginning at Johns Hopkins University in Maryland. 7 For most Americans, few tasks are including Edmund Wilson, Sher­ harder than understanding why wood Anderson, Malcolm Cowley, hundreds of thousands of their fel­ John Dos Passos, and Langston low citizens joined or cooperated Hughes endorsed Communist presi­ with the Communist party during dential candidate William Z. Foster. the 1930s and 1940s. Lack of under­ Three years later, when the Third standing does not stem from lack of International called for a "People's energy. Probably more scholars have Front" against fascism, Communists studied the Communists than any began trying to attract supporters third party of comparable size. Vet­ with honey instead of vinegar. This erans of old ideological battles, now policy shift, rooted in Stalin's fear of scattered across the political spec­ Nazi Germany, was nonetheless con­ trum, continue to publish memoirs. genial to American Communists, Their intellectual offspring refight old who had been trying in vain to con­ battles in essays, novels, and films. vince the country that the National All sides accuse rivals of misremem- Recovery Administration's blue eagle bering the past and, in this respect was the New Deal swastika. Now at least, all sides are usually right. they offered alliances to liberals. By To understand why some Ameri­ 1938, the party had grown to 60,000 cans were attracted to Communism members; most recruits were native Communism and it is necessary to assess the effects of born citizens with white collar jobs. the New Deal. President Franklin D. Communists also dominated or influ­ Roosevelt neither welcomed the wel­ enced such Popular Front groups as Anti-Communism fare state nor ended the Depression. the American Student Union, Na­ Indeed, he was reluctant to push tional Lawyers Guild, and American such measures as social security, League Against War and Fascism. in America which admirers and detractors alike Most important, they held high of­ currently consider the essence of his fice in the Congress of Industrial administration. Furthermore, critics Organizations and several constituent as diverse as Herbert Hoover and unions. Needing skilled organizers to Marshal Stalin, Presi­ Norman Thomas contended that direct grassroots militancy, CIO Pres­ dent Truman and Prime New Deal inconsistencies impeded ident John L. Lewis refused "to Minister Churchill(left economic recovery. Unemployment, shake his aides upside down to see to right) meet together which still stood at 16 percent of the what kind of literature falls from for the first time before work force in 1936, rose by two their pockets." the opening of the "Big points after the administration cur­ The Popular Front enhanced Com­ Three" conference in tailed relief spending. In short, there munism's appeal to intellectuals as Potsdam, Germany were good reasons to challenge the well as autoworkers. Poets, play­ (above). A popular car­ New Deal, particularly from the left. wrights, novelists, and literary critics toonist depicts public American Communism seemed an joined or cooperated with the party reaction to the "red unlikely source of effective protest because they, too, viewed it as a le­ scare" of the 1950s(cen- ter). Shown here with when the Depression began in 1929. gitimate means to defeat fascism and President Truman is Plagued by expulsions and deser­ promote justice. Often, however, Henry Wallace, whose tions, the party contained roughly something more was involved. The 1948 presidential cam­ 10,000 members, most of whom Depression was a cultural as well as paign attracted well were foreign born. After failure to an economic crisis. Thus intellectuals publicized Communist make a revolution in 1919 and sub­ who had criticized traditional values support. Buttons from sequent, largely futile efforts to during the 1920s now saw an oppor­ the presidential cam­ "bore within" established parties tunity to create new ones. "It gave paign of 1948 show and unions, American Communists us a new sense of power," Edmund support for rival candi­ following Moscow's lead, entered a Wilson recalled, "to find ourselves dates, (bottom) "third period" in 1928. As Joseph carrying on while the bankers, for a Stalin explained, the "era of capital­ change, were taking a beating." ism's downfall has come." With vic­ Neither recruitment of intellectuals tory imminent, there was no reason nor transformation of American to ally with socialists or liberals, prose was a Communist priority. "social fascists" in disguise, against The party's most famous literary outright fascists. Initially, this bellig­ critic, Michael Gold, had promoted erent dogmatism hurt recruitment. "proletarian literature" since the To think that a version of autocratic early 1920s, and as editor of the New Russian Communism could be trans­ Masses sought contributions by and planted here, John Dewey wrote, about the working class. During the was "nothing short of fantastic." early 1930s, the John Reed clubs Even during the third period, tried to nurture untrained writers however, Communists enjoyed some and sometimes succeeded. Starting advantages over rivals on the left. in 1935, literary celebrity took prece­ Shrewd, often brave party members dence over proletarian aesthetics. taught themselves how to organize Relatively few major writers became dispossessed blacks and whites who Communists, but many, including found few champions elsewhere. To Ernest Hemingway, Archibald Mac- those Americans contemplating alter­ Leish, and John Chamberlain, either natives to capitalism in crisis, the joined the Popular Front League of Soviet "experiment" proved that American Writers or participated in planning worked. Especially after the American Writers Congresses. At Hitler consolidated power in the same time, the proletarian sensi­ Germany, Communism and fascism bility did influence American culture. seemed the only alternatives. In this Though some of its products self- context, Communist combativeness destructed from excess sentiment or looked like necessary toughness. In crude politics, other works, including 1932, affirming the "Socialism of Gold's Jews Without Money and deeds, not words," 150 intellectuals, Richard Wright's Native Son, still re- 8 tain considerable force. Furthermore, dances, and all that. In short, the and reaffirmed the united front. The federal scare. Headlines highlighted celebration of the worker merged YCL and its members are no differ­ early 1940s, not the 1930s, marked investigations of noted diplomats, with the broader trend to celebrate ent from other people except that we the peak of Communist influence. writers, and movie stars, yet most "the people," a vogue characterizing believe in dialectical materialism as a The Cold War and complementary victims of blacklisting and harass­ Hollywood films, ersatz folksongs, solution to all problems. Red Scare, not the Nazi-Soviet Pact, ment were ordinary citizens. As in and regionalist murals. Clearly, for many people, adherence decimated American Communism. the Red Scare of 1919-20, victims in­ Poets, playwrights, novelists, and to Communism or the Popular Front Enthusiasm for the Russians, wide­ cluded liberals, socialists, and miscel­ literary critics were less valuable to was neither firm nor well thought spread but shallow, rested on the as­ laneous dissidents as well as Com­ the Communist party than intellec­ out. Thus, as former member Joseph sumption that they were, in Life's munists and former Communists. tuals who interpreted politics for the Starobin recalled, the party was a phrase, "a lot like Americans." Post­ Old intellectual battles persisted Nation, New Republic, PM, and simi­ "revolving door." war confrontations soon dramatized into the 1950s, though the range of lar publications. Some commenta­ Although Soviet policy kept the the differences. The Soviets consid­ acceptable opinion narrowed. To tors—Malcolm Cowley, for example— door spinning during the late 1930s, ered a sphere of influence in eastern conservative Eugene Lyons, militant came from literary backgrounds, but American Communism and the Pop­ Europe essential to their security. anti-Communism inflicted just retri­ most were journalists or academics. ular Front proved remarkably dur­ From their tenacious commitment to bution on perpetrators of "intellec­ Sometimes skeptical of Moscow's ac­ able. Both weathered the Moscow this position, Washington became tual red terror" in the 1930s. For tions, these political intellectuals trials of 1936-38, in which many old convinced that the Russians intended centrist liberals, McCarthyism and nevertheless portrayed the Soviet Bolsheviks were convicted of con­ to advance across Europe and be­ Communism (along with Popular Union as an efficient, planned so­ spiring to overthrow the Soviet sys­ yond. Wary cooperation yielded to Front liberalism) were comparable ciety moving toward democracy. tem. A Commission of Inquiry what historian William Appleman extremist movements. On the whole, Whatever their private reservations headed by John Dewey judged the Williams calls the "diplomacy of the they agreed with Daniel Bell that about Soviet leadership, they consid­ trials a "frameup." By and large, vicious circle." President Harry S. Communism had "no real roots in ered the Popular Front an essential however, Popular Front liberals Truman declared that "nearly every America." Hence, it appealed pri­ guard against fascism abroad and at agreed with the New Republic that nation must choose between alter­ marily to political innocents and po­ home. Popular Front liberals con­ the defendants were "probably nate ways of life," and offered aid litical neurotics, many of whom ducted an aggressive defense. Favor­ guilty of something." The purges co­ to those siding with the United were, in Bell's phrase, "masochistic ite targets included Max Eastman, incided with the Spanish Civil War States. Moscow, in turn, tightened and immolating" intellectuals. Com­ who charged Stalin with betraying and German assaults on Austria and its hold on eastern Europe. The re­ munism served as a religious surro­ socialism; centrist liberals at Common Czechoslovakia. Afraid of disrupting sulting coups further convinced gate. Expulsion from the party, Sense, who called Nazism and Com­ antifascist unity at a critical time, Washington that the Soviet Union Schlesinger wrote in The Vital Center, munism equally "totalitarian;" and Communists and Popular Front liber­ must be contained. struck them "as excommunication civil libertarians who favored consti­ als gave the Soviet regime the bene­ Nineteen-forty-eight produced a would a devout Catholic." tutional rights for native "fascists." fit of the doubt. Similarly, they dis­ critical election for the left. Centrist Starting in the mid-1960s, the vital Relations between the Popular counted evidence that Communists liberals, whose intellectual mentors center faced strong challenges from a Front and the New Deal reflected brutally suppressed the Spanish an­ included Reinhold Niebuhr and renewed intellectual left. Revisionist mutual opportunism as well as archists. As Malcolm Cowley of The Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., endorsed historians argued that the United Roosevelt's penchant for ambiguity. New Republic wrote in 1937, Stalin's containment, rejected cooperation States bore at least some responsibil­ Moved by realpolitik and visions of "personal character" was "relatively with domestic Communists, and fa­ ity for the Cold War, that McCarthy­ Russian trade, FDR overlooked Com­ unimportant ... in the face of an in­ vored Truman. Popular Front liber­ ism grew from Trumanism, and that munist invective to recognize the ternational fascist alliance." In mid- als, whose spokesmen included American Communism was a com­ Soviet Union in 1933. Three years August, 1939, 400 notable Americans Norman Mailer and I.F. Stone, re­ plex movement. The best scholar­ later he ordered the Federal Bureau issued an Open Letter praising the jected containment, endorsed cooper­ ship, while criticizing Popular Front of Investigation to monitor Com­ Soviet Union as a "consistent bul­ ation with domestic Communists, absurdities and doctrinal devotion to munist activities. Meanwhile, mem­ wark" against aggression. Less than and favored Progressive party candi­ Moscow, still showed that Commun­ bers of his administration—and Mrs. two weeks later, Moscow signed a date Henry A. Wallace. The Com­ ism was rooted in some American Roosevelt—addressed Popular Front non-aggression treaty with Germany. munists also favored Wallace, who communities. During the late 1970s, groups. For their part, Communists The Nazi-Soviet Pact stands out in accepted their support despite mis­ several memoirs by ex-Communists became virtual New Dealers. Unlike accounts of recent cultural history givings. Both Wallace and the Com­ further undermined the stereotype of Socialist Norman Thomas, an astute because it prompted many intellectu­ munist party, headed by hardliner a party populated by dogmatic neu­ critic of the Roosevelt administration, als to repudiate Communism. For William Z. Foster, were easy targets. rotics. Unfortunately, the revisionist Communist presidential nominee example, moved to reconsider "some Partly because the president feared approach to Communism and the Earl Browder barely sought protest of the unpleasant facts my faith- subversion and partly to outflank Popular Front reached a mass audi­ votes in 1936, stressing instead the bound mind had refused to exam­ conservatives, the administration had ence through movies and polemics, need to beat "fascist" Republicans. ine," Granville Hicks quit the party. initiated loyalty checks on federal not monographs and rank-and-file Thus Communists and Popular Front Few outstanding men or women of employees, issued an Attorney Gen­ recollections. In particular, Woody liberals could view themselves both letters remained. At least 15 percent eral's list of allegedly subversive Allen's The Front, a comedy about as outsiders, hard-boiled builders of of the rank-and-file left too. Yet groups, and indicted twelve Com­ blacklisting, and Lilian Heilman's a socialist future, and insiders, allies focus on the dramatic departures of munist leaders under the Smith Act. Scoundrel Time, the story of her ap­ of the president with friends in high 1939 distorts the history of American During the campaign, Truman esca­ pearance before the House Commit­ places. The Popular Front, poet Communism. Though diminished in lated his attack on "Henry Wallace tee on Un-American Activities, Joseph Freeman recalled, was the size and reputation, the party sur­ and his Communists." The assertion precipitated an old-fashioned contre­ "sweetest bandwagon in history." vived this crisis, which disrupted, that Communists dominated the Pro­ temps during 1976. According to Indeed, moving beyond practical but did not doom, the Popular gressive party became a self-fulfilling Heilman, refusal to "name names" alliances with liberals, Communists Front. When Germany attacked the prophecy as others quit to avoid was simply a matter of "decency." joined the national celebration. The Soviet Union in June 1941, American stigmatization. Wallace's defeat, with In reply, Diana Trilling contrasted party held Lincoln-Lenin Day rallies Communists ended their non-inter­ less than 3 percent of the vote, prison terms meted out for contempt and hailed Earl Browder's ancestor ventionist interlude and rebuilt coali­ ended Communist political clout. of Congress with the greater horrors who fought beside George Washing­ tions with accommodating liberals. Allegations of Communist infiltra­ of totalitarianism. "Without Stalin­ ton. Communist literary critic Gran­ After the United States and Soviet tion proliferated while party influ­ ism ," art critic Hilton Kramer ville Hicks wrote a tract called I Like Union became uneasy allies in De­ ence ebbed. Conservatives charged claimed, "there would have been no America— and he did. Expounding cember, the party rode the tide of that liberal Democrats, influenced by McCarthyism and no blacklist." the Popular Front version of nor­ enthusiasm for a co-belligerent. The those whom Senator Joseph R. Although the grubby details of malcy, a member of the Young Russians were a "helluva people," McCarthy called the State Depart­ past politics and diplomacy attract Communist League at the University Life concluded in 1943, and a plural­ ment "crimson crowd," had sur­ scant attention, ideological battles of Wisconsin denied that the group's ity of Americans casually agreed. rendered eastern Europe at the Yalta from the 1930s still survive. sole interest was politics: More respectable than ever, the conference, lost China in 1949, and —Leo P. Ribuffo Gosh no. They have a few simple Communist party grew to roughly accepted a Korean stalemate. Few Mr. Ribuffo is associate professor of his­ problems.... of getting good men on 100,000 members. If major literary Soviet spies were uncovered but tory at George Washington University. the baseball team this spring, of op­ figures remained aloof, political intel­ many able civil servants left govern­ He is author of The Old Christian position ping-pong teams, of dating lectuals like Freda Kirchway of the ment. State, municipal, and freelance Right: The Protestant Far Right from girls, etc. We go to shows, parties, Nation rediscovered Russia's merits counter-subversion accompanied the the Great Depression to the Cold War. 9 to action, the civil rights movement researchers can still be found for mil­ and in particular the problem of itary and defense-related research. black students and black studies Although protest against the in­ raised crucial issues of academic free­ volvement of universities with mili­ dom and equally important issues tary research and training has regarding the organization of teach­ ended, it is now taken for granted ing and research in a university. that the American campus is a cen­ Simple intimidation rather than argu­ ter of criticism of American foreign ment often settled the matter. Black and military policy. This is the place studies were established as separate where Jeanne Kirkpatrick's speaking departments, black students were invitations may be withdrawn under given separate living arrangements, student and faculty pressure, where quotas for black students were some­ Secretary Weinberger may not be al­ times accepted by administrations lowed to speak. These disruptions and faculties under pressures that in­ are less frequent than they were. cluded the threat of violence and the They are not epidemic. And one fear of destruction of expensive uni­ heritage of the student revolt is a versity facilities. At Harvard, for ex­ sensitivity to controversial issues, ample, Oscar Handlin organized which may make them easier to The American student revolt of 1964- professors to guard the Widener handle and overcome. On the one 1972 prompted an outpouring of Library, and the faculty adopted a hand, there are faculty and students books, articles, studies, and propos­ plan for a separate Department of sensitive to breaches of academic als. But it is amazing that there has Afro-American Studies that was freedom, who demand that speakers been no continuing effort to analyze never fully debated a plan that led with various points of view are what it all meant and what it con­ subsequently to endless troubles. heard; on the other hand, there are tinues to mean for American colleges Perhaps one reason why we have administrators trained in the school and universities. history of American higher educa­ not had much reflection or analysis of caution, developed in the wake of The student uprising began at the tion, something unparalleled by any­ of the complex issues raised by the the student revolt, who won't take University of California over issues thing before (despite S.M. Lipset's student revolt is that it had little action beyond wrist-slapping. Since of "free speech" on campus and meticulous recording, in his books lasting effect on American univer­ much of the fury of the student re­ was initiated by the young and pas­ and many articles on the student re­ sities and colleges. So I would volt was occasioned by administra­ sionate adherents of a still embattled volt, of earlier student revolts that argue, and use this impermanence tive over-response, this caution may civil rights movement that had not we had forgotten), has remained as as a starting point to a fuller be all to the good. The principle that yet marked its great triumph of 1964 a huge hiatus across the history of understanding of the phenomenon. censorship should not be tolerated is and the subsequent rapid unraveling American higher education. There Consider, to begin with, the major maintained; yet the administration of Southern racial segregation. The seems to be little understanding of issue: the involvement of the Ameri­ does not impose the kind of punish­ Vietnam War, an issue that was the relationships between higher can university and college in de­ ment that may lead to a fight in scarcely present at the beginning, education and the American society fense, through research, training and which the opposing principle that gave the student movement strength that produced such an explosion. recruiting on campus. I believe that "objectionable" speakers should not and coherence. Soon the students This is not to fault the level of most American corporations can now be given a forum is made explicit were involved in attacks on univer­ analysis that was reached by many recruit freely on campus and find and defended. The large change is sity and college research, teaching, participants and commentators dur­ eager applicants. If Dow now has that American colleges and universi­ and military programs that were im­ ing the events themselves, among difficulties, it is not because of na­ ties, which for so long were consid­ plicated in that war. The student them most prominently Sidney palm, but because of other products ered seats of complacency, student movement forged links with the Hook. When one writes during bat­ with environmental effects. The en­ high-jinks, and conformity, have push for black studies, for an in­ tle, the main point is to protect es­ vironmental movement has aroused now institutionalized a critical and crease in black enrollments in north­ sential and threatened values. What passions: it has rarely raised ques­ rebellious element. This is as much a ern and western colleges and univer­ was threatened most preeminently tions of academic freedom, though product of the countercultural revo­ sities, for more black faculty and for during the student revolt was aca­ one can imagine that the occasional lution as of the student revolt. And separate academic and living ar­ demic freedom. The war over Viet­ researcher who is supported by one must note that in the ebb and rangements for black students. nam, producing agonizing divisions Nestle has kept that information flow of student opinion, conservative Although demand for change in in American life, was a matter for quiet. In some places, where ROTC student groups now seem as visible academic governing arrangements the American polity and democracy was removed, it is back. At Harvard, on campus as left and radical ones. did not appear to be the major cause as a whole. It could not be settled, students take ROTC at MIT: there The heritage of the student revolt of student protest, almost every­ one could argue not even be deeply are now so many that MIT has launched an enormous number of where administrators responded by affected, by attacks on ROTC and asked Harvard to contribute to the black studies programs and depart­ making changes. Commonly the defense-related research on campus. cost. Some research facilities have ments—far more than could be president who had the misfortune to The American military could survive been formally dissociated from uni­ staffed with competent instructors or be at the head when the campus without campus ROTC, defense re­ versities, but competent university maintained by a sufficient number of blew up was fired; less commonly search could be continued in inde­ there were some actual changes in pendent research facilities. Indeed, the governing pattern of the college even the impact of the student or university. At Berkeley, and less movement on public opinion against at other institutions, academic re­ the Vietnam war was muted. Some quirements, and in particular ano­ saw the students as the beneficiaries nymity, bureaucratic organization of academic deferments, and they and large impersonal classes—the were jeered for attacking from safe "mega-university"—also came under refuges professors and research insti­ attack. Yet, as in the case of aca­ tutions that were only distantly re­ demic governance, these complaints lated to the war. Rather than affect were not the principal causes of pro­ the conduct of the war, the impas­ test. Vietnam and black civil rights sioned attack on anything related to held the palm in this respect. Vietnam on campus imperiled aca­ The American student revolt was demic freedom by preventing na­ preceded by a far more violent one tional leaders from speaking on cam­ in Japan, followed and paralleled by pus, by intimidating professors who student movements in all the major disagreed with student militants, by Columbia University Public Information democratic countries. Yet I would depriving students of the right to Harvard Students(top) hoist an anti-Vietnam banner during the height of the demon­ argue that we still do not under­ hear and discuss arguments that op­ strations in 1968. Students at Columbia University occupy offices in the Low Memorial stand what happened and what it posed them. Library,(above). "Perhaps the biggest change," says the author, "is the increasing meant. The biggest convulsion in the Similarly, the other great stimulus prominence of women among students and faculty."(opposite page) 10 © Martha Stewart interested students. Many of these The reason the heritage of the programs have disappeared or have great student revolt is so modest, I diminished considerably; others, would argue, is to be found in one after years of struggle, have begun fact: The American university and to attain a respectable degree of aca­ college retained and retains a re­ demic distinction. markable degree of autonomy from But the black studies movement government, and thus the demands has been overwhelmed—in number of the student movement were never of programs, in student interest, and institutionalized in law, resulting in in the level and quantity of research the kind of permanent change law —by the women's studies move­ introduces. In this respect, American ment, a development that could not higher education was far more fortu­ have been foreseen as emerging nate than European. In France, from the turmoil of the student re­ Germany, the Netherlands, and volt and that gained its great other countries, new national legisla­ strength after that movement had tion introduced into university peaked. The many programs to re­ government elected representatives cruit and attain fixed percentages of of students, junior faculty, and non­ black students no longer arouse the teaching personnel. In those coun­ same passion or commitment among tries, too, students soon lost interest plines. Caucuses of radical students push for more black faculty there black students, or the same degree in participating in time-consuming and young faculty were organized in were too few in numbers to make a of response among white administra­ and not very interesting university academic associations, new journals substantial change, and the opening tors. These programs, following the tasks. But since they now had the were launched, there were struggles up of opportunities in law, medicine, course of most revolutions, have be­ right in law to participate, various over elections to offices. business, and government reduced come routinized and institutional­ interests were encouraged to take The disciplines most affected were the number of those willing to un­ ized. There are black members of ad­ advantage of these rights for political not much improved by this swing of dertake an academic career. With missions offices almost everywhere, reasons. Student leaders with party the younger members to the left. But women it was different: There were with special budgets to recruit black affiliations, generally (as is common it would be exaggerating to say that far more, and the academic career, students. The problem has not gone among student leaders) to the left, disciplines were "taken over" by while it also competed with those away for economic and other rea­ continued to run for office, and in­ one political point of view. Patterns other fields, was more attractive. sons, because few black students are different as the mass of students of academic recruitment remained I suspect that the most substantive available for selective institutions, may have been, continued to be the traditional ones, for the most change we have seen as a result of and many more go to community elected—with the right to represent part. One took account of research, the student revolt is among adminis­ colleges. There has been similar diffi­ "the students." Similarly, junior fac­ with a nod to teaching; senior fac­ trators. The student revolt taught us culty in attracting a sufficient num­ ulty and non-teaching personnel ulty made the choices, with only how important they were. It taught ber of black faculty. Blacks form only have been elected with endless poli­ modest and limited participation them to be cautious, to consult a small percentage of those gaining ticization and conflict as a result. from junior faculty and students. widely, to get advice. Presidential doctoral degrees, and most of those In contrast, not a single law was Administrators passed on the staffs grew. (This was not only the are attained in education. There passed in the United States either at choices, and independent trustees result of the student revolt, but also seems no solution to this deficiency the state or national level, affecting put the imprimatur on the final deci­ because of the rise of affirmative ac­ in the short run, although charges the governing of universities and col­ sion. None of this changed in its tion and new grounds for litigation.) that this is due to the lack of enthu­ leges. This fact is most remarkable. fundamentals. I think we have seen fewer creative siasm of white administrators are Most legislators and the public were One major change was introduced academic administrators since the regularly heard. furious at student disruptions, strikes by governmental requirements for af­ early 1970s than in any equivalent The institutional response in mak­ against the Vietnam war, strikes de­ firmative action to seek out minority period before. This is of course not ing changes in teaching programs manding black studies. But our tra­ and female faculty, seconded by only the result of the student revolt: and governance was impressive. Re­ dition is one in which universities committed university administrators. Colleges and universities have been quirements fell almost everywhere. and colleges have autonomy from The change was substantial. suffering since the early 1970s from A greater degree of freedom in stu­ the state. We saw nothing like the Searches were now advertised (as a serious financial problems and are dent choice—already under way in state investigations into Communist result, The Chronicle of Higher Educa­ now deeply affected by the decline the 1960s—expanded. Students be­ teachers and legislators that were tion became prosperous from adver­ in potential students as a result of gan to play a larger role in curricu­ common in the 1950s. The rule tising), searches became more the low birth rate of the 1960s. Ad­ lum review, in the process of devel­ seemed to be "hands off." As a re­ extended and expensive, special pro­ ministrators now worry about fi­ oping new courses, even on occasion sult, those changes that did take cedures were established to search nances and declining applications in faculty choice. But very rapidly in place—the introduction of students for minority and female applicants, and enrollment, and their creativity the 1970s students lost interest in on various committees—took place and to explain why they were not is addressed to creating the kind of spending most of their time on such variably, in different ways, to differ­ recommended for appointment. educational programs—generally pre­ issues, and their attendance on com­ ent degrees, and were not anchored There were many excesses in the be­ professional or business-oriented— mittees to which they had gained in public law determining the man­ ginning until these procedures were that might attract more students. the right to be present through ap­ ner and weight of student and other institutionalized. Discrimination This is not a time for educational in­ pointment or election became more representatives in the governing of against white males was evident in novation for its own sake. The 1970s and more nominal. As for the con­ the universities. many departments and institutions. I and the 1980s may well be known as tent of the curriculum, by the later Perhaps the greatest and longest- suspect with the passage of time and the age of administrative caution. 1970s the tide was already running lasting effect of the student revolt the regular use of procedures, there The largest question remains: Why the other way: more requirements, may be in the composition of facul­ is less abuse, and an absolute ban did it happen? And if we under­ more organized programs of study, ties. There is much to be said for on consideration of white males is stand why it happened, will we be less freedom. It seems that we have this point of view. A generation of now rare. The process is costly, and in a better position to predict been engaged in moving between graduate students (those studying not much in the way of increase in whether it will happen again? What the poles of freedom and of require­ between the middle 1960s and the numbers of black faculty results from forces might lead to the same and ment since President Eliot of Har­ early 1970s) was deeply affected by it because there are simply too few similar explosions? What measures vard introduced and lobbied for a the student revolt, particularly those applicants. The major impact of might moderate them? These solu­ system of free electives. All one can in the social sciences and in those these procedures has been on tions remain murky. While they do, conclude about the most recent cycle disciplines that make less use of women faculty. Undoubtedly a mod­ presidents will be careful. from requirement to freedom, and quantitative methods. In certain est bias in their favor now prevails —Nathan Glazer back again, is that it took less time fields, it was hard to find junior fac­ in many institutions. In the end, than the preceding cycle. It was ulty from the middle 1970s on who perhaps the biggest change that one Mr. Glazer is professor of education and speeded up undoubtedly by the tur­ had not participated in or been has seen in the American university sociology at Harvard, and coeditor of moil of the student movement, but marked by the student revolt, and since the early 1970s is the increas­ Public Interest. His books include Be­ the return to a greater degree of or­ thus there were fears that a radical ing prominence of women, among yond the Melting Pot (with Daniel P. ganization in education has been al­ point of view would become domi­ students and faculty. The fact is that Moynihan) and Ethnic Dilemmas, most as fast. nant in the teaching of some disci­ despite the strength of the black 1964-1982. l l Deadline in For projects Please note: Area code for all telephone numbers is 202. boldface beginning

DIVISION OF EDUCATION PROGRAMS—Richard Ekman, Director 786-0373

Central Disciplines in Undergraduate Education—Susan Resneck Parr 786-0380 Improving Introductory Courses—Lyn Maxwell W hite 786-0380 October 1, 1984 April 1985 Promoting Excellence in a Field—lohn Walters 786-0380 October 1, 1984 April 1985 Fostering Coherence Throughout an Institution—Susan Resneck Parr 786-0380 October 1, 1984 April 1985

Humanities Instruction in Elementary and Secondary Schools—Carolynn Reid-Wallace 786-0377 May 15, 1984 January 1985

Exemplary Projects in Undergraduate and Graduate Education—Blanche Premo, Nearest lohn Strassburger, Charles Meyers, Peter Patrikis 786-0384 May 15, 1984 January 1985 Teaching Materials—Blanche Premo 786-0384 May 15, 1984 January 1985 Grant Humanities Programs for Nontraditional Learners—Gene Moss 786-0380 October 1, 1984 April 1985

Application DIVISION OF FELLOWSHIPS AND SEMINARS— Thomas Kingston, Director 786-0458 Fellowships for Independent Study and Research—Maben Herring 786-0466 June 1, 1984 January 1, 1985 Deadlines Fellowships for College Teachers—Karen Fuglie 786-0466 June 1, 1984 January 1, 1985 Constitutional Fellowships—Maben Herring and Karen Fuglie 786-0466 June 1, 1984 January 1, 1985

Faculty Graduate Study Grants for Historically Black Colleges and Universities— Eric Anderson 786-0462 March 15, 1984 January 1985

SEMINAR PROGRAMS

Summer Seminars for College Teachers—Richard Emmerson 786-0463 Participants: 1985 Seminars March 1, 1985 Summer 1985 Directors: 1986 Seminars March 1, 1985 Summer 1986

Summer Seminars for College Teachers on Campuses of Historically Black Colleges and Universities—Eric Anderson 786-0462 Directors: 1985 Seminars March 1, 1984 Summer 1985

Summer Seminars for Secondary School Teachers—Ronald Herzman 786-0463 Participants: 1985 Seminars March 1, 1985 Summer 1985 Directors: 1986 Seminars April 1, 1985 Summer 1986

Centers for Advanced Study—David Coder 786-0466 February 1, 1985 Fall 1986

Summer Stipends for 1985—Joseph Neville 786-0466 October 1, 1984 Summer 1985

DIVISION OF GENERAL PROGRAMS—Donald Gibson, Director 786-0267

Humanities Projects in: M edia—Richard Huber 786-0278 Children's Media July 30, 1984 April 1, 1985 Regular Media Projects July 30, 1984 April 1, 1985

Museums and Historical Organizations—Gabriel Weisberg 786-0284 May 30, 1984 January 1, 1985

Special Projects—Leon Bramson 786-0271 Program Development (including Libraries) August 6, 1984 April 1, 1985 Youth Projects June 15, 1984 January 1, 1985 Younger Scholars Program September 15, 1984 June 1, 1985

DIVISION OF RESEARCH PROGRAMS—Harold Cannon, Director 786-0200

Intercultural Research— Mar/orie Berlmcourt 786-0200 February 15, 1985 July 1, 1985

Basic Research Program— lohn Williams 786-0207 Project Research—Gary Messinger 786-0207 and David Wise 786-0207 March 1, 1985 January 1, 1986 Archaeological Projects—Eugene Sterud 786-0207 March 1, 1985 January 1, 1986 Research Conferences—Eugene Sterud 786-0207 September 15, 1984 April 1, 1985 Travel to Collections—Eric luengst 786-0207 September 15, 1984 January 1, 1985 Humanities, Science and Technology—David Wright 786-0207 NEH HST Projects March 1, 1985 January 1, 1986 NEH-NSF EV1ST Projects August 1, 1984 April 1, 1985

Research Resources—leffrey Field 786-0204 Access—leffrey Field 786-0204 June 1, 1984 April 1, 1985 Preservation— leffrey Field 786-0204 June 1, 1984 April 1, 1985 Publications—Margot Backas 786-0204 May 1, 1984 October 1, 1984 U.S. Newspaper Projects—Pearce Grove 786-0204 August 15, 1984 April 1, 1985

Reference Works—Dorothy Wartenberg 786-0210 Tools—Crale Hopkins 786-0210 October 1, 1984 July 1, 1985 Editions—Helen Aguera 786-0210 October 1, 1984 July 1, 1985 Translations—Susan Mango 786-0210 July 1, 1984 April 1, 1985

DIVISION OF STATE PROGRAMS—Carole Watson, Acting Director 786-0254 Each state establishes its own grant guidelines and application deadlines: therefore, interested1 applicants should contact the office in their state. A list of those state programs may be obtained from the Division of State Programs.

OFFICE OF PROGRAM AND POLICY STUDIES—Armen Tashdinian, Director 786-0424 Planning and Assessment Studies—Arnita lones 786-0420 September 1, 1984 April 1, 1985

OFFICE OF CHALLENGE GRANTS—lames Blessing, Director 786-0361 May 1, 1984 December 1984 12 Division of Fellowships and Seminars

Grants from the Division of Fellowships and Applications are submitted to the seminar Seminars provide individual scholars with the director. material most essential to their work and most Directors difficult to obtain: time. Whether a Summer Sti­ Grants provide support for scholars at institutions pend that affords eight weeks of uninterrupted with libraries suitable for advanced study to de­ study to complete a manuscript or visit a research Grants provide support for faculty to undertake sign and direct summer seminars. collection or a full year's Fellowship to devote to one year of full-time study leading to a doctoral Eligible Applicants: Institutions. an idea that teaching responsibilities have pushed degree in the humanities with preference given to aside, these awards recognize that the well-spring those individuals who are already at the disserta­ of knowledge in the humanities is the individual. tion stage of their work. Eligible Applicants: Institutions. Participants (Historically black college and university officials Grants provide support for full-time or regular must select and nominate members of their fac­ part-time secondary school teachers to participate ulty for this competition.) in summer seminars focusing on significant texts in the humanities and directed by distinguished Grants of up to $25,000 provide support for teachers and committed scholars. scholars, teachers, and others to undertake in­ Grants provide support for college and university Eligible Applicants: Teachers in grades seven dependent study and research. teachers and others to undertake two consecutive through twelve. Applications are submitted to the Eligible Applicants: Individuals. months of full-time independent study and seminar director. research. Directors Eligible Applicants: Individuals. Grants provide support for master teachers and College and university teachers must be nomin­ scholars at colleges and universities to design and ated by their institutions; others apply directly to direct summer seminars. the division. Eligible Applicants: Institutions. Grants of up to $25,000 provide support for teachers in two-year, four-year, and five-year col­ leges and universities to undertake study and research. Eligible Applicants: College teachers. Participants Grants enable centers for advanced study to pro­ Grants provide support primarily for teachers at vide opportunities for scholars in the humanities two-year undergraduate and four-year colleges to to undertake study and research and to exchange Grants of up to $25,000 provide support for participate in eight-week summer seminars di­ ideas with scholars in other fields at the centers. scholars and college teachers to pursue study and rected by distinguished scholars at institutions Eligible Applicants: Independent centers for ad­ research related to the U.S. Constitution. with libraries suitable for advanced study. vanced study, research libraries, and similar insti­ Eligible Applicants: Individuals. Eligible Applicants: Individuals. tutions. Individuals apply directly to the centers.

Medical Ethics and the Nursing Profession

About ten years ago, says standards by not presenting the for­ what our rights are in regard to our practice, but investigates the serious Tziporah Kasachkoff, a professor of bidden candies to the doctor? Would own and other's bodies; what distin­ theoretical issues involved in the re­ philosophy at Manhattan Commun­ she not, however, be betraying the guishes personhood from non- lationship between ethics and medi­ ity College, City University of New patient by going to the doctor? personhood; when is it not legiti­ cine. Students are taught some of York, the desire "to do something Discussing with the health-care mate to extend a person's life; and the major theories in ethics. They less abstract than what I was doing" professionals in her class the ethical when is medical paternalism— compare the implications of the de- led her to enroll in a course in res­ dilemmas that confronted them al­ whether it takes the form of lying to ontological view, that some acts are piratory therapy. most daily inspired Kasachkoff to a patient about his prospects for re­ objectively and intrinsically right or "I was thinking of doing some­ design a new course that would covery or of searching through a wrong, with those of the consequen- thing in medicine," she says. "Not treat both abstract ethical principles bedside cabinet for candies—justified. tialist view, that the result of an act in medical ethics, but medicine. It and concrete practical problems. The The course does not approach eth­ determines its moral nature. They seemed a good way to get my feet course would give students a history ics as a mere instrument in clinical examine John Rawls's analysis of the wet." of the social, cultural and religious As it turned out, some of the phi­ circumstances that have produced losopher's fellow respiratory therapy specific moral views and codes con­ students, most of whom had already cerning health care as well as a worked in hospitals in one capacity background in ethical theory. or another, had meanwhile enrolled Supported by an NEH Fellowship in an ethics class taught by for College Teachers, Kasachkoff re­ Kasachkoff. cently spent a year at Harvard Uni­ "Their questions, the answers they versity, studying in the university li­ wanted, had practical consequences braries, talking with Harvard Law in their lives," recalls Kasachkoff. faculty interested in questions of "One student was working with a medicine and ethics, and auditing patient who was a diabetic, whose medical-ethics courses offered to family would bring her candies. The Harvard undergraduates. student felt that her relationship Although the course that she con­ with the patient was such that she structed touches on specific issues could not report the candies to the such as abortion, or informed con­

doctor." sent, or euthanasia, Kasachkoff says National Institute of Health Was she, wondered the student, she prefers to approach those issues Medical advances often create quandaries for health-care personnel, who find their betraying her own professional by way of broad questions, such as years of training have not equipped them to cope with moral dilemmas. 13 concept of justice and the ways in in June 1983, and funded by the their medical conditions (Aroskar, care institutions." which this analysis can be applied to NEH. "Ethics" 260-64.) All of these issues In fact, questions of medical ethics the determination of just distribu­ Drawing thirty-four participants in are of moral significance are being decided not only by nurses tions of scarce health-care resources. seventeen nurse-philosopher teams, generally...." and doctors, but by hospital admin­ Kasachkoff directs her students in the institute was designed to help While the nurse, says Kasachkoff, istrators, paramedical personnel, the finding what sorts of philosophical college nursing and philosophy fac­ "defines herself as the advocate of courts—"fixing where at least legal material they must consider before ulty develop courses that would ac­ the patient, what does advocacy liability lies," says Kasachkoff—and deciding how to approach a prob­ quaint nursing students with the mean when you're working for a by patients and their families. In a lem. They learn to determine the moral dimensions of nursing care. bureaucracy, and for physicians who nation where almost every individual sorts of questions that are philosoph­ After their month at Tufts, says Kas­ can determine politically whether has received or will receive medical ical questions and what constitutes a achkoff, some institute participants you work or not. Theorizing is fine, care, no one escapes the burden of respectable answer. introduced "post-clinical conferences but if you don't understand the con­ confronting ethical questions. And "For example, discussions of abor­ with nursing students [the sessions straints under which a person this country's system of health-care tion must begin by determining the follow a student's shift in the hos­ works, you don't understand the subsidies is raising new questions. question of what constitutes a pital] on the ethical issues that came ethical decisions that person has to "W e know that insurance com­ 'someone,'" Kasachkoff explains. up in nursing practice." make." panies pick up the bill for certain "By asking that epistemological The summer institute at Tufts was "Generally, the history of medical hospital procedures," says Kasach­ question, we are trying to determine also intended to acquaint philos­ ethics began as the history of the koff. "Do we have certain responsi- if the fetus is a person." ophers with "the practical exigencies ethics of physicians' decisions," says bilties for our own health care if we Kasachkoff refers her students to of the nursing profession," Kasach­ Kasachkoff, adding that even now know society will pick up the cost the "numerous recently published koff wrote in her proposal, "so that many medical ethics courses and for some of that health care? People texts that are related specifically to an appropriate practical brake may much discussion in the field centers who engage in habits like overeat­ questions of bioethics." Among be applied on the moral theorizing "on the role of the physician as the ing, high sodium intake, lack of ex­ books she uses in her teaching are about health-care ethics." paradigmatic health-care provider." ercise, lost of tobacco—do we want The Problem of Abortion, edited by In "The Case for Nursing Ethics" "What is generally overlooked," to take a different attitude toward Joel Feinberg, Matters of Life and (Community College Humanities Review, she writes, "is that physicians repre­ people who ail as a result of self- Death: New Introductory Essays in Winter 1984), Kasachkoff writes "A sent only 8 percent of the total num­ inflicted illness? Should you subsi­ Moral Philosophy, edited by Tom 1974 study reported that nurses ber of health-care personnel in this dize my habits?" Regan, Case Studies in Medical Ethics, viewed their greatest ethical prob­ country and that nurses, whose oc­ Kasachkoff says that during her by Robert Veatch, and Doctors' Di­ lems to be implementing doctors' cupation is the largest among all year at Harvard her own approach lemmas: Moral Conflicts and Medical orders to resuscitate patients who health-care practitioners, outnumber to questions of medical ethics Care, by Samuel Gorovitz. were terminally ill, assisting in abor­ physicians by a ratio of three to one. changed. "I had been trained in the Doctors' dilemmas become stu­ tions to which they were morally op­ In terms of patient contact, therefore, analytical tradition, very much an dents' dilemmas at exam time. Pass­ posed, and deceiving patients who nurses assume responsibility for ahistorical approach. You analyze ing out a one-page description of a wanted to know the truth about most patients' care in most health­ problems as if they were syllogisms specific bioethical quandary, Kasach­ out of context.” At Harvard, she koff asks students not only to iden­ says, "I began to see the importance tify the case's "morally relevant con­ of the historical background against siderations," but to construct their which changing medical attitudes, strongest possible argument in sup­ practices, and institutions make port of one side of the issue, and sense." Examining the history of then to do the same for the oppos­ medicine can illuminate the origin of ing side. forms of medical behavior—such as These days, correct answers to paternalism—that may now strike us problems in medical ethics are no as ethically unsound. Kasachkoff longer the sole concern of doctors, points out that just as paternalistic nurses, or even philosophy students. behavior can seem appropriate "W e're all going to be in a hospital within a family or between a hus­ sometime," Kasachkoff points out, band and wife (he hides her choco­ "regardless of how we get through lates and she hides his cigarettes, this life." but "there's an intimate relationship Half a century ago, she writes in that makes that behavior not obnox­ an article to be published this year ious") a physician's paternalistic ac­ in Community College Humanities Re­ tions may also have seemed more view, only 44 percent of America's acceptable in the days when doctors prospective mothers went to a hos­ find patients saw one another over a pital to give birth to their children. span of decades. "Now in medi­ Today, the child is exceedingly rare cine," she says, "the intimacy is who cannot count the delivery room diminished"—as it must be in a as his first place of residence. Like­ world of specialist physicians and wise, nine out of ten Americans now bureaucratized hospitals—"but the return to the hospital or clinic when [paternalistic] stance may be a hold­ it comes time to die. Medical ad­ over from earlier times." vances, such as the treatment of fe­ The study of medical ethics is as tuses in utero, the use of drugs that important to the philosopher as it is ease pain without curing illness, or to the health care professional, the use of machines to prolong life Kasachkoff believes. "The study of past consciousness, "have served as nursing ethics has much to tell us a powerful catalyst for our reflecting generally about the contours of al­ on and rethinking not only what it most all human interaction," she is that medicine can do for us," says. "For the nurse's ethical situa­ writes Kasachkoff, "but who we are tion, brought into especial relief by as humans and what that human life the complexity of the nurse's place is worth." in our health-care system, captures During her year at Harvard, Kas­ the moral tension that is endemic to achkoff became interested in intro­ all human interaction, and especially ducing the study of health-care that which is characterized by the ethics to nursing students. Out of varied personal and professional that interest came a four-week insti­ roles through which most of us lead tute on Moral Philosophy and Nurs­ The nurse is the patient's advocate. "But what does advocacy mean when you're work­ our lives." ing Ethics, held at Tufts University ing for a bureaucracy, and for physicians who can determine whether or not you work?" —Michael Lipske 14 hen Natalie Zemon narrative structure in the events of Davis, professor of the past or one with such dramatic history at Princeton popular appeal," she explains. Davis W University and an immediately began trying to think of authority on sixteenth-century directors who could transform the France, read the first draft of the story to the screen. script for The Return of Martin Guerre, But other scholarly research de­ she was dismayed by its departure layed further action on the story un­ from historical fact for the sake of til June 1980, when Davis confided dramatic simplicity. "I realized ," her film idea to a fellow historian at­ says Davis, who had been retained tending a conference in Italy. The as a historical consultant for the film colleague replied that "two directors about the legendary French peasant, in Paris are already doing it." Davis "that the movie wasn't going to tell subsequently provided the directors the story the way a historian would with "huge volumes" of notes and tell it—accurately and completely, background material and later helped with all the complexities involved." them revise their screenplay. Yet Davis's visit to Paris during She calls the film a "beautiful re­ the shooting of the film gave her the construction of the sixteenth cen­ opportunity to scour nearby archives tury," which "captivates the audi­ as she delved deeper into the film's ences today. It makes them think subject matter. Her dismay dissolved about the past—a society in which into excitement as she realized she identity means something different had uncovered enough material to from what we think of today." But tell the story her own way in a some things were missing. book. Says Davis: "I wasn't just In a screenplay, as in any art thinking 'gosh, I've got to tell this form, dramatic truth must sometimes right,' but 'I've got more to tell.'" be achieved by a certain deliberate Her research climaxed in a 125- distortion of fact. Selectivity and em­ page book written with NEH sup­ phasis are used to create not reality port and bearing the same name as itself but the all-important illusion of the 1983 movie, The Return of Martin reality. For example, the first scene Guerre. Echoing the movie's interna­ of Hamlet consumes only fifteen tional popularity, Davis's book now minutes of stage time, but Shake­ has been published in French, Eng­ speare asks his audience to live lish, Italian and German. through intense experiences lasting Davis notes that the deceptively from midnight to dawn. complex story of Martin Guerre has Davis concedes that similar been retold many times. In the changes in the Martin Guerre film 1540s, the rich French peasant give it a "powerful simplicity that Martin suddenly deserts his wife had allowed the story to become a Bertrande, his child, and his prop­ legend in the first place." But Davis erty. Eight years later, Martin re­ also found some of the changes turns—or so everyone thinks. Within "troubling," as the film focused on three or four years, Martin's uncle the imposter, Pansette, at the ex­ and other relatives accuse him of pense of other characters in the being an imposter. Despite an appar­ story. ently harmonious marriage, wife The Princeton historian says the Bertrande now alleges that she has film script slighted the character of been tricked by the charlatan, who is the wife, Bertrande, whom she calls taken away in chains. During a a "woman of considerably more cal­ lengthy trial before the criminal court culation" than the movie suggests. of Toulouse, the pretender almost The movie also gave short shrift to bamboozles the judges into believing the judge-author, and ignored the that he is Martin Guerre. At the last growing influence of Protestantism moment, however, the real Martin on the sixteenth-century French Guerre dramatically enters the court­ peasantry. The film also is "histori­ room. The imposter is found guilty, cally inaccurate," says Davis, in at and sentenced to be hanged. least one instance—the trial scene, This suspenseful story inspired which is framed by a mob of peas­ two contemporaneous books, includ­ ants "oohing and aahing" as the ing one by a judge in the case. The judges interrogate the false Martin French philosopher Michel de and his accusers. In reality, notes Montaigne recalled reading the Davis, the audience wasn't permitted "marvelous" tale, which also has in the courtroom until the verdict triggered a play, two novels and an was announced. She concedes that operetta. The legend is still a main­ adhering to fact would have "robbed stay of conversation in the Pyrenean this scene of drama," yet she came village of Artigat where most of the away from the film convinced that events took place. "the historian must tell the story an­ Davis became entranced by the other way." story in 1976 when she read the trial To accomplish her goal, Davis in­ judge's 1561 account of this histoire terviewed citizens in Artigat, con­ prodigieuse. The story, she thought, sulted rare books and burrowed into was a natural for a movie. "Rarely archives in Foix, Toulouse and does a historian find so perfect a Auch. Notes Davis: "I liked the

Jean de Coras, a "court reporter" in 1572, gives a contemporary account of the trial of Martin Guerre, "a memorable and prodigous history,"(above). The confrontation between the accused and a witness, from Jean Milles de Souvigny, Praxis Criminis Persequendi(Paris, 1541), (left below). 15 European International Distribution, Ltd. A shoemaker testifies to the true identity of Martin Guerre in ascene from the unexpectedly popular film book, book, transformation for a forthcoming forthcoming a for of transformation myths of history a for point ing start­ the as reflects it poem rocosmic admonitions Minerva's contest; The gods, the of crimes the showed That eetd rcn' wb n te mac- the and web Arachne's selected transformer. great the art—art, of ordeal the become ment punish­ horrible final, the anger; and tore and indeed, now, angry Was phosis and the Pursuit of Paganism. of Pursuit the and phosis kept and head Arachne's at Struck the work; the in flaw a find Envy Could even nor no, Minerva, Neither integrity: artistic to triumph tyred mar­ in clinging artist embattled to— drawn the are we Ovid is It crea­ tion. his into can, artists as himself, steps into the poem, transforming transforming poem, the into Ovid steps own. his parades he talent, Arachne's extols he as for emerges; here Ovid's motive for tenderness tenderness for motive Ovid's here And transformation. of myths of assemblage an poem, Ovid's like is, in skill her flaunts Arachne When spinner, the tapestry she produces produces she tapestry the spinner, divine the Minerva, with contest the skill." her for known was daughter cmo sr o pro.. u the but person... of sort dead, common a was mother "Her writes. Ovid are readers that girl foolish this with gentle so is Ovid But sympathy. cial oac (n nw appearance). new (and ar­ rogance rash her of spite in her to drawn the that flowers or things or beasts ay rnfrain o hmn into humans of transformations many cain ete fr upie o spe­ nor surprise for neither occasion at f gr cagd no sie is spider a into changed girl a of fact B 16 E Flo Load akn has Barkan Leonard Fellow NEH "The girl was no one in birth," birth," in one no was girl "The n striking. on and with her shuttle shuttle her with and web the goddess fair-haired h Gd Md Feh Metamor­ Flesh: Made Gods The te ie vd eis the begins Ovid time the y tr o Aahe n the in Arachne of story it bo o the of book sixth phoses, e a dsrbd so described has he Metamor­ beauty and interpretation in the the in interpretation and beauty painting quez's Velas­ in Arachne of rebirth century ad o fu mses Titian, masters: four of hands particular its on length at ments com­ and forms, changing these in manifested code cultural the plates contem­ transformation, of mation hkser, at, n Ronsard. and Dante, Shakespeare, litera­ in myths the of exegesis sive cerned less with chronology than than chronology with less cerned con­ is work the centuries; seventeen spanning arts visual the and ture ih nlss f h rcpoa influ­ reciprocal the of analysis with Spinners, culture. and myth between ences eae ecuitd ih Ovid with reacquainted became literature at Northwestern University, University, Northwestern at literature h cus i te easac that Renaissance the in course The of University the at teaching was he when error scheduling a through os eae nta a ore in course a instead became jors Jolla. La at Diego, San California, leading from Ovid to Chaucer rather rather Chaucer to Ovid from leading Ages. Middle the and Rome ma­ science for teach to expected he beauty." an as beauty of love the literature: qualities the all Ovid in rediscovered Barkan. recalls Dante,” to from Virgil leads that path heroic the then auay o a icsin f meta­ of discussion a for cabulary vo­ establishing Ovid, with book the in­ of record a civilization, of history personal a but civilization, of history irreverence of sort a and flexible a universe, of concept the itself, in end Renaissance to me attracted had that iiul gne o lv and love of agonies dividual foolish. be can things heroic that and profound be can ish I course, that for preparing in "And hwn ta tig ta se fool­ seem that things that showing From Ovid to a seventeenth- seventeenth- a to Ovid From akns itr i a comprehen­ a is history Barkan's Barkan, a specialist in Rennaisance Rennaisance in specialist a Barkan, akn pns h frt hpe of chapter first the spends Barkan I hs t flo te tradition the follow to chose "I "Ovid's history is not the grand grand the not is history "Ovid's akn rcs h transfor­ the traces Barkan a Hilanderas Las or The

h cascl ocps n h mythol­ the in concepts classical the of some examining and morphosis n uh hsoy s n srkn divi­ striking one is history a such in metamorphosis. in travel beings which animal—through and human, universe—divine, the of structure three-layer the as such ogy, aiy likeness." of family kind a have it of resentations well as literature in tradition a tent continuity. with stamped tradition the Barkan that interpretation One of time. expanse great a such over stant con­ surprisingly remain that those and evolve that myths between sion which which be­ he "until Barkan, says fied," more is that bull a rendering by rather Europa on attention cuses rapture. and fear both of image an is wild in bull the astride Europa, experience. sexual maiden a of description the painting tian's in Panofsky Erwin wrote art," as of painting great Titian's discusses, ignt ad eul knowledge. sexual and virginity be­ mid-change, in Europa catches changed. being is she that sense the pose—expresses awkward very a is in she beautiful; not is she ing—and Europa. to bestial) the to des­ cent divine's (the shape his has changed who god the from shifted is decoration." a prop, a comes beauti­ is e "H life-like. than ideal bull a of guise his in Jove on than consis­ and long so has subject "The tween fear and triumph, between between triumph, and fear tween Titian Barkan. says time," the same at transported and twisted is She rbes n Titian in Problems n oe as n nhoooia ex­ anthropological an ways some in Of the many patterns that emerge emerge that patterns many the Of t ae ltl efr t se n Ti­ in see to effort little takes It Barkan points out that Titian fo­ Titian that out points Barkan The notion of metamorphosis, metamorphosis, of notion The Erp' apaac i te paint­ the in appearance "Europa's akn xlis "h pitn is painting "The explains, Barkan Rape of Europa, of Rape is the subject of the painting, painting, the of subject the The Return of Guerre. Martin of The Return 1 ) ta al rep­ all "that ) (19 tns imy n a in firmly stands contrapposto,

hleg o fnig vr srp of scrap every finding of challenge ore te ngai Martin. enigmatic the course, im­ "golden-tongued" the Bertrande, the in characters main the at look villages.” those on could I information is n mgntv rcntuto to reconstruction imaginative on lies otr te bilat jde ad of and, judge, "brilliant" the poster, "manipulative” the including story, ls ot e tl. hs h specu­ she Thus tale. her out flesh re­ Davis life, peasant of mentation etl sye veig h story the viewing style, "experi­ mental" an is concedes she what in lates about how neighbors would would neighbors how about lates o isac, teps o xli the explain to attempts instance, for chapter, One characters. main the of perspectives differing the through ae rae te on Mri and Martin young the treated have Bertrande. of view the through women young Martin's eyes, while another another while eyes, Martin's young the through life village of customs rsin f h fml fa o sexual of fear female the of pression ecie te eodcas tts of status second-class the describes experience and its resolution through through resolution its and experience il tedns ht per s at of part as appear that attendants nial ceremo­ the head, her above waves Europa that scarf painting—the marriage." calls it, "where the power of beauty beauty of power the "where Barkan it, calls world," pagan "a celebrated, the in creates Ovid that world lit­ not are they although Ovid, from inherited also are triumph— sea a erally present in his account. The The account. his in present erally fication of carnal love is suppressed suppressed is love carnal of glori­ fication This exalted." is morality over Ages and describes two traditions. In In traditions. two describes and Ages of treatments the discusses Barkan oe om te yh dvlpd in developed myths the poems love n, h sois r pretd o suit to perverted are stories the one, Middle the in myths metamorphic mre we Ptac fls no his into folds Petrarch when emerges re- but Ages Middle the during n te euy f nature. of beauty the ing celebrat­ and explaining of way a as world natural the to applied are they other, the in purposes; moralistic cao wt a opan against complaint a with Actaeon describes. Barkan morphoses luck, not crime: what crime is there there is crime what crime: not luck, blame/On the put guiltless; taeon Ac­ story find /You the will "In fate: that conventions rhetorical eval medi­ the of both through developed hne Aten o sa, where­ stag, a to Actaeon changes hunting with his hounds, of Diana Diana of hounds, his with hunting out is he while discovery, accidental error?" in w dogs. his own by death to ripped is he upon she hunted: into hunter transfigures goddess outraged The bath. her at giants." time of intellectual and aesthetic aesthetic and intellectual of atime considered he "which antiquity, Her book attempts to take a closer closer a take to attempts book Her eas o gp i hsoia docu­ historical in gaps of Because Davis seeks to recreate the legend legend the recreate to seeks Davis h iae o clbain n the in celebration of images The In another chapter of his book, book, his of chapter another In The myth of Diana and Actaeon Actaeon and Diana of myth The cao' err o cus, s his is course, of error, Actaeon's of story his introduces Ovid i oe hr sxaiy is sexuality where one is Meta­ Bertrande who couldn't seem to pro­ than skin-deep. They exchange con­ her? First, a world where organiza­ can bring enormous benefits to the duce a child: "The young men who fidences. Martin expresses himself tional structure and public identity movie industry by supplying source fenced and boxed with Martin must with ambivalence about his patri­ were associated exclusively with material that can aid writers and di­ have darkened their faces, put on mony and his wife, perhaps seems males. The particle 'de,' so often rectors in shaping the film. She be­ women's clothes and assembled in to imply to his look-alike 'take her.' found in women's names in and lieves that historians should share in front of the Guerre house, beating And Pansette says to himself, 'Why around Artigat, did not come from the decision-making power—some­ on wide vats... ringing bells and not?"' In thinking about the impos­ the peasants trying to ape the nobil­ thing she lacked in making the film rattling swords. It was indeed ter's actions, the judge "recognized ity, but was a way of showing the version of Martin Guerre. humiliating." a man with some of his own quali­ classification system of village soci­ Even without that power, how­ This is the scenario she offers had ties. Peasant though he was, the ety,.... The village councils sum­ ever, Davis believes movies have a the fugitive Martin met Pansette: prisoner was poised, intelligent and moned male villagers to their delib­ great deal to offer historians. "The "They learn that they look alike, (especially) eloquent." And when erations, convoking wives and making of a film is a historical fact even though Martin is taller, thinner Martin and Bertrande finally recon­ widows only when there was an or­ in itself," she says. "You always and a little darker than [Pansette]. cile, Martin "probably" had become der to be given.... The realities of learn some things about the past in They hear this from other people "a good Catholic, while Bertrande this peasant world encouraged not making a film like this." She notes, rather than observing it, for six­ may have been a Protestant." only the skills of a good farm wife, for instance, that her interviews with teenth-century villagers do not build In recounting the legend, Davis but the woman's ability to get her present-day citizens of Artigat forced up an image of their faces by fre­ also explores such issues as Protes­ way with the men and to calculate her to think about historical ques­ quent glances in a mirror (an object tantism, marriage, rural life, criminal her advantages, say, in remaining a tions that proved relevant in her ar­ not found in a peasant household). courts, family roles, and the "signifi­ widow." chival research. It is unsettling and fascinating, and cance of identity" in the sixteenth- Adds Davis: "I was attempting to Davis believes that the saga of since there is a stock of popular say­ century. She notes, for example, the make all of social history flow Martin Guerre epitomizes the utility ings about how the shape of the eye limitations and benefits experienced through a story." of historical research, since "one of or the set of the jaw signify certain by women of that era by framing Davis, who is finishing a book on the functions of history is to show character traits, they wonder the explanation around Bertrande: gift-giving in sixteenth-century us there are amazing possibilities." whether their resemblance is more "What did it [life] hold in store for France, says historical consultants —Frank O'Donnell MYTHS OF METAMORPHOSIS

In an article in English Literary Ren­ them into moral or political interpre­ paintings, history and philosophy, picted the transformations of the aissance (1981), "Diana and Actaeon: tations, the mystery and wonder­ theology and anthropology," he gods, her aspirations to divinity are The Myth as Synthesis," Barkan in­ ment is reduced to rubble." writes. in one sense realized: she reaches terprets Ovid's account in its context If myths of metamorphosis resist "Still, I felt the need to hold on immortality through Minerva's jeal­ of the Theban cycle of myths. manipulation for moral or political and follow wherever it would lead, ous spite. "Live, wicked girl; live "Each of the mortal figures in this purposes, they are no more cordial if only because the material refused on, but hang forever," Minerva group has an encounter with a to classification for the purposes of to let itself be subdivided and minia­ decrees. mysterious emanation of divinity intellectual control. Even the simple turized. So the present work runs in Ovid, too, proclaims himself trans­ that is simultaneously beautiful and division noted earlier between the the face of a double handicap: the formed. Through his work on meta­ terrifying," Barkan writes. He goes myths that develop and those that subject is huge, and the subject will morphoses, he ascends from the on to explain that forbidden, holy manifest certain unities requires elab­ not hold still." human to the divine: knowledge both transforms mortals orate qualifications. Barkan admits a There is something of the comic Now I have done my work. It will and destroys them. The presence of certain sense of being overpowered image of Titian's Europa in this de­ endure... mirror images in this cycle and the by the subject that so holds his fancy. scription of the pursuit of metamor­ I shall be read, and through all juxtaposition of the myth of Nar­ "Over the years... signs moved phosis. Indeed, there is evidence in centuries, cissus suggest parallels between the me less toward encouragement and the long history of these myths to If prophecies of bards are ever mysteries of identity and those of more toward despair as the big sub­ suggest that those who work in the truthful, I shall be living, always. divine knowledge: "Diana and Ac­ ject rapidly seemed to gobble up tradition become a part of it. In —Linda Blanken taeon are both hunters and they everything in sight: poetry and Ovid's poem after Arachne has de­ have both entered the grove to escape the hot sun.... This equation—of Actaeon with the holy form of himself as hunter—inexor­ ably brings about the complementary equation of Actaeon with the beastly form of himself as hunter...." Medieval mythographers shun

concepts of sacred knowledge and of Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum identity to bend the myth toward lessons of proper moral behavior. Actaeon's death is interpreted as a punishment for the pursuit of vain pleasures (hunting) or for profligacy (the expense of hunting dogs). In the latter interpretation, Actaeon can be seen to be eaten up by his greed. Barkan has fun with some of the more outlandish "transformations" of myths by mythographers in his book. One of his favorites involves the interpretation of another of Jove's transformations for the love of a mortal woman. Because in this story Jove becomes a flame, the mythographer explains that he won the lady's love by means of a cook. "In the attempts to remove the pagan elements from myths," Barkan explains, "and to shove

Titian, Rape of Europa (detail) passage from the Timaeus to clarify my primary job is to monitor the Plato's account of the rational nu­ questions of the other students who merical structure underlying the have been told that their purpose is world. The historians in our midst not to convince their classmate that kept our attention on the contempo­ he is right or wrong, but to ask hon­ rary relevance or impracticability of est questions that will make him Plato's ideal state. probe deeper into his reasons behind The ultimate value of a mountain- his opinion about the soul. top experience depends on how it At first, my students want to give can be translated in the valley of their opinions disguised as ques­ routine work and living. Since my tions. For example, they might ask: return from Santa Fe, memories of "Don't you think that man must the seminar have sustained me as a have a soul because of his intelli­ My Desert teacher in and out of the classroom. gence and his superiority over other The seminar reaffirmed my belief creatures?" I interrupt the questioner Encounter with that the Republic is not just a fanciful and tell him we are not interested in blueprint for a just, utopian society his opinion today. We simply want Plato but more of a macrocosm of the in­ to find out why his classmate does ner man struggling in his soul to not believe man has a soul. I sug­ During the past fifteen years I have who spent most of their day actively find a balance for his will, his rea­ gest to the budding Socrates that been privileged to teach an honors mapping the land formations of the son, and appetites. Moreover, I am more appropriate questions would English course titled The Miracle of nearby desert, I remember being now more convinced than ever that be: What do you mean by soul? Greece to about 400 of the best stu­ particularly struck by Book Vi's in­ my role as a teacher is not so much How do you define intelligence? dents who have graduated from dictment of the philosophic nature. to teach facts that can be easily Where, in your opinion, does intel­ John Jay High School, a small subur­ Plato ironically agrees with Adei- found through independent research, ligence originate? Do you believe ban school in the Westchester hamlet mantus who points out that "those but to be, in Plato's words, a mid­ man is superior to other creatures? If of Katonah, fifty miles north of New who turn to philosophy, not taking wife helping students give birth to so, how? York City. up the subject as young people for their own ideas and encouraging After a few days' experience with The course opens with a dramatic the sake of education and then giv­ them to find that personal balance of this approach, the students begin to reading of Maxwell Anderson's Bare­ ing it up, but who continue to will, reason, and appetite that will recognize that a good discussion is foot in Athens. We then proceed to a spend a great deal of time on it, of make their lives more of celebration not shouting down another person study of Plato's Apology, Crito, and these the greatest number become and less of an ordeal. with already established opinions but Phaedo, the Symposium and basic quite queer, not to say altogether The following teaching method is trying instead to understand what he ideas from the Republic, introducing vicious, while those who seem the one way I am trying to accomplish is saying and more important why my seniors to dualism, the levels of best of them suffer from this pursuit this goal in my class. Let's say a stu­ he is saying it. reality, the tripartite soul, the recol­ you praise to the extent of becoming dent, after our study of the Phaedo, After one of these group seminars, lection theory of knowledge, the quite useless to the state." I began makes a dogmatic statement like "I which may last three class sessions, cave analogy, and other philosophic to wonder if my attempt to teach don't believe man has a soul." In­ students tell me that they have a principles. We experiment with the philosophy to high school students stead of using my authority as a better understanding of their own Socratic method as a way of teach­ could indeed render the best of teacher and my personal arguments views, a greater awareness of incon­ ing and learning, often inspiring a them "quite queer," "vicious" and to support or refute his view, I say sistencies in their own thinking, and number of students to write original "useless to the state." Maybe com­ to him: "Would you be willing to a greater tolerance for opinions that dialogues. Later we move from the puter training rather than the pursuit have your opinion questioned by differ from their own. The student rationalism of Plato to the passion of of good is the way to save American your classmates in a Socratic dia­ being questioned usually ends up Greek tragedy (The Oresteia, the education. Fortunately, the sub­ logue tomorrow?" Sometimes there with more confidence in what he be­ Oedipus cycle plays, Medea, and Hip- sequent books of the Republic saved is some hesitancy, but I allay the lieves or a new realization that per­ polytus) with side excursions to con­ me from my heretical aberration. student's fears by assuring him that haps he should change or modify temporary plays based on Greek Each of us had the additional lis­ only he will be allowed to give opin­ his view. myths like Anouilh's Antigone and tening and learning experience of ions and reasons supporting his My desert encounter with Plato Sartre's The Flies. We culminate the acting as scribe for a day. With the opinions about the soul. His class­ has convinced me that learning is the miracle with a study of Robert Fitz­ help of personal notes and a taping mates will be allowed only to ask best cure for "teacher burnout." gerald's translation of The Odyssey. of the three-hour discussion, the questions, often specific questions How can we expect to remain excit­ The course is a happy marriage of scribe prepared a typed synopsis of that can be answered with a simple ing, alive teachers if we do not peri­ Greek philosophy and literature, pre­ the day's deliberations to place in "yes," "no," or "I don't know." odically rediscover the joy of being a sented in a practical manner palata­ what gradually grew into our semi­ (This last response is one I cheer student again? ble to the academic appetites of high nar bible, more than 100 pages of when I hear it because most high —Armando Henriquez school seniors. salient comments sparked by the school students are afraid to ac­ "Plato's Republic "/Steven S. Tigner/St. It was this course that motivated gadfly, who came armed with a list knowledge their ignorance before John's College, Santa Fe, New Mexico/ me to apply for Plato's Republic an of questions that he/she had pre­ their classmates.) Although I some­ 1982/Summer Seminars for Secondary NEH seminar, ably directed by pared the afternoon before in dia­ times ask questions of the student, School Teachers Steven S. Tigner at the St. John's logue with Professor Tigner. The re­ College campus in Sante Fe last sponsibility of each group member summer. After thirty years of teach­ who was not serving as gadfly or ing in the same high school, I scribe that day was to read carefully needed the excitement and challenge the assigned book from Grube's of becoming a student again, espe­ translation of Plato's Republic as well cially on the scenic campus of a lib­ as parallel commentaries from N.P. eral arts school where two former White's A Companion to Plato's Repub­ students had studied at my recom­ lic and J. Anna's An Introduction to mendation. I was selected as one of Plato's Republic. fifteen seminar members from a field Each gadfly brought a special per­ of 230 applicants. spective to the seminar. Our linguist Professor Tigner structured the kept reminding us that we were seminar so that each of us, in the reading a translation of the Republic manner of a socratic gadfly, served and used his knowledge of Greek to as discussion leader for one book of make subtleties of meaning clearer to the Republic. I chose Book VI to us. Our mathematician kept us from "gadfly.” Because our seminar going too far afield in our metaphys­ group at St. John's began to be ical flights of fancy, always returning known as the "philosophers" in us to the given in the text. I recall Armando Henriquez, a teacher at John Jay High School, Westchester, New York(top). contrast to the "geophysical group," one session when he deciphered a A view of the Agora with The Acropolis in the background, Athens, Greece (above). 18 while offering fewer and fewer whole class on one Canterbury tale!" courses to our shrinking numbers of I learned what it is like to lack the English majors, some of the critical critical tools to articulate a response. and intellectual skills that drew us to I am more understanding now of the profession in the first place begin my students' silences early in the to atrophy. Semiotics? Forget it. I've quarter. I also learned how it feels got forty papers to return tomorrow. not to be the smartest guy in the So even when what I learned at class. "Today," I wrote on July 2, "I Stanford had no obvious bearing on began to feel like the odd man out, what I taught when I got back, it the runt of the seminar. The ideas helped tone up my brain—and that and slides flew past me so fast that did come back with me. I'd just be getting excited over a I had a more practical purpose in glimmer, a flicker of comprehension, The Subtleties coming to Stanford. I wanted to when I'd discover they'd moved on study literature and art together so to other things and I was just stand­ of Theory in that when I got back I could work ing in their dust." Now I'm more Practice on improving our ailing humanities sensitive to that lost look in the eyes sequence, a three-course requirement of my students. I've been there. taught jointly by the fine arts and In the four years since the semi­ I was in deep intellectual despair, at­ vas bag: Harry Crews, writer. I had English departments. The literature nar, my interests and obligations tempting to prepare a discussion on read the complex codes of dress and and art segments had drifted apart have shifted. There has been a com­ semiotics for Professor John Bender's behavior and found my man. This over the years. We wanted to make munications major to design, jour­ 1980 NEH Summer Seminar, "Liter­ experience at the Augusta airport the courses more truly interdiscipli­ nalism courses to teach, writing pro­ ature and the Visual Arts: Theory helped me understand the science of nary. My chairman put me right to jects to finish. Our arguments over and Practice," at Stanford Univer­ signs in Stanford, and that in turn work organizing meetings with our Wolfflin, our discussions of ut picturn sity. I had never studied semiotics, led to more subtle readings of the colleagues in fine arts. Over the poesis and iconography and literary had not expected to find it in this literary texts with which we were weeks we hammered out a common pictorialism seem farther away from seminar, and could understand it dealing. My forced march into the syllabus, we tossed ideas back and me now than just the width of a only with difficulty. Signifiers, sig- domain of Umberto Eco had in fact forth across the table, and we felt at continent. Nevertheless, the work of nifieds, discriminators swirled made me conscious of complicated times the same kind of excitement the seminar keeps popping up in the around in a blur. processes in reading and "signify­ over making unexpected connections classroom in unexpected ways: in Then I remembered an experience ing" which are normally which I remembered from John journalism, our discussions of the I'd had in the spring back in unconscious. Bender's seminar. These meetings iconography of consumption in ad­ Georgia. A colleague had asked me I mention this moment of discov­ led in the next year to revisions in vertising; in literature courses, the to drive to the airport to pick up ery now not because it changed my all three humanities courses, and last stress I find myself laying on the Harry Crews, who was to be the life or significantly altered the way I year to our department's successful pictorial element in literature; in principal speaker at our annual read or teach. It did not. Four years application for an NEH grant for Im­ writing classes, my adaptation of the writers' conference. I was ill-pre­ later I realize it was important to me proving Introductory Courses. With great Harry Crews search to writing pared for the task. I had never seen because it was a moment of hard the work we will be able to do assignments which teach students so much as a photograph of Harry won insight in a teaching career in through the released time and the they are much smarter than they Crews. I didn't know what he which such insights had become consultants the grant will provide, think they are and that comparison, looked like, how old he was... how rare. There had been few enough of we hope to build a model interdisci­ contrast, and analysis are vital men­ would I recognize him? I knew just them in my office back at Augusta plinary program. tal processes. Most significantly, the three things about him: he was College where my desk was piled Smaller things came back from seminar helped connect two depart­ white, a male, and a writer. high with student compositions and Stanford, too. The journal I kept ments and bring about changes in a When I got to the airport, I scruti­ class notes on comma-splices and each day is as revealing as my semi­ program which affect one thousand nized the disembarking passengers apostrophes. This is not a complaint. nar notes are. In our first session we students a year. as they walked into the terminal. As an English teacher I realize we studied Giovanni Bellini's St. Peter Four years later and that summer Then I saw somebody who looked can do no more important work Martyr. My journal entry for still looks terrific. "right." "Are you Harry Crews?" I than to introduce students to the the day is, "Today we spent the —James Garvey asked nervously. "Why, yes," he written language. But as year after whole seminar looking at one pic­ said. I'd found him on the first try. year students enroll who are unpre­ ture!" Reading that now, I recognize "Literature and the Visual Arts: Theory Now at Stanford it struck me that pared for college level reading or myself as a brother in ignorance to and Practice"/John Bender, Stanford the airport experience was a para­ writing, and we spend increasing those students who tell their friends University, California/1980/Summer digm for the processes of sign read­ amounts of time teaching basic skills over lunch, "Today we spent the Seminars for College Teachers ing that semiotics addresses. The name "Harry Crews" was the sign, and one person at the airport was the thing signified. As I analyzed the process of identifying the signified, I became aware that my mind had worked through a complicated series of binary oppositions. For instance, there were two main categories of passengers getting off the plane, males and females. I ignored the fe­ males. Males, could be boys or men. I ignored the boys. The men were black or white. I ignored the black ones. Other discriminators were age (I ignored all but the middle-aged) and dress (he wouldn't be wearing the uniform of either a soldier or a businessman). Among those who were left, I disregarded anyone who was met by someone else, or anyone who walked with the confident air of someone who knew exactly where he was. That left one slightly scruffy, wrinkled, confused and be­ mused middle-aged man with a can­ Summer seminarian, James Garvey(top). The Assassination of St Peter Martyr, Giovanni Bellini (1459 - 1516), above. 19 The Procession of the Doge on Palm Sunday, Matteo Pagan. Some discrepancies exist between this engraving and the order required by the ceremonial legislation.

rom the time he was an un­ pioneers a new method for studying ish, frequent or visible in the streets of political centralization. Muir ar­ dergraduate student during how ideas emerge from popular tra­ of Venice. Muir suggests that civic gues that the ducal procession was, the politically charged 1960s dition into formal ideology. Muir's ritual helped foster the social stability in effect, the constitution. He writes: book provides students of "the to his recent scholarly and intense community life for The procession, a subject of much Fachievements as a Renaissance histo­ Myth of Venice" with new written which Venice is famous. legislation and a charge of the cere­ rian, Edward Muir has been fasci­ and visual documents and may open Muir's methodology involved monial specialists, created in its nated by the interrelationship of pol­ a new field of study for students of measuring and evaluating civic time ranking of officials a constitutional itics and ritual. northern European states' rituals. (e.g. creation of specialized routes); ideal for Venice that existed nowhere Long before his book Civic Ritual During the sixteenth century, changes in number and frequency of else, neither in visual nor even in in Remissance Venice (Princeton Uni­ when most Italian cities were wrack­ rituals; the gradual secularization of written form. versity Press, 1981) would win the ed by political upheaval, Venice en­ ritual; the metamorphosis of secular Because the ruling patricians bor­ American Historical Association's dured as an independent republic, institutions into sacred ones; how rowed heavily from liturgical means 1982 award for Best Book in Euro­ enjoying relatively stable and har­ ceremonies revealed citizens' political of display—Catholic rites of worship pean History, Muir found an ata­ monious social relations and political perceptions of Venetian life; and po­ —the gradual accumulation of politi­ vistic quality in students' candlelit institutions. Ruled by a hereditary litical ideas represented in ritual as cal imagery in rituals and their ac­ vigils and processions in protest to caste of 2,500 nobles, sixteenth- compared with those transmitted in companying legends succeeded in the war in Vietnam. century Venice was the most famous literature. directing citizens' loyalties away "I remember watching a produc­ living example in early modern Ducal processions, carnivals and from local ones (church parishes, for tion of radical theater—remember Europe of the advantages gained numerous other festivals and pa­ instance) and toward the State. radical theater?—and I was struck by from government not by a king, but rades were used for political ends. Venetian rulers were the most suc­ its similarity to medieval masques, by a thoughtful patrician elite. During the sixteenth century, Venice cessful among their contemporaries even though it was a highly secular Praise for Venetian republican gov­ boasted a large, specialized ceremo­ in developing a political structure affair,'' Muir says. ernment took two forms: admiration nial bureaucracy that testified to the and devices to awaken the republi­ Indeed, Muir saw in the rallies of for the wisdom embodied in importance of ritual affairs in Vene­ can community's sense of self­ the anti-war movement "an almost Venice's political institutions (e.g. tian society as well as to the extent sacredness. mystical, liturgical sense, like some equality of all patrician members be­ underlying but forgotten culture." fore the law) and for the devoted In Civic Ritual in Renaissance Venice, civil service practiced by the patrician Muir combined the anthropologist's rulers. Through the writings of such tool of studying ritual as a way to humanists as Gasparo Contarini and learn how societies create meanings Fra Paola Sarpi, a coherent re­ with his chief interest as a historian, publican ideology emerged that en­ the measurement and evaluation of dures as Venice's lasting contribution change. to the political ideals of European "Anthropologists ask questions civilization. historians don't always ask," Muir Muir analyzes Venetian civic ritual says, "I wanted to reconcile the es­ and its accompanying legends as a sentially ahistorical, static approach method for understanding the rise of of anthropology" with the dyna­ this Venetian republican ideology. mism of history. He contends that civic ritual during Richard Trexler (whose book Public the Renaissance was as important in Life in Renaissance Florence examines developing the Venetian republican the psychology of ritual) praised ideology as the formal writings of Muir's book for its historical and the educationally and politically ad­ methodological achievements. Civic vantaged classes. While humanists Ritual in Renaissance Venice not only extolled the virtues" of Venetian re­ sheds new light on the much de­ publican government, Venetian civic Giacomo Franco's, On Ascension Day the Doge in the Bucintoro is Rowed to the Marriage bated history of the Venetian repub­ ritual peaked; never were pageantry, of the Sea (left). Frontispiece of a pamphlet containing poetic paraphrases of the Psalms lic in the sixteenth century, it also processions and festivals more lav­ of David, published in Venice in 1571 (right). 20 Leading the procession are the standard-bearers, the commanders, and the trumpeters, who will sound the arrival of the Doge who follows them. The Politics of Ritual

Muir's analysis of the evolution of strong binding forces within the San Marco was linked solely to unable to attend. The popularity of the Festival of the Twelve Marys— community. Neighborhoods were Santa Maria Formosa. By the time of the pamphlets, Muir said, helped from its origin in legend to its formal formally organized into groups called the Renaissance, all processional legitimize the Venetian government abolition in 1379 and subsequent contrade, which assumed financial re­ paths in Venice led to and from San in public opinion by making state- transformation—illustrates how the sponsibility for sponsorship of the Marco, making the square the un­ sponsored celebrations a matter of Venetian government gradually festival on a rotating basis. challenged political center of the city. utmost social concern. gained neighborhood loyalties In 1379 the city fathers suspended The State had triumphed over local He used these pamphlets as through control of certain tradition- the festival under the pretext of war loyalties, not by force or internal checks against The Book of Ceremonies, based rituals. with Genoa. When they reintro­ strife, but by gradually assuming the official government compilation In the fifteenth and sixteenth cen­ duced the celebration, the ceremon­ power over a ritual. of ceremonies put together in the turies, it was generally believed that ies were altered and the contrade The visual effect of ritual helped sixteenth century. The mere exis­ the origins of the annual ceremonies were resolutely pushed aside in cultivate Venice's reputation for tence of such a book bears testimony at the church of Santa Maria For­ order for the ruling patricians to dis­ strong, stable republican rule in the to the significance the government mosa had begun as a celebration of play their control over public charity political ideals of other countries. attached to ritual in order to main­ a victory over pirates in the tenth and the centralization and unity of British and American reformers, in tain its ruling position. century. The Festival of the Twelve the republic. their respective revolutions of the Muir is currently teaching his Marys, celebrated from the mid­ During the Renaissance, the Festi­ seventeenth and eighteenth cen­ graduate students to read some of twelfth century to 1379, provided val of the Twelve Marys was re­ turies, were attracted to the Venetian the manuscripts. "There is so much poor but deserving girls with dowr­ membered as the predecessor to the example as an effective alternative to more (to study) in the Italian Renais­ ies, underscoring the foremost ele­ ducal procession to the church at monarchy. sance," Muir said, "the students ment of the festival: its charitable Santa Maria Formosa. To demon­ James Harrington, inspired by a must learn very quickly what they and moralistic dimension. strate its hegemony in civic life, the trip to Venice, created a utopian should extract" from the primary The medieval neighborhoods and government redesigned the spatial plan for England in his book Oceana sources. "It may sound very basic, local parishes were the chief organ­ pattern of that procession so that the (1656). Oceana was read widely first but going through the sources izers of the ceremonies and were political center of the city at Piazza in England and then in America in teaches them what to read." the eighteenth century. William Muir has already generated under­ Penn, for example, extracted from graduate and graduate study among Harrington's writings the Venetian students who read his book. He re­ institutions of bicameral legislation ceived a Harvard student's disserta­ and secret balloting, which he tion on Saint Martin of Tour, based adopted in the draft plans for the heavily on the methodology he de­ colonial constitutions of Pennsylvania veloped in Civic Ritual. Venetian stu­ and New Jersey. Thomas Jefferson's dents writing their theses on ritual high regard for Venetian republican­ in Greek colonies have consulted ism invests his political philosophy; with Muir. At Syracuse University, his worship of Venetian humanism he has taught "Readings in Research is evinced by his palatial home, in European Studies," "Italian Ren­ Monticello, designed after the style aissance," and a "Renaissance of Venetian architect Andrea Seminar." Palladio. Throughout the history of modern Among Muir's principal archival European political thought, Venice sources were sixteenth-century pam­ proudly bore the reputation for a phlets which described public stable society ruled by a republican- events. These pamphlets came in minded aristocracy. Muir's work three genres—battle descriptions, odd shows the extent to which elaborate occurrences, and ceremonies—and ceremony and ritual played a role in Cesare Vecellio, Procession in Piazza San Marco. To demonstrate hegemony in served as after-the-fact mementos cementing the fabric of Venetian civic life, the Venetian government designed religious processions so that they that helped recreate a public event society. emphasized the political center of the city, the Piazza San Marco. for participants as well as for those —Louise Kowitch 21 scholars with more attention given to Ch'en's ideas into a systematic Taoism and Buddhism than to Con­ philosophy or cohesive school of fucianism, except in the limited areas thought. The significance of the of textual criticism and interpretation. debates, according to Tillman, is that Nevertheless, the country's social they crystallized thinking of the time Utilitarian Confucianism and economic problems, as well as to the point where Chu Hsi's system the foreign invasion, continued to of Neo-Confucianism became China's At first glance, the term utilitarian Challenge to Chu Hsi, an analysis by encourage scholars to pose basic intellectual and state orthodoxy until Confucianism might seem a contradic­ Hoyt Tillman, associate professor of questions and express different opin­ the twentieth century. tion not only in terms but in time history at Arizona State University, ions about values and policies. Re­ Since 1976, Chinese scholars have and place. Rooted squarely in the of a series of debates over the Con- jecting the somewhat diffuse intellec­ engaged in a reevaluation of the Le­ ethics of Jeremy Bentham and John fucian ethic that occurred during the tual positions of the middle part of galist label often applied to Ch'en Stuart Mill, utilitarianism has tended Sung Dynasty. Tillman completed the century, both Chu Hsi and Liang by Marxist scholars of the to be defined not only by its philo­ the book in 1983 with the help of an Ch'en Liang tried to create more early 1970s. Until Tillman unearthed sophical meaning—that the ethical NEH Summer Stipend. systematic and defined approaches a 1212 edition of Ch'en Liang's es­ value of conduct is determined by The debates between Chu Hsi and to China's problems. They debated says in the rare book collection of the utility of its results—but also in Ch'en Liang, conducted through let­ their political differences in terms of the National Central Library in Tai­ the historical context of the individu­ ters and visits from 1182 to 1186, Confucian polarities, which empha­ wan, available studies did not fully alism that characterized the Enlight­ centered on a national and cultural sized the cultivation of personal vir­ explain Ch'en Liang's metamorpho­ enment. Confucianism, on the other crisis that had its roots in the failure tue on the one hand and the impor­ sis from a student of tao-hsueh to a hand, is so clearly identified with of both reformist and conservative tance of social and political effective­ utilitarian thinker. Today, because China—especially China of the clas­ programs to resolve national prob­ ness on the other. While Chu Hsi most post-Mao Chinese favor utilitar­ sical age—that it is difficult to imag­ lems. Weakened by factional dis­ defended the ethic of absolute ends ian approaches and disparage Neo- ine how the ethics of Confucius with putes, the country fell prey to or personal virtue, Ch'en Liang Confucian ones, Ch'en Liang's utili­ their emphasis on the cultivation of Jurchen conquerors from Manchuria, championed the ethic of utility or so­ tarian Confucianism has gained in personal virtue, wisdom, and faith­ who destroyed the Sung Dynasty in cial and political effectiveness. popularity. fulness to oneself and others could the mid-1120s. Although the dynasty These debates about the relations Although the reader is cautioned be linked with a term that origi­ managed to reestablish itself as the between values and history shed against allowing Western parallels to nated, according to Webster's dic­ Southern Sung in 1127, it had lost light on the Chinese predilection for hinder comprehension of the issues tionary, in 1827 nearly half a world North China. making strong connections between in their Chinese context, the debates away. There followed a period of cultural philosophical principles and social do contain material for cross-cultural This contradiction is resolved in retrenchment, characterized by a and political realities. For example, comparison. By raising basic ques­ Utilitarian Confucianism: Ch'en Liang's spirit of accommodation among in contrast to the pervasive Western tions about values that have also Portrait of a Chinese Sage. The inscription in the upper left by Kanoseisen-in-Osanobu, notion of history as progress, Chu been of major concern to the mod­ identifies this portrait as "Throneless King," an alternate term for Confucius. Hsi perceived of history as a restric­ ern West, the debates strike a re­ tion on optimum ideals. To him, his­ sponsive chord. Are values and tory served mainly as a negative ex­ truths universal, or are they relative ample of the failure of people to and limited to a particular ethnic cul­ actualize Confucian principles. ture or individual at a certain point Rather than accepting the sordid in time? How feasible are idealistic, state of affairs past and present, one in contrast to utilitarian or pragmatic, should transcend them through the methods of government? How im­ tao-hsueh (School of the True Way). portant are social ideology and per­ Both Chu Hsi and Ch'en Liang sonal ethics in government, espe­ advocated restoration of the Sung cially when they draw attention Dynasty by military action to regain away from the more practical func­ the conquered territories. However, tioning of government? In the pur­ Chu Hsi's appeals to the emperor suit of material welfare and practical relied heavily on ethical principles policies, how much can one afford and quotations from the Classics as to be influenced by absolute personal absolute authority. or social standards of conduct? Ch'en Liang's ideals were more Writing in the book's foreword, socially than ethically oriented, and Benjamin I. Schwartz, Leroy B. he tended to be more receptive to Williams Professor of History and history's "sordid state." By making Government at Harvard, states that standards relative to epochs and "it is precisely the fact that the same situations, Ch'en was seeking to or similar issues [results vs. motives] establish a broader, more utilitarian may arise within entirely different approach to problems. Claiming that cultural and historical contexts which the Confucian Classics were not ac­ provides the mind-stretching chal­ tual history but an idealized version lenge of comparative thought. The of what should have happened in observation that a utilitarian ap­ antiquity, Ch'en Liang focused his proach to ethics in China may be appeals for action on the practical linked to a Confucian ethic rather military and administrative means to than to Victorian individualism is an regain North China. Especially in observation that may open new per­ times of war or national emergen­ spectives on the question of utilitar­ cies, he believed that any preoccupa­ ianism itself." tion with philosophy and absolute These perspectives have been values restricted the search for prac­ opened for both Chinese and West­ tical means to pursue national goals. ern scholars in Tillman's book. In­ To Ch'en, waging a successful war deed, the author reminds us, "the to regain the lost territories overrode modern revolt against ethical abso­ any abstract issues of philosophy or lutes still has difficulty answering ethics. two objections raised by Chu Hsi: Although Ch'en Liang made con­ the means employed to attain a goal siderable progress in rehabilitating affects the goal itself; and the stand­ utilitarian symbols and establishing a ards of truth or value relative to a theoretical and ethical base for them, time, situation, or individual encour­ his legal problems and an untimely age anomie and uncertainty." death prevented the development of —Caroline Taylor Demographics and the American Dream

U.S. Library of Congress The evolution of the "American tal to develop the West, high birth sition of land to that of capital, con­ if trends hold, the U.S. population Dream" over the last three hundred rates enriched rather than impover­ sumer goods, and status. will stabilize by the year 2000, at years has depended to a great extent ished America, and gave rise to the While radical shifts in migration which time a fourth period of Amer­ on shifts in population. individualism and belief in personal patterns accounted for the changing ican history will begin, according to In his most recent book, Structures fulfillment that spurred the mass im­ nineteenth-century social structures, Nugent. Demographic patterns will of American Social History (Indiana migration and industrial develop­ Nugent sees fluctuations in birth continue to affect social structures; University Press, 1981), Indiana Uni­ ment of the later nineteenth century. rates as responsible for twentieth- for example, increased life-expec- versity Professor of History Walter Significantly, the rate of population century trends and upheavals. He tancy will result in a higher propor­ Nugent shows how fluctuations in growth, which could have out­ marks a third period of American tion of aged people in the popula­ birth, death, and migration patterns stripped resources in a few genera­ history beginning in 1920, with an­ tion, placing a greater burden on are fundamental to the broadening tions if left unchecked, dropped other sharp drop in birth rates. The society to care for its dependent and perception of opportunity, as sharply after 1870. Nugent attributes present era has belied the fears of members. Nevertheless, Nugent pre­ well as to the periods of social un­ the decline to increased rbanization- both Malthus and Turner; birth dicts that if birth rates continue to rest that have marked the American —between 1870 and 1900 the num­ rates, except for the anomalous fall, the "American Dream" will re­ experience. Completed at the Hunt­ ber of people living in cities grew by "baby boom" of the forties and fif­ main a reality for many people, well ington Library, where Nugent was more than twice the rate of those on ties, have continued to drop. At the into the twenty-first century. an NEH Visiting Fellow from No­ farms. Urbanization brought the dra­ same time, the assumptions of op­ The application of demography to vember 1979 to May 1980, the book matic changes in life styles and val­ portunity that undergirded the set­ the larger narrative of history is a uses demographic methods to con­ ues that we associate with the tling of America held firm and ex­ fairly recent development. Although struct the American social and eco­ modern era—more and completely panded to include new groups. the first census in America was con­ nomic history and to explain broad new types of occupations; expanding The one demographic peculiarity ducted in 1790, the data rarely got changes in the values and organiza­ bureaucratization and education; was the post-World War II rise in out of the Census Bureau and were tion of American society. Drawing mass transportation and communica­ the birth rate, a phenomenon that used primarily by government work­ upon the work of demographers, tion; and changing patterns of family temporarily reversed a seventy-five- ers to estimate needs in such areas economists, and historians from life. In addition, wealth was increas­ year-old pattern of declining popula­ as transportation and taxation. A few Malthus to Vinovskis, Nugent sepa­ ingly concentrated in the hands of a tion growth. Nugent suggests that historians and economists before rates American social history into few entrepreneurs and industrialists. the social unrest of the sixties and 1900 saw that birth and death rates, three periods. While people from the countryside seventies can be explained, in part, sex ratios, and patterns of migration The first period—demographically and hundreds of thousands of immi­ by the unusually large numbers of had far-reaching historical conse­ speaking—lasted from 1720 to 1870, grants flocked to cities in search of a youth coming to adulthood in a pe­ quences. Frederick Jackson Turner's and was characterized by extremely better life, the promise of the riod when the economy did not ex­ "frontier thesis," which has had high birth rates; in fact, population "American Dream" seemed to slip pand sufficiently to accommodate such impact on interpretations of increases equalled or even surpassed away for many Americans. Disap­ them. The expectations of many American history, was based directly gloomy Malthusian predictions of the pointment and frustration led to con­ were thwarted by stiff competition on data from the 1890 census. eighteenth century. The pattern was flict between labor and capital in the from the swollen cohort seeking en­ However, it was not until the re­ similar to that of developing coun­ cities, and to populism in the West. try into the labor market—a group cent emphasis on social history that tries today, but with a major differ­ The ensuing social struggle was re­ that also included increased per­ demographic methods have been ence—in nineteenth-century America solved with the reforms of the Pro­ centages of minorities and women. used as a tool for historical research the population explosion was accom­ gressive Era and the establishment of The demographic situation corre­ in America. Previously, history fo­ panied by the westward expansion, a new range of opportunities based sponded to that of the early nine­ cused on elites and political events, which opened up millions of square on an industrial economy. Thus, the teenth century, when a youthful and its primary sources were written miles for settlement. The Puritan de­ closing of the frontier, which Turner population could not find sufficient records. Scholars were forced to turn scendants who left communities in greeted with such pessimism in land in settled areas. However, no to census data and other materials to the East practiced the virtues of thrift 1893, marked the end of one kind of "safety valve" equivalent to the reconstruct the daily lives of the and hard work, and believed that opportunity; but the concept of per­ frontier was available in the twenti­ masses of people who have left no "opportunity," in the form of land sonal progress was transferred to an eth century. such documents. acquisition, would reward their la­ urban setting where expectation of Birth rates resumed their previous In the 1960s historians such as bors. By providing the human capi­ the middle class changed from acqui­ pattern of decline in the 1960s, and John Demos and P.J. Greven began 23 to apply demography to the study of 1930 censuses. To the end of his life, colonial America, an era known until Turner saw the closing of the fron­ then mainly through the writings of tier as a harbinger of narrowed op­ the clergy of the period. Dismayed portunity for Americans. by their lack of concrete knowledge Nugent reviewed the nineteenth- about the settlers, these scholars re­ century western collections, a body constituted family structures from ex­ of material he hopes to incorporate isting records, and then calculated into a cross-national study of the patterns of birth, death, and migra­ 1880s. The holdings include a num­ tion. The resulting studies have pro­ ber of travel accounts, full runs of duced some unexpected findings— many state and local periodicals, and Demos's work shows, for example, the papers of the library's founder, that the Puritans of Massachusetts Henry Huntington. Other items of Bay were surprisingly mobile and interest relate to nineteenth century that the rate of premarital pregnancy mining, transportation, banking, and was fully half that of today. In addi­ community development. Nugent tion, the assumption that early comments that an additional advan­ Americans were bound together in tage of his research at the Hunting­ extended families turns out to be ton was the opportunity to exchange false, with nuclear families the norm ideas with scholars such as western in the seventeenth century, as now. historian and Turner biographer Ray It was to earlier historians and de­ Billington and economist Charlotte mographers that Nugent turned dur­ Erickson. ing his fellowship year at the Hunt­ Structures of American Social History ington Library, however. The Hunt­ grew out of insights that Nugent ington, which is located in San gained while writing an earlier book, Marino, California, contains 5 million From Centennial to World War: Ameri­ volumes and 2.5 million manuscript can Society, 1876-1917 (Bobbs-Merrill, items. The collections are particularly 1977). While researching this social Howard University, Washington, D.C. strong in seventeenth- and eight­ history of the Gilded Age and the eenth-century British history and lit­ Progressive Era, Nugent noticed the erature, and in the nineteenth- apparent relationship between demo­ century American West. Nugent graphic and social changes. An NEH New Directions compared first editions of Malthus, summer seminar that he taught in Franklin, and Jefferson from the the summer of 1979 also helped him Following a presidential initiative Atlanta University, Atlanta, Georgia; Huntington collection with more re­ develop his thesis; as a result of dia­ that called on all federal agencies to Tougaloo College, Mississippi; and cent imprints and traced changing logue with the seminar participants, find ways in which historically black Howard University, Washington, ideas of the authors through the re­ he substantially revised and ex­ colleges and universities could partic­ D.C. These will be attended by sixty visions. Also, the complete papers of panded his manuscript. Many of ipate in various government pro­ faculty members in two-, four- and Frederick Jackson Turner enabled Nugent's concepts will be incorpor­ grams, the NEH established an ad five-year institutions from through­ Nugent to establish that the historian ated into a second seminar that he hoc, agency-wide committee to con­ out the United States. College teach­ did not attach any significance to the will teach this summer on attitudes sider how the Endowment could im­ ers who are selected will have the declining rate of population growth toward the environment and the plement the president's directive. opportunity to work with distin­ that was revealed by the 1920 and West. —Perry Frank The committee responded with an guished scholars in their fields at in­ ambitious program. The first step stitutions with libraries and other re­ was to hire an NEH liaison who sources suitable for advanced study. would travel to black colleges and Thus, their ability to convey their universities and inform them about own understanding of the humani­ current NEH programs to which ties to students will be enhanced. they might apply; and to solicit ad­ Seminar topics range from a "History vice from faculty and administration of Afro-American Music, 1880-1980" about the kinds of programs which to "The Novel of Slave Unrest." would most benefit their institutions. A first for the Endowment is the Next, a series of high school hu ­ program that allows faculty at his­ manities institutes was developed torically black colleges and univer­ by the Division of Education Pro­ sities to complete their graduate grams which would identify promis­ study. Designed to strengthen the ing high school juniors and enable teaching of the humanities at these them to study under the direction of institutions, grants administered scholars on the campuses of histori­ through the applying institution will cally black colleges and universities. allow faculty members, in many Next summer, 105 high school cases, to complete their doctoral dis­ juniors—thirty-five in each of three sertations. Dissertation topics from seminars—will study comparative lit­ among those faculty members al­ erature, history, and American litera­ ready selected include "Spiritual Vi­ ture for four weeks and explore sion in the Novels of Graham these topics in greater depth than is Greene," and "Ethnic and Cultural usually feasible in the high school Diversity in Early Christianity." curriculum. They will reside on the Maben Herring, assistant director, campuses of the University of Mary­ Division of Fellowships and Semi­ land, Tougaloo College, and Albany nars, says that the initiative was State College. originally scheduled for a two-year In the Division of Fellowships and period. "The Endowment has de­ Seminars, two programs are already cided to extend the time limit be­ underway. Summer Seminars for cause of the institutions' response College Teachers has selected direc­ and interest in the programs," Herr­ tors to offer five eight-week seminars ing continued. "Because we made a A cowboy pensively watches his herd grazing on a diminishing stretch of pasture with on the campuses of the Hampton In­ concerted effort to ascertain these in­ the Dallas skyline of 1945 in the background. In the forty years that have passed since stitute, Hampton, Virginia; Bennett stitutions' needs, the NEH can pro­ this photograph was taken, the skyline's growth reflects that of the city . College, Greensboro, North Carolina; vide appropriate assistance." 24 When a new planet swims into his his into swims planet new a When Then felt I like some watcher of the the of watcher some like I felt Then eoe ao Boosi ond the coined Bronowski Jacob before The history of humanity can be seen seen be can humanity of history The okd t ah te wt a wild a with other each at Look'd eagle with when Cortez stout like Or a largely hostile environment. Even Even environment. hostile largely over a mastery toward march vast a as e trd t h Pcfcad l his all Pacific—and the at star'd He ey s smi; u juny to­ journey our summit; a as mas­ tery this seen have we metaphor, adcp i hs traversed. has it landscape huge the against individual the place and direction next its suppose to far, so journey the appraise and to chart stop who those are there climbers self-con­ its is progress, arduous that heroism of leaps great the than

ecie t cret hrce, n to and character, current its describe the among always For sciousness. slow, ordinarily its mark sometimes U.S. Forest Service liarly human endeavor, even more more even endeavor, human liarly ad t a ascent. an it, ward iet uo a ek n Darien. in peak a upon Silent, rtn aot h ecutr be­ encounters the about writing and thinking time of deal great a finished with the world's coastlines coastlines world's the with finished explorers, when Discovery, of Age his­ intellectual American in courses survey the In society. to reported been have encounters those way about the and nature and humans tween lb, okd nad o rvre the traverse to inward looked globe, Great Second a of idea Goetzmann's University the at teaches he that tory and the circumnavigation of the the of circumnavigation the and William discusses Pyne Iowa, of htbad ti cib s pecu­ a as climb this brands What Historian Stephen Pyne has spent spent has Pyne Stephen Historian men ken; skies surmise— eyes —John Keats, "O n First Looking Looking First n "O Keats, —John no hpa' Homer" Chapman's Into two works: a biography of geologist geologist of biography a works: two produced have West American the mrc' Wsen irto, a migration, Western America's of explanations technical the write him to enabled English, in degree a as well as geology in minor a included ht apnd hn get civili­ great a when happened what to Note Author's the in writes Pyne topics. other on work Pyne's acterizes char­ that culture and science tween be­ flow tidal as history of treatment of harvest intellectual the of part of most constitute that geology of science the to contributions Gilbert's which University, Stanford at work monograph a and Gilbert Karl Grove phenomenon. Neither was the same same the was Neither phenomenon. natural great a encountered zation as geology American of age heroic the of history intellectual the on re acut f h ams 30 years 300 almost the of account brief with the Canyon, had still to come come to still had Canyon, the with unlike who, tradition, European in steeped explorers nineteenth-century to was Canyon the revelation of afterwards." had forebears their that continents o utrl em wt it. with terms cultural to long so lived had who Hopi the undergraduate His Canyon. Grand discovered. a lrey ignored. largely was encountered, Canyon, The world. the before Arizona now is what fte rn Canyon, Grand the of Research. rn Cno cnrne the confronted Canyon Grand of interior the into exploration of utns on: n nelcul History Intellectual An Point: Dutton's rv al ibr, Get nie of Engine Great A Gilbert, Karl Grove hn mr ta te tey ol f a of soul steely the than more thing yes tde o epoain in explorations of studies Pyne's His monograph explains the kind kind the explains monograph His yes artv bgn wt a with begins narrative Pyne's "The story of the Grand Canyon," Canyon," Grand the of story "The Ti idfeec btae some­ betrayed indifference "This h bo as dsrbs the describes also book The i a tr of story a "is

tions. "Coming three years before before years three "Coming tions. le crunvgtd h goe and globe, the circumnavigated fleet the of writes Pyne conquistador," on tog ebry wo con­ who Newberry, Strong John the the of geography known the synthesized Mercator before years thirty nearly published Copernicus expedi­ Spanish sixteenth-century ee asd o y tutrl catas­ structural by not caused were blazed 1858, in Utah to route better romanticism. the of revelation the for context little had Spanish the projection, lieves, however, that the expedition's expedition's the that be­ however, Pyne lieves, rivers. of action the by is, that erosion, fluvial by but trophes formations wondrous the that cluded the of contribution greatest The yon. subsequent the in followed be would sci­ art, in Pyne, to according trails, a of search in River Colorado the up steamed who Engineers, graphic literary also but stratigraphy and paleontology only not disposal its at had that civilization a by time, and this engaged, be would canyon the before remained years few a Destiny, only Manifest the of part a Once Canyon. Grand the of so­ life ciopolitical the in event significant most the Canyon...." ton's ton's Dut­ Clarence is presence as physical well asits canyon the of idea the ing communicat­ at successful most the it­ Colorado the of canyons the like another succeeding "one followed, Canyon. the naturalist its of that was expedition Can­ Grand the defining at efforts that narratives adventure and ence, aesthetics, cartography, painting, painting, cartography, aesthetics, and comprehensive most the self," rmMrcp Ra, o Pde Ntoa Frs, California. Forest, National Padres Los Road, Maricopa from ibus, i. n hs t s nqe Pn points Pyne unique: is it this In rim. canyon's the along journeys several illustration." and photography, tpe ye nteAtrtc Aoe et fr wrig vrCl Srns Divide Springs Cold over working fire left, Above Antarctic. the in Pyne Stephen "that splendid ensemble of science, science, of ensemble splendid "that the of River Colorado the upon Report West ayn District,Canyon ye ofr te eia Wr as War Mexican the offers Pynes h US Am Crs f Topo­ of Corps Army U.S. The f h rprs f xeiin that expeditions of reports the Of Dutton's narrative is organized by by organized is narrative Dutton's twenty years after Magellan's Magellan's after years twenty er nv orbis nova terra ol iiitd h asmlto of assimilation the initiated only etayHsoy fte Grand the of History Tertiary hc Pn calls Pyne which with his famous famous his with De Revolution- De

oi lso, olwd y cnc de­ scenic by followed lesson, logic geo­ a unfolds journey Each river. rpi faue: als rivers, faults, features: graphic the of vantage the from canyon the approached efforts previous that out lntos ih ecitos f color, of descriptions with ex­ planations these follows then patterns, ing weather­ particular of significance the and recession cliff of mechanics the explains He volcanoes. monoclines, geo­ out points Dutton scription. ye "eeo i cutron, a fugue." literary counterpoint, in "develop Pyne, hc h blee t b a ybl of symbol a be to believes he which writes fact," and impression and science, "Aesthetics impressions. shape, That seemed as though ice burned burned ice though as seemed That that of explanation an in imitate to as the Grand Canyon was to the the to was Canyon Grand the Discovery," as of Age Great "Third a n teepn mgnto and imagination thereupon And rook- and cold the saw I Suddenly Antarctica. Second: aihd . . . . Vanished So wild that every casual thought thought casual every that wild So ht hoiln te hleg t Ant­ to challenge the chronicling that exploration at attempts the realms, Antarctic in experiences of counts logs explorers' literature, of genre hscl tan n pnsmn as punishment and strain physical arctica. This excerpt from Apsley Apsley from excerpt This arctica. de­ literature of body other No in kind: answers continent The saults." "as­ called are continent the of ac­ biographical and journals and rn te lde u. satd away started I up. sledges the bring example: typical a is supplies) transporting for sleds (long sledges their man-hauled companions and two he which during 1910 in ney jour­ a of memoirs Cherry-Garrard's such for capacity human the scribes ely oe ak ni w wr in were we until back come really not did They frost-bitten. ten fingers all with edge Barrier the from of out hands I my and take to F., fool ° a 7 was -4 was temperature The y it t hu o te oe to ropes the on haul to mitts my t s ltrr fr ta Pn plans Pyne that form literary a is It n ht a bcm a ary large fairly a become has what In er wr driven were heart ice, more the but was and heaven delighting f ht n this and that of — William Butler Yeats, Yeats, Butler —William "The Cold Heaven" Heaven" Cold "The 25 the tent for our night meal, and National Science Foundation gave In the interior—so complete a desert for study in the humanities. But within a few hours there were two him the opportunity to study the is Antarctica—precipitation takes the Pyne approaches fire as the histo­ or three large blisters, up to an inch continent first-hand for three months form of "Diamond Dust," fine rians of science approach science. long, on all of them... the matter in­ in 1982. prisms of ice, rather than snow­ "I'm principally interested in Na­ side these big blisters was frozen "It is a world of sensory depriva­ storms. The nature of the nuclei for ture," Pyne says, "but I go at it into ice. To handle the cooking gear tion," Pyne says. "Color and shape the "dust" is still a mystery. What­ with the tools of the humanities." or the food bags was agony.... vanish, as well as a sense of time ever the nucleus of its tiny crystals, Fire in America traces the history of Cherry-Garrard's memoirs are called and space." The appropriate aes­ the massive bulk of the ice is en­ the use and impact of fire in the re­ “The Worst Journey in the World." thetic for the Antarctic, says Pyne, is gaged in a slow spill into the sea. gions of the United States. Pyne Titles of similar works do nothing to that of minimalist painting. Pyne plans to structure his intellec­ places this history in the context of improve the Antarctic reputation: "I felt as though I had visited a tual history of the continent by fol­ the three great waves in which fire "This Accursed Land," "The Unre­ completely alien planet," Pyne says. lowing this ice journey in reverse. came to North America: its natural lenting Ice," "Antarctica: The Worst "And the farther you get from the His book, he says, will "open with a source, lightning; the "Pleistocene Place in the World," "Alone," coast, the more alien it becomes— vision of a gigantic Antarctic berg immigrants" who brought fire across "Voyage Into Danger." Known to more like a landscape on Mars than riding along the circumpolar cur­ the Bering Strait from Asia; and the humans for a mere century and a on Earth." rent." Essays on Antarctica and ex­ immigrants who brought fire from half, Antarctica's image is the per­ The landscape has two dimen­ ploration, Antarctic aesthetics, the Europe. sonification of Nature at her nastiest. sions: flat and white. It is inter­ earth sciences, and the geopolitics of The book describes the role of fire Still "the Ice," as it is called, beck­ rupted rarely by a cone of rock— Antarctica will accompany the jour­ in myths, cults and rituals and traces ons. Its tiny but continuous popula­ actually the tip of a mountain ney from the iceberg to its source certain principles of its use to native tion of scientists attests to its impor­ rearing out of the magnitude of the and will relate the history of the hu­ American techniques of hunting and tance to knowledge of the earth. ice cap, which covers all but several man encounter with the continent. to thirteenth-century land-clearing Especially since 1957-58, the Interna­ hundred feet of the mountain's "Penetrating to the interior," Pyne practices known as the "Great Recla­ tional Geophysical Year, when 9,000-foot altitude. says, "is a ruthless process of reduc­ mation, a heroic assault on the twelve nations cooperated to con­ "There's a kind of gallows humor tion, with color, form, stimulants woodlands of interior Europe in struct thirty-eight stations for scien­ about the appearance of the land and information of all sorts, every­ which forest, swamp, and estuary tific observations, Antarctica has close to the Pole," says Pyne. "One thing replaced by ice." were converted to arable land." been the site of important studies in of the standing jokes is that the ski­ Some say the world will end in fire. "Fire is a cultural phenomenon," seismology, glaciology, oceanog­ ing there is great: there's two inches Some say in ice. Pyne writes. "It is among man's raphy, meteorology, solar activity, of powder and 9,000 feet of base." From what I've tasted of desire oldest tools, the first product of the and any number of scientific fields. During his time on the ice, Pyne I hold with those who favor fire. natural world he learned to How to reconcile the paradoxical thought often about a scene from But if it had to perish twice, domesticate." images of perilous wasteland and E.M. Forster's Passage to India in I think I know enough of hate After he finishes his work on Ant­ productive laboratory into one his­ which Forster describes the kind of To say that for destruction ice arctica, Pyne plans to begin a global tory of a civilization that has been reduction to simplest forms that Is also great study of fire. "The capture of fire is And would suffice. controlled by the politics of scientific Pyne experienced in Antarctica: one of the great themes of global inquiry is the problem now before —Robert Frost, "Fire and Ice" The echo in Marabar Cave is... en­ history," he says. "It is part of our Stephen Pyne. tirely devoid of distinction. Whatever Pyne laughs at the observation that heritage as a species." Pyne first thought of going to the is said, the same monotonous voice his cultural histories reflect poetic ex­ When he was on the Ice, Pyne Ice while he was working on a cul­ replies, and quivers up and down tremes. In his book Fire in America, helped a Chinese astrophysicist from tural history of fire. A colleague rec­ the walls until it is absorbed into the A Cultural History of Wildland and Taiwan, a Japanese meteorologist, ommended to him a book about the roof. "Boum " is the sound as far as Rural Fire, Pyne writes, "Many a and an American scientist with an 1914 Endurance expedition of Antarc­ the human alphabet can express it... historian could have researched this experiment that would provide infor­ tic explorer Ernest Shackleton. utterly dull. Hope, politeness, the subject, but probably only a fire­ mation about the upper wind over (Shackleton's ship the Endurance was blowing of a nose, the squeak of a fighter would have thought of the the Antarctic continent. The four crushed by the ice in an Antarctic boot, all produce "boum ." project at all." men ran back and forth over the sea. His crew camped on an ice floe No matter what thought one flings Pyne, a firefighter before he was a polar plain trying to tease a special for five months, then crossed in a at the Antarctic landscape, the reply, historian, thought of the project in red kite high enough in that frigid twenty-foot boat 800 miles of stormy, like that at Marabar Cave, is always the way that he thinks of his work air to be lifted by the wind. After treacherous ocean in what is the the same, Pyne explains. "It all on the Antarctic. "I'm interested in reading Pyne's work, one has a vi­ most extraordinary sea adventure in comes back white ice." the way people study and under­ sion of these four, lumbering in the history of the Antarctic.) Pyne's The ice, 90 percent of all that there stand great nautral phenomena; in heavy, awkward clothes to get the fascination with exploration and dis­ is of it in the world, is Antarctica. It the way humans encounter nature in wind to take the kite. After several covery, his experience as a historian, covers the entire continent, cement­ its most elemental, dramatic forms." moments, one man steps back to and his knowledge of geology in­ ing the archipelago of West Antarc­ Pyne recalls conversations at the watch the other three and to con­ spired the plan for an intellectual tica with the land mass of the East. National Humanities Center, where template the red streamer against the history of Antarctica. An NEH fel­ In its milky whiteness is the mys­ he worked on the cultural history of vast white wilderness. lowship and travel support from the tery, power, and ferocity of nature. fire, that questioned fire as a subject —Linda Blanken

The Canyon as gorge: William Holmes, View from Toroweap. In this most widely admired single piece of Canyon art, Holmes achieves an almost perfect balance between the vertical, the depth of the gorge, and the horizontal, the reced­ ing cliffs. — From the Atlas, Tertiary History 1984 NEH FELLOWSHIP AWARDS

Diane Jacobs, New York, New York SUMMER STIPENDS SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SECONDARY Lewis H. Lockwood, Harvard University, Cam­ SCHOOL TEACHERS bridge, Massachusetts Peter A. Bloom, Smith College, Northampton, William Morgan, University of Louisville, Massachusetts John V. Fleming, Princeton University, New Kentucky Jean-Paul Bourdier, University of California, Jersey, The Classical Heritage of Medieval European Leeman L. Perkins, Columbia University, New Berkeley Literature (Seminar location: The Bread Loaf FELLOWSHIPS FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY York Michael E. Broyles, University of Maryland, School of Middlebury College, Vermont) AND RESEARCH Harold S. Powers, Princeton University, New Catonsville G. Karl Galinsky, The University of Texas, Jersey Caroline A. Bruzelius, Duke University, Austin, The Iliad, the Odyssey, and the Aeneid Albert J. Ammerman, SUNY at Binghamton, Christopher A. 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Siska, University of Utah, Salt Lake Roger S. Bagnall, Columbia University, New Hanover, New Hampshire) Chicago Circle, Chicago, Illinois City York John F. Szwed, Yale University, New Haven, Ellen C. Schwartz, Eastern Michigan University, Robert T. Soppelsa, Washburn University of Edna G. Bay, Emory University, Atlanta, Connecticut, A Folkloristic and Anthropological Ypsilanti, Michigan Topeka, Kansas Georgia View of Afro-American Culture Judith Wolin, Rhode Island School of Design, R. Anderson Sutton, University of Wisconsin, Brigitte M. Bedos Rezak, Stony Brook, New Providence Madison York SUMMER STIPENDS Richard J. Tuttle, Tulane University, New Thomas A. Brady, Jr., University of Oregon, FACULTY GRADUATE STUDY PROGRAM Orleans, Louisiana Eugene Joseph W. Bastien, University of Texas, John W. Williams, University of Pittsburgh, Edmund Burke III, University of California, Arlington Tritobia H. Benjamin, Howard University, Pennsylvania Santa Cruz Debbora F. 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Reefe, University of North Carolina, Elizabeth Rauh Bethel, Lander College, Green­ Bayside Maryland Chapel Hill wood, South Carolina, Frederick Douglass: Black David Evett, Cleveland State University, Ohio Leslie Derfler, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Jam es C. Riley, Indiana University, Autobiography and the Quest for Identity (Seminar Ellen G. Gartrell, Duke University, Durham, Raton Bloomington location: Rhode Island Black Heritage Society, North Carolina Katherine P. Dyer, Wellesley College, James M. Robinson, Claremont Graduate Providence, Rhode Island) Elizabeth H. Hageman, University of New Massachusetts School, California Betty Fladeland, Southern Illinois University, Hampshire, Durham Daniel K. Gardner, Smith College, North­ Hilton L. Root, California Institute of Carbondale, Douglass, Fitzhugh, Stowe: Slavery Dennis B. Klein, New York University, Forest ampton, Massachusetts Technology, Pasadena and Antislavery in America Hills Edwin A. 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Meyerowitz, Claremont McKenna Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Firuz Kazemzadeh, Yale University, New Charlottesville College, California Jersey, Michael Walzer Haven, Connecticut, The Russian Empire in the Numan V. Bartley, University of Georgia, Brian C. Mitchell, Anna Maria College, Paxton, Institute of Early American History and 19th and 20th Centuries Athens Massachusetts Culture, Williamsburg, Virginia, Thad W. Tate William Monter, Northwestern University, Eileen C. Boris, University of Maryland, Col­ David E. Narrett, Princeton University, New National Humanities Center, Research Triangle Evanston, Illinois, Women in Early Modem Europe lege Park Jersey Park, North Carolina, Charles Blitzer Karen Offen and Susan Groag Bell, Stanford Richard D. Brown, University of Connecticut, Donald J. Pisani, Texas A & M State Univer­ Newberry Library, Chicago, Illinois, Richard H. University, California, The Woman Question as a Storrs sity, College Station Brown Central Theme in Westem Thought: 1750-1950 John P. Demos, Brandeis University, Waltham, Leo P. Ribuffo, George Washington University, School of American Research, Santa Fe, New J.G.A. Pocock, Johns Hopkins University, Massachusetts Washington, D.C. Mexico, Douglas W. Schwartz Baltimore, Maryland, Writing and Understanding Carl V. Harris, University of California, Santa Sharon V. Salinger, University of California, History in Britain and America 1688-1789 Barbara Riverside Frank M. Turner, Yale University, New Haven, James H. Jones, University of Houston, Central Charles B. Strozier, Sangamon State University, Connecticut, Ideas and Society in Victorian Britain Campus, Texas Springfield, Illinois Robin W. Winks, Yale University, New Haven, Thomas G. Paterson, University of Connecticut, Nancy B. Tucker, Colgate University, Hamilton, Connecticut, The Problem of Imperialism in Com­ Storrs New York parative Perspective: Britain and the United States Laurel T. Ulrich, University of New Hampshire, George E. Walker, George Mason University, SUMMER STIPENDS Durham Fairfax, Virginia SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SECONDARY Hendrik Hartog, University of Wisconsin, SCHOOL TEACHERS FELLOWSHIPS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS Madison Bruce H. Mann, Washington University, St. Alvin H. Bernstein, Naval War College, William K. Breitenbach, University of Puget Louis, Missouri Newport, Rhode Island, Machiavelli, Clausewitz, Sound, Tacoma, Washington Ronald M. Peterson, California State Mahan: Masterpieces of Strategic Thought Albert S. Broussard, Southern Methodist Polytechnic University, Pomona William R. Cook, SUNY, College at Geneseo, University, Dallas, Texas Nancy K. Rhoden, Ohio State University, New York, Thucydides, Plutarch, Bede: Three Ap­ Richard N. Chapman, Wells College, Aurora, FELLOWSHIPS FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY Columbus proaches to History New York AND RESEARCH Peter D. Suber, Earlham College, Richmond, Richard N. Frye and Eden Naby, Harvard Richard W. Fox, Reed College, Portland, Indiana University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Firdosi's Oregon Arthur Lubow, People Magazine, New York Mary M. Wenig, University of Bridgeport, Iranian Book of Kings: Myth, History, and Cultural Laurel T. Ulrich, University of New Hampshire, Connecticut Identity Durham FELLOWSHIPS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS Jane H. Hunter, Colby College, Waterville, SUMMER STIPENDS Maine John F. Sears, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, Robert P. Ingalls, New College of the Univer­ New York Dilip K. Basu, University of California, Santa sity of South Florida, Tampa SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE Cruz Theodore Kornweibel, Jr., San Diego State TEACHERS Karl S. Bottigheimer, SUNY at Stony Brook, University, California FELLOWSHIPS FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY New York Kathleen S. Kutolowski, SUNY College at Lois Banner, University of Southern California, AND RESEARCH William M. Bowsky, University of California, Brockport, New York Los Angeles, Popular Culture and Gender in the Davis Donald J. Lisio, Coe College, Cedar Rapids, United States from 1860 to 1960 (Seminar location: Calvert Watkins, Harvard University, Cam­ Jonathan C. Brown, University of Texas, Austin Iowa George Washington University, Washington, bridge, Massachusetts Stewart J. Brown, University of Georgia, Athens Raymond A. Mohl, Florida Atlantic University, D.C.) Anne O. Yue-Hashimoto, University of Reed S. Browning, Kenyon College, Gambier, Boca Raton Hubert L. Dreyfus, and Stuart E. Dreyfus, Washington, Seattle Ohio Neal E. Salisbury, Smith College, North­ University of California, Berkeley, The Place of Gary S. Cross, Pennsylvania State University, ampton, Massachusetts Computers in Our Culture FELLOWSHIPS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS University Park, Pennsylvania Altina L. Waller, Southwestern University at Roger B. Henkle and L. Perry Curtis, Brown Carmela V. Franklin, Saint John's University, Memphis, Tennessee University, Providence, Rhode Island, Culture Janet G. Catlin, Oscar Rose Junior College, Collegeville and Society in England, 1840-1918: An Inter­ Midwest City, Oklahoma David B. Gaspar, Duke University, Durham, FACULTY GRADUATE STUDY PROGRAM disciplinary Approach Richard J. Ring, Adirondack Community Col­ North Carolina Martin J. Klein, Yale University, New Haven, lege, Glen Falls, New York Cornelis W.R. Gispen, University of Missis­ Polly A. Owen, LeMoyne-Owen College, Connecticut, Physicists in Historical Context William F. Woods, Wichita State University, sippi, University Park Memphis, Tennessee Richard A. Long, Atlanta University, Georgia, Kansas Donna J. Guy, University of Arizona, Tucson Africa to America: Diaspora, Continuum, Christopher H. Johnson, Wayne State Univer­ SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE Creolization* FACULTY GRADUATE STUDY PROGRAM sity, Detroit, Michigan TEACHERS Everett Mendelsohn, Harvard University, Cam­ Linda L. Johnson, Concordia College, bridge, Massachusetts, The Social History of Yakini B. Kemp, Clark College, Atlanta, Moorhead, Minnesota Richard M. Abrams, University of California, Modem Science Georgia Norman L. Jones, Utah State University, Logan, Berkeley, Business in the History of American Lillie Miller-Jackson, Shelby State College, Utah Society SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SECONDARY Memphis, Tennessee Thomas K. Keefe, Appalachian State Univer­ Robert A. Divine, University of Texas, Austin, SCHOOL TEACHERS Barbara Whitehead, Hampton Institute, Virginia sity, Boone, North Carolina The American Presidency from FDR to Nixon Edward B. King, University of the South, Ellis Hawley and Lawrence Gelfand, Univer­ Robert R. Benedetti and James G. Moseley, SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE Sewanee, Tennessee sity of Iowa, Iowa City, Planners and Politicians New College of University of South Florida, TEACHERS Margaret L. King, CUNY Brooklyn College, in Wartime and Inter-War America: 1917-1945 Sarasota, Winthrop, Jefferson, and the Supreme New York Walter Nugent, Indiana University, Bloom­ Court: Religion and Politics in America Joshua A. Fishman, Yeshiva University, Bronx, Susan L. Mann, University of California, Santa ington, The Frontier and Environment in America William F. May, Georgetown University, New York, Language Maintenance and Language Cruz Jack N. Rakove, Stanford University, Califor­ Washington, D.C., The Humanities and the Civic Shift Among American Ethno-Linguistic Minorities Raymond A. Mentzer, Jr., Montana State Self: Selected Texts (Seminar location: Stanford University, University, Bozeman California)

’ Denotes a seminar held at a historically black 28 college or university. James J. Murphy, University of California at Allan R. Chavkin, Southwest Texas State Context, Theory Whitman, Yeats: Lyric Poetry Davis, Ciceronian Rhetoric and Its Influence on University, San Marcos Donald R. Howard, Stanford University, Albert Wertheim, Indiana University, Bloom­ Modern Writing Sarah H. Collins, Rochester Institute of California, Late Medieval Fictions: Boccaccio and ington, Contemporary Literature of Africa, the West Michael Shapiro, Princeton University, New Technology, New York Chaucer Indies, and the Pacific Jersey, Semiotic Perspectives on Linguistics and Christina Crosby, Wesleyan University, Mid­ Gabriele Bernhard Jackson, Temple University, Laurence Wylie, Harvard University, Cam­ Verbal Art dletown, Connecticut Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, History and Fiction: bridge, Massachusetts, Nineteenth-Century French John P. Warnock, University of Wyoming, Terence E. Diggory, Skidmore College, Saratoga The Examples of Shakespeare Classics in the Films of Jean Renoir Laramie, The Writing Process: A Humanistic View Springs, New York Ulrich C. Knoepflmacher, Princeton University, Catherine Zuckert and Michael Zuckert, Scott Donaldson, College of William and Mary, New Jersey, The Emergence of Children's Carleton College, Northfield, Minnesota, Cooper, SUMMER STIPENDS Williamsburg, Virginia Literature: 1840-1920 Twain, Faulkner, Heller: Return to Nature in Grace E. Eckley, Drake University, Des Moines, Luis Leal, University of California, Santa American Literature James M. Haney, The University of Wisconsin, Iowa Barbara, Chicano Literature and Cultural Identity Stevens Point Jay F. Fellows, CUNY Lehman College, Bronx, Francois Rigolot, Princeton University, New SUMMER STIPENDS John A. Holm , CUNY Hunter College, New New York Jersey, Modem Critical Theory and French Narrative York James F. Gaines, Southeastern Louisiana Elias L. Rivers, SUNY at Stony Brook, New John L. Abbott, University of Connecticut, Wesley M. Jacobsen, University of Minnesota, University, Hammond York, Hispanic Drama: Social Contracts and Speech Storrs St. Paul Maureen Goldman, Bentley College, Waltham, Acts Flavia Alaya, Ramapo College of New Jersey, Olga B. Nedeljkovic, University of Illinois, Massachusetts Lynn Veach Sadler, Bennett College, Mahwah Chicago Circle, Illinois Rita K. Gollin, SUNY College at Geneseo, New Greensboro, North Carolina, The Novel of Slave Stephen C. Behrendt, University of Nebraska, Herbert C. Purnell, William Carey College, York Unrest* Lincoln Pasadena, California Charlotte Goodman, Skidmore College, Murray M. Schwartz, and David Willbern, Paul F. Betz, Georgetown University, Claudia N. Ross, Purdue University, West Saratoga Springs, New York University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Washington, D.C. Lafayette, Indiana Eamon Grennan, Vassar College, Poughkeep­ Psychoanalysis, Contemporary Criticism, and Lynne Marie Z. Bloom, Virginia Common­ Martha T. Roth, University of Chicago, Illinois sie, New York Shakespeare wealth University, Richmond W. Stuart Towns, University of West Florida, Joan U. Halperin, St. Mary's College of Califor­ Daniel R. Schwarz, Cornell University, Ithaca, Terry J. Castle, Stanford University, California Pensacola nia, Moraga New York, Critical Perspectives on the Early Suzanne Clark, Dickinson State College, North Thomas J. Walsh, Georgetown University, Jeffery A. Hammond, George Mason Univer­ Twentieth-Century British Novel Dakota Washington, D.C. sity, Fairfax, Virginia Elaine C. Showalter, Rutgers University, New Peter Conn, University of Pennsylvania, Vivian L. Hsu, Oberlin College, Ohio Brunswick, New Jersey, Women's Writing and Philadelphia Andreas A. Huyssen, University of Wisconsin, Women's Culture Luis Cortest, Oklahoma State University, Milwaukee Howard Stein, Columbia University, New York, Stillwater Veronica A. Makowsky, Middlebury College, The American Playwright, 1920-1980 Mechthild N. Cranston, Clemson University, Vermont Wendy Steiner, University of Pennsylvania, South Carolina Steven W. May, Georgetown College, Kentucky Philadelphia, Literature and Painting Larry S. Crist, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, FELLOWSHIPS FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY George P. McCartney, St. John's University, John M. Wallace, University of Chicago, Illinois, Tennessee AND RESEARCH Jamaica; New York Literature and Politics in Seventeenth-Century Mary C. Davlin, Rosary College, River Forest, Michael V. Oriard, Oregon State University, England Illinois Theordore M. Andersson, Stanford University, Corvallis Jerry W. Ward, Tougaloo College, Mississippi, Helen R. Deese, Tennessee Technological California Richard Pearce, Wheaton College, Norton, Black South: Opening the Text* University, Cookeville Avis A. Berman, New York, New York Massachusetts Lee H. Dowling University of Houston, Texas Herbert Blau, University of Wisconsin, H. Daniel Peck, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SECONDARY Edelgard E. DuBruck, Marygrove College, Milwaukee New York SCHOOL TEACHERS Detroit, Michigan Peter W. Blayney, University of Chicago, Illinois Jason P. Rosenblatt, Georgetown University, Laurie Edson, Harvard University, Cambridge, William C. Calin, University of Oregon, Eugene Washington, D.C. Philip R. Berk, University of Rochester, New Massachusetts Alice M. Colby-Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, Jennie Skerl, Skidmore College, Saratoga York, Moliere: Comedy as Pedagogy Lee Erickson, Marshall University, Huntington, New York Springs, New York Albert Bermel, CUNY LehmairCollege, Bronx, West Virginia Amy D. Colin, University of Washington, Bernard S. Solomon, CUNY Queens College, New York, Ibsen, Strindberg, Chekhov, and Shaw Tamara S. Evans, CUNY Queens College, Seattle Flushing, New York as Contemporary Playwrights Flushing, New York Anne D. Ferry, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Lester A. Standiford, University of Texas, El Lawrence Buell, Oberlin College, Ohio, Salvador J. Fajardo, Illinois Wesleyan Univer­ Massachusetts Paso Hawthorne, Stowe, Thoreau, Dickinson: Romantic sity, Bloomington Edward B. Fowler, Duke University, Durham, William A. Stephany, University of Vermont, Imagination in New England Catherine Lynnann Fey, Washington Univer­ North Carolina Burlington Michael B. Cooke, Yale University, New sity, St. Louis, Missouri Michael P. Gillespie, Marquette University, Robert K. Wallace, Northern Kentucky Univer­ Haven, Connecticut, Conrad, Ellison, Garcia Leslie Field, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Milwaukee, Wisconsin sity, Highland Heights Marquez: Estrangement and Self-Fulfillment Indiana Richard E. Goodkin, Yale University, New Donald Weber, Mount Holyoke College, South Carol T. Christ, University of California, Richard Finkelstein, SUNY College at Geneseo, Haven, Connecticut Hadley, Massachusetts Berkeley, The Brontes, Eliot, Dickens, Hardy: Five New York Robert E. Kaske, Cornell University, Ithaca, Victoria L. Weiss, Oglethorpe University, Victorian Novels Noel R. Fitch, Point Loma College, San Diego, New York Atlanta, Georgia Huston Diehl, University of Oklahoma, California James R. Lawler, University of Chicago, Illinois Lenora D. Wolfgang, Lehigh University, Norman, Milton's Paradise Lost (Seminar loca­ Alvin E. Ford, California State University, John T. Matthews, Boston University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania tion: Colorado College, Colorado Springs) Northridge Massachusetts Edwin Folsom, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Ralph W. Freedman, Princeton University, New Katherine E. Maus, Princeton University, New FACULTY GRADUATE STUDY PROGRAM Whitman’s Leaves of Grass: Interplay Between Poem, Jersey Jersey Poet, and Place M. Patricia Fumerton, University of Wisconsin, Georges C. May, Yale University, New Haven, Estelle F. Archibold, Spelman College, Atlanta, David William Foster, Arizona State University, Madison Connecticut Georgia Tempe, Vasconcelos, Paz, Rulfo, Fuentes, Edward M. Gunn, Jr., Cornell University, Julie S. Meisami, University of California, Filisha C. Camara, Howard University, Poniatowska: Twentieth-Century Mexican Literature Ithaca, New York Berkeley Washington, D.C. Sol Gittleman, Tufts University, Medford, Madelyn Gutwirth, West Chester State College, Geraldine C. Nichols, University of Florida, Hardy M. Cook, Bowie State College, Maryland Massachusetts, Hesse, Mann, Grass: Three Pennsylvania Gainesville Manorma Pandit, Alabama State University, German Texts and the Road to Hitler Judith M. Harris, University of Illinois, Urbana James A. Parente, Jr., Princeton University, Montgomery Alan Grob, Rice University, Houston, Texas, John T. Harwood, Pennsylvania State Univer­ New Jersey Valerie F. Sedlak, Morgan State University, Wordsworth and Keats: Versions of Romanticism sity, University Park Thomas F. Parkinson, University of California, Baltimore, Maryland Michael L. Hall, Centenary College of Kathleen A. Hauke, Community College of Berkeley Wei-hsiung K. Wu, Bowie State College, Louisiana, Shreveport, Montaigne, Bacon, Donne: Rhode Island, Lincoln Lee W. Patterson, Johns Hopkins University, Maryland Emergence of the Essay and the Idea of Discovery Carolyn A. Holdsworth, University of New Baltimore, Maryland Walter Harding, SUNY, College at Geneseo, Orleans, Louisiana Mary G. Randel, Cornell University, Ithaca, SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE New York, Thoreau, Emerson, Hawthorne: The Jean E. Howard, Syracuse University, New York New York TEACHERS Concord Authors (Seminar location: Concord, Theodore D. Huters, University of Minnesota, Stella P. Revard, Southern Illinois University, Massachusetts) St. Paul Edwardsville Edward J. Ahearn, Brown University, Peter Heller, SUNY at Buffalo, New York, Reginald L. Hyatte, Ripon College, Wisconsin Thomas P. Riggio, University of Connecticut, Providence, Rhode Island, Literature, Histon/, and Goethe, Nietzsche, Mann, Kafka, Brecht: The Quest Marcia A. Jacobson, Auburn University, Storrs Ideology in the Nineteenth Century for Greatness Alabama J.E. Rivers, University of Colorado, Boulder Jules Brody, Harvard University, Cambridge, Robert S. Knapp, Reed College, Portland, Harry Keyishian, Fairleigh Dickinson Univer­ Georgina M. Sabat-Rivers, SUNY at Stony Massachusetts, French Classical Literature: A Oregon, Shakespeare: The Question of Genre sity, Rutherford, New Jersey Brook Main Campus, New York Textual Approach Walter G. Langlois, University of Wyoming, George P. Landow, Brown University, James J. Sherry, Princeton, New Jersey Victor H. Brombert, Princeton University, New Laramie, Gide, Malraux, Sartre, Camus: Ethical Providence, Rhode Island David H. Watters, University of New Hamp­ Jersey, The Modern Anti-Hero Dimensions of the Modern French Novel Susan S. Lanser, Georgetown University, shire, Durham David F. Dorsey, Jr., Atlanta University, Michael Lund, Longwood College, Farmville, Washington, D.C. George T. Wright, University of Minnesota, Georgia, Approaches to African Fiction Virginia, Dickens, Eliot, James: Great Serial Novels Susan M. Levin, Stevens Institute of Minneapolis Morris Eaves, and Michael Fischer, University Russell A. Peck, University of Rochester, New Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey Richard A. Yarborough, University of Califor­ of New Mexico, Albuquerque, Literary Theory York, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales Joseph D. Litvak, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, nia, Los Angeles and the Romantic Self Enrique Pupo-Walker, Vanderbilt University, Maine Donald L. Fanger, Harvard University, Cam­ Nashville, Tennessee, The Spanish American Short Jonathan Loesberg, American University, FELLOWSHIPS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS bridge, Massachusetts, The Russian Novel: Story in the Twentieth Century Washington, D.C. Poetics, Tradition, European Connections Ronald A. Sharp, Kenyon College, Gambier, Victor H. Mair, University of Pennsylvania, Warren Bargad, Spertus College of Judaica, Frances Ferguson, University of California, Ohio, Aristotle to Heilman: The Literature of Philadelphia Chicago, Illinois Berkeley, The Aesthetics and Politics of the Sublime Friendship Robert S. Miola, Loyola College, Baltimore, Alegria Bendelac, Pennsylvania State Univer­ Joan M. Ferrante, Columbia University, New Frank R. Silbajoris, Ohio State University, Maryland sity, Schuylkill Campus, Schuylkill Haven York, New York, Women in Medieval Life and Columbus, Tolstoy's War and Peace: The Novel as Mark R. Patterson, University of Washington, Gail A. Berkeley, Reed College, Portland, Literature Total Experience Seattle Oregon George Ford, University of Rochester, New John Sitter, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, Richard S. Peterson, University of Connecticut, Harvey Birenbaum, San Jose State University, York, Dickens and His Development as a Writer Swift and Twain: Ironists in Context Storrs San Jose, California Sander L. Gilman, Cornell University, Ithaca, Katherine M. Solon, and Paul D. Solon, Nancy F. Regalado, New York University, New Robert T. Bledsoe, University of Texas, El Paso New York, The 1890s in Germany and Austria Macalester College, St. Paul, Minnesota, York City Thomas F. Boyle, CUNY Brooklyn College, Alfred Glauser, University of Wisconsin, Shakespeare, Cooper, Stendhal, Renoir, Orwell: Darlene J. Sadlier, Indiana University, New York Madison, French Poetry and Poetics Artistic Imagination and Historical Understanding Bloomington William C. Bryant, Oakland University, Ihab Hassan, University of Wisconsin, Helen H. Vendler, Harvard University, Cam­ John A. Sekora, North Carolina Central Univer­ Rochester, Michigan Milwaukee, The Question of Postmodernism: Text, bridge, Massachusetts, Shakespeare, Keats, sity, Durham

’ Denotes a seminar held at a historically black college or university. 29 Steven Shankman, Princeton University, New Michael D. Resnik, University of North Gordon E. Michaelson, Jr., Oberlin College, SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SECONDARY Jersey Carolina, Chapel Hill, Frege and the Philosophy Ohio SCHOOL TEACHERS George A. Shipley, University of Washington, of Mathematics Michael Mooney, Columbia University, New Seattle York, New York George Friedman, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Willard L. Spiegelman, Southern Methodist SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SECONDARY John Pemberton III, Amherst College, Pennsylvania, Karl Marx: Political and Social University, Dallas, Texas SCHOOL TEACHERS Massachusetts Thought Richard L. Stein, University of Oregon, Eugene Stephen G. Post, Mercy College of Detroit, David C. Jones, St. John's College, Sant Fe, Peter A. Stitt, University of Houston, Texas Eugene Garver, California State College, San Michigan New Mexico, Aristotle and Hobbes: Foundation of Brian J. Striar, Marquette University, Bernardino, Aristotle and Burke: Rhetoric, Com­ Paula S. Richman, Colby College, Waterville, the State Milwaukee, Wisconsin munication, Freedom Maine Irving L. Markovitz, CUNY Queens College, Beverly W. Taylor, University of North Thomas V. Morris, University of Notre Dame, Stephen H. Snyder, Linfield College, McMinn­ Flushing, New York, Great Issues of African Carolina, Chapel Hill Indiana, Pascal's Pensees: Faith, Reason, and the ville, Oregon Political Philosophy and Literature Meaning of Life William J. Wainwright, University of Wiscon­ W. Carey McWilliams, Rutgers University, New sin, Milwaukee Brunswick, New Jersey, Federalists and SUMMER STIPENDS Peter W. Williams, Miami University, Oxford, Anti-Federalists Ohio Robert V. Remini, University of Illinois, Scott W. Austin, Boston University, Chicago, Locke, Madison, Hamilton, Tocqueville: Massachusetts Evolution of Democracy Douglas H. Ehring, Southern Methodist Univer­ FELLOWSHIPS FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY sity, Dallas, Texas SUMMER STIPENDS AND RESEARCH Charles L. Griswold, Jr., Howard University, Washington, D.C. Regis A. Factor, New College of the University Robert N. Audi, University of Nebraska, Penelope J. Maddy, University of Illinois, FELLOWSHIPS FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY of South Florida, St. Petersburg Lincoln Chicago Circle AND RESEARCH Betty G. Farrell, Emmanuel College, Boston, Jonathan F. Bennett, Syracuse University, New Kurt J. Pritzl, Catholic University of America, Massachusetts York Washington, D.C. Wayne H. Ambler, University of Dallas, Irving, Leonard M. Fleck, Indiana University at South David Blinder, Yale University, New Haven, Texas Bend, Bloomington, Indiana Connecticut Margaret L. Anderson, University of Delaware, Myron Glazer, Smith College, Northampton, Gerald D. Doppelt, University of California, Newark Massachusetts San Diego, La Jolla Joseph R. Gusfield, University of California, Gregory J. Kasza, Whitman College, Walla Richard H. Kennington, Catholic University of San Diego, La Jolla Walla, Washington America, Washington, D.C. Stephen T. Holmes, Harvard University, Cam­ Peter J. Kivisto, Augustana College, Rock Jaegwon Kim, University of Michigan, Ann FELLOWSHIPS FOR INDEPENDENT STUDY bridge, Massachusetts Island, Illinois Arbor AND RESEARCH Judith T. Marcus, New School of Social George Kranzler, Towson State University, Jonathan D. Lear, University of Cambridge, Research, New York Maryland England Shelley O. Baranowski, Gahanna, Ohio Mary P. Nichols, Catholic University of Robert D. Loevy, Colorado College, Colorado Richard W. Miller, Cornell University, Ithaca, Robin A. Darling, Wesley Theological America, Washington, D.C. Springs New York Seminary, Washington, D.C. Michael G. Schatzberg, Johns Hopkins Univer­ Benjamin Marquez, San Jose State University, Thomas Nagel, New York University, New Beulah S. Hostetler, Willow Grove, sity, Washington, D.C. California York Pennsylvania Hanes Walton, Jr., Savannah State College, Peter F. Meiksins, SUNY College at Geneseo, Robert B. Pippin, University of California, La George W.E. Nickelsburg, University of Iowa, Georgia New York Jolla Iowa City Jerry W. Weinberger, Michigan State Univer­ Sidney M. Milkis, De Pauw University, Green- Edward S. Reed, Brooklyn, New York Alan F. Segal, Barnard College, New York sity, East Lansing castle, Indiana Nancy Sherman, Yale University, New Haven, Claude Welch, Graduate Theological Union, Brent H. Mundy, University of Oklahoma, Connecticut Berkeley FELLOWSHIPS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS Norman Robin A. Smith, Kansas State University, Lee H. Yearley, Stanford University, California Paul C. Peterson, University of South Carolina Manhattan Franklin H. Adler, Antioch University, Yellow at Coastal Carolina, Conway, South Carolina FELLOWSHIPS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS Frederic T. Sommers, Brandeis U., Waltham, Springs, Ohio Jonathan A. Pressler, Carnegie-Mellon Univer­ Massachusetts Sandra R. Baum, Wellesley College, sity, Pittsburgh Frank Burch Brown, Virginia Polytechnic In­ John F. Wippel, Catholic University of America, Massachusetts Hudson G. Reynolds, Saint Leo College, Florida stitute and State University, Blacksburg Washington, D.C. Mary L. Bellhouse, Providence College, Rhode Gaston Rimlinger, Rice College, Houston, Texas Dennis C. Duling, Canisius College, Buffalo, Paul B. Woodruff, University of Texas, Austin Island Martin J. Schultz, Pennsylvania State Univer­ New York Stephan F. Brumberg, CUNY Brooklyn College, sity, Shenango Valley Campus, University Park John P. Kenney, Reed College, Portland, FELLOWSHIPS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS New York Gary D. Shank, Saint Meinrad College, Indiana Oregon J. Patrick Dobel, University of Michigan, Louise I. Shelley, American University, Thomas W. Mann, Converse College, Spartans- Edward W. Averill, Texas Tech University, Dearborn Washington, D.C. burg, South Carolina Lubbock George W. Dowdall, St. Joseph's University, Albert D. Van DeVeer, North Carolina State Ralph Melnick, College of Charleston, South Annette Barnes, University of Maryland, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania University, Raleigh Carolina Baltimore County, Catonsville, Maryland Eldon J. Eisenach, University of Arkansas, Little David J. Walsh, University of South Carolina Mac Linscott Ricketts, Louisburg College, North George P. Bealer, Reed College, Portland, Rock at Sumter, Columbia, South Carolina Carolina Oregon Joseph E. Goldberg, Hampden-Sydney College, Alan S. Waterman, Trenton State College, New Mary T. Clark, Manhattanville College, Pur­ Virginia Jersey FACULTY GRADUATE STUDY PROGRAM chase, New York John M. Grady, Wheaton College, Norton, John A. Wettergreen, San Jose State University, Michael S. Davis, Illinois State University, Massachusetts California Mary Ann C. Stachow, Xavier University of Normal Jeffrey A. Hailey, SUNY College at Purchase, Bradford P. Wilson, California State College, Louisiana, New Orleans Roger F. Gibson, Jr., Western Illinois Univer­ New York San Bernardino sity, Macomb Eric O. Hanson, University of Santa Clara, San Richard W. Wunderlich, College of St. Rose, SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE John J. Glanville, San Francisco State Univer­ Jose, California Albany, New York TEACHERS sity, California Gail A. Hornstein, Mount Holyoke College, Hilary Kornblith, University of Vermont, South Hadley, Massachusetts Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Harvard University, Burlington Christopher J. Kelly, University of Maryland, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Scripture: Its Nature Barbara B. Levenbook, North Carolina State Baltimore County, Catonsville, Maryland and Evolving Role University, Raleigh Richard W. Krouse, Williams College, John Van Seters, University of North Carolina, Loren E. Lomasky, University of Minnesota, Williamstown, Massachusetts Chapel Hill, History Writing in Ancient Greece, the Duluth Ronald L. Lawson, CUNY Queens College, CONSTITUTIONAL FELLOWSHIPS Near East, and Israel: A Comparative Study J. Christopher Maloney, Oakland University, Flushing, New York Rochester, Minnesota Harry G. Levine, CUNY Queens College, Sotirios A. Barber, New College of the Univer­ SUMMER SEMINARS FOR SECONDARY Mark B. Okrent, Bates College, Lewiston, Flushing, New York sity of South Florida, Tampa SCHOOL TEACHERS Maine Susan A. Ostrander, Tufts University, Medford, Harvey M. Flaumenhaft, St. John's College, Joy H. Roberts, East Carolina University, Green­ Walter H. Capps,University of California, Santa Massachusetts Main Campus, Annapolis, Maryland ville, North Carolina Barbara, Tocqueville's Democracy in America: Peter J. Steinberger, Reed College, Portland, Robert S. Hill, Marietta College, Ohio Religion in a Democratic Society Oregon Michael G. Kammen, Cornell University, FACULTY GRADUATE STUDY PROGRAM William E. Carroll, Cornell College, Mt. FACULTY GRADUATE STUDY PROGRAM Ithaca, New York Vernon, Iowa, Aquinas and Galileo: Religion and David B. Lyons, Cornell University, Ithaca, Roy M. Watson, Tuskegee Institute, Alabama Science Gary Baker, Virginia State University, New York Robert D. McClure, Syracuse University, New Ewert H. Cousins, Fordham University, Bronx, Petersburg York SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE New York, Augustine, Bonaventure, Eckhart: The Drew R. McCoy, University of Texas, Austin TEACHERS Mystical Journey SUMMER SEMINARS FOR COLLEGE TEACHERS Jack N. Rakove, Stanford University, California Thomas P. Slaughter, Rutgers University, New Jonathan Bennett, Syracuse University, New SUMMER STIPENDS Brunswick, New Jersey York, The Metaphysics of Events Paul R. Brass, University of Washington, Jean M. Yarbrough, Loyola University, Chicago, Hector-Neri Castaneda, Indiana University, Judith A. Berling, Indiana University, Seattle, Ethnic Groups and the State Illinois Bloomington, Human Action: Self, Thinking, and Bloomington William F. Connolly, University of Reality Patricia A. DeLeeuw, Boston College, Chestnut Massachusetts, Amherst, Interpretation and Joel Feinberg, University of Arizona, Tucson, Hill, Massachusetts Genealogy in Political Thought The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law Robert D. Denham, Emory and Henry College, Murray Edelman, University of Wisconsin, Samuel Gorovitz, University of Maryland, Col­ Emory, Virginia Madison, Political Communication lege Park, The Ethics of Research with Human H. Byron Earhart, Western Michigan University, John E. Elliott, University of Southern Califor­ Subjects Kalamazoo nia, Los Angeles, Karl Marx as a Social Theorist: Arthur Hyman, Yeshiva University, New York, Robert C. Fuller, Bradley University, Peoria, An Interdisciplinary Study Virtues, State, and Law in Medieval Philosophy Illinois Wilma Hunter, and Robert Engs, Hampton In­ Henry E. Kyburg, Jr., University of Rochester, Howard C. Kee, Boston University, stitute, Virginia, History of Education for Blacks, New York, Inductive Logic and Scientific Inference Massachusetts 1865-1954* Thomas A. McCarthy, Boston University, John K. Kuntz, University of Iowa, Iowa City Joseph L. Love, University of Illinois, Urbana, Massachusetts, Contemporary German Social James C. Livingston, College of William and Economic Growth, the State, and Ideology in Latin Philosophy: Hermeneutics and Critical Theory Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia America: 1880-1980

•Denotes a seminar held at a historically black 30 college or university. Wordsworthian, C.P. Snow vision of would help restore poetry to its the powers of mind and the forces rightful place in the larger life of the of culture distributed into irreducibly mind. For example, connections be­ separate, often warring faculties and tween the religious and the poetic activities. Clausen, it will be noted, imaginations have been drawn again gives the reader no lines of poetry and again in various ways over the for illuminating inspection. McClat­ centuries. Today poetry and religion chey does: Rich's "Power." are as intimately linked in the Com­ Both McClatchey and Clausen may munist bloc countries, where the be right, each on his own grounds. suppression of religion has increased But whether a genuine love of poetic the value of poetry, as in the free uses of language can be kindled West, where they have suffered a throughout a contemporary popula­ parallel decline. Clausen is absolutely tion, or whether historian-moralists right when acknowledging that the (like Clausen) can find common momentous cultural changes respon­ ground with poet-critics (like McClat­ sible for this decline are "compli­ More on the Poetry Debate even itself. Who will disagree that chey), there remains another impor­ cated, controversial, and incapable of the self is indeed a chief concern tant perspective to consider: the for­ easy analysis." This is precisely why If McClatchey's argument is granted, among us? Nor do we lack for ad­ mally interdisciplinary. scholars who care not only for po­ then why does a culture steeped in vice on how to discover, maintain, When W.H. Auden in 1939 ob­ etry but for the work of the human­ narcissistic self-concern such as ours and defend it. And so the poetry served that "Poetry makes nothing ities in toto must continue this dis­ not make more use of poetry? Per­ that McClatchey recommends— happen," he was giving voice to the cussion, emulating the multi-sidedness haps because one fundamental Adrienne Rich provides him an illus­ apparent helplessness of the western of Auden, by enlarging its frame. ground for support of poetry is a tration—speaks primarily not to our democracies in the face of the in­ Those who love poetic language and widely instilled love of language. I public self but to our private self, creasing threat posed by the Fascist submit to poetic vision will never mean a love of what Ezra Pound where the enabling powers of the dictators. He was noting the failures want long to leave off reading po­ called logopoeia, the dance of intellect world are to be confronted and then of cultural liberal humanism (and of etry closely (as McClatchey does) to among words (to which must be harnessed. McClatchey tells us we collective will) more than of poetry find and to embrace what's there. added the dance of feeling among may look with confidence to the po­ itself in that time of growing crisis. But, when appropriate, we must also words, as well). Alas, the love of etic imagination of inward struggle And he was about to turn his indict­ enter those complementing, cross- language now suffers devastating for help in compassing the formi­ ment upon liberal Protestantism. disciplinary discussions of the rela­ competition from the seductiveness dable mysteries of the self. As it Both Clausen and McClatchey refer tions among poetry, religion, and of video screens and of convenience- negotiates stays against the debilitat­ to this and other of Auden's influen­ history which clarify perceptions of processed packaged communication ing agitations of the inner life, tial dicta respecting the role of poetry the full human context for poetic art. everywhere we turn. And our critics poetry supplies the ordering images in modern life. The readership for poetry will in­ and teachers of poetry seem to put we need to arrange our life in com­ The perceptions of Auden, a po­ crease when we demonstrate more up less of a countering struggle mon with others. litical realist and amateur psycholo­ successfully than heretofore, and every semester. Among non-poet So poetry is a potentially powerful gist who knew theology as well as from our differing perspectives as scholars, the love of language is los­ cultural force, however limited its most theologians, remain a promis­ humanities scholars, how its power ing out to the love of theoretics. present audience. I agree, preferring ing source for reflection on the role relates to all other promptings of the McClatchey offers us Harold as I do McClatchey's perspective to of poetry now. The breadth and in­ imagination, of the mind generally, Bloom's definition of poetry as es­ that of Clausen, whose argument tegration of his learning, together and of the gestalt of human life. sentially a "defense of the self” serves not so much poetry, not so with his exemplary commitment to —Kevin Lewis against everything which threatens much the love of language (or the the vocation of poet, ensure it. His Department of Religious Studies the integrity of the self, including concern for self), as the Baconian, example challenges those of us who University of South Carolina NEH Notes If you already subscribe & News to Humanities, show Conferences on the U.S. Constitution this ad to your friends. High school students will be hear­ ing more about the U.S. Consti­ tution as a result of a series of con­ ferences that the NEH is sponsoring for high school teachers on college They will appreciate the thoughtful and pro­ campuses. Part of the Endowment's vocative articles by outstanding authors and Special Initiative on the Bicentennial, the conferences will bring together humanities scholars • the news of NEH- distinguished scholars in the fields of supported projects • the complete listing of American history, political science, and jurisprudence with high school recent NEH grants by discipline • news of teachers for a series of public lec­ programs, changes in guidelines, and the tures, panels and workshops, open to the public. The conferences will most recent calendar of deadlines for grant be held at the following institutions: applications • in every issue of Humanities. • Wake Forest University/April 9-12 "The Principles of the Constitutional Six issues - $14. Order: the Ratification Debate" • Boston College/April 26-28 "Interpreting the Constitution" • San Jose State University /May 1-3 "Does the Constitution Have a Foundation in Higher Law?" • Brigham Young University/May Order Form 16-18 "Statesmanship and the Constitution" 31 Featured in this issue of Humanities century France. • Myths of Metamorphosis, page 16. A forthcoming history of these myths in litera­ ture and art considers transformation. • The Sub­ tleties of Theory in Practice and My Desert En­ Sidney Hook: Human­ The Aftermath of the counter with Plato, pages 18/19. Two Summer ist Pragmatist, Demo­ Student Revolt by Seminarians reflect on their experiences. • Utilitar­ crat, American by Irv­ Nathan Glazer. Does ian Confucianism, page 20. A debate between ing Kristol. John unrest still simmer be­ two twelfth-century Chinese scholars has implica­ Dewey's most distin­ neath the surface of to­ tions for present-day China. 0 The Politics of guished student is the day's quiet campuses? Ritual, page 21. The 1984 Jefferson Lecturer. Or did American edu­ role of civic rituals in The author explains cation's "biggest con­ sixteenth-century why "Sidney Hook ... vulsion" leave no per­ Venice may account for is the preeminent manent mark? the endurance of the American social Venetian Republic. philosopher...." • Demographics and the American Dream, page 24. Fluctuations in population patterns are Time for Scholarship. fundamental to the per­ The articles in this sec­ ception of opportunity Shifts in the Pragmatic tion describe the as well as social unrest. • New Directions, page Scene: From the Real achievements of schol­ 25. The NEH launches four initiatives for histori­ to the True to the ars who have received cally black colleges and universities. ® A Natural Good by David Sidor­ NEH fellowships or sti­ Historian, page 26. A historian who has written sky. Pragmatism from pends. To these Fel­ about fire is embarked on a study of ice. its beginnings at the lows, their awards rep­ turn of the century to resent a way of buying The 1984 Fellowship Awards. For the social and cultural time—for research, for Humanities, April is not "the criticism of pragmatist reflection, for writing. cruellest month." This is the time philosopher, Sidney The various kinds of when, along with celebrating the Hook. Endowment support 1984 Jefferson Lecturer, we salute available to individuals the 1984 NEH Fellowship and Sti­ and institutions are de­ pend recipients, all 2,372 of them. scribed on page 13. The Fellows are listed alphabetically in essays that follow rep­ each program. If your name is on resent work performed the list, congratulations. If not, Communism and Anti- with the support of each program in the Division perhaps you'll be encouraged to Communism in Amer­ of Fellowships and Stipends. apply next year. ica by Leo P. Ribuffo. • Medical Ethics and the Nursing Profession, Why the veterans of page 13. A professor of philosophy gains insights the ideological battles during a "year off" at Harvard. • The Return of 3 The Jefferson Lecture of the 1930s, 1940s, and Martin Guerre, page 15. The historical consultant 1950s, "now scattered for the film writes a social history of sixteenth- 12 Grant Application Deadlines across the political spectrum, continue to 31 Letters to the Editor publish their memoirs. Subscription Information

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