“The Images of Atlantic Found in Recent Roots/Traditional Music: What is it like ‘down there’?”

By

Kelly Kathleen Miller

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts in Studies at Saint Mary’s University Halifax, July 23, 2004

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Canada The Images of Atlantic Canada Found in Recent Roots/Traditional Music:

What is it like “down there”?

By Kelly Kathleen Miller

Submitted July 2004

Abstract:

This thesis is a study of the images of Atlantic Canada found in 100 CD recordings of traditional Scottish and Irish music from the region (1986-2002). The first chapter contains definitions of terms used frequently within the thesis. The second chapter presents a general history of the music industry, the recording of traditional music, and the industry in Atlantic Canada. The third chapter outlines the methodology used for a survey of the 100 CDs, which includes questions on the use of traditional instrumentation, images of Atlantic Canada found in liner notes, translation of lyrics in the liner notes, and explanation of the music tradition in the liner notes. The third chapter concludes with a discussion of the survey results. Contents

Abstract ...... i Introduction ...... 1 Chapter One ...... 7 Immigration and “Celtic Music” ...... 7 Tradition and Traditional Music ...... 15 Scottish and Irish Traditional Music ...... 27 Who Owns or Who Controls the Tradition?...... 36 The Position of Musicians in the Community ...... 40 Conclusion ...... 46 Chapter Two ...... 49 Introduction ...... 49 The Beginning of Recorded Sound and Music ...... 50 The Structure of the Corporate Music Industry ...... 56 The Music Industry in Atlantic Canada ...... 60 Post World War II Music Industry in Atlantic Canada ...... 64 The Industry since 1990 ...... 67 Conclusion ...... 74 Chapter Three ...... 75 Methodology ...... 82 Conclusions...... 89 Appendices ...... 113 Appendix A; Recordings ...... 114 Appendix B: Instrumentation ...... 120 Appendix C: Liner Notes ...... 196 Appendix D: Theme Information ...... 203 Bibliography ...... 250

n The Images of Atlantic Canada Found in Recent

Roots/Traditional Music:

What is it like “down there”?

Introduction

In Atlantic Canada, the burgeoning interest in regional studies has uncovered a wealth of previously unrecorded stories about the region’s history and peoples. These discoveries challenge and compel the academic community to revisit and revise the standard historical narrative and to incorporate new fields of enquiry such as women’s studies and cultural studies into current research and writing. In turn, these new fields of study have the potential to dispel accepted stereotypes about this region.

One particular area of regional studies which has been under-explored to date is that of traditional music in the modem world. The work done in this field so far has emphasized conservation efforts, field recordings and documentation centred around elderly singers and musicians, and rapidly disappearing styles and techniques. The labours of Helen Creighton, Roy Mackenzie, Edith Fowke, and others to preserve and study the “folk” music of this region, and in Canada, are well documented.' Recently scholars such as John Shaw have continued to focus on projects of salvaging the remnants of the older tradition.^ This is a worthwhile and important pursuit, but it does not address the present musical culture of Atlantic Canada. Their work has informed and aided this thesis greatly but it has also made obvious that there is no sizeable research base on the intertwining of the music industry and traditional music in this region. James

Robbins, a current ethnomusicologist, makes the observation about the study of traditional music.

One of the most striking things about the history of traditional-music research in

Canada is that it is uneven: as a pattern, it is irregular.. .Embarking with

conventional notions both of scholarship and of traditional music, we generally

turned to other kinds of sources (novels, commercial publications and recording

and travel documents) only when ‘scholarly’ reports and collections were not

available.^

While acknowledging the valuable contribution of scholars to the study of aspects of traditional music in Atlantic Canada, this thesis, in examining the images of the region that are presented in 100 recent commercial traditional recordings, explores the portrayal

' Helen Creighton, Songs and Ballads from Nova Scotia Collected by Helen Creighton (: J.M. Dent & Sons, Limited, 1932). William Roy Mackenzie,Ballads and Sea Songs from Nova Scotia (Hatboro, Pennsylvania: Folklore Associates, 1963). Edith Fowke, Lumbering Songs from the Northern Woods (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970). ^ Lauchie MacLellan, Brigh an Orain: A Story in Every Song, trans. and ed. John Shaw (Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2000). ^ James Robbins, “Lessons Learned, Questions Raised: Writing a History of Ethnomusicology in Canada,”Canadian Journal for Traditional Music (1992) http://www.cjtm.icaap.org/content/20/v20art2.html (accessed July 2004). of Atlantic Canada within the contemporary music industry. Thus, it seeks to open up another area of scholarly inquiry in the field of traditional music research.

The tourism industry includes music in its list of Atlantic Canada’s attractions.

The official government website for economic planning in Nova Scotia also mentions music as a rapidly growing portion of the tourism sector of the local economy.'* In 1999, the online newsletter Cooperation: Economic Diversification Agreement quoted Marcel

McKeough, the Chair of the East Coast Music Association at the time, as saying: “The music industry is an important part of Atlantic Canada’s economy and more importantly is emerging as one of the more promising and exciting sectors within our region.”^ The

East Coast Music Awards, established in 1989, are an indication of the ever increasing importance of the musical arts within Atlantic Canada. They are also a sign of another aspect of music in Atlantic Canada, namely the growing music industry. While there are some who lament the commercialization of the traditional music from this region, the music industry has brought the Atlantic Canada provinces a prestige that reaches beyond the borders of Canada. With the national and international coverage of the ECMA awards show, it is increasingly important to study the images of Atlantic Canada given to the rest of Canada and the world through its music.

The modem music industry is a global phenomenon, the size of which provides a wide range of types of music for the average consumer, creating audiences far outside the historical boundaries of musical styles. With the great diversity that greets most people

'* “Economic Development - Opportunities for Prosperity,” http://www.gov.ns.ca/econ/strategy/strategy_5.2. l.htm (accessed March 2003). ^ “Cooperation: Economic Diversification Agreement,” http://eda.gov.ns.ca/press/1999/1021_ecma-e.html (accessed March 2003). entering a music store today, it may be hard to remember that even these varied choices

do not free the listener from misinformation and stereotypes. Richard Middleton, an

ethnomusicologist, astutely points out that “the weakness of ‘consumptionism’ is its

assumption (at the extreme) that listeners are completely free to use and interpret music

as they wish.”®

The information provided through the images contained in the music is a powerful

tool to create or dispel stereotypes and therefore warrants close study. The listener who

is not from Atlantic Canada may or may not have the advantage of any direct personal

experience with the region and is therefore more susceptible to the images being

presented, for better or worse. An ethnomusicologist, A.L. Lloyd, while detailing the

current status of traditional music across the globe, made this statement:

From Natchez to New Guinea, all over the world, it seems to be the destiny of

folksong to be changing from a domestic and ceremonial music for insiders into

public performance music for an audience including outsiders, perhaps comprised

entirely of outsiders.^

Philip Bolhman, also an ethnomusicologist, concurs with this idea in his book.

The Study o f in the Modem World. He states:

Popularization in a different sense is very important in the revival and invention

of folk music tradition, which require popular acceptance of sweeping

® Richard Middleton, “Introduction: Locating the Popular Music Text,” in Reading Pop: Approaches to Textual Analysis in Popular Music, ed. Richard Middleton (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 9. ^ A. L. Lloyd, “Eleetric Folk Music in Britain,” in Folk Music and Modern Sound, ed. William Ferris and Mary L. Hart (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1982), 14. representations of musical types for which little or no firsthand knowledge is

available.*

It is not merely the musical types that are represented and which are generalized in the popularization of traditional music, but also the regions and cultures that they represent.

These generalizations and stereotypes are based on images contained in the music itself and the presentation of the albums.

The strength of the music industry in Atlantic Canada is well attested to by the ample sales figures of recording artists such as Natalie MacMaster or The Rankins.

These artists have enabled worldwide listeners to experience some of the culture of

Atlantic Canada. The music coming out of the region today is music about emigration, music from the “homeland,” and music telling the history and present life of Atlantic

Canada itself. From this standpoint, the musicians take on an inadvertent role as cultural disseminators and commentators for the region and the communities within it. They preserve the history and pass it on. Recording artists whose music travels far outside the bounds of the region itself are in a unique position to give the rest of the world a view of the past and present situation in Atlantic Canada through the music they play. But what are music listeners learning about Atlantic Canada through the music they hear? What images of Atlantic Canada are they given?

The term “image” has a host of different meanings but in this work the term will be used in three specific ways. Firstly, image as a visual component of the music industry. This will include all drawings and photographs contained in the liner notes of

* Philip V. Bohlman, The Study o f Folk Music in the Modern World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988), 134. the albums studied. Secondly, the term “image” will be used to discuss the verbal descriptions of the region in the lyrics of the songs and the written aspects of the liner notes. Traditional music also portrays an overall sense of the region through a third and more elusive definition of the term “image” which incorporates the rhythms, instrumentation, tempo, and special effects such as dubbed voices speaking over the music. Various personal reactions to these images are not addressed in this thesis.

Instead, charts and statistics will be employed to allow an objective analysis of these visual, verbal, and musical impressions of Atlantic Canada being presented to the world.

In the first chapter of this study important terms, such as traditional music, will be defined for the context of this thesis. Though many groups and cultures have influenced the music of Atlantic Canada — including the Mi’kmaq, the Acadians, the African Nova

Scotians, and the English — this study will limit itself to the Scottish and Irish heritage in the music of the region. The second chapter will present a short overview of the history of the recording industry and its growth in Atlantic Canada. The third chapter will draw together the two previous chapters with an analysis of 100 CDs by Atlantic Canadian musicians, in the traditional , released fi'om 1986-2002. The detailed databases from which this analysis was made will be included in the Appendixes. The final discussion will be about the images of Atlantic Canada transmitted by these musicians to the world. These images are worthy of study as they frequently represent the first cultural contact point for those outside the region. For Atlantic Canada, the music becomes an ambassador — what will it convey? Chapter One Traditional Music: Definitions and Explanations — Ownership and Control

Immigration and "Celtic Music” The culture of Atlantic Canada has been greatly affected by certain groups of immigrants. Two of these groups are the Scots and the Irish. The numbers of immigrants and the specific years of greatest impact on the region varied between the Scots and the

Irish, but both groups’ peak influence on the culture occurred between the late 1700s and the 1880s.

Sir William Alexander, Earl of Stirling (c. 1577-1640), organized one of the original plans to help populate Nova Scotia, with Scots in 1624.' Unfortimately, his plan did not come to fruition under his leadership due to quarrels and political miscalculations.

However, a few Scots did immigrate to Atlantic Canada due to a system of granting titles as an inducement to encourage colonial settlement.^ Later, John MacDonald (1742-

1810), managed to create a sizable settlement of Scottish Catholics in what would become .^ The immigration of the Scots did not begin in earnest until after Britain had taken control of New France in 1760. From that time until the end of the nineteenth century thousands of Scots arrived in the New World. A large portion of the Scots who arrived in what would become the Atlantic Provinces came from the

' The plan was laid out after the success of the baronets of Ulster in Ireland. A similar land allotment was thought to be the perfect solution to settling the British Crown's land in North America. ^ J.M. Bumsted, Peoples o f Canada: A Pre-Confederation History (Toronto: Oxford University Press Canada, 1992), 55. ^ Ibid., 142-3. Highlands of Scotland. The majority arriving before 1860 would stay in the Maritime

Provinces since there were growing communities of Scots there.'* J.M. Bumsted, commenting on Highland migration, writes: “In this early period (as later) previous settlement and kinship ties were important factors in decisions to migrate and in choice of destination. The Scots immigrants particularly traveled in extended family groups...

Two of the more common reasons for later emigration were the clearances of the

Highlands in the 1830s and the Highland potato famine, 1846-1857.^ It was during this period, as R. Douglas Francis, Richard Jones and Donald B. Smith state in Origins:

Canadian History to Confederation that “about 40,000 Scots came to the colony, particularly to .”^ Although Scots continued to arrive in the Atlantic

Provinces after the 1860s the causes for their arrival were much more diverse and their numbers significantly smaller.

The Irish have a longer mythical presence in the Atlantic Provinces: tales abounded during the Middle Ages of the great Irish Saint Brendan traveling to find lands in the west, but no actual proof of this contact has been discovered.* The first record of

Irish inhabiting Atlantic Canada, for short periods of time, is in Newfoundland in 1594.^

Later the potato famines in the 1720s and 1730s drew numbers of Irish to Newfoundland,

'* Ibid., 181. ^ Ibid. ^ Marjory Harper and Michael E. Vance, “Myth, Migration and the Making of Memory: an Introduction,” in Myth, Migration and the Making o f Memory: Scotia and Nova Scotia c. 1700-1990, ed. Marjory Harper and Michael E. Vance (Halifax, Nova Scotia: Femwood Publishing, 1999), 22. ^ R. Douglas Francis, Richard Jones, and Donald B. Smith, Origins: Canadian History to Confederation (Toronto: Harcourt Canada, 2000), 390. * Ibid., 28. ^ Ibid., 391 because of the relatively low cost of passage from Ireland to St. John’s. Many Irish stayed in Newfoundland but others moved on to so that by 1815 the census recorded 60 percent of New Brunswick’s population as Irish.

The Scots and the Irish brought with them strong cultural traditions which included a vibrant musical heritage. To begin a study of the music of Atlantic Canada, a rudimentary understanding of the Scottish and Irish traditions is indispensable. While a comprehensive study of both of these large musical traditions is well beyond the scope of this thesis, it is important to highlight a number of issues.

The concept of “traditional music” as a definable entity is a complex issue. The ethnomusicologist John Blacking, writing in the 1970s and 1980s, concisely stated the problem of defining and labeling types of music. He wrote;

The central problem in musical theory is the problem of description. Neither

musicologists nor ethnomusicologists have yet devised a system of analysis which

is sufficiently powerful to explain what we can know intuitively as a result of

experience in culture, namely, the essential differences between the music of

Haydn and Mozart, or of the Flathead and Sioux Indians.’ ‘

Blacking clearly identifies the problem facing the study of a certain genre of music.

However, it seems that an attempt to work with the existing labels, rather than creating new ones, is still valid if some thought is given to the definition of terms. While an absolute definition of what constitutes “traditional music” is a challenging task, and is likely to generate as much censure as praise, a working definition is still necessary.

Ibid. " John Blacking, Music, Culture, and Experience: Selected Papers o f John Blacking, ed. Reginald Byron (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 54. 10

At the risk of tempting the gods of definitions before this study has progressed very far, a bit of clarification regarding a term which is often connected with traditional music is needed. When I began this study an unsuspecting individual remarked lightly that I was “studying Celtic music.” I was mildly appalled but could not properly explain why. This is just one of many examples of “Celtic music” being equated with traditional music. Therefore it makes sense to briefly discuss the “Celtic music” designation before any further confusion can ensure. A brief explanation of the debates surrounding the phrase is useful at this stage in the study of traditional music fi'om Atlantic Canada, since traditional Atlantic Canadian music is often deemed a member of the “Celtic music” family.

The first question is obvious. Who are the Celts from whom this designation

“Celtic music” ultimately derives? This question has provided the basis for many books and dissertations and undoubtedly will continue to concern scholars for some time. An important point to remember is that the term Celt is not a self-conscious name used by any ancient group. It was either given to them by outside contemporary observers or retrospectively imposed by historians and anthropologists.'^ That being stated, Barry

Cunliffe, in The Ancient Celts, makes a neat summation of the history of the group of people called the Celts. He writes:

For us the Celts comprise a large number of ethnic groups who occupied much of

central and western Europe in the first millennium BC and spoke a series of

related dialects which linguists define as ‘Celtic.’ Some of these groups moved

Malcom Chapman provides a more detailed discussion of this issue in his book The Celts, the Construction o f a Myth. Malcolm Chapman, The Celts: the Construction o f a Myth (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), 30. 11

into east Europe to settle. They were rapidly assimilated. Over much of the rest

of the continent ‘Celticness’ eventually disappeared in the turmoil and

reformation of the first half of the first millennium AD and only in the extreme

western fringes did the language, and with it the memory of the Celtic heritage,

survive.’^

Cunliffe’s statement would lead to the notion that there are still Celts who have kept their heritage alive but Bernhard Maier contends that any awareness of the ancient Celts and their lineage through language and tradition was lost and only regained by scholars in the sixteenth century.*"^ If the current people referring to themselves as “Celts” are Celts more by desire than by historical attributes, then is there any legitimate use for the title

“Celtic music”? It is presumable that the music of the many different tribes, which shared common linguistic and cultural aspects during the first millennium A.D., has certainly disappeared with time and there is little doubt that the label of “Celtic music” is a modem creation. It began appearing in record stores in the late 1980s and continues to grow today as a conscious marketing plan based on the renewed interest in “Celtic” cultures.

Yet it is not completely improbable that a category created mainly for commercial profit could have some legitimate base in a region’s historical culture and therefore the question arises is the term “Celtic” tmly appropriate to describe the music that is

Barry Cunliffe, The Ancient Celts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 268. Bernhard Maier, The Celts: A History From Earliest Times to the Present, trans. Kevin Windle (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Norte Dame Press, 2003), 4-5. Alan M. Kent, “Celtic Nirvanas: Construction of Celtic in Contemporary British Youth Culture,” in Celtic Geographies: Old Cultures New Times, ed. David C. Harvey, Rhys Jones, Neil Mclnroy, and Christine Milligan (London: Routledge, 2002), 216. 12

categorized as such? Based on the logic that there are no surviving direct links with the

Celts, the answer is that no music surviving to the present day could be aptly termed

“Celtic music.” However, if the theory that modem Celts have rediscovered their past

heritage and that the music which has been handed down in the various cultures has

unique Celtic aspects to it, then the music of the Celtic speaking countries could

justifiably be categorized as “Celtic music.”

Unfortunately, theoretically appropriate music is not always the reality in the

music stores. Sharron Thornton points out the first sophism with regards to what music is

actually found under the label Celtic. In her article, “Reading the Record Bins: The

Commercial Construction of Celtic Music,” she notes that currently: “Celtic music is

more about what sounds Celtic than what is Celtic.”*^ This abstract concept of a certain

sound is difficult to document and study since “sound” can be influenced by factors

ranging from instrumentation to tempo. This vapid notion of a “Celtic sound” gives

licenses for almost any music with one element of something passing for “Celtic” to be

placed in the category. The word “Celtic” in the title, or a performer/composer from one

of the “Celtic countries,” the use of one of the Celtic languages, or a synthesized set of

, appears to be enough to warrant a place in the “Celtic music” category. The

musical forms, such as sets, reels, airs, and jigs, used in the traditional music of Ireland,

Scotland, Wales, Brittany and the Isle of Man are exceedingly rare in this type of music.

Tranquil lyrical lines sung in barely discernible whispered voices have replaced the sharp

dramatic rhythms, which give each of these regions distinction from each other. The

Sharron Thornton, “Reading the Record Bins: The Commercial Construction of Celtic Music,” in New Directions in Celtic Studies, ed. Amy Hale and Philip Payton (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2000), 22-3. 13 music from the acclaimed show “Riverdance,” although a great business success, feeds into this category of vaguely “Celtic feeling” music due more to the presence of uilleann pipes, tin whistles, and an overall ambient misty sound than any solid lineage with traditional Irish music. The common use of synthesizers and electronic instruments in

“Celtic music” has led groups and performers such as Clannad and Enya to produce

“Celtic music.” This music is routinely sold next to a Chieftains’ album or in the case of

Nova Scotia, next to a Buddy MacMaster recording. Much of what is sold as “Celtic music” appeals to a mystical idea of the Celts, more than any reality that may have existed in the past or the present. Thornton comments that:

‘Celtic’ music then, perhaps with the exception of Gaelic Mods, sean-nos singers,

and male Welsh choirs, remains a popular notion with an increasingly popular

usage.

Musicians might argue that stylistic boundaries should be broken and blended, as artists deem necessary. However, the very lack of any boundary delineation as to what falls under the title of “Celtic music” makes the category all but useless even as a rule to be broken. Therefore, despite its popularity, the term “Celtic music” will not be used in this thesis as interchangeable with “traditional music.”

The multiplicity of different sounds that fall under the designation of “Celtic music” is continually frustrating for scholars and traditional music enthusiasts who must endure authentic traditional music being lumped with stacks of poorly played synthesized sound. In 1963, J.R.R. Tolkien presented a lecture in which he vented some of his

Ibid., 19. 14 frustration about the term “Celtic.” His comments aptly convey current irritation over the term “Celtic music.” He says:

To many, perhaps to most people outside the small company of the great scholars,

past and present, ‘Celtic’ of any sort is, none the less, a magic bag, into which

anything may be put, and out of which almost anything may come.... Anything is

possible in the fabulous Celtic twilight, which is not so much a twilight of the

gods as of the reason.’*

One of the items thrown into the bag of “Celtic music” is traditional music from Atlantic

Canada. True, there is a link of immigration between Atlantic Canada, Scotland, and

Ireland, plus Scottish Gaelic is still spoken by individuals in Nova Scotia, especially

Cape Breton. These two factors together with a stable traditional music scene, in the early 1990s, appear as an untapped business opportunity.’^ Images of misty coastlines, rustic living, and provincial manners were already part of an Atlantic Canada stereotype and the linkage of Scottish and Irish music from the region with the already coined term

“Celtic Music” only added to the idea that traditional musicians were tapping a much older spiritual way of life and music that had come dovm to them from the Celts of

Ireland and Scotland. Increased discontent with urbanization and a renewed social interest in Celtic cultures turned many of the once negative concepts of Atlantic Canada and the Celtic regions into positive selling points for traditional music. Less the result of a deliberate promotional strategy than the outcome of complex societal changes the music

’* J.R.R. Tolkien, “English and Welsh,” in Angles and Britons, O ’Donnell Lectures (Cardiff, University of Wales Press, 1963), 29-30 Sharron Thornton, “Reading the Record Bins: The Commercial Construction of Celtic Music,” in New Directions in Celtic Studies, ed. Amy Hale and Philip Payton (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2000), 22. 15 that emerged from the region’s musie industry in the 1990s allowed much wider sales of traditional musie from the Atlantic Provinces. Whether this allowed the region to break free of negative images completely or if it more firmly confirmed them will be addressed in the third chapter of this thesis.

Tradition and Traditional Music (Working Definitions) Before the term “traditional music” is defined, the word “tradition” itself must be deconstructed briefly. An analysis of any subject and the words used to discuss the subject allows new perspectives and reveals societal conceptions about the subject. The

Webster’s Dictionary offers three different definitions of “tradition,” which neatly capture both the concise definition of the concept and some of its inherent conundrums.

“Tradition” is defined as:

1) The handing down of information, beliefs, and customs by word of mouth or

by example from one generation to another without written instruction 2) an

inherited pattern of thought or action 3) cultural continuity in social attitudes and

institutions.

If these definitions are taken as mutually exclusive, then contradictions begin to arise.

However, if the multiple definitions are viewed as spreading out to encompass more of the human experience, they allow for a wider definition which aids the process of understanding. For example, if the idea that tradition must be passed down by word of mouth is taken in an exclusive sense, then by studying and writing about tradition, it is destroyed in some small way and any person who leams all or a portion of the tradition

Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary (1976), s.v. “tradition.’ 16 through a written form has not learned the tradition at all. Yet, if the last two sections of the definition are considered, writing down a tradition may be a way of creating the cultural continuity and upholding the institutions the tradition represents. This is not to say that a focus on one portion of the definition cannot be useful. Diarmuid Ô Giollain in

Locating Irish Folklore: Tradition, Modernity, Identity chooses to analyze the idea of tradition and cultural continuity, which he sees as containing a power structure. The word tradition itself has a Latin origin and the meaning combines the ideas of handing down knowledge along with duty and respect with regards to that knowledge.^* While generally ignoring the oral nature of tradition, Ô Giollain is also not excluding it; he is merely working with a portion of the definition to allow a more detailed exploration. His work is still anchored in an understanding of the Webster’s definition.

David Gross, in his book. The Past in Ruins: Tradition and the Critique o f

Modernity, writes that: “The term ‘tradition’ refers to a set of practices, a constellation of belief, or a mode of thinking that exists in the present, but was inherited from the past.”^^

Gross’s idea focuses on the multi-generational aspect of tradition which he builds on from Edward Shils’s proposal. Edward Shils, in his book entitled Tradition, tentatively suggests that three generations are needed before a tradition is established.^^ While Gross follows Shils’s qualifications he does not believe that a tradition must only be passed down in an oral fashion. Although Gross understands that written transmission alters the tradition, he still believes that the changed tradition is valid. He writes:

Diarmuid 6 Giollâin, Locating Irish Folklore: Tradition, Modernity, Identity (Cork: Cork University Press, 2000), 8. ^ David Gross, The Past in Ruins: Tradition and the Critique o f Modernity (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), 8 ^ Edward Shils, Tradition (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press), 15. 17

By being encoded in words, traditions get organized, structured, and passed down

differently, and this in turn affects their form and content. Although writing

makes transmission more precise, it does so at the expense of the immediacy and

intimacy that comes with oral tradition.^"^

These ideas all mesh together rather well. However, concrete declarations about a concept like “tradition” are never completely free of problems.

Much of the difficulty with the use of the term tradition occurs in conjunction with other terms such as music, custom, dance, and culture. In many cases the word

“folk” has been used to replace “tradition” in the title for these conglomerate ideas while also being used as part of the definition. Jan Harold Brunvand, in The Study o f American

Folklore, gives five components that make up the idea of folklore among which are qualifications of traditional form and transmission.^^ The words “tradition” and “folk” are used somewhat interchangeably and the way each author claims a slightly varied meaning for the two terms creates a large word game.

Since the early 1990s there has been a slow shift in academic writing away from the use of the term “folk.” A simple way to view this shift is a survey of the many music dictionaries. The 1954 edition ofGrove’s Dictionary o f Music and Musicians has no entry for “traditional music” but does have a lengthy discussion of “folk music” which is defined as:

David Gross, The Past in Ruins: Tradition and the Critique o f Modernity (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), 15. Jan Harold Brunvand, The Study o fAmerican Folklore: An Introduction (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1986), 7. 18

any music, in fact, which has entered into the heritage of the people, but can be

assigned to no composer, it may be defined as a type of music which has been

submitted for many generations to the process of oral transmission.. .nowadays it

is generally conceded that the test of a folksong lies not in its origin or its

popularity, but in the manner of its evolution.... This is determined by the process

of oral transmission.

Fifteen years later, in 1969, the term “folk” is still being used. The Harvard Dictionary o f Music has no listing for the term “traditional music” but there is an entry for “folk music.”^^ The term “folk” was clearly not problematic for the creators ofThe Concise

Oxford Dictionary o f Music in 1980. Again, there is no entry for “traditional music” only for “folk music.” The consciousness around the geographic location of “folk music” was slowly shifting and this is clear in the definition of the term;

Term covering folk-songs and folk dances. Folk-songs are songs of unknown

authorship passed orally from generation to generation, sung without

acc.[accompaniment], and often found in variants (of words and tune) in different

parts of a country (or in different countries). Folk-songs were generally found

among the country-dwellers, but with the increase of urbanization and

industrialization they spread to the towns and factories.^*

In this entry there is another sign of an emerging discussion on the nature of “folk music.” The author comments, “Like every generic term, folk-song is susceptible to

Grove’s Dictionary o f Music and Musicians, s.v. “Folk Music. Harvard Dictionary o f Music, s.v. “Folk music, folksong.” ^ The Concise Oxford Dictionary o f Music, s.v. “Folk Music.” 19 many conflicting interpretations.. The question arises, why use a term piled high with connotations, now seen as derogatory? A possible explanation could be that most of the contributors to these dictionaries wrote from within the academic music studies community, a group of scholars interested mainly in the development of serious music versus popular music. While this explanation may answer the question of word choice in part, it should be noted that the term “folk music” was also used by those in academia who were consciously studying this music and attempting to give validity to their study.

In 1965, Bruno Nettl in his book. Folk and Traditional Music o f the Western

Continents, is regrettably unclear about the distinction between the two terms. He uses both in the title, as if to allude to separate definitions for the two terms but this never occurs in the book. He begins by stating, “Our interest in folk and traditional music revolves around the fact that here is music that is accepted by all or most of the people in a cultural group as their own.”^® Nettl seems to view the terms as synonymous, for he continues to refer to both of them equally throughout the text. The fog which seems to have surrounded these two terms was present in two areas in the academic community, within the classical music domain and the budding field of ethnomusicology.

The confusion around the terms “folk music” and “traditional music” is not merely an academic conundrum. Breandân Breathnach, the famous Irish musician, writing in 1977, seemed to be struggling with the terms as well. In his book, entitled

Folk Music and Dances o f Ireland, he uses the term “traditional” almost as synonymous with “folk.” He focuses on the heritage of the music and writes, “Folk music is a heritage

Ibid. Bruno Nettl, Folk and Traditional Music o f the Western Continents (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965), 2. 20 which is passed on from one age to the next — hence the term ‘traditional’ which is usually applied to it in Ireland.”^* The lack of definition or examination of the idea of the term “folk” would seem to place Breathnach’s work well within his writing period, drawing a parallel between the music practitioner and the academic.

The quagmire of terms for vernacular music, based in a community of oral tradition bearers, is currently being addressed in the aeademic world. In 1999, Fintan

Vallely published The Companion to Irish Traditional Music. The title would suggest that the term “tradition” has taken the place of “folk.” However, there are entries for both terms. In the article on “Folk Music” there is an explanation of where the term “folk music” originates: “[it] derived from the term ‘folk lore’ first proposed by British antiquarian W. J. Thomas in 1846 to eover the culture and traditions of the common people.”^^ The entry then proeeeds to explain part of the confusion with the two terms.

“In Ireland the term ‘traditional’ is used in place of ‘folk’, the Irish Traditional Music

Archive considers, this to emphasize transmission, rather than origin and eireulation.”^^

The end of the short article directs the reader to the entry for “traditional music” where the explanation is continued. It states:

The term [traditional music] used to denote the older dance music and song in

Ireland, this distinct fi'om both modem ‘folk’ music, nineteenth-century ‘national’

and ‘popular’ national songs — although these have exerted influences on it.^"^

Breandân Breathnach, Folk Music and Dances o f Ireland (Dublin: Mercier Press Ltd., 1977), 2. Fintan Vallely, ed. The Companion to Irish Traditional Music (Cork: Cork University Press, 1999), 142. 33Ibid. 34Ibid., 401. 21

There is a brief discussion of the importance, within Ireland, that these other types of music have had, and then the entry returns to the clarification between “folk” and

“traditional.” “The term ‘folk’ may also have been considered trivializing, for instance, because of the prevailing academic attitudes to ‘folk’ music — that they are essentially

‘peasant’ music.”^^ Given the natures of the academic sources listed previously, this comment does not seem too far from the truth. The Irish Traditional Music Archive mentioned in Vallely’s The Companion to Irish Traditional Music has a slightly broader definition of “Irish traditional music” on their web site.

The Archive interprets ‘Irish traditional music’ in the broadest possible terms, and

always tried to include rather than exclude material. Items are collected if they

could be considered traditional in any way — in origin, or in idiom, or in

transmission or in style of performance, etc. — or they are relevant to an

understanding of traditional music. As well therefore as collecting music and

song that is known to be centuries old, the Archive also collects reels and jigs

lately composed and recent ballads in traditional style.^®

The Archive’s definition for the term ‘traditional’ has certain self-serving aspects since the Archive needs to encompass as wide a definition as possible to allow for many different types of research on traditional music.

Two recent publications. The New Grove Dictionary o f Music and Musicians

Ibid. “Irish Traditional Music Archive: Definitions,” http://www.itma.ie/home/itmeal/htm (accessed June 2003). 22

(2001)^^ and Irish Studies: The Essential Glossary (2003),^* have continued the struggle over these two terms and the definitions for them. Unfortunately, these two publications hardly present a cohesive answer to the problem. The New Grove Dictionary only contains an article under “folk music” and makes no reference to “traditional music.”

The editor does acknowledge the debate around the use of the term “folk music.The entry then follows the development of the term “folk music” and some of the important points in the progression of the study of folk music. It is not until the end of the article that a tentative definition is put forward, and this definition is almost immediately refuted.

For European countries, the dictionary distinguishes between ‘art’ music (i.e.

European classical and sacred music), ‘folk’ or ‘traditional’ music and ‘popular’

music. However, the perspectives of contributors express different national,

intellectual, and disciplinary traditions. ‘Folk music’ is sometimes used

interchangeably with ‘traditional’ music; to distinguish it from art or popular

music; to distinguish between indigenous rural and urban traditional; and to

distinguish ‘community music-making’ from ‘popular music’ intended for mass

dissemination or marketing...

The lack of a coherent definition for the term may be a symptom of the current discourse or a failing of the dictionary itself, but it does illustrate some of the confusion over the two terms. The editors and authors ofIrish Studies: The Essential Glossary were only

^^The New Grove Dictionary o f Music and Musicians, s.v. “Folk Music.” Alex Davis, John Goodby, Andrew Hadfield, and Eve Patten, Irish Studies: The Essential Glossary, ed. John Goodby (London: Arnold, 2003). The New Grove Dictionary o f Music and Musicians, s.v. “Folk Music.” Ibid., 67. 23 slightly more successful at dealing with this confusing issue. The entry is listed as

“traditional and folk musie” and begins in this way:

‘Traditional music’ is Irish folk music, and is defined by having evolved through

a process of oral (as opposed to written) transmission. It also overlaps with ‘folk’

music in its more common sense (that is, as contemporary songs, usually with

aeeompaniment), although traditional music purists insist on distinguishing

between the two.'**

Although this definition is a bit simplistic it does at least venture a single qualification for what traditional music is rather than the vague multiple suggestions in The New Groves

Dictionary. The New Groves Dictionary attempts to deal with the word “folk,” which seems to be the critical issue; Irish Studies: The Essential Glossary does not.

To further muddy the murky waters of the current discourse, John Blacking, instead of using “traditional” to describe this particular genre of music, chose to give the older terms “folk” and “art” musie completely new definitions, working from drastically different vantage points.'*^ He defines the labels in this way:

Folk musie enhances a social situation, and its value lies chiefly in the situation

itself. Art music refers to social situations beyond those in which it is performed:

for example, a symphony concert has no value in itself... .it should, if it is to

qualify as art music according to my definition, express ideas that add to the

Alex Davis, John Goodby, Andrew Hadfield, and Eve Patten, Irish Studies: The Essential Glossary, ed. John Goodby (London: Arnold, 2003), 238. John Blacking, Music, Culture, and Experience: Selected Papers o f John Blacking, ed. Reginald Byron (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 31-2. 24

significance of the occasion. If it is simply occasional music, no matter how

complex in style, 1 would call it folk music.

Although Blacking’s definitions are intriguing, they are not conducive to this type of study since they create no room for recorded music in the definition of “folk” music.

This set of definitions does not allow for different genres of music once they are recorded, since after the music is recorded, it can be experienced outside the community.

Blacking’s definitions will not be used in this study, but they do offer yet another interpretation on this complex discourse, one which stands in stark contrast to the other suggested definitions.

The connotations contained within the word “folk” have been studied by many scholars in recent years, including Ian McKay in The Quest o f the F o lk^ McKay delves deeply into the term and the concept of “folk.” Part of his deconstruction includes the conclusion that:

Elitism — the supposed ability of middle-class and often academic men and

women to rule on the inherent worth or worthlessness of folk tradition on the

basis of their ‘authenticity’ within a closely defined canon and on an ‘objective’

evaluation of their aesthetic worth — was durably installed as a feature of

international discussion of the Folk."*^

McKay described one vision of the “folk,” perceived from the outside, as “That which is unchanging, the true, solid and possibly even providential core of a culture and

Ibid., 32. ^ Ian McKay, The Quest o f the Folk: Antimodernism and Cultural Selection in Twentieth-Century Nova Scotia (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994). Ibid., 22. 25 society....”'*^ This vision, of “saving” traditions from those who held them but clearly did not recognize their value, was often incredibly damaging to the traditions that were

“saved.” Equally damaging was the idea that a tradition could be contained and should remain in a stationary preserved state.

Musicologists have also attempted to study how the term “folk” was created and given such heavy connotations, as well as the shift away from the use of the term. Philip

V. Bohlman writes about the creation of idea of “folk music” in Europe as a reaction by the upper class to a more liberated and upwardly mobile lower class during the sixteenth century. The lower class included marginalized ethnic groups whose cultural traits were beyond the scholarly comprehension of those in power.

While Bohlman’s explanation may seem a bit overtly Marxist, when viewed in conjunction with the work of Richard Middleton in “Musical Belongings: Western Music and Its Low-Other,” a slightly clearer explanation of the logical creation of the “folk” and

“folk music” begins to emerge. According to Middleton a great deal of Western music and its complex structures and theories were created to help define what it was not: it was not “folk music.”''^ “Folk music” was seen as crude in style, form, tone, and instrumentation and was viewed as haphazard, while the notion that mere peasant could leam this music without reading any music was solid proof of the lower nature of “folk

Ibid., 9. Philp V. Bohlman, “Composing the Cantorate: Westernizing Europe’s’ Other Within,” in Western Music and Its Others: Difference, Representation, and Appropriation in Music, ed. Georgina Bom and David Hesmondhalgh (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 189. Richard Middleton, “Musical Belongings: Western Music and its Low-Other,” in Western Music and Its Others: Difference, Representation, and Appropriation in Music, ed. Georgina Bom and David Hesmondhalgh (Berkeley: University of Califomia Press, 2000), 59-60. 26 music.” The irony in all of this, as Middleton points out, is that in order to make such detailed distinctions it was necessary for Western music to understand “folk music” in order to use it as an antithesis. This irony did not occur to the many creators and proponents of the notion of “the folk” either in Europe or in North America or, if it did occur to any of them, it does not appear to have halted the deluge of derogatory comments against both the “folk” and their music.

Given the negative aura around the word “folk,” it is little wonder that musicians, and advocates for music, would move away from the term. The end of the entry in

Vallely’s The Companion to Irish Traditional Music reminds the reader that, while the term “traditional music” is currently considered politically correct, no term is completely free from political and social implications. This comment is an attempt at keeping the present generation of scholars from becoming too self-righteous in their use of “clean” terms, free from any presumptions or stereotypes. Further, Gearoid Ô hAllmhurain inA

Pocket History o f Irish Traditional Music suggests that no definition is possible. He writes: “There is no iron-clad definition of Irish traditional music. It is best understood as a broad-based system which accommodates a complex process of musical convergence, coalescence and innovation over time.”"^^ Nonetheless, given the nature of this thesis, a definition, albeit general, is needed.

Since this study belongs firmly in a period where the term “folk” has too many negative implications to be deliberately used, the term “traditional music” will be used, except where the term “folk music” occurs in a direct quotation. The definition of

Gearoid 6 hAllmhurain, A Pocket History o f Irish Traditional Music (Dublin: The O’Brien Press, 1998), 5. 27 tradition for this study is a combination ofWebster’s definition and a definition suggested by ethnomusicologist Marcia Herndon which emphasizes the importance of the group in determining the parameters of a specific tradition/^ While these explanations of the term both have their limitations they seem to convey the meaning of the word better than any other definition which has been considered in this research. The working description of traditional music for this thesis is any music which is passed down orally (at least in the early generations of the tradition although not necessarily in its modem manifestations), that contains inherited ideas, attitudes, techniques, and beliefs, and helps support and create a sense of communal continuity. Ultimately, traditional music is what the group accepts as traditional. Armed with this definition, the exploration of writing on the subject of Irish and Scottish traditional music can be undertaken with seemingly less ambiguity.

Scottish and Irish Traditional Music Academia has often made the assumption that traditional music can only exist where the societies are conservative, even stagnant. David Johnson comments about

Scottish traditional music that “it has little inherent desire for change, and if the society where it flourishes remains stable, it will stay the same for an indefinite period of time.”^*

The idea of a static society to keep a tradition pure and unchanged can only really be

“If we view a musical system as equal to the outer limits of its aesthetic boundaries, since it is only within the culturally acceptable range that value judgments will be made at all, it would then seem that these aesthetic boundaries, or what is accepted by the group or in-group as music, canalize musical systems....” Marcia Herndon, “Analysis: Herding Sacred Cows,” Ethnomusicology 18, no.2 (1974): 248. David Johnson, Music and Society in Lowland Scotland in the Eighteenth Century (London: Oxford University Press, 1972), 87. 28 espoused from those entering the tradition from the outside since within the tradition this idea would seem ludicrous. Tomas O Canainn, an expert musician on the uilleann pipes, dealt with this misconception when he wrote:

In many ways the Irish tradition might be regarded as a conservative one, since

the very idea of a tradition is unthinkable if one does not imply conservation of

certain features of the past. Yet it need not mean that there is the positive dislike

of innovation implied by the word conservative, for one finds a tendency among

traditional performers to alter the material they use. The change may take the

form of variation of a melody in successive verses of a song, or it may be a

permanent long-term change through the process of oral transmission. Both are

quite common in the Irish tradition and there is ample evidence to show that they

are an essential part of it.^^

Although Ô Canainn is discussing the Irish tradition specifically, his comments could be equally applied to the Scottish tradition. Willa Muir, while discussing ballads in

Scotland, notes that, while she and her peers did not actively question the oral tradition they were given, they were also not passive carriers of the tradition.M uir proceeds to discuss the ways in which she and her friends altered the tradition that was handed down to them through rhythm, changes in lyrics, and note variations.

While the nature of tradition infers some adherence to the past, a “conservative” label for either the music itself or the society it resides in can bring with it the connotation that the society is fearful of modernity and change. This associated meaning

Tomas Ô Canainn, Traditional Music in Ireland (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978), 3. Willa Muir, Living With Ballads (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 32. 29 links into the earlier discussion of the negative connotations sometimes attached to the term “folk.” The music and the musicians are easier to dismiss, or to control, if they are viewed as people who do not challenge or question. Musicians and scholars, like Ô

Canainn, are working to erase the misconception of the static nature of oral traditions.

Musicologist William Ferris, in his introduction toFolk Music and Modern Sound, states succinctly that “Folk music has a history of change based on technological, cultural, and social change.”^'^

Part of the strong argument against the static nature of tradition is the use of vocal and instrumental music variation in the Scottish and Irish traditions. A tradition can hardly be viewed as stagnant if it is constantly changing. Variation is discussed with regards to both vocal and instrumental music. Hugh Shields, working with old ballads sung in Irish, called sean-nos singing, writes:

Words, melody, and their interpretation vary from singer to singer and occasion to

occasion, and orally transmitted songs owe their reality to oral occasions more

than to any representation of the songs in media (including writing).... And

though ballad sheets, songbooks and manuscripts have long made a traditional

contribution to the learning of songs, few Irish narrative songs or songs ‘about’

things which have happened have been strongly influenced by ‘alphabetical’

support. We shall, to be sure, notice little evidence of the systemic use of

improvisatory or ‘re-creative’ techniques in Irish songmaking. But improvising

William Ferris, “Introduction,” in Folk Music and Modern Sound, ed. William Ferris and Mary L. Hart (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1982), x 30

takes place all the same. The whole process of variation depends upon it, both

musically and verbally.^^

Shields indicates the importance of variation in the vocal portion of the Irish tradition, but other scholars discuss variation in the perspective of the entire tradition.

Sean Ô Riada, one of the major figures in Irish traditional music in tfie middle part of the twentieth century, detailed the variations used for each instrument in the Irish tradition.

He went so far as to state that the correct use of variation was “— the underlying principle of all traditional Irish music.”^^

The use of variation is clearly present in the Scottish tradition, though it has not been studied as widely as in Ireland. George Emmerson, in his book Rantin ’ Pipe and

Tremblin ’ String: A History o f Scottish Dance Music, refers back to early documentation of the use of variation in the Scottish tradition. Emmerson cites in passing a work dated

1802 which notes that no two musicians play a tune in the same way.^^ Further, in her discussion of ballads in northern Scotland, Willa Muir writes about the singer’s use of variation: “The singer apparently keeps in mind the direction the flow of feeling should take; provided he makes it rise or fall in the appropriate places, he is fi-ee to improvise.”^*

The use of variation in the Scottish tradition can also be viewed from the angle of regional variations in style. Kathleen Dunlay mentions the difference between styles in Scotland: “It is significant that Scottish fiddle music of the country and Scottish

Hugh Shields, Narrative Singing in Ireland: Lays, Ballads, Come-All-Yes and Other Songs (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1993), 8. Sean Ô Riada, Our Musical Heritage, ed. Thomas Kinsella and Tomas 6 Canainn (Portlaoise, Ireland: Funduireacht an Riadaigh, 1982), 50. ^ George S. Emmerson, Rantin ’ Pipe and Tremblin ’ String: A History o f Scottish Dance Music (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002), 57 Willa Muir, Living With Ballads (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 158. 31 fiddle music of the city were never one and the same style, although they were closely related and symbiotic.”^^ While Dunlay is not discussing the use of variation in the tradition, she is pointing to other related differences within the tradition.

Clearly the use of variation makes both Irish and Scottish musical traditions anything but static. If each time a piece is performed it is slightly altered, then each time it is learned by another generation the tradition has changed, if only slightly. The musicians are not merely peasants who blindly repeat what their ancestors taught them, but creators and interpreters in their own right. This has been noted not only by current scholars but by scholars in the past as well. Mary Anne Alburger, a current interpreter of

Scottish fiddle tradition, writes that it is completely impossible to repeat exactly a piece of violin music. Thus, every piece contains variations. She states:

Thankfully, it is almost — if not entirely — impossible to copy another person’s

playing slavishly. Nor, indeed, is it usual for most fiddlers even to be able to

repeat exactly what they have just played; unless the music is being played rigidly

and automatically, in intellectually or spiritually sterile condition, spontaneity is

always present.

Further she comments on the use of variation and personal style in this way, “Although each musician has in his background a family tradition of music which he is continuing

Kathleen E. Dunlay, “The Playing of Traditional Scottish Dance Music: Old and New World Styles and Practices,” in Celtic Languages and Celtic Peoples: Proceedings o f the Second North American Congress o f Celtic Studies, ed. Cyril J. Byrne, Margaret Harry, and Pâdraig Ô Siadhail (Halifax: D’Arcy McGee Chair of Irish Studies, 1992), 173. Mary Anne Alburger, Scottish Fiddlers and Their Music (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1983), 209. 32 the real store-house of style remains in each individual.”^* The music is altered slightly every time it is played making each musician a creator in some way.

As well as defending the creative nature of the musical traditions there is another common thread in the scholarship about Irish and Scottish traditional music. In both traditions there are references to hereditary musical families. Andrea Budgey, in her work on medieval Scottish and Irish music, makes the comment that a “study of the

Gaelic learned orders suggests close relations between the music families and those of the hereditary bards.”^^ John Gibson, writing about Scottish music in the 1600s, notes that as musical ideas moved from the Gaelic speaking aristocracy to the lower classes there was still a sense that being a musician was somewhat hereditary within the community. In another article Gibson gives an explicit example. He refers to a historian from the latter half of the 1800s named Alexander MacKenzie who was working on the history of the

Clan MacKenzie. Gibson writes:

MacKenzie visited Squire John MacKay, stipendiary magistrate in New Glasgow

in the late 1860s, to find out what had become of the family and the music of the

hereditary pipers to the MacKenzies of Gairloch, who had settled thereabouts in

1805/"

Ibid. Andrea Budgey, “Commeationis et Affmitatis Gratia: Medieval Musical Relations between Scotland and Ireland,” in History, Literature, and Music in Scotland, 700-1560, ed. R. Andrew McDonald (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), 217. John G. Gibson, Old and New World Highland Bagpiping (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002),13. ^ John G. Gibson, “Traditional Piping in Nova Scotia, ” inCeltic Languages and Celtic Peoples: Proceedings o f the Second North American Congress o f Celtic Studies, ed. Cyril J. Byrne, Margaret Harry, and Pâdraig 6 Siadhail (Halifax: D’Arcy McGee Chair of Irish Studies, 1992), 160. 33

Although Gibson is discussing the existence or non-existence of hereditary pipers in

North America, he is also indirectly claiming the existence of a hereditary tradition in

Scotland. MacKenzie is here witnessing the decline of the hereditary piper. Gibson points out that Squire John himself would have learned to play the pipes as part of the tradition. However, “His older brother Angus, who had died two or three years before

MacKenzie’s visit, had stopped playing it [ceol mor] and had concentrated on ceol beag.. .Angus would have been next in line as hereditary Gairloch piper and presumably received most of his father’s musical attention.”®^ The hereditary tradition of piping was clearly on dangerous ground in the early 1800s and came to Atlantic Canada in a crippled form; it was no longer the healthy tradition that had existed under the Gaelic aristocracy in the 1600s.^^ There is little reference to whether this hereditary tradition existed for other instrumentalists besides pipers and harpists who worked directly for the clan chiefs.

However, the level of playing that these families were capable of was evidently quite high since later in the article Gibson refers to them as “the great pipers, the hereditary pipers.”^^ This high level of performance on the pipes would make good sense in light of the fact that pipers to the clan chief were full-time musicians and therefore had a great deal more opportunity to practice than the ordinary musician who worked at some other trade for a living and played music only recreationally.

The reference to hereditary playing in the Irish tradition originates from the time when professional musicians played for the Gaelic aristocracy before the 1600s. Many of

Ibid., 161. ^ Ibid., 161. John G. Gibson, Old and New World Highland Bagpiping (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002), 161. 34 the references in the Irish scholarship to performers from musical families, after 1600, are not to full time musicians. A wonderful example of this comes from the work of Muiris

Mac Conghail in his book. The Blaskets: A Kerry Island L ib r a r y .Mac Conghail is discussing the Islanders at large, not the specific musical tradition on the Island, but he makes this reference early in his book. “At Bun an Bhaile you had two Ô Suilleabhain households, the one further to the left towards an Gob being one of the musical families on the Island.”^^ Later he makes references to another musical family where both the father and the son “were traditional musicians” and this family, the Ô Cathain family, has continued to play music. Mac Conghail writes, “The musical tradition is continued by the present generation of the family.”^*^ As members of the Blasket Island community these musicians were hardly professional musicians, but were instead members of the community who played in their leisure time. In the latter half of his bookTraditional

Music in Ireland, Tomas Ô Canainn discusses several modem traditional musicians.

Most of these musicians note that they come from “musical families” and learned their instruments or at least developed their interest in the music from their parents. Since the music is to be passed down from generation to generation, in a predominately oral fashion, this seems to be a way to legitimize the authenticity of the music they have learned as “traditional.” Geoff Wallis and Sue Wilson mention this hereditary aspect of

Irish traditional music twice in their book. The Rough Guide to Irish Music. They write:

“There’s almost a stereotypical pattern to the careers of many Irish musicians which

^ Muiris Mac Conghail, The Blaskets: A Kerry Island Library (Dublin: Country House, 1987). Ibid., 37. Ibid. 35 begins in infancy — learning from parents or listening to music in the family home..

At the conclusion of this book Wallis and Wilson reiterate this point by writing:

As the saying goes, the family that plays together stays together and lineage plays

an integral role in the continuation of Ireland’s Musical tradition. Songs are

learned from the cradle onwards and instrumental skills are handed down the

moment a child reveals an aptitude. Certain families are revered for their abilities

and multifaceted skill of their members.

This hereditary aspect of traditional music did not disappear as the Irish and Scottish arrived on the shores of Atlantic Canada. Lauchie MacLellan, a Cape Bretoner and traditional singer raised during the early part of the 1900s, still felt the strong trends towards hereditary musicians. John Shaw wrote about MacLellan’s early training in this way:

It was during this time that Lauchie first raised the subject of his family tradition

and its transmission to him through his uncle Neil. He took pleasure in discussing

the traditions and the personalities that had been important formative and guiding

factors during his life.^^

The existence of hereditary pipers in Scotland and musical families in Ireland found a position in the newly forming traditions of Atlantic Canada as did other facets of both traditions, such as the use of variation. While the importance of musical families is not as

Geoff Wallis and Sue Wilson, The Rough Guide to Irish Music (London: Rough Guides, 2001), 6. Ibid., 244. Lauchie MacLellan, Brigh an Grain: A Story in Every Song the Songs and Tales o f Lauchie MacLellan, trans. and ed. John Shaw (Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2000), xx. 36 strong today, over the entire Atlantic Canada region, as it has been in the past, many of the musicians playing traditional music in Atlantic Canada today learned the music from their parents or relatives. This issue will be addressed further in the final chapter of this thesis.

Who owns or who controls the tradition? The issue of heritage leads directly to the idea of ownership. Who controls or who owns traditional music? Do the musicians themselves hold the music separate from the community, or does the community hold the tradition leaving the musicians as mere vessels? These questions are too large to answer definitively within this particular study.

However, they need to be voiced to give a broader picture of the current discourse on the subject of ownership and traditional music.

Scholars working in the area of Scottish and Irish traditional music have many varied opinions about who controls or owns the tradition. This question is important to address. If musicians are considered artists they must have creative freedom but if the music is to affirm the community and its heritage the community must have some control over the music. In a larger sense, are traditional musicians creators of culture or vessels to transfer a culture to another generation?

Hugh Shields, in his book on the narrative song tradition in Ireland, places most of the control with the community. “Songs to be listened to.. .are the choice of the community, and it is chiefly the community which by favour or neglect governs repertory, as it governs style by approval or disfavour.”’'^ Shields’s description does not

Hugh Shields, Narrative Singing in Ireland: Lays, Ballads, Come-All-Yes and Other Songs (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1993), 141. 37

lend much to the idea of artistic freedom. Neither does Willa Muir’s description of a

ballad singer, who is, “the vehicle through which flows a remarkable sense of duration,

almost of inevitable ceremony and ritual.”^^ The reference to ceremony and ritual seems

to suggest that the musician has no artistic freedom over the tradition at all. Further,

Marcia Herndon and Norma McLeod seem to believe that creativity of any kind is not

possible in the genre of traditional music given their definition of creativity. The idea

must be completely original for it to be categorized as creative and is dubbed merely

innovative if the idea works within an already existing framework.W hile their

description of creativity may at first glance appear to be irrefutable, on closer inspection

it is nearly impossible in any genre and even more so within a traditional genre to be

creative given this definition. T.S. Eliot struggled with the idea of creativity in an essay

entitled, “Traditional and the Individual Talent.” In it he writes:

No poet, no artist of any art, has his complete meaning alone. His significance,

his appreciation is the appreciation of his relation to the dead poets and artists.

You cannot value him alone; you must set him, for contrast and comparison,

among the dead.’^

Even in non-traditional music genres the past has to be absorbed and assimilated before a new artistic work is formed. Inside the traditional genre the past is learned in a certain way and the present is created in a particular way as well but this is true of any genre.

Traditional musicians are as personally creative as musicians in any genre.

Willa Muir, Living With Ballads (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 46. Marcia Herndon and Norma McLeod, Music as Culture (Norwood, Pa., Norwood Editions, 1979), 43. T.S. Eliot, “Tradition and the Individual Talent,” in Selected Essays (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1932), 15. 38

Conversely, perhaps the creativity of the musicians is not an important issue.

Seamus Ceallaigh, writing about poets and musicians, writes that: “The Gaelic poet was an interactive component of society, not an inventor, but a voice speaking the emotions and visions of all people in the community.”^* There is, however, an inherent problem in

Ceallaigh’s logic since musicians in both the Scottish and Irish traditions depended heavily on personal variation as part of the music and in the Scottish tradition the composing of entirely new tunes was a well-accepted practice. George Emmerson comments on this aspect of the Scottish tradition with an almost cavalier attitude stating that almost every musician had written music.^^

This places Emmerson in direct opposition to those scholars who place all the ownership with the community and place little, if any, value on the creativity of the musicians. Breandân Breathnach, a traditional musician himself, would tend to coneur with Emmerson. Breathnach places the responsibility of saving Irish traditional music directly on the musicians: “Its continuity as a living thing depends on those of us who play it and upon those of us who leam it. Its future rests in our own hands.”*® By saying this, Breathnach is inferring that while the community is important to the music, ultimate responsibility and therefore control rests with the musicians. Tomas Ô Canainn sees a balance between the two viewpoints as well. In discussing one of his teachers, he says:

Seamus Ceallaigh, “The Gaelic Middle Passage to Canada,” in Cultural Identities in Canadian Literature, ed. Bénédicte Mauguière (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., 1998), 46. George S. Emmerson, Rantin ’ Pipe and Tremblin ’ String: A History o f Scottish Dance Music (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002), 57. *® Ibid., 127. 39

He had the ability to transform completely a well-known song into something

quite new.... One’s interest was held in every line as he applied his traditional

skill to the reshaping of the phrases, finding climaxes where one would hardly

have expected them and yet being at all times convincing.*’

When Ô Canainn discusses making a song “convincing,” he is referring to a sense of authenticity inside the tradition, the use of variation techniques considered standard amongst singers. This use of standard techniques in an innovative way allows Ô Canainn to conclude that, “The singer of tales is at once the traditional and an individual creator.”*^ Ô Canainn’s explanation of the ownership of the tradition is consistent with the findings of James R. Cowdery in his book The Melodic Tradition o f IreilandP

Cowdery discusses the idea that knowledge of history surrounding a song and the community’s culture are both necessary for the musician to be a genuinely traditional musician. The singer has control of how he or she interprets the song, but that happens within the context of the community, which therefore helps to shape or control the rules the singer uses to create the song.*'’

While it seems that neither the musician nor the community can claim sole ownership of the tradition, are both sides necessary to produce traditional music? Charles

Seeger answers this question by asserting that the only way to destroy a culture is to

*’ Tomas Ô Canainn, Traditional Music in Ireland (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978), 107. *2 Ibid., 4. *^ James R. Cowdery, The Melodic Tradition o f Ireland (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1990), x. *'* This dual role of individual creator and vessel for community heritage is also mentioned by Willa Muir. Willa Muir, Living With Ballads (New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 35. 40 eliminate the bearers of its traditions. He maintains that “continuity and creativity” are essential to keep a tradition alive and for that you need people who live the culture and its traditions in close proximity to one another. If the community is scattered then the musicians have no context; conversely it is obvious that without the musicians the community would have no music and lose a large piece of its culture. The ownership of the tradition is a blending of the community and the individual musician. In a sense, it is a symbiotic relationship; one would have difficulty existing without the other, if they could exist at all. Blacking, in his discussion of music as art, presents the idea of a balance between the community and the individual quite clearly. He states.

The purpose of art is to capture force with form: the force of individual human

experience and the form of collective cultural experience, of certain given orders

of relationships, social, musical, and otherwise.*®

The Position of Musicians in the Community Traditional musicians are supported by the community, the community gives context to the music — the musicians in return give a sense of ethnic identity to the community, a sense of history and heritage, a sense of belonging both to the specific community and to the larger culture the community exists in. While discussing poets in

Cape Breton, Seamus Ceallaigh refers to John MacLean and Alexander McLachlan. He states that, “Both poets sought to be recorders of their communities’ experiences and the

Charles Seeger, Studies in Musicology 1935-1975 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), 338. *® John Blacking, Music, Culture, and Experience: Selected Papers o f John Blacking, ed. Reginald Byron (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 52. 41 seers who helped renew their communities’ visions of self and context.”*^ In both Irish and Scottish society poets and musicians held similar positions and this attitude toward them was transferred into the community setting in the New World.^^ Without musicians a community would lose part of its sense of history and cohesion.

Breandân Breathnach makes a direct statement about the reason Irish people should understand Irish music. He writes: “There is a compelling reason why we should know our own music: it is our own.”^^ Implied in this statement is that part of being Irish is knowledge of the music, that somewhere in the music is part of the character of the

Irish. This sense that music contains and teaches something about the character of a people is also echoed in the scholarship about Scottish music.^° This places musicians in the position of forming, or at least informing, the character of the immediate community, the larger national community, and the dispersed community across the globe. If the music carries national or communal character, it is also by default a representative of national character to anyone who hears the music from outside the community. Gerald of

Wales visited Ireland in the late twelfth century and wrote extensively about his travels there. While he complained about many things in Ireland, he delighted in the music

Seamus Ceallaigh, “The Gaelic Middle Passage to Canada,” in Cultural Identities in Canadian Literature, ed. Bénédicte Mauguière (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., 1998), 46. George Sigerson uses the two terms almost interchangeably in his book,Bards o f the Gael and Gall. George Singerson,Bards o f the Gael and Gall (New York: Lemma Pub.Corp, 1974). Breandân Breathnach, Folk Music and Dances o f Ireland (Dublin: Mercier Press Ltd., 1977), 121. George S. Emmerson, Rantin'Pipe and Tremblin' String: A History o f Scottish Dance Music (Montreal: McGill Queen's University Press, 1971), v 42 which he seemed to find the one redeeming quality about the Irish people/' John Clark

Murray, writing in the early nineteenth century about Scotland, also found the more commendable portions of the nation’s character in its traditional music. His book.The

Ballads and Songs o f Scotland, In View o f Their Influence on the Character o f the

People, detailed how the different types of their traditional songs had given the Scottish people certain character traits.^^

The theory of music defining a nation's character is generally not accepted in the modem academic world, but the intertwining of the idea of character and music has continued to the present day.^^ Leaving the discussion of a national character aside, many scholars and musicians have commented on how traditional music provides a definable sense of heritage and history for the community. Alan Titley, an Irish writer and critic, while discussing music, culture, and language, explained it in this way:

Gaelic culture and the Irish language are both very real and very symbolic. And

the symbol is the compliment that the actual pays to the ideal. At a very deep

level the country knows where it has come from.^''

This statement by Titley is still rather abstract. Luckily, the reality of creating a sense of heritage and self, through the generations, does have concrete actions, events that make the passing down of a culture tangible. Desi Wilkinson, a musician, describes such a

Andrea Budgey, “Commeationis et Affinitatis Gratia: Medieval Musical Relations between Scotland and Ireland,” in History, Literature, and Music in Scotland, 700-1560, ed. R. Andrew McDonland (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), 217. John Clark Murray, Ballads and Songs o f Scotland: in View o f Their Influence on the Character o f the People (London: Macmillan and Co., 1874). Nuala O’ Connor,Bringing it all Back Home: The Influence o f Irish Music (London: BBC Books, 1991), 2. Alan Titley, A Pocket History o f Gaelic Culture (Dublin: O'Brien Press, 2000), 108. 43

tangible point when he reealls his official introduction to traditional music. He says:

I was listening to pop music, rock musie; and suddenly down the street from me

there was a man playing musie, and it was great tun. He was playing musie 1

wasn’t too familiar with, but on hearing the odd wee bit from a song and a story

that my father would come out with subsequently, even though he wasn’t a

musician himself, I could identify with what I was learning from Tommy because

of what my father was doing, which was telling me a yam in a certain way and

singing a song.^^

Wilkinson points out an interesting facet of traditional music, in both the Scottish and

Irish traditions — the use of stories around the music. The practice of giving background to the time, where it was learned, the history behind it, etc., is not only a part of the tradition itself but fosters the sense of history conveyed through the music.®^

With this pattern of dissemination there are two ways to teach the history of a community tied up in the one event of music; first, there is the actual musie, the notes, rhythms, words, melody etc.; second, there is the narrative which helps place the piece in context and provides an additional way to foster a sense of community and teach the next generation about the community’s history.

Marie McCarthy has done an extensive study of the importance of learned identity and culture through traditional music. She believes that the musie is central to a person’s understanding of belonging. She discusses traditional music as a way of confirming a person’s identity within not just the immediate community but several other larger

Peter McNamee, ed. Traditional Music: Whose Music? (Belfast: The Institute of Irish Studies, 1991), 39. Ibid., 57. 44 communities.^^ While this set of inter-linking rings of membership could exist in any traditional community, it is especially powerful in the Irish and Scottish traditions.

McCarthy comments that these are “issues of Irish identity, since not only is the music itself (rhythms and tones, for example) transmitted but also as a set of values and beliefs that are inextricable linked to political, social, cultural or economic power structures and ideologies in the culture at large.”^^ If this line of reasoning is followed, then the musicians who dispense the music take on not merely an important role in the community but an essential role. McCarthy proceeds to break down the transmission of culture through music, into the following components:

music as culture (as foundation and motivation for transmission), music as canon

(a content and set of values that is transmitted), music as community (a context of

transmission) and music as communication (a system of methods, media and

technologies used in transmission).^^

While these categories are too detailed for the scope of this study, McCarthy clearly shows the complex and crucial position of musicians if the music itself contains such vast amounts of history and knowledge.

The essential role of musicians did not cease with the immigration of the Irish and

Scottish to North America. There are many aspects to the way these two traditions metamorphosed once they arrived in North America. However, the importance of musicians and community continued. In Old and New World Highland Bagpiping John

Marie McCarthy, Passing It On: The Transmission o f Music in Irish Culture (Cork, Ireland: Cork University Press, 1999), 2. Ibid, 3. Ibid., 9 45

Gibson refers to traditional musicians as “the great memory-cultivators.”‘°° This term is quite powerful and makes a very strong case for the essential position of musicians inside a community.

As communities have shifted and their group dynamics have changed, the position of musicians has been transformed in Ireland and Scotland and in North America. The role of community teacher has moved away from musicians and towards official teachers in classrooms. Oddly enough, many times these teachers have been the ones who continued the musical education as well.

In Ireland Hugh Shields comments that, “Teachers, for their parts.. .have continued to figure as sustainers and transmitters, not to mention makers, of traditional song.”*®* General musicologists, Marcia Herndon and Norma McLeod, studying modem traditional music, have agreed that, “While music learning involves enculturation, only some may involve schooling or education.”*®^ It should be noted here that while more academics are concerning themselves with traditional music and musicians, the music itself comes from outside academia and the communities and musicians should have a place in the scholarship.

In a 1992 conference in Belfast run by the Co-operation North to discuss the nature of traditional music, Sean Corcoran made the point that the discussions of traditional music belonged to everyone, not just academics: “Normally these topics are

*®® John Gibson, Old and New World Highland Bagpiping (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2002), 6 *®* Hugh Shields, Narrative Singing in Ireland: Lays, Ballads, Come-All-Yes and Other Songs (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1993), 161. *®^ Marcia Herndon and Norma McLeod, Music as Culture (Norwood, Pa.: Norwood Editions, 1979), 32. 46 debated by musicians themselves in the back rooms of public houses, or sitting on a wall at a Fleadh, or places like that; or else they are debated by academics.”**^^ He then proceeds to point out that the discussion actually belongs to the public as well, a sentiment which seems to imply that the public has a shared interest in the music as a cultural identifier.

While June Skinner Sawyers is not precisely a scholar in the area of traditional music, she does choose to quote one, a historian named John O'Driscoll who wrote that the Irish and Scottish had “a belief in the aristocracy of the imagination and the honoured place of the poet. Given the fever over the debate over who should even discuss the music, the musicians are clearly still “honoured” in some way. Their role as cultural transmitters continues. But what are they teaching, what images are they projecting to the wider communities their music now reaches?

Conclusion Many of the traits of traditional music can be easily and succinctly seen in the liner notes and music of Atlantic Canada being recorded today. A detailed look at the contents of some of the recently released albums will occur in a later chapter of this study. However, one particular album sums up much of this discussion of the nature of tradition and its many facets. In the liner notes of their first album. Red is the Rose, the

Ennis Sisters make this statement:

Peter McNamee, ed., Traditional Music: Whose Music?: Proceedings o f a Co­ operation North Conference (Belfast: The Institute of Irish Studies, 1992), 2 June Skinner Sawyers, The Complete Guide to Celtic Music (London: Aurum Press, 2000), 5. 47

Thanks to everyone who bought our album and we truly hope you enjoy every

selection, as we try to preserve our wonderful Irish and Newfoundland musical

traditions while making our own contributions.

The Ennis Sisters are acting as active participants in their cultural heritage as

Newfoundlanders. The album contains a version — an arrangement, by the sisters — of

“Red is the Rose,” a song about lost love in Killamey, Ireland credited to the Irish tradition.The album also contains an arrangement of “Out from St. Leonard’s,” a piece written by Gary O’Driscoll about evacuation from a Newfoundland island in the

1960s. How the Ennis Sisters learned this tune, whether it was from a family member or through some written form, is not stated. Both of these songs reveal a portion of the

Ennis Sisters’ cultural traditions and in the case of “Out from St. Leonard’s” provide a way to remember the past of their province. The arrangements have allowed these musicians to be at once creators and transmitters of their musical tradition.

Out From St. Leonard’s

In the mid 1960s the news rang out clear.

Pack your bags and your nets you must get out of here

Take your picks and your shovels, your rakes and your hoes,

The government says you must pack up and go

105 The Ennis Sisters, Red is the Rose, Independent, 1997, CD. The exact origin of “Red is the Rose” is difficult to track. It may have been composed in North America by Irish immigrants or composed in Ireland itself. However, the feeling of an Irish connection, which is particularly strong in Newfoundland, is conveyed no matter where the song originated. 48

Well, the news it soon spread to the harbours and coves

That the young crowd were leavin’ in hordes and in droves

For to go to Toronto to follow their goals

For to go to Placentia to live off the dole

Chorus

And it’s out from St. Leonard’s and out from Toslow

they’d steam ’cross the bay with their houses in tow

With their beds in the bow and their stoves in the stem

bound away with their sons and their daughters.

107 Gary O’Driscoll, Out From St.Leonard’s on The Ennis Sisters, Red is the Rose, Independent, 1997, CD. 49

Chapter Two

The Music Industry and Atlantic Canada

“The single most important development in modern music is making a business out o f it. — Frank Zappa

Introduction Music has historically been a prominent part of Nova Scotian culture. Harry

Young Payzant, a Canadian historian, commented about early Nova Seotia social gatherings: “One fiddler beeomes exhausted only to have his place taken by another, and so the dance goes on.”^ This musical tradition has developed an industry around it sinee the late 1980s. The launehing of the East Coast Music Awards in 1989, a showcase of regional musical talent across Canada and part of the , is a sign of the ever- increasing importance of the musical arts as a business within Atlantic Canada. While there are many who lament the commercialization of local music, the music industry has brought the region a prestige that reaches beyond the borders of Canada. In David

Baskervilles’s Music Business Handbook and Career Guide, Riehard Flohil points out that “Canada has always been a weleome host for multinational recording firms, and all the major eompanies are active in Canada. These include Warner, EMI, PolyGram,

* * R.A. Berman and R. D’Amico, “Popular Music from Adorno to Zappa,”Telos 91, no. 125: 87. ^ Harry Young Payzant, People: A Story o f the People o f Nova Scotia (Bridgewater, Nova Scotia: 1935), 345. 50

Sony, MCA, and BMG.”^ Many of these companies have contracts with artists in

Atlantic Canada. With the large, global music industry involved, the musical culture of

Atlantic Canada has the potential to be heard far outside regional borders.

This musical culture is being spread via an industry that can trace its origins to the turn of the twentieth century. To understand how the music industry developed in

Atlantic Canada in particular, it is first necessary to look at the evolution of recorded music in general.

The Beginnings of Recorded Sound and Music Thomas Alva Edison is credited with creating the first recording device in 1877 in

New Jersey.”* Emile Berliner would gain the Canadian patent for the first flat disc-(strips of tinfoil and wax cylinders had been used previously) in 1887.^ Berliner’s flat disc recording method allowed easy duplication, making him a leader in the recording business.^ Although initially Berliner would take this technology back to Germany to start a company, which would eventually become known as Deutsche Grammophon, he returned to North America after a short time and began to consolidate his business in

Montreal.^ In 1904, Berliner took out a charter from the government of Canada, which allowed his recording company to be the first to press and distribute records in Canada.

^ Richard Flohil, “The Canadian Music Industry; A Quick Guide,” in Music Business Handbook and Career Guide, ed. David Baskerville (London: Sage Publications, 1995), 498. ”* Timothy Day, A Century o f Recorded Music: Listening to Musical History (London: Yale University Press, 2000), 1. ^ Ibid., 14. ® Ibid., 2. ^ Oliver Read and Walter L. Welch, From Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution o f the Phonograph (Indianapolis, Indiana: Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc., 1976), 119. 51

Despite the arrival of other record companies, such as Columbia, Berliner’s company remained dominant in Canada for some time.*

As early companies grew they began to create lists of their available records for customer selection. These lists eventually became entire catalogs. A brief perusal of these early record catalogues reveals a great deal about the taste of the middle class that increasingly in the 1900-1914 era had the resources to purchase gramophones and records. It was the average middle class listener’s taste that was driving record sales.^

The music that was recorded as well as music that was not recorded help indicate middle class musical values.

Missing from the catalogues of early recordings is ethnic music. Although

Berliner had released a series of French Canadian records, they were actually recorded in

France, and were of songs popular in France at that time, rather than the ethnic folk music of the Québécois.

The absence of ethnic music may seem strange given that most traditional music is quite palatable to the ear and would have been familiar to at least some of the listeners who were recent immigrants. One answer to this enigma may lie in the taste of the middle class of the period, which tended to de-emphasize their ethnic origins. Ethnic heritage was often seen as a sign of the poverty that had forced their emigration and that they had endured after their arrival in North America before establishing themselves.

During the early twentieth century, the place of traditional music and tradition in general

* Edward B. Moogk, Roll Back the Years: History o f Canadian Recorded Sounds and Its Legacy, Genesis to 1930 (Ottawa: National Library of Canada, 1975), 19-21. ^ Timothy Day,A Century o f Recorded Music: Listening to Musical History (London: Yale University Press, 2000), 6. Edward B. Moogk, Roll Back the Years: History o f Canadian Recorded Sounds and Its Legacy, Genesis to 1930 (Ottawa: National Library of Canada, 1975), 20. 52 was in an uneasy and strange position, especially in the homes of the middle and upper classes. David Gross, in his book. The Past in Ruins: Tradition and the Critique o f

Modernity, makes the following statement, “By 1900...tradition seemed to have eroded beyond the point of recovery.”"

Another reason for the lack of ethnic recordings may be found in the movement of social classes in North America in the early twentieth century. The upper class, desperately seeking to find a definition for itself, looked increasingly to Europe as a model.The European definition of what constituted “high” artistic merit or “good” music included traditional music only as thematic fodder for classical composers. The music purchased and played in the home, therefore, had to adhere to the image of gentility which the upper class was trying to project and the middle class was attempting to mimic. The music industry catered to this desire with incredible ease.

Victor/Berliner’s red label records (Berliner purchased Victor Records and eventually was known only as Victor) carried names like Caruso, Antonio Scottie, Marcella

Sembrick, Nellie Melba, and Louise Homer, all of whom were well-known classical singers. The impeccable classical music performed by these artists, in the living rooms of the middle class, slowly replaced the traditional music of their parents and grandparents.

Despite this unpromising start, several important technological developments would eventually aid the recording of traditional music by expanding the audience for

" David Gross, The Past in Ruins: Tradition and the Critique o f Modernity (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), 50. *^Charles Seeger, Studies in Musicology: 1935-1975 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), 227. Oliver Read and Walter L. Welch, From Tin Foil to Stereo'. Evolution o f the Phonograph (Indianapolis, Indiana: Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc., 1976), 182. 53 recorded music in general. One of these developments was the Victrola, the phonograph marketed by Berliner’s Victor Company. The Victrola was so popular that the Victor

Company had earned millions of dollars from its sales by the early 1900s and it had become a standard piece of household furniture for those with the means to purchase one/^

While the Victrola carried music into the homes of many families, increasing advancements with vacuum tubes would lead to another invention, radio. During the

First World War, large advancements were made in radio technology through military funding. Initially, the record companies paid little attention to the experiments or to the public introduction of radio, which they viewed as a fad. The first broadcasting station with regular scheduling began in 1920 in Montreal on station XWA (currently CFCF) which was owned by the Canadian Marconi Company. By 1924, the radio audiences were rapidly expanding. Radio provided virtually free entertainment and the feeling that the listener was present at the place of performance, however distant and exotic that place was.*^ It was possible to hear a radio program across the entire expanse of Canada by

1927. The owners of Columbia and Victor/ Berliner realized they were losing business to radio.*’ Victor made a deal with RCA (Radio Company of America) to create phonographs with radio sets in them.*^

The other important development in the first quarter of the twentieth century to

Ibid., 181. Encyclopedia o f Music in Canada, s.v. “Broadcasting,” http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com (accessed June 2004). Oliver Read and Walter L. Welch, From Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution o f the Phonograph (Indianapolis, Indiana: Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc., 1976), 182. *’ Ibid., 237. ** Ibid., 144. 54 affect the record industry strongly and by extension the recording of traditional music was the development of the film industry. When sound began to be integrated into commercial films in 1926 movies became a wonderful marketing tool for new songs.

Audiences who viewed films left the theater having been exposed to the music and then could purchase recordings of those songs.^° As audiences grew through Victrolas, radio, and film, and recording technology improved, lowering the cost of records, traditional music began to make a significant appearance in the record catalogues.

Throughout the rest of the twentieth century, recording technology continued to develop and its effect on the recording of traditional music expanded. The quest for a cleaner recorded sound led to developments such as the cassette tape (first introduced to the public in the 1970s), DAT recording (introduced in the late 1970s), and the Compact

Disc (introduced in the early 1980s).^* These advances not only helped create clearer recordings but ones that would last longer. Traditional musicians made ample use of this technology in two important ways, to record live performances outside the studio and to produce commercial and non commercial tapes which circulated amongst the community and allowed fellow musicians to leam tunes. Other advancements included the introduction of MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) to the public in 1983, which allowed musicians to create sounds in the studio that had never been possible before.^^

Musicians began experimenting with new combinations of sounds using electronic

Steve Schoenherr, “Motion Picture Sound 1910-1929,” http://history.acused.edu/gen/redording/motionpicturel.html (accessed June 2003). Andre Millard, America on Record: A History o f Recorded Sound (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 160. “Inventors,” http://inventors.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm7site =http://ac.acusd.edu/Histoi'y/recording/notes.html_(accessed November 2002). ^ Jeffrey Rona, The MIDI Companion, ed. Ronny S. Schiff (Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Hal Leonard Corporation, 1994), 7. 55 instruments and recordings of acoustic instruments. While this had little to do with traditional musicians at first, the level of experimentation in the studio began to rise and would eventually touch even the traditional music genre.

The advent of the Internet with capabilities to download and share music files currently plagues the music industry as well as artists in every musical genre. Napster, created in 1999, was a file-sharing program that could be accessed over the Internet and allowed millions of computers to share music files between themselves. This meant that potentially if just one person purchased a new album and downloaded the music onto his or her computer, thousands of people could also download those files and listen to the album without cost.^^ Some of the major record companies, including Sony, Universal,

Bertelsmann, EMI and Warner Music launched a lawsuit against Napster in 2000. The results of the trial were complex, but the overt outcome was that Napster was closed but, almost instantly, similar programs sprang into place. In 2004 programs like Morpheus,

Limewire, and KaZaA operate on much the same principle and allow music file sharing on an even larger scale than Napster. Recently, the growth of digital music and purchasing online to supply MP3 files for the iPods (portable digital music players) or for use on Apple’s iTunes has allowed some control over computer to computer file sharing.^'* If a song is purchased online it can be stored and played on that computer or sent to an iPod player, but the song can not be downloaded onto another computer using a file-sharing program such as KaZaA. However, the song can still be burned onto a CD, as with other file sharing programs, which creates tracking problems for researchers and

^ “A Brief History of the Internet,” http://www.isoc.org/intemet/history/brief.shtmI (accessed April 2003). MP3 files are a type of digital audio format. 56 royalty problems for record companies and musicians.

In spite of the negative applications of the Internet, all of the major record companies have recognized the business potential of advertising and selling over the

Internet, and now have websites with listening options to allow the buyer to hear the music before purchasing it. This is one further way of expanding the audience for traditional music. The Internet has also allowed an artistic freedom from record companies that had not existed in the past. Trevor Merridan points out that “The former

[artists] have become more aware of a possible direct connection with their fans through the Internet in a way which could ultimately cut out record companies altogether.”^^ The freedom that the Internet offers artists, not just to connect with their fans but to sell their own self-produced recordings and contact other artists across the world, has not yet been documented in depth, nor has the full weight of its impact on the music industry and traditional music been assessed.

The Structure of the Corporate Music Industry Just as technology has changed, so has the structure of the music industry itself.

By the end of the Second World War, the music industry had grown considerably from its humble origins and was predominately controlled by a few companies with hundreds of subsidiaries. This expansion continues today. In 2004 the five largest companies are

Universal, Sony, Bertelsmann, EMI, and Warner Music, which all own multiple labels and operate in multiple countries.^^ It is necessary to look at the structure of these

Trevor Merriden, Irresistible Forces: the Business Legacy o f Napster and the Growth o f the Underground Internet {Oxford: Capstone, 2001), 169. ^^Ibid., 33. 57 corporations to understand how they influence the music, in particular traditional music, that is recorded.

One way to negotiate the murky waters of the industry’s structure is to begin at the bottom level with the artist who is attempting to be recorded. The artist must in some way attract the attention of record producers. This can happen in a host of ways, and may or may not be aided by a demo record and/or an agent/manager. In his advice book to

“roots” performers, Keith Burgess spends an entire chapter on how to generate publicity and another entire chapter on finding performance opportunities that will give the most exposure.^’ In some communities there are local talent agencies that work as intermediaries between record companies and interested artists. When a contract is offered, the artist typically will work with a manager or attorney to ensure the best deal possible. Since each business relationship between an agent and an artist is different, the position of manager or agent is a complex one. Some managers have great artistic input and some deal more with the bookings and sales figures of an artist.^^

Many contracts include a clause that the record company will have final selection over which pieces are recorded. Clinton Heylin states that “The amount of control that the artist has over what the record company may choose, or more importantly choose not, to release is extremely limited....Each contract and each record company is slightly different as regards the exact amount of control they have over the album, so it is difficult to make definitive statements without studying each contract individually. Often the

Keith Burgess, Establishing Roots: a Beginner's Guide to Performing Roots Music in Canada (Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; Keith W. Burgess, 1995). David Baskerville, Music Business Handbook and Career Guide (London: Sage Publications, 1995), 165. ^ Clinton Heylin, Bootleg: The Secret History o f the Other Recording Industry (New York; St. Martin’s Press, 1994), 383. 58

companies, not the artist, design and produce the artwork, liner notes, etc., contained in

the album. The expertise used to design the liner notes and artwork is supposedly

gleaned from a keen knowledge of consumer trends and tastes which enables the albums

to sell at a higher rate. Artist control for liner notes and visual images used in packaging

varies considerably with each contract.

Consumer taste differs among different genres of music and between different

target audiences. Record companies use this knowledge not just in artwork and liner

notes but in the label actually listed on the album itself. Many large corporations keep

several smaller companies intact when they take them over, using them as specialty labels

focusing on a certain genre of music.^° At first glance this may appear to be an

unnecessary complication, but there is an interesting rationale for keeping multiple

smaller labels separate and somewhat independent under a large company’s umbrella of

control.^* This procedure allows the corporations, which are far too large to be attuned to

new developments and trends in the music world, to have a voice on the local level

without giving up the power and profit that comes from having the major artists already

signed to their company. The smaller companies/labels can take the economic risks with

new trends in music and artists. If these smaller companies uncover a trend which seems

to be growing, then the corporations can follow this trend. This means that when an artist

is signed to a smaller label, he or she may also be signing to a large corporation, which

owns the individual lahel.^^

Michael Chanan, Repeated Takes: a Short History o f Recording and Its Effects on Music (London: Verso, 1995), 153. ^'ibid., 155-6. Keith Negus, Music Genres and Corporate Cultures (London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 1999), 49. 59

There are advantages to large corporations controlling the music industry.

Corporations are able to spread the music out from a local area all over the world in a

way that was inconceivable thirty years ago. In today’s global economy, all of the large

music corporations are multinational, and inside these corporations, there is a reduced

distribution cost which further aids the spread of music to areas which might have been

previously overlooked. Traditional music from Atlantic Canada could conceivably be

sold in Asia.

The distribution process for recorded music is not nearly as complex as the

structure of the corporation itself. Although the distribution process has grown more

intricate over time, it is still in essence a chain from the record manufacturer through

several intermediaries to the consumer, as illustrated by Chart 1.

Chart 1 Record Distribution

Record Manufacturer

Recwd Distribute^ Online Record Sales Record Clubs

Leased Departments Record Retail Outlet

Consumer

The left side of the chart shows the movement of albums through leased departments. Leased departments are locations in non-music stores, for example, a small 60 rack in a grocery store or in a gift shop.^^ Recently, the use of the Internet to sell albums, as reflected in Online record sales in Chart 1, has allowed for higher sales from smaller companies and independent artists as well but the sales numbers have not begun to rival those of the large international music corporations.

The Music Industry In Atlantic Canada As mentioned earlier in this chapter, traditional music is found in very small quantities in the early record catalogues. Sinee these recordings represented a fraction of a company’s revenue they were the most likely to be cut in efforts to save money when the early companies, like Columbia, were experieneing difficulty. When the traditional pieces were first reeorded, many of the companies went to Europe to find the artists but, around the 1920s, the companies diseovered talent on this side of the Atlantic that would allow them to reeord at a much lower cost.

For this reason, some of the first recording companies to work in Atlantic Canada were American companies from that came north to record fiddle players from Cape Breton. Ian McKinnon states that the earliest recordings of fiddle music from

Cape Breton were made by Angus Chisholm, Dan J. Campbell and Angus Allan Gillis in the 1920s.^'' Columbia was one of the larger eompanies that made recordings in Cape

Breton during that deeade. McKinnon notes the confusion about what to call music from

Cape Breton, particularly fiddle music.

Sidney Shemel and M. William Krasilovsky, This Business o f Music, ed. Paul Ackerman (New York: Billboard Publishing Company, 1964), xix-xvx. Ian Franeis MeKinnon, “Fiddling to Fortune: The Role of Commercial Recordings made by Cape Breton Fiddlers in the Fiddle Music Tradition of Cape Breton Island” (master’s thesis. Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1989), 49. 61

Cape Breton fiddle music was perceived, by the Columbia company at least, as

being Scottish music; it was produced for sale to the Scottish ethnic market in

North America. Interestingly, however, one Cape Breton fiddler, Colin Boyd,

was grouped in with the Irish series (33000 F-33562 F) when his three 78 rpm

discs were released on the Columbia label in the late 1920s. Colin Boyd also did

some recording for Brunswick Records in Montreal in 1932. Two of his 78 discs

(Brunswick 533 and 534) were released in the United States in Brunswick’s 100

‘Songs from Dixie’ series.^^

McKinnon continues on to report that Decca Records also placed the music under the Scottish category.

Fiddle music represents the majority of the music first recorded in Atlantic

Canada, because it fit the 1920s’ market for “old-time music” as well as answering an

“ethnic” demand. “Old-time music” appears as a term coined in the southern United

States to refer to the old traditional songs from the United Kingdom. A particular style of fiddle music was associated with this “old-time music” sound. Decca was the last of the major record companies to carry this type of music, which they continued to do until the

1940s. By the end of the 1920s three of the major Canadian record companies, Berliner

Victor, Columbia and Brunswick, were recording in Atlantic Canada. Columbia was an

American owned company that had set up a firm base in Canada, and Berliner, as mentioned earlier, was one of the original Canadian recording companies. Brunswick was the last to arrive and started business in 1917. By the mid 1920s, though, Brunswick

35Ibid.,53. 62 was growing rapidly and was taking its place as a serious eontender against Victor and

Columbia.^®

It would be a misrepresentation of the history of Atlantic Canadian recording to focus solely on the three giants in the field and to ignore small local labels. Ian

McKinnon spends a good deal of time discussing the role of commercial recordings and the different labels that played a role in Cape Breton fiddling. It would also be a mistake to make large generalizations about the industry in Atlantic Canada since each company has a different history. Therefore, McKinnon’s practice of addressing some of the more influential small labels individually will be followed here.

Celtic and Rodeo Records Bemie Maelsaac started Celtic Records from his music store in Antigonish in

1935, to answer a loeal demand for recordings of fiddlers. He worked with Compo

Studios in Montreal to find the recording equipment and then ordered and distributed all of the records himself. The advantage of this small-scale distribution was that Maelsaac could tell what people were buying and eould personally keep traek of the numbers and sales. The majority of the albums were sold in the northern regions of Nova Seotia and

Cape Breton. Maelsaac recalled that there was little demand for fiddle musie in Halifax and smaller metropolitan areas. The label and all the master eopies were sold to George

Taylor, who owned Rodeo Records, in 1960.^’

Taylor founded Rodeo Reeords in 1951 along with Don Johnson, a distributor for

Edward B. Moogk, Roll Back the Years: History o f Canadian Recorded Sounds and Its Legacy, Genesis to 1920 (Ottawa: National Library of Canada, 1975), 102. ^^lan Francis McKinnon, “Fiddling to Fortune: The Role of Commereial Reeordings made by Cape Breton Fiddlers in the Fiddle Musie Tradition of Cape Breton Island” (master's thesis. Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1989), 56. 63

Quality Records in , who left the company shortly thereafter. In 1953, Taylor also began distributing Quality Records and running Rodeo Records at the same time out of Halifax. Interestingly, Taylor also worked with Compo Studios in Montreal, but only for the pressing of the records. During the 1950s Rodeo expanded to take in several other small labels besides Celtic, and one of these labels, Banff, had recorded some of the local traditional music. At least thirty four more recordings of traditional music were made while Taylor lived in Halifax. However, when he moved to Montreal in 1962, these recordings stopped.

The Rounder and Shanachie Labels In the 1940s the decision by major labels such as Decca to quit recording traditional “ethnic” music left a void in the industry. To some extent this was filled by the local labels whose distribution of these recordings was also primarily local. It was not until the 1970s that two folk labels would spring out of the anti-establishment movement in the United States and start to record traditional music in Nova Scotia on a large scale again. Rounder Records was founded in Massachusetts, in 1971, by a collective. Mac Wilson, one of the founding members of the company, had an interest in the music of Cape Breton, which led to the label’s presence in the area.^^

Shanachie is also an American company, which was founded in New York City by Richard Nevins and Dan Collins in 1975.^^ By 1979 they began looking beyond traditional Irish music, which they had previously been recording, and started recording

Cape Breton fiddlers. Both of these labels. Rounder and Shanachie, allowed greater artist

Ibid., 66-7. “Shanachie” http://www.shanachie.com/ (accessed February 2003). 64 control over liner notes and recording selections than other labels had before thern.'*'^

There were also many small independent labels in the Atlantic Provinces, which helped promote traditional music on a local scale although their output was low. These included: Audat, Big Harold, Banana, Cape Breton’s Magazine, Solar, Stepping Stone,

U.C.C.B. (University College of Cape Breton) and Brownrigg."**

Post World War Two Music Industry In Atlantic Canada Following the Second World War, when many of the larger companies had dropped their “ethnic” labels, there were some corporation changes that would ultimately affect Atlantic Canada when these companies did return to the area. These changes involved new companies taking up permanent residence in Canada. In 1949 the small US recording company Capitol started its Canadian division: Capitol Records of Canada. At this time Decca, RCA Victor (Victor purchased RCA in 1929), and Columbia had been dominating the Canadian market and Capitol was well aware of the potential of the northern market. One of the stars for Capitol Records of Canada was a Canadian player named Maynard Ferguson."*^ In 1955, the British Company EMI bought a share of

Capitol Records including part of Capitol Canada. The name changed to EMI Canada, and this company still holds an integral portion of the Canadian recording industry today."^^

Ian Francis McKinnon, “Fiddling to Fortune: The Role of Commercial Recordings made by Cape Breton Fiddlers in the Fiddle Music Tradition of Cape Breton Island” ^master's thesis. Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1989), 69. Ibid.,70. Nicholas Jennings, Fi/iy Fears o f Music: the Story ofEM I Canada (Toronto: Macmillan Canada, 2000),6. Ibid.,8. 65

During the late 1950s and 1960s a folk music revival occurred in both the United

States and Canada. Bruce Jackson, an ethnomusicologist, cites three major artists/groups as important contributors to the beginnings of the folksong revival: Harry Belafonte, the

Kingston Trio, and the Weavers. He also credits the folksong magazineSing Out!, which was founded in 1950, as a leading force in the movement. The magazine like the movement itself was very political and contained many songs about issues of the time, such as the Korean War, Civil Rights, the United States draft, as well as traditional songs.

Anne Lederman, a musician and ethnomusicologist, seconds this view. She notes, “Many participants in the folk revival, at least in Canada, have had little direct experience with older folk traditions — those community-based activities in which music passed on orally over generations.”"^^ Lederman’s statement does not take into account the many musicians who were conscious of their lack of understanding about traditional music, and sought to remedy that. The liner notes forWeather Out the Storm (1990), the

Newfoundland group Piggy Duffs album, states, “Over a decade ago, a group of young

Newfoundland musicians decided to explore their native heritage. They visited many coastal fishing villages and learned songs and dance tunes from the long-time residents.”"*^ One of the benefits of the revival was a renewed respect for traditional music, which encouraged young musicians to search out not only other traditions but their own as well.

Bruce Jackson, “The Folksong Revival” in Transforming Tradition: Folk Music Revivals Examined, ed. Neil V. Rosenberg (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 75. Anne Lederman, “Barrett’s Privateers’: Performance and Participation in the Folk Revival,” in Transforming Tradition: Folk Music Revivals Examined, ed. Neil V. Rosenberg (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 163. Piggy Duff, Weather Out the Storm, Hypnotic Records, 1990 CD. 66

The other benefit of the revival was the expansion of the market for traditional music. Kenneth S. Goldstein, a folklorist and former , recalls the early part of the revival in this way: “I saw folk music as being a special thing at the time but that the revival singers.. .were important because they introduced people like me to folk music who could then listen to traditional singers....” However, when the traditional music was performed by revival musicians it was often significantly altered and it was easy to believe that this alteration of the music was damaging to the tradition rather than helping to conserve it."^* Despite the various opinions on the good or ill effects of the revival, it did produce an interest in traditional music that was transferred into both recordings of revival music and the source of the revival, traditional music.

In the 1960s new Canadian radio regulations also provided a larger venue for traditional music. The regulations are referred to collectively as the Canadian Content laws. These rules had their origin starting in 1936 with the Canadian Radio Broadcasting

Act, which allowed for the creation of a commission to study Canadian radio. In 1958, an act passed which directed the types of programming to be played on the Canadian

Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) stations. The CBC website notes the main goal of the act as, “for the purpose of ensuring the continued existence and efficient operation of a national broadcasting system and the provision of a varied and comprehensive broadcasting service of a high standard that is basically Canadian in content and

Kenneth S. Goldstein, “A Future Folklorist in the Record Business,” in Transforming Tradition: Folk Music Revivals Examined, ed. Neil V. Rosenberg (Urbana; University of Illinois Press, 1993), 115. Bruce Jackson, “The Folksong Revival,” in Transforming Tradition: Folk Music Revivals Examined, ed. Neil V. Rosenberg (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993),73-4. 67 character.”'*^ Again, in 1968, the issue of Canadian content was raised in “The Provisions of the Broadcasting Act,” which stated that the Canadian radio system should be,

“effectively owned and controlled by Canadians so as to safeguard, enrich and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada.”^® These directives would help encourage programs from the Halifax and Cape Breton studios of the CBC such as

“Island Echoes,” which began airing in 1971. This was a Gaelic language program which also broadcast traditional music to the Maritimes. Programs such as “Island Echoes” helped keep local interest in the music strong. However, the interest in the music remained predominately regional until the early 1990s.

The Industry Since 1990 The national and international companies that began to come to record Atlantic

Canadian traditional musicians in the 1990s were many of the same companies that are still a presence in the industry today. The following list outlines some of the companies which have recorded traditional artists who have been awarded the ECMA

Roots/Traditional Award from 1991 to 2002.

Current Recording Labels in Atlantic Canada (Traditional Genre)

An asterisk (*) before a label indicates that this label was the first to release the album.

The re-issue is the second company listed.

“A Brief History of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation,” Public Relations CBC Head Office, Ottawa July 1976 http://www.radio.cbc.ca/facilities/cbc-history.html (accessed June 2003). Canadian Radio-Television Commission,Canadian Ownership in Broadcasting: A Report on the Foreign Divestiture Process (Ottawa; Information Canada, 1974), 7. 68

ECMA Winner and Year Year Album Titles Record Labels Relea

Rankin Family 1991 Independent 1989 Fair Thee Well Love Independent 1990 The Rankin Family EMI Music Canada 1992 North Country EMI Music Canada 1992 EMI Music Canada 1995 EMI Music Canada 1995 The Collection EMI Music Canada 1997 Uprooted EMI Music Canada 1998

Natalie MacMaster 1992/1997 Four on the Floor Independent 1989 Road to the Isle Independent 1991 Fit as a Fiddle *Rounder/Wamer Music 1993 Canada/ MacMaster Music Inc. A Compilation *Rounder/ Warner Music 1996 Canada No Boundaries ♦Rounder/ Warner Music 1996 Canada Warner Music Canada 1998

The Irish Descendants 1994 Misty Morning Shore Independent 1991 Look to the Sea Independent/ Warner 1993 Music Canada Gypsies & Lovers Warner Music Canada 1994 Livin’ On the Edge Warner Music Canada 1996 Rollin’ Home Warner Music Canada 1998

Barra MacNeils 1995 The Barra MacNeils Barra Music 1986 Rock in the Stream Barra Music 1989 Timeframe Barra Music 1992 Closer To Paradise PolyGram Records 1993 The Traditional Album PolyGram Records 1994 The Question Mercury/Polydor 1995 69

Until Now Celtic Aire Records 1997 The Christmas Album Barratone Inc. 1998 Racket In the Attic Barratone Inc. 2001

Dave Maelsaac 1996 Celtic Guitar Pickin’ Productions 1989 The Guitar Souls, Live With Scott 1993 MacMillan Pickin’ Productions Nimble Fingers Pickin’ Productions 1995 From the Archives Pickin’ Productions 1999

Richard Wood 1998 Fire Dance Independent 1997 All Fired Up Independent 1994 The Celtic Tough Independent 1995 Come Dance With Me Independent 1999

J.P. Cormier 1998 Fiddle Album Independent 1990 Return to the Cape Borealis/Main Tripp 1995 Another Morning Iona/Borealis 1997 Heart & Soul Borealis 1998 Now that Work is Done Independent 2000 Primary Color Tidemark 2001

Rawlins Cross 1999 Turner of the Well Ground Swell/Wamer 1989 Music Canada Crossing the Border Ground Swell/ Warner 1992 Music Canada Reel ’n’ Roll Ground Swell/ Warner 1993 Music Canada Living River Ground Swell/Wamer 1996 Music Canada Celtic Instrumentals Warner Music Canada 1996 Make It on Time Warner Music Canada 1998

Barachois 2000 Barachois Party House Production 1996 Encore! Party House Production 1999 70

The Ennis Sisters 2001 Red is the Rose Independent 1997 Christmas on Ennis Road Independent 1998 Ennis Sisters 3 Warner Music Canada 2000 The Ennis Sisters Warner Music Canada 2001

Lennie Gallant 2001 Breakwater Revenant 1989 Believing in Better Sony Music Canada/Revenant Land of the Maya Oxfam 1992 The Open Window Sony Music Canada 1995 Lifeline Independent/Tidemark 1997 Lennie Gallant Live Revenant 2000 Le Vent Bohême Éditions Tocco Musique 2002

Sons of Maxwell 2002 The Neighborhood Sons of Maxwell 1998 Entertainment Sailor Story SOM Records 1999 Among the Living SOM Records 2000 Instant Christmas SOM Records 2001

Mary Jane Lamond 2002 Bho Thir Nan Craobh/From the B&R Heritage 1994 Land of the Trees Enterprises Suas e! turtlemusick/A&M 1997 Lan dùil turtlemusick 1999 Grain ghàidhlig Gaelic Songs turtlemusick 2000 from Cape Breton

This list shows the labels for some of the winners of the ECMA roots/ traditional award from 1989 to 2002. This is not a complete list of the recording artists from

Atlantic Canada working in the traditional music genre, but it does give a good indication of which companies are interested in this type of music coming from Atlantic Canada. 71

The list also shows, clearly, the years in which these artists began to earn recognition on a national scale. It appears that between 1991 and 1993 a majority of the artists began to release albums with major record companies including EMI Canada and Warner Music.

Many artists have first been recorded by a small independent or local label, sometimes even self-producing their albums, and then moved to larger labels. This trend is common in the industiy, since it is these early recordings that attract the attention of the larger labels. It is also consistent with the idea that large companies use smaller labels as their connection to the new trends in music. Many of the musicians on the list were recording albums several years before they received major contracts. Some of them even won their ECMA awards before being offered deals with the major record labels.

An example of this is The Rankin Family from Mabou, Cape Breton. They won the

ECMA award in 1991, at which point they had already released two albums independently. Their next release was with EMI Canada a year after they had won the award. They proceeded to release six more albums with EMI Canada. A few of the artists have either stayed with local labels, or created their own. The Barra MacNeils have created their own label called Barra Music. This choice is influenced greatly by the personal philosophies of the artists themselves about control of the product, the management, and the artists’ personal attitude towards the larger music industry.

The ECMAs have played an interesting role in the musical scene of the region.

Currently the ECMA Awards are a benchmark of success for some musicians, a form of local approval for other musicians and an entrance into the larger world of professional music for others. In 1989, Rob Cohn organized an awards show in Halifax and called it the Maritimes Music Awards. Cohn and others helping him with the project felt that East 72

Coast musicians did not get enough national recognition, and that an awards show might help bring in large companies to work with the artists in Atlantic Canada. The ECMA website states that in 1989 there were only six musicians from the East Coast with national recording contracts.^* At the second show in 1990, several recording representatives from Toronto came down to see the show. The following year the

Maritimes Music Awards became the ECMAs as a result of the new connection with the

East Coast Music Association. The awards show would eventually grow to encompass multiple stages, concerts, and a trades fair. The event began to draw more national attention, as it moved to different cities in the region and in 1994 it was aired on CBC, across Canada, from Saint John’s, Newfoundland. By 1997, the awards show and the several-day event put about three million dollars into the Moncton economy. In 2001, the ever-expanding awards added a Jazz/Classical concert stage to the program. In Saint

John’s, Newfoundland, the following year, the high level of corporate sponsorship allowed for many free concerts for the public that, in turn, increase the artists’ exposure.^^

There is little doubt that the ECMAs have helped bring Atlantic Canadian music to the attention of major record labels and, with the national broadcast, have given exposure to a wider audience as well. The many different categories of awards and the wide variety of talent showcased during the awards show itself have also worked to battle external stereotypes about Atlantic Canadian music; that it represents a region of people who are “backward” and “overly conservative.” However, once the major labels take over the recording process, how much control is left in the hands of the musicians from

^‘“ECMA History,” http://www.ecma.ca/english/ecmahistory.html (accessed December 2002). ^^Ibid. 73

Atlantic Canada? The answer to this question lies in the variance of individual contracts between the artists/groups and the recording companies. Still, the East Coast Music

Awards are not an example of outside companies coming into the region to take over the local industry. The ECMAs were created by people within Atlantic Canada to attract national attention.

Another venture which has helped a few Atlantic Canadian roots/traditional performers is the Juno Awards. The Juno Awards were started in 1971 to aid Canadian musicians in receiving recognition in the music industry that was mainly dominated by the United States.^^ Interestingly, it took the Juno Awards a while to recognize roots/traditional music from the Atlantic Canadian region. Credit should be given to the many performers from the Maritimes who gained recognition at the Juno Awards quite early on in other genres. At the first Juno Awards, , and Stompin’ Tom

Connors helped keep the Atlantic Provinces well represented as, respectively, top female vocalist and top country singer of the year.^'* The Nova Scotian country singer Carroll

Baker was nominated for Best Selling Album in 1979.^^ In 1987, Rita MacNeil received ' the Most Promising Female Vocalist award and started moving Atlantic Canada roots music into the spotlight. There was no separate roots/traditional category in 1990 and

MacNeil was therefore awarded the Country Female Vocalist award.^^ In 1994, The

There were a few musicians who had managed to receive recognition outside of Atlantic Canada prior to the Juno Awards and the ECMAs. These musicians include Hank Snow, Wilf Carter (Montana Slim), and Don Messer. Martin Melhuish, Oh What a Feeling: A Vital History o f Canadian Music (Kingston, , Quarry Press, Inc., 1996), 41-3. ^^Ibid., 92. “Juno Awards,” http://www.goldderby.eom/lostmind/year/l 979/1979juno.htm (accessed July 2004). Ibid., 167. 74

Rankin Family made an entrance at the Juno Awards winning Canadian Entertainer of the

Year, Group of the Year, and Country Group or Duo/^ In combination with the ECMA’s roots/traditional category, music from Atlantic Canada had started to earn a national reputation.

Conclusion The history of the music industry is as vast and complex as the structures of the current multinational organizations that run it, but some small awareness of it is an aid in interpreting the final section of this study. The early phases of the history of recorded music did not show deference to the recording of traditional music, but ironically, it was the demands of the market that stopped the music from this region from going completely unrecorded. There were periods when only local interest kept musicians in the studios, but the current interest from the larger national and global community forces the music companies to consider seriously the traditional music coming from Atlantic Canada.

Peter Martin argues that, “the unyielding logic of the market has meant that record companies have had to swallow and digest all sorts of material which they regarded as unpalatable, or subversive or both, and some of this — suitably repackaged — has achieved mass popularity.”^* How this mass popularity and renewed relationship with the larger music corporations will affect the music itself over time remains to be seen.

However, placing the current situation of the music industry in an historical context, and acknowledging that the industry currently does have a large presence in Atlantic Canada, can only aid future studies of the music of these provinces.

Ibid., 182. Peter J. Martin, Sounds and Society: Themes in the Sociology o f Music(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995), 270. 75

Chapter Three Albums and Images

And they came out o f the East Coast to capture Canada, and then the World, with their songs and music. God made them artists, but you have made them stars. These are the stories o f how some o f those that live beside you, with the means o f technology, now roam the globe, in spirit and in body. — ‘ Sam “the Record Man ” Sniderman C.M.

The two previous chapters have discussed the background of the musical traditions that are major influences on the music of Atlantic Canada, and the development and history of the recording industry in the region. This chapter will seek to bring these discussions together through a study of selected recordings of traditional music from

Atlantic Canada from the period 1986-2002. These recordings fit into a larger world­ wide “Celtic music” phenomenon.

The global popularity of “Celtic Music” has spread the music of Atlantic Canada far beyond the borders of the region. Listening to the albums gives many people their first cultural contact with the region; indeed, it may be their only contact. The images displayed through the music and liner notes help to confirm or challenge preconceived notions about the region. The famous ethnomusicologist Alan Lomax stated that “The first function of music, especially of folk music, is to produce a feeling of security for the

^Quoted by Lee Fleming, “Introduction,” in Lee Fleming, ed.. Rock, Rhythm and Reels: Canada’s East Coast Musicians on Stage (, PEI: Ragweed Press, 1997), introduction. 76 listener by voicing the particular quality of a land and the life of its people.”^ This function may prove harmless enough when the music is played for people who have the day-to-day experience of the land and culture that the music is seeking to invoke.

However, if the music is transported outside the region and the listeners do not have first hand experience of the region itself, then the music takes on the potential to convey powerful stereotypes. For an area like Atlantic Canada, which has a long history of battling external stereotypes, this issue becomes critical.

In The Image o f Confederation (1964) Frank Underhill makes the following unfortunate comment: “As for the Maritime provinces, nothing of course ever happened down there.”^ An entire generation of regional scholars has rallied in protest against his statement. They have been largely successful in their attempts to give the region a voice of its own in the national narrative, a voice that is accurate and which seeks to encompass many different types of people. However, these scholars have had to counter established stereotypes. Frank Underhill was merely voicing an opinion which was long-held about the region, and voiced elsewhere.

Miriam Chapin was just one of several authors whose views of Atlantic Canada mirrored Underhill’s comments. In Atlantic Canada (1956), Chapin had examined the region from several different vantage points. Her book is filled with comments about the region such as: “It has long been drained, impoverished, self-pitying.”'’ She also stated that: “It [Atlantic Canada] is parochial because it has been driven in on itself, neglected.

^ Philip V. Bohlman, The Study o f Folk Music in the Modern World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988), 52. ^ Frank Underhill, The Image o f Confederation (Toronto: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 1964), 63. Miriam Chapin, Atlantic Canada (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), 1. 77

left slumping into a backwater.”^ According to Chapin, the economy can partially be

explained by the people: she writes that . .an excuse for sluggishness, makes them

ingrown and sullen.”^ Her assessment of the region is that it is: “Stagnant? Not

necessarily so, but such a society does tend to be self satisfied, content that those who

have long been poor and ignorant should remain so.”^

D. Campbell and R.A. MacLean outline but do not contradict these stereotypes in

their book. Beyond the Atlantic Roar: A Study o f the Nom Scotia Scots (1974). The two

authors make the astute observation that:

When they venture outside their natural habitat, Atlantic Canadians often find that

their ‘folk’ images work against them, the first impression being that they are

quaint rustics in a modem world of sophisticated go-getters.^

However, they proceed to describe the Nova Scotia Scots as a people with:

.. .sensitivities and deep-rooted prejudices.. .intense pride and craggy

individualism, [a] propensity for intemperate drinking and violence, thrift and

industry....^

While there are aspects of these stereotypes which are positive, they none the less

comprise an artificial and static image of the people of the Atlantic Canada region.

It was these types of “observations” about Atlantic Canada that led scholars such

as E.R. Forbes, among others, to begin a campaign to re-examine both the content and the

Ibid. ^ Ibid.Ibid., 4. ’ Ibid., 9. *D. CampbellCamp and R.A. MacLean, Beyond the Atlantic Roar: A Study o f the Nova Scotia ScotsSi (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Limited, 1974), 4. ^ D. Campbell and R.A. MacLean, Beyond the Atlantic Roar:Roa) A Study o f the Nova Scotia Scots (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Limited, 1974), 171. 78 presentation of the history of Atlantic Canada. In the 1978 (Autumn) issue of the journal

Acadiensis, an article entitled “In Search of a Post-Confederation Maritime

Historiography, 1900-1967,” Forbes expressed his deep concern over the amount of stereotypical writing about Atlantic Canada. He says: “Neglect and stereotyping left the

Maritime student with a version of Canadian history to which he was unable to relate and which seriously distorted the national picture.”*®

In the slowly emerging field of Atlantic Canada scholarship, authors like Forbes,

Campbell, and MacLean, among others, found that they were fighting the battle of stereotypes — images of Atlantic Canada and the people who lived there that were fostered both inside and outside the region. Forbes closed his 1978 article with the remark that “the effect of the long period of neglect and stereotyping will continue to be felt for years to come.”**

James Robbins, an ethnomusicologist, has observed that stereotypes of Atlantic

Canada were present almost from the conception of traditional music research in Canada.

In his article for the Canadian Journal o f Traditional Music he notes: “The pattern in

English folksong scholarship was virtually the reverse: it began in the place where, literally, the first collectors took vacations: the quaint, backward, romanticized

Maritimes.”*^ Robbins ends his article with a warning to scholars to learn from the past and continually evaluate what assumptions they are making about their subject matter.

*® E. R. Forbes, “In Search of a Post-Confederation Maritime Historiography, 1900- 1961 f Acadiensis 8, no. 1 (Autumn 1978): 3. ** Ibid., 21. *^ James Robbins, “Lessons Learned, Questions Raised: Writing a History of Ethnomusicology in Canada,”Canadian Journal o f Traditional Music (1992) http://www.cjtm.icaap.org/content/20/v20art2.html (accessed July 2004). 79

Do the images portrayed in the albums studied help to break the old regional stereotypes or do the old, “rustic” beliefs about the area still hold sway? To expect traditional music, created for pleasure, to cater to an academic agenda would be nonsense. However, music is a powerful form of expression and it would be equally nonsensical to believe that it does not help inform opinions about places and people.

Composer Chester Duncan wrote:

It may be true that without these songs everything would have turned out pretty

much as it did, but if they are not the ‘acknowledged legislators’ of Shelley’s

essay, folk artists certainly throw a memorable light on what has happened...

folksongs are a rather frank expression of the national character.

In this case it is a region’s musical character that is being expressed and it is worthwhile to study the contribution to the disseminated image of Atlantic Canada.

Merely studying the music or the instrumentation would not bring a complete understanding of all of the images that are presented to a listener when he or she comes in contact with one of these albums. This aspect of the survey was challenging, since the study of liner notes is still in a fledging state. In his survey of Jazz liner notes.Setting the

Tempo: Fifty Years o f Great Jazz Liner Notes (1996), Tom Piazza provides a strong rationale for his study:

At first glance, the text, the album’s back sleeves — or liner (hence the term liner

notes) appears to promise little more than glorified promotional copy for the

enclosed record. It is striking how often this writing contains much more:

Chester Duncan, “Folk Song as History,” review ofCanada's Story in Song, by Edith Fowke, Alan Mills and Helmut Blume, Canadian Literature (Spring 1961): 51. 80

background on the musicians and the recordings, historical context, musical

analysis, a window into the recording process, intimate anecdotes and personal

views of the musicians that have an immediacy and warmth rarely found in other

jazz writing — setting the tempo, in a sense, for the listener’s appreciation of the

music.• 14

Although Piazza is dealing solely with the written text in the liner notes, his feelings about the music are clearly stated and can be applied to both the written and the visual aspect of the liner notes. In the situation of traditional music coming from Atlantic

Canada, the liner notes have the potential to provide history, detail current situations facing the region, and portray a sense of the tradition itself that might not be clear to the uninformed listener.

Although the images and the text in the liner notes are a part of the overall portrayal of the region which the albums convey, the lyrics in the songs themselves likely carry even more importance for the potential listener. David Gross writes that: “Words are steeped in the past; they carry resonance that persist, and they have specific meanings which can be exactly designed.” Thus songs are powerful teaching tools for many types of education, including education about culture. Marie McCarthy studied the transmission of culture through song inPassing It On: The Transmission o f Music in

Irish Culture, and opens her book with the statement: “What is common across all time and cultures is the fact that the transmission of music is an integral part of the generation

Tom Piazza, Setting the Tempo: Fifty Years o f Great Jazz Liner Notes (New York: Anchor Books, 1996), 1. David Gross, The Past in Ruins: Tradition and the Critique o f Modernity (Amherst Massachusetts: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), 58. 81 and transmission of culture....”*^ The verbal messages carried in songs are important, since the cultural images that words portray are easy to recognize through the language, word choice, and thematic material. Songs also allow stories of a region’s past to be retold and spread far outside the area. They additionally provide a statement about the values of a region, both personal and economic, through the treatment of thematic material and the anecdotes told through the music. Words may also allow the listener to sing along with the music or leam to sing the songs by themselves. This facet of cultural diffusion is especially powerful since there is personal participation in the music and a close awareness of the images contained in the songs. Since the words are so important, many albums include full printed and/or translated lyrics within the liner notes so that the listener can fully understand the contents and themes of a song. By studying some of the predominant themes present in the traditional music of Atlantic Canada recorded from

1986-2002, a picture of both the history and current state of this geographic area can be gleaned.

To understand the images that are being presented through the albums, the musical aspect of each song should be studied as well. For this survey, musical aspects such as chord progression, dominant tonality, and composition styles were not evaluated.

Although important to the music and worthy of closer examination, the scope of this thesis does not allow for their scrutiny. The focus of this study is on the instrumentation used, origin of the composition, whether the piece was considered traditional (i.e., no known author), or whether it has an author listed.

Marie McCarthy, Passing It On: the Transmission o f Music in Irish Culture (Cork: Cork University Press, 1999), 2. 82

Methodology This section of the study involved two diverse stages of research and therefore two different methods of locating information. The first stage pertained to the selection of specific albums, 100 in total, to be analyzed. The second stage of research was the categorizing of the musical material. This process included labeling the separate types of pieces, traditional or modem, and examining various elements contained in liner notes, such as translated lyrics or pictures of the region, and then creating a survey to record each album’s content.

Given the sheer number of albums created in this genre and that no one source keeps complete records on the style, a baseline group of albums had to be used from which to draw the selection. The nominees and the recipients for the ECMA (East Coast

Music Association) awards for traditional performer and group were selected. The

ECMA website explains the process for nomination in this way:

Members of the ECMA may submit Atlantic Canadian recordings for

consideration. The submissions are then sent to committees of Atlantic Canadians

with a demonstrated expertise and knowledge of the overall industry or individual

categories. The committees forward their eight (8) suggestions in each category

to the accounting firm of Lyle Tilley Davidson and the top five (5) selections in

each category become the nominees.*^

The website further details the qualifications for the albums to be nominated. Besides having been created by Atlantic Canadians, the recordings must meet other qualifications, which include:

“East Coast Music Awards,” http://www.ecma.ca/english/awards_e/aprocess.html (accessed December 2002). 83

All Atlantic Canadian artists who are members in good standing of the East Coast

Music Association and who released recordings BETWEEN JULY 1, 2001 and

OCTOBER 15, 2002 are eligible to submit for the East Coast Music Awards.**

All submissions, except where indicated, require a full-length recording. A full-

length recording is defined as a recording that contains a minimum of six (6)

tracks, or a minimum of thirty (30) minutes long. At least 50% of the tracks on a

recording must be of previously unreleased cuts. (A “cut” is defined as material

previously released to radio or retail).

All manufactured products must meet industry standards and be sold through live

performances or retail stores, which sell sound recordings in the ordinary course

of business, Internet sales, or mail orders. A minimum of 300 units must be

manufactured to be eligible.*^

A list of the nominees in the roots/ traditional category was created from the results fi’om

1989 to 2002. There were some modifications necessary; although the list contained many exceptional Acadian albums, this study focuses on two specific ethnic varieties of music from the region, namely Irish and Scottish, Acadian albums therefore were not considered in the selection of the 100 albums. Given the nature of their thematic content, which typically moves away fi"om the genre itself, seasonal albums were also removed from the list. Although many seasonal tunes are considered traditional, their origins are not specific to the region or regions of ancestry. These songs have been spread through

'* Although this quotation references a certain date, these requirements have been the same for all ECMA awards since the creation of the awards. “East Coast Music Awards,” http://www.ecma.ca/english/awards_e/aprocess.html (accessed December 2002). 84 religion versus the ethnie background of the people. For example, “Silent Night”, or

“Stille Nacht” is a German Christmas song but has been frequently recorded by regional traditional artists from Atlantic Canada.

Sales figures for each of these albums were to be collected and analyzed.

Unfortunately, only a handful of record companies would disclose their sales figures and several other companies would only give the calculations in units, which was meaningless as a method of comparisons between artists/groups. Since most of this study was conducted through the music collection of the Halifax Regional Public Library system, their selection process for albums also became important in creating the list of

100 albums. The stated goals for the adult/young adult music collections are: “To build and maintain a wide ranging collection of recorded music to support cultural, recreational, and informational use by adults and young adults.”^® The “Collection

Development Policy” states further that the library will gather: “Music of Atlantic

Canada in all genres, including Mi’kmaq and Acadian music, with particular attention paid to East Coast Music Awards Nominees.”^* The library’s special deference to

ECMA nominees is another sign of the high respect given to both the awards themselves and the musicians who receive them.

The library’s materials are occasionally slightly damaged. Out of the 100 CDs analyzed, nine did not have the liner notes available for study. The nine albums with missing liner notes were:

Debbie LeBel, Halifax Public Library Collections Manager, e-mail message to author, July 8,2003. “Collection Development Policy,” http://www.halifax.library.ns.ca/policies/collection.html (accessed May 2003). 85

The Barra MacNeils, Traditional Album (1994)

The Barra MacNeils, The Barra MacNeils (1986)

The Irish Descendants, Blooming Bright Star (2001)

Dave Maclsaac, Nimble Fingers (1996)

Evans & Doherty, The World is What You Make It(1998)

Ashley Maclsaac, Close to the Floor (1992)

The Rankins, Uprooted (1998)

Rita MacNeil and The Men of the Deep, Mining the Soul (2000)

Rawlins Cross, Living River (1996)

These albums were still included in the study but due to resources and time restraints, the results of the liner note information were tabulated based on availability.

A rubric was created to aid in analyzing each album’s content based on certain categories: thematic material, instrumentation, and liner notes. Each track was placed into an instrumental or vocal category. The vocal category is broken into several sub­ categories, and songs are placed in one or more of these categories based on their overall thematic content. Many of the songs had to be placed into multiple categories. The thematic categories studied were: love, traveling/migration, sailing/ nautical, drinking/parties, Atlantic Canadian life, and miscellaneous. The love themes encompassed any aspect of love, including ballads detailing a failed romance and laments for a lover lost at sea. The traveling and migration theme contains songs pertaining to people who move within the region, enter, or leave it. The sailing and nautical category incorporates some songs from the traveling/migration category but also encompasses all songs discussing shipwrecks, whaling and fishing expeditions, and general commentary 86 on living by or on the sea. The drinking/ party category accommodates songs discussing kitchen parties and bar brawls, parties held on a return to port, and the gathering of the musicians for a night of song and dancing. While all of the previously stated categories could clearly fit under Atlantic Canadian life, this category is for songs which detail a specific part of life or history unique to Atlantic Canada, such as the evacuation of

Newfoundland outports in the 1960s. The miscellaneous category involves any songs that do not fit the other categories and primarily is filled with lullabies. All the tracks, whether vocal or purely instrumental, are broken down into traditional and non- traditional instrumentation. Traditional instrumentation includes: voice, fiddle, pipes

(uilleann, highland, lowland or small pipes), , wooden whistle, bodhran, piano, guitar, harp, and .

In 1963, Sean Ô Riada, a seminal figure in the recent history of Irish traditional music, gave a series of radio talks for Radio Éireann where he outlined the standard instruments commonly found in Irish traditional music. In these talks, he listed the voice, fiddle, uilleann pipes, tin whistle, bodhran, and harp, and dismissed the piano and accordion with a terseness that conveyed his dislike for these two instruments in traditional music settings. He said that: “The use of the piano to accompany traditional fiddle-playing is unfortunately prevalent. This is a scar, a blight, on the face of Irish music and displays ignorance on the part of those who allow or encourage it.”^^ George

Emmerson, in his discussion of Scottish traditional music, shares a similar attitude to Ô

Riada’s about the use of the accordion. Emmerson writes somewhat less abusively that

^ Sean 6 Riada, Our Musical Heritage, ed. Thomas Kinsella (Mountrath Portlaoise, Ireland: The Dolman Press, 1982), 58. 87

“It can probably be said that there is a growing tradition of playing Scottish — and Irish

— dance music on the accordion. Although an accordion performance can be exciting, I find it difficult to imagine one being moved by it."^ The guitar is mentioned by neither of these authors. Ô Riada was speaking before the use of acoustic guitar had become popular in traditional music circles, but Emmerson’s omission of the instrument may be caused by its contested position in traditional music in Scotland. While the piano, guitar, and accordion are disputed traditional instruments in Scotland and Ireland, they have found solid places within the traditional music from the various areas of Atlantic Canada and are therefore included in the traditional instrumentation category.^'* If, however, other instruments are added to the ensemble, they are placed in the non-traditional instrumentation category.

All tracks are also categorized into traditional music, original music, or a combination of the two. Traditional music for this study includes all tracks that were marked as “traditional” in the liner notes and/or listed no composer. Original music was any piece of music that had a known composer. This delineation, based on composers, is not completely true to the Irish and Scottish traditions. However, for the purposes of data entry, it was the only way to reach rough conclusions about the nature of the albums being created in this genre. The combination of traditional and original music was a category created mainly to answer the dilemma of fiddle sets where several of the pieces contained within the set have known composers and several are labeled “traditional.”

^ George Emmerson,Rantin ’ Pipe and Tremblin ’ String: A History o f Scottish Dance Music (Montreal; McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1971), 113. in the traditional category were acoustic. Music containing electric guitar was placed in the non-traditional instrumentation category. 88

Since the sets are played as continuous pieces of music with no space in between each jig or reel, and since the construction of a set is part of the craft of good fiddle playing, it was treated as one whole piece with a combination of parts, which led to the creation of the combination category.

The liner notes for each album were also analyzed, based on whether the musician’s home province was listed, whether there were lyrics printed in the liner notes, and whether these lyrics were translated where necessary. Any references made to where the musicians had learned each tune, the historical context of the tune, and whether the musicians had come from “musical families” were studied also. Given the earlier discussion on the importance of musical family lineage in both the Scottish and Irish traditions, this information was deemed important to this study, and was therefore included.

The pictures or drawings in the liner notes were grouped into two categories: modem pictures of Atlantic Canada and old pictures of Atlantic Canada. Any photographs that were taken prior to the dates being studied for the recordings (1986-

2002) were classified as old. This was clearly difficult to determine since dates are rarely attached to the photographs used in album artwork. The majority of the photographs that occurred in the liner notes for this survey were clearly from the early part of the 1900s if they were being placed in the old category. Pictures fi'om the 1970s and early 1980s did not appear. The information was then synthesized to allow the researcher to comment on the nature of these ambassadors of traditional music in Atlantic Canada through albums.

The conclusions are as follows. 89

Conclusions "... The past should be altered by the present as much as the present is directed by the past. — T. S. Eliot

It is inevitable when commencing research that one both speculates and hypothesizes about anticipated outcomes. I expected to find an extraneously controlled industry that was promoting a fictitious image of Atlantic Canada, created for tourists’ consumption. I anticipated studying an industry which, at least for the music from Cape

Breton, perpetuated the image of the kilted bagpiper standing atop a cliff which was predominant in my mind prior to my arrival in Nova Scotia. I arrived in Atlantic Canada without prior research on its musical traditions, with limited book knowledge of its history, and having only previously spent a short visit in one location, namely Cape

Breton. My musical training was almost exclusively classical in nature and my history training was less focused on Canadian history than I might have hoped. This inexperience was troublesome when I first began to conceptualize my thesis work. I had to expand my understanding of Atlantic Canada history and culture. Moreover, I had to come to terms with the fact that the region contains within it different sub-regions, such as the four individual provinces and also distinct ethnic and cultural divisions within each political unit (e.g., the Acadians and the Irish in Nova Scotia with their separate histories and musical traditions). However, I could use my untutored ears and eyes to survey the region as an outsider. Studying some of the recent Atlantic Canada scholarship, which rightly points out the many historical injustices and prejudices against the region.

^ T. S. Eliot, “Tradition and the Individual Talent” in Selected Essays (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1963),!5. 90 bolstered my initial idea that studying the music just as it was when it arrived on the store shelf in the middle of Iowa, or wherever the listener happened to be, would be useful. I expected to find statements in the liner notes that played heavily on the “Celtic” connection with Ireland and Scotland. It seemed likely to me that there would be comments in the liner notes about playing the instruments exactly as they had been played for generations, and an idea that the tradition was sacred and unchanging. If there were any new compositions on these albums, I assumed that they would fall into the

“Celtic Music” category, accompanied by electronic drones and static breathy melodies.

The initial conception of the research was based both on an external view of the region (which both hindered and helped the process) and an appreciation of statistical research. Having previously conducted historical statistical research I assumed, perhaps incorrectly, that similar strategies could be employed in the study of traditional music from Atlantic Canada. The resulting survey therefore represents an attempt to see empirically what images were given to the external world of Atlantic Canada through the recordings. Researching from an outsider’s viewpoint was an advantage to this research as I held no personal knowledge of performers, attachment to the region, etc., which might have affected my selection and interpretation of the music. This lack of knowledge about the eomplexity of the musical traditional also led to difficulties in the survey’s eonstruction and the creations of questions within the survey that were unhelpful and inconclusive. However, part of the goal of any research is to test the method as well as the subject matter and ultimately the survey did reveal useful information.

The test of any researcher comes when the results do not in any way support his or her assumptions. For the results reveal that the albums on this list did not perpetuate 91 any recognized regional stereotypes; rather, they represent a living tradition that is a meeting place for the past and present of the region. The survey also clearly highlighted the difficulties in studying a constantly evolving tradition in a multidimensional society that is far more complex that any statistical evidence could capture.

The first moment of surprise arrived with the results of the label survey. It seemed logical that one label would dominate the region and might determine how it was going to be depicted through the albums and music. However, although certain record labels have a significant presence in the genre of traditional music from the region, no one label completely dominates. Warner Music Canada and its subsidiaries produced

18% of the albums studied and Universal 13%, but these numbers hardly indicate control of the genre by one company. Thus, this is a study less of one company’s policies on album creation and more of an overall examination of the genre.

The next challenge to my expectations came with the thematic portion of my study. Given the stereotypical image of Atlantic Canada and its seafaring past brimming with sailing ships, I expected a large numbers of sea songs.^^ What the results showed was a healthy blend of heritage and current culture. While 19% of the songs surveyed had nautical thematic material, this was by no means the dominant theme present in the music. The ocean is a real part of Atlantic Canada. Not only would it be false to forgo all sea songs in order to avoid stereotypes, it would furthermore be a disservice to the rich narrative aspect of sea songs which is part of traditional music in the region.

^ While it could be rationalized that this is part of Atlantic Canada’s real and not imagined past it would be unrealistic to represent the region as being full of mariners who spent their time singing about the briny deep. 92

In 2000, McGinty recorded an entire album of music about the sea, entitled Sea

S o n g sOne of the pieces on this album is the “Banks of Newfoundland” which articulates both the dangers of travel on the ocean, historical reality for many people from the region, and identifies by name locations within Atlantic Canada. The reference to

America and New York also points out the seafaring connection that existed between the

Maritime Provinces and the east coast of the United States during the age of sail.

On St. Patrick’s Day, the seventeenth, from New York we set sail

Kind fortune did favour us wi’ a sweet and a pleasant gale

We bore away from Americay, the wind bein’ off the land

And wi’ courage brave we ploughed the wave bound down for Newfoundland

Our Captain’s name was Nelson just twenty years of age

As true and brave a sailor lad as ever ploughed the wave

The Eveline our brig was called belonging to McLean

And wi’ courage brave we ploughed the wave bound down for Newfoundland

When three days out to our surprise our Captain he fell sick

He shortly was not able to take his turn on deck

The fever raged which made us think that death was near at hand

So we bore away from Halifax bound down for Newfoundland^^

Many of the nautical songs are narratives such as “Banks of Newfoundland,” but others simply discuss the hazards of being a sailor and the ports of call frequented by

McGinty, Sea Songs, Rocky Coast, 2000 CD. Ibid. 93 ships from Atlantic Canada. For example, recorded “Donkey Riding” on their album Play The term donkey refers to a wench that is used to move cargo on and off ships.

Way hey and away we go

Donkey riding, donkey riding

Way hey and away we go

Ridin’ on a donkey.

Was you ever in Quebec

Launchin’ timber on the deck?

Where ya break yer bleedin’ neck

Ridin’ on a donkey!

Was you ever ’round Cape Horn

Where the weather’s never warm?

Wished to God you’d never been bom

Ridin’ on a donkey.

Was you ever in Miramichi

Where ye tie up to a tree.

An’ the girls sit on yer knee?

Ridin’on a donkey.

Great Big Sea, Play, Polygram, 1997 CD. Ibid. 94

Although the instrumentation is not traditional on the Great Big Sea recording, it was a popular enough version to be featured on their live albums with hordes of fans singing and screaming along. The apparent popularity of the sea shanties on these and other albums in the survey showed a certain loyalty to this aspect of regional history which, given the rather gruesome details of many nautical songs, cannot be mistaken as nostalgia for a simpler time. However, the survey indicates that the music is not dominated with images of rowdy sailors and their exploits or dark tales of sunken vessels. Since there is in many local areas of the region a strong memory regarding the nautical portion of

Atlantic Canada’s history, it is legitimate to reflect this aspect of the culture in current music.

One disturbing feature of the themes section of the survey is the lack of music recorded dealing with other aspects of regional history besides the ocean. The survey contained a category for mining songs due to mining’s influential place in regional history. I anticipated that there would be music and songs dealing with the large logging and pulp industry in Newfoundland or New Brunswick which have greatly influenced the modem history of these two regions. However, only 3% of the songs contain a mining theme and there is only one song about logging.^* This does not mean that songs about logging or the mining strikes do not exist.^^ Their absence in this survey only shows that the recent winners of the ECMAs have not recorded them with any frequency. Whether this is due to artists’ taste in songs, record company decisions, a lack of large-scale interest, or an abundance of already existing recordings about these aspects of history are

“The Circle” Celtic Connection,Celtic Connection, Warner Music Canada, 1997 CD. have recorded over 22 mining songs and there are several printed collections as well. 95 questions that should be asked. Unfortunately, the scope of this study does not allow for any conclusive answers at this point.

The majority of the mining songs that did appear in the survey came from Men of the Deeps, a group which specializes in such songs. One of the few other mining songs is the Barra MacNeils’ “Coaltown Road” from theirRock in the Stream (1989) album.^^

While you wake up in the black

Down the coal town road

And you hike along the track

Where the coal trains load

And you make the ponies pull

Till the almost break their backs

And they’ll never see again

Down the coal town road

We hear the whistle call

Down the coal town road

And we take out towels and all

Where the coal trains load

In the cages then we drop

Till there’s nowhere else to fall

And we leave the world behind us

33Barra MacNeils, Rock in the Stream, PolyGram, 1989 CD. 96

Down the coal town road

We never see the sun

Down the coal town road

At a penny for the ton

Where the coal trains load

When the shift comes up on top

We’re so thankful to be done

We head home to sleep and dream

About the coal town roads load/"*

While this song deals with the difficulties of life in and around the mines, neither this song nor any of the other mining songs on the 100 CDs deals with strikes and unrest in the Nova Scotia mines.^^ If this absence continued with another analyses of an addition

100 CDs then the matter could be commented on further.

One topic that helps to create a sense of universality among people is love, which is the topic best represented in the survey. 37% of the songs address some aspect of love: lost love, everlasting love, love forgotten, or discovered romance. These results might not seem noteworthy since love is a powerful theme in most musical genres. Through these songs, whose topic is universal, Atlantic Canadian traditional music is able to have relevancy not only in the modem world but also outside the region. The emotion portrays

Ibid. The Barra MacNeils re-released this song on their 1997 album Until Now with the following note: “Cape Breton is situated on top of one of the richest coal fields in the world. The coal industry has played an important role in economic and cultural life in Cape Breton. Here is a song depicting the early days of coal mining.” 97 a commonality between the musicians from Atlantic Canada and the listener from another area.

Patricia Murray arranged the traditional tune, “I Courted a Wee Girl,” and recorded it on her album Primrose (2001).^^ The tune does not contain any specific reference to Atlantic Canada although Patricia Murray does mention in the liner notes that she learned the piece from Kim Vincent of Prince Edward Island. The tale of betrayed love and the despair which follows is not only universal across time, but across geographic space as well, and breaks down stereotypes.

I courted a wee girl, for many long days

And slighted all others, that came by my way

And now she’s rewarded me, ’til the last day

She’s gone to be wed to another

The bride and the bride’s party in the church, they did stand

Gold rings on her fingers, a-loved by the hand

The man that’s wed to, has houses and land

He may have her, since I could not gain her^^

Albums like The Celtic Connection’s Higher (2000)^^ contain both traditional songs dealing with love, such as “The Nite Visit” and “Why Didn’t You Say So Before,” and also feature new music dealing with similar subject-matter. “Apologies,” by A.

Patricia Murray, Primrose, Tidemark Music, 2001 CD. Ibid. The Celtic Connection,Higher, Actual Music, 2000 CD. 98

Freake, deals with a lover’s quarrel in modem terminology but with no less depth of emotion than the traditional tracks on the album. Lennie Gallant also provides an excellent example of newly written music dealing with a timeless theme. In his album,

Breakwater (1993),^^ there is a dark tune about love and murder entitled “Marie and He.’

Marie and He, they lived down by the shore,

I lived alone in a house they called next door,

A quarter mile farther down the road from there.

But it was close enough that I could always hear.

Marie was only twenty-two with three kids

Big sea green eyes but they were mostly hid

Dark glasses covering all the damage he’d done

After his nights on the rum.

In the nearby town, everyone knew the score

From whispered stories traded down at the store

They could pretend they’d never see beneath the shades

But every night I’d hear her meet his rage

.. .But then the sands all washed away leaving rocks

And he would beat her and blamed her for his lousy job on the docks

39Lennie Gallant, Breakwater, Revenant Records, 1993 CD. 99

No friends or money, He’d just rave about the sea

And tell his lies of how she wouldn’t set him ffee.'^'^

Although the song in its entirety contains specific references to life near the sea and the docks, the overall theme of the story is not specific to Atlantic Canada and therefore cannot stereotype Atlantic Canada. Unfortunately, the darker aspects of love and the reality of abuse are not unique to any region. However, the implicit location of Atlantic

Canada through the composer’s home in P.E.I. and the traditional images used in the song of the small community by the sea and unrequited love are clear. This song also highlights a mixing of modem and traditional aspects in the lyrics of the song. The discussion of abuse is modem in it explicitness but the unrequited love and the ballad nature of the lyrics are traditional.

Songs in Scottish Gaelic are one feature of music from Atlantic Canada that is particular to the region and which has greatly added to its sales potential in recent years.

Songs in Scottish Gaelic can easily fit into the “Celtic Music” category that has such a powerful selling point. Part of the sale of “Celtic Music” as discussed earlier is an image of mystery. Therefore this is one area I suspeeted would be fraught with images of mist- eovered rocky costs, and I was fearful that there would be very little traditional music and a predominance of “Celtie Music.” One way to use the Scottish Gaelic language to aid the mysterious and otherworldly images associated with the Celtic phenomenon is to leave the lyries without translation in the liner notes or not to print the lyrics at all. If the lyrics are not printed or if they are printed but no translation is given, this conveys the idea that these words are from another place and time, beyond modem understanding. If

Ibid. 100 the lyrics are translated, then the element of pre-Christian occult is avoided, since what could have been imagined as a song about practically anything is now revealed as a tune about buying a cow. 40% of the lyrics studied were printed and translated. The amount of translated lyrics seems rather high, since the number of Gaelic speakers in the region has shrunk to a low number and therefore the number of people who are able to translate the lyrics is shrinking in proportion."^^ The relatively high number of translated lyrics is encouraging, since it aids the amount of understanding a non-Gaelic speaker can have with a given piece.'^^ For this survey, any attempt to print the lyrics, partial or complete, and offer an explanation about their meaning was noted under the translation category.

Mary Jane Lamond uses two different methods of dealing with Scottish Gaelic songs in her liner notes. In her album Làn Dùil (1999) only a portion of the lyrics for each song is translated, but each song is followed by an English synopsis. For the song

“Mo Mhaili Bheag Og” a portion of the song is translated as:

Do you not pity me, as F m in prison

My little young Molly?

Your friends are condemning me.

You, my whole world,

O Woman of the smooth eyebrows.

Exact figures for the number of Gaelic speakers is difficult to establish. Jonathan Dembling in his 1997 thesis states the number at roughly 1000. Jonathan Dembling, “Joe Jimmy Alec Visits the Gaelic Mod and Escapes Unscathed: The Nova Scotia Gaelic Revivals,” (master’s thesis. Saint Mary’s University, 1997), 64. It should be noted that printing and translating lyrics is also more expensive for record companies and is another reason for leaving the Scottish Gaelic lyrics without translation. 101

And kisses as sweet as figs,

You would not degrade me

With malice from your mouth."*^

There follows a brief explanation of the rest of the song:

The story goes that Maili bheag og was the daughter of a Perthshire laird. She

and a young officer eloped on a Saturday night and were passed by her father and

his house guards. The couple was overtaken on Sunday in a remote glen. During

the ensuing skirmish the officer accidentally killed his sweetheart with a sword

blow. Waiting in prison for his execution, he made this song for her.'*'*

In this case the translation of the song, while powerful, is greatly enhanced by the explanation of the story connected with the song. Aspects of the story place the song in an older time and place but the grief is intense and manages to find resonance in modem society. Parts of the story still occur today, such as elopement, and estrangement from friends but more than that the song appeals to a universal theme, tragic love, which is a vital part of the song tradition that came from both Scotland and Ireland into the Atlantic

Provinces.

In Mary Jane Lamond’s album Bho Thir nan Craobh: From the Land o f Trees

(1996)/^ full translations for every song are provided. Track number 11 on this album contains several different short songs. The first of these is a march entitled “A Sheana- bhean Bhochd.” The lyrics are printed first in Gaelic and then in English.

Mary Jane Lamond, Làn DM, turtlemusick/Tidemark, 1999 CD. Ibid. Mary Jane Lamond, Bho Thir Nan Craobh, Independent, 1996 CD. 102

A sheana-bhean bhochd, cha’n fhalbh thu an nochd (3)

Neo idir moch a maireach.

Thig am fidhleir an nochd, ’s bheir i sgriob air a’ phort (3)

’S ged a dh’fhalbhadh e an diugh, thig e maireach.

Translation

Poor old woman, you won’t go away to-night (3)

Or even early tomorrow.

The fiddler will eome to-night, and she’ll try out the tune (3)

And though he’ll go to-day, he’ll return to-morrow."^^

The role of cultural ambassador, which these albums play, necessitates as much clarity in the meaning of songs as possible. These songs earry part of the tradition with them as they are reeorded and sent out of the region. Printed lyrics and translated lyrics where possible aid the ability of the region to be represented thoroughly and fairly through music. The high cost of printing all of the song lyrics as well as translations are understandable reasons for not listing the full lyrics of all songs in the liner notes. The added mystery of Scottish Gaelic singing, when left without translation and its place within the world of “Celtie Musie” is another reason for this omission. However, the survey indieates that a very large percentage of the musie did have printed and translated lyrics, an important step to fighting stereotypes by aiding understanding.

The printed lyrics were not the only text in the liner notes 1 was concerned about when beginning this research. The social context for music is very important for any type of musie, but is especially important for traditional music. When dealing with recorded

46Ibid. 103 music there is always a danger that the social context in which the music was created will be lost or misconstrued when the music is heard outside the place and time where it was produced. Sometimes the only aid the listener has in explaining the basics of the music he or she is hearing is the liner notes. These notes can provide explanations about musical traditions, regional history, and origins of tunes, etc. Liner notes may also explain the unique facets of the community’s treatment of musicians and music and how those musicians in turn feel about their home. The capacity that these notes have to explain the region can also work in reverse through incorrect information or statements which play on regional stereotypes.

There is evident pride in Atlantic Canada and musicians show this in the liner notes. 78% of the albums liner notes listed either a hometown or province for the musicians. J. P. Cormier writes in Heart & Soul (1998): “It was the feeling of loss of that special fellowship that violin music brings to people that called me back to my native soil of Cape Breton, and it is here that I intend to breath my last and to be laid to rest with my fathers that came before me.”'^^ Patricia Murray makes a somewhat less emotional dedication in the notes for her album Primrose, but identifies her home none the less.

She writes:

Prince Edward Island Council of the Arts & the Department of Culture, Heritage

and Recreation — both of these organizations have been tremendous supporters

over the years. Thank you for your generous support of this project. Tidemark

Music & Distribution — Thanks to Shelley Nordstrom at Tidemark for her

47 John Paul Cormier,Heart & Soul, Borealis, 1998 CD. 104

tireless contribution to promoting East Coast Music. I appreciate all her input and

support during the making of this recording.'**

The mention of specific places and people within Atlantic Canada is also helpful, since it helps dispel possible generalizations.

The liner notes also help educate the listener about the nature of the musical tradition in Atlantic Canada. 48% of the albums contain information about where and how each piece had been learned, following the oral nature of the tradition and also supporting the multi-generational aspect of the music. In Natalie MacMaster’sMy Roots

Are Showing (1998), each of the tracks has a little information about where each piece was learned. For “The Shakin’s o’ The Pocky,” Paul S. Cranford, who wrote the notes, states: “This slow air, which was composed by James Scott Skinner, has been a longtime favorite of Natalie’s Uncle Buddy MacMaster. It is found as a slow strathspey in The

Skye Collection.”'*^ Later in the notes Natalie’s musical family tree is listed in this way:

Natalie’s Family Tree:

l.Big Donald Cameron, great grandfather 2.Catherine & Allan Ian MacDonald,

great grandparents 3.John Beaton, grandfather 4.Margaret Anne (Cameron)

Beaton, grandmother 5.Sarah Agnes (MacDonald) MacMaster, grandmother

6.John Duncan MacMaster, grandfather 7.Buddy MacMaster, uncle 8. Minnie

MacMaster, mother 9.Alex MacMaster, father.^**

This explanation about where and how music is learned in Atlantic Canada is an important part of the social context needed to help dispel stereotypes. It conveys the idea

^** Patricia Murray, Primrose, Tidemark, 2001 CD. '*^ Natalie MacMaster, My Roots Are Showing, Warner Music Canada, 1998 CD. Ibid. 105 that the musicians are conscious of the tradition they are receiving. It helps to portray them as active participants in the culture.

Andy Nercession in his book Postmodernism and Globalization in

Ethnomusicology: An Epistemological Problem (2002) contests that the visual aspects are integral to the overall impression given by the CD.

Most musical experiences are dependent not only on an acoustic dimension, but

on a visual aspect as well.... But the visual side is far from a universal dimension

to music. The size of my friend’s CD collections should suffice to demonstrate

that. If the visual dimension were as important to music as certain objectors to

our definition claim, then music stores would have a giant video section and a

small CD section, rather than vice-versa.^*

Nercession’s argument that the visual is not the most important aspect of music is accurate. However, he does concede that the study of the visuals surrounding a musical performance is important and that the album’s liner notes help to create that portion of a musical experience when dealing with recorded music. The importance of the visual in the modem world is supported by David Gross, who places a greater importance on it than Nercession does. Gross writes; “With the ascendancy of a visual culture has naturally come the ascendancy of the image as a primary mode of communication.”^^

The potential for using images of historic Atlantic Canada or only rural modem landscapes was enormous and a feature 1 expected to find in great abundance. What I

Andy Nercession, Postmodernism and Globalization in Ethnomusicology: an Epistemological Problem (London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2002), 128. ^ David Gross, The Past in Ruins: Tradition and the Critique o f Modernity (Amherst, Massachusetts: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), 58. 106 discovered was that there is less representation of Atlantic Canada through pictures or drawings than might have been expected; only 20% of the liner notes contained pictures and 6% contained pictures of historic Atlantic Canada. Anita Best's Crosshanded (1997) contains pictures of the various people from whom she learned the songs that are featured on the album.^^ Some of the photographs appear to have been taken recently given clothing styles etc., but several, such as the pictures of Kate Wilson who was bom in

1895 are much older. This use of older images from the region does much to inform the listener about the aural nature of the tradition and the actual people who have handed it to the current generation. In this instance the images do not promote a stereotype of the region but a clearer understanding. The majority of the 6% of the albums that have historic images are images of people and are frequently used to show the ancestors of the performer or the people who taught the performer.

Some albums make use of humorous photographs. Kilt’sFour in the Crib (1997) carries the cribbage pun throughout the entire liner notes, placing the members of the band on a huge cribbage board in one photograph and also shows them playing in a cozy family room inanother.The majority of the liner notes contained only photographs of the performers themselves and made more use of colors and patterns than images of the region to enhance the artistic feel of the album. The lack of photographs of historic

Canada should be viewed as a positive sign, since it avoids the “backward” stereotype of the region. Atlantic Canada is revealed as striving to be seen as a modem place whose

Anita Best, Crosshanded, Amber Music, 1997 CD. Kilt, Four in the Crib, Oh Ha Music, 1997 CD. 107 residents are educated and competent but the lack of pictures may miss an opportunity to give a visual and geographic context to the music.

Clearly, the greatest asset on an album in dispelling preconceived notions about the region is the music itself. The results from the survey, detailed thus far, attest to a balanced representation of the region through the music and albums. No theme is dwelt upon in great abundance, except perhaps love, which can hardly be credited with creating regional stereotypes. However, there might be some cause for alarm when the nature of the traditional music itself is analyzed. The number of pieces that used non-traditional instrumentation was 66%; over half of the tracks on these traditional albums used a more modem form of instrumentation. Further, the number of tracks that were marked as containing only traditional music was only 33%. Based on these figures, can the music on these albums as a whole be termed traditional music? The group McKeel regularly uses electric bass, electric , electric guitar, and drums throughout their alhum Plaid

(1997).^^ Even Natalie MacMaster on Fit As A Fiddle (1993) makes use of both acoustic bass and drums on a few tracks.^^ Is the authentic tradition dying, or it is being reinterpreted by the next generation of artists the way a living tradition should be?

In the first chapter of this thesis there was a brief discussion on the nature of both tradition itself and traditional music. Although these are highly contested issues, many scholars believe that the very nature of tradition, in specific the Irish and Scottish traditions which contributed so greatly to Atlantic Canadian music is constantly changing.

MacKeel, Plaid, PolyGram, 1997 CD. Natalie MacMaster, Fit as a Fiddle, Canadian Broadcast Corporation, 1993 CD. 108

David Gross, in a discussion of the nature of tradition, states that: “Once traditions are established they themselves change in the process of being handed down.

Nothing historically engendered ever remains fixed or static.”^^ If this logic is to be followed, than the addition of new instruments and new recording techniques is merely an extension of the natural metamorphosis of traditional music. Sean 6 Riada detailed every nuance of the use of variation in the traditional singing in Ireland, and John Gibson and George Emmerson made excellent statements concerning the use of variation as an integral part of Scottish piping. If this use of variation already exists in traditional music, then it is possible to view the use of different types of instruments or new recording techniques, such as laying several fiddle tracks over each other, as extensions of this use of variation. The place of variation makes each performer simultaneously a creator and part of the musical heritage of the tradition. The use of different instruments makes a piece that has been heard many times before distinctive to the performer, and creates a place for the musician inside the tradition. The use of recording techniques also allows for experimentation and variation. Not only does this use of other instruments fit within the definition of a living tradition, it also produces an image of Atlantic Canada for the outside listener. The artists can be seen as creative and progressive, and this view can be extended to the region they come from as well. If artists are using new techniques and experimenting with the music through whatever means — instrumentation, recording, variation of playing techniques — then they are creators, and therefore harder to dismiss

David Gross, The Past in Ruins: Tradition and the Critique o f Modernity (Amherst Massachusetts: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1992), 13. 109 as “backward” or “conservative.” Consequently, a region that has fostered these musicians is also not as easy to dismiss.

Furthermore, the presence of original music shows that artists are allowed not only to participate in recreating the tradition, but also in contributing to the canon already in existence. In her album Fit As A F iddle, Natalie MacMaster performs some pieces by

Jerry Holland. In turn, on his album Crystal Clear (2000),^^ Jerry Holland performs compositions by Howie MacDonald, who plays compositions of his own as well as a piece by Joey Beaton on his album The Dance Last Night (1997).^*^ All of these pieces are surrounded in the sets by pieces marked as traditional. 14% of the tracks mixed traditional music and original music. These artists feel equally comfortable creating new works and playing new music written by other people as well as working with music that has been handed down to them through the tradition. 48% of the tracks recorded were original, meaning that they had a known composer who was listed in the liner notes. 33% of the tunes were traditional, meaning only that they had no known author. The musicians clearly show the ever-expanding nature of traditional music in Atlantic Canada through this practice of continual writing and incorporating new material into the community repertoire.

In 1961, while reviewing a book for the Canadian Literature journal, the composer Chester Duncan wrote that: “One thing our social history proves is that folksongs cannot be expected to improve as a country grows older. Perhaps at the

Natalie MacMaster, Fit as a Fiddle, Canadian Broadcast Corporation, 1993 CD. Jerry Holland, Crystal Clear, Odyssey Records, 2000 CD. Howie MacDonald, The Dance Last Night, Howie MacDonald, 1997 CD. Chester Duncan, “Folk Song as History,” review ofCanada's Story in Song, by Edith Fowke, Alan Mills and Helmut Blume, Canadian Literature (Spring 1961): 52. 110 time this was a valid observation but the current music being written in Atlantic Canada proves this is not the situation today. Not only is there is great deal of activity composing new music, but also if popularity is any indication, this music has a strong resonance with audiences. While public approval is not the only measure of song quality for traditional music which takes its identity from a group of people, their appreciation of a tune is a strong indicator that Atlantic Canada is continuing the strong lyrical tradition of past generations.

If the music is to he both alive and traditional it must be a blend of where the musicians have come from historically and where they are now. The influences that surround artists at present allow groups such as Rawlins Cross and MacKeel to use electric guitar and bagpipes. The current musical climate also allows experimentation with recording techniques such as sound effects and layers of recording tracks laid over each other as in the Fables album Tear the House Down (1998).^^ In his book Locating

Irish Folklore, Diarmuid Ô Giollain attempts to grapple with this issue of modernity and tradition. He concludes his argument by stating: “The point is that the continuity of traditional cultural elements is not necessarily compromised by embracing, rather than resisting, modernity, even if the resulting ‘second life’ may not satisfy the purist.”^^

Gearoid 6 hAllmhurain discusses the issue of traditional musicians in modem society dealing with multiple musical influences in A Pocket History o f Irish Traditional Music.

While he is discussing the situation in Ireland specifically, his answer to the concern over

The Fables, Tear the House Down, Tidemark, 1998 CD. Diarmuid Ô Giollain, Locating Irish Folklore: Tradition, Modernity, Identity (Cork: Cork University Press, 2000), 4. I l l experimentation in traditional music is applicable to the situation in Atlantic Canada as well. He writes:

The present purism of some traditional players reflects the strained interface

between popular culture, which is absorbing their music, and traditional culture,

whence it came. Above all, their purism has grown out of a sincere concern for

the regional and traditional aspect of Irish culture. As long as these guardians of

Irish traditional music are duly revered by their heirs, and the integrity of their

oral tradition respected by all of its recipients, there is no reason why circumspect

purism and perceptive innovation cannot co-exist in the new millennium.^

It is the “perceptive innovation” that is portrayed most clearly in the albums studied here.

The Atlantic Provinces region can be seen as a place that nurtures musicians who can simultaneously remember and honor their musical history and also discuss their present situation while looking to the future. Traditional music is not dying, it is very much alive in the healthiest way, since it is being re-created by a whole new generation of musicians and through their efforts, and those of the recording industry, the tradition is presented to the world outside Atlantic Canada. This is no surprise to the members of the musical traditional itself, but happily this is also the view that is being disseminated through the albums studied here. The possibility of doing research on traditional music in this way, by studying recordings produced not for study but for sales purposes underscores the importance of traditional music in modem Atlantic Canadian life. If it was not profitable

^ Gearoid Ô hAllmhurain, A Pocket History o f Irish Traditional Music (Dublin: O’Brien Press, 1998), 156. 112 to make these recordings many of them would not be produced. However, there is obviously an audience for this constantly evolving tradition.

And what exactly is it like “down there?” The people who purchase these albums are not shown a static tradition that has no place in the modem world. Instead they are treated to a rich view of the current musical tradition as well as the historical tradition. 113

Appendices

The four appendices that follow give the results of the survey carried out for this study. Appendix A: “Recordings” lists all the CD albums used in the study, with recording details. Appendix B: “Instrumentation” categorises the kind of instrumentation used in each track. Appendix C: “Liner Notes” lists the information included in the CD liners. Appendix D: “Theme Information” lists the principal themes of the lyrics of the songs performed on the albums. Appendices B and D do not include all albums and/or all tracks. In some cases, the appendix categories were not relevant to the particular albums or tracks. Also, for various reasons, some albums were not accessible for categorisation. 114

Appendix A Recordings Recording Recording Recording Recording Released Number of Number of ID Number Title Artist Label Tracks Vocal Tracks

1 Until Now The Barra Tidemark 1997 14 10 MacNeils

2 Closer to The Barra PolyGram 1993 12 10 Paradise MacNeils Records

3 Forever Celtic Quality Music 1995 11 11 Connection

4 Return to the John Paul Main Tripp 1995 12 0 Cape Cormier Records

5 Crosshanded Anita Best Amber Music 1997 12 12

6 Ancestral The College Attic Records 1994 11 6 Voices across of Piping and the Sea Performing Arts

7 Mist Covered Denis Ryan Tony Quinn 1991 11 9 Mountains

8 Celtic Celtic Warner Musie 1997 14 14 Connection Connection Canada

9 Primary Color J.P. Cormier Tidemark 2001 16 0

10 Rock in the The Barra PolyGram 1989 11 6 Stream MacNeils Records

11 The Fiddle J.P. Cormier Unity Grain 1991 13 0 Album Records

12 Timeframe The Barra Barra 1990 10 9 MacNeils MacNeils Co.

13 A Time Fables Tidemark 2000 13 11

14 Sailors on the Evans & Modtrad 1994 13 13 Asphalt Doherty Musie

15 The Colour of Anita Best Amber Music 1991 11 11 Amber and Pamela Morgan

16 The Traditional The Barra PolyGram 1994 13 0 Album MacNeils

17 The Barra The Barra PolyGram 1986 9 3 MacNeils MacNeils 115

Recording Recording Recording Recording Released Number of Number of ID Number Title Artist Label Tracks Vocal Tracks

18 Higher Celtic Actual Music 1999 12 13 Connection

19 The Question The Barra PolyGram 1995 13 13 MacNeils

20 Ennis Sisters Ennis Sisters Warner Music 2001 11 Canada

21 Dance to Your Teresa Doyle Bedlam 1996 14 13 Daddy Records

22 Breakwater Lennie Sony 1991 13 13 Gallant

23 Lifeline Lennie Sony 1997 11 11 Gallant

24 A Retrospective Piggy Duff EMI 1995 19 1974-1993

25 Road Not Evans & 1991 11 11 Taken Doherty

26 Red is the Rose Ennis Sisters Cabot 1997 12 0

27 Heart and Soul JP Cormier Borealis 1998 16 0 Recording

28 Weather Out Piggy D uff Hypnotic 1990 10 10 the Storm Records

29 Great Big Sea Great Big Sea Independent 1993 11 10

30 The Ennis The Ennis Tidemark 2000 15 14 Sisters 3 Sisters

31 Cradle on the Teresa Doyle Bedlam 2000 11 11 Waves Records

32 If Pish Could Teresa Doyle Bedlam 1999 14 14 Sing and Sheep Records Could Dance

33 Sailing Ships Evans & Tall Ships 2000 20 20 and Sailing Doherty Men

34 Piggy Duff Piggy Duff A& M 1991 13 Records

35 Porerunner Teresa Doyle Bedlam 1991 12 12 Records 116

Recording Recording Recording Recording Released Number of Number of ID Number Title Artist Label Tracks Vocal Tracks

36 Play Great Big Sea Warner Music 1997 15 15

37 Kilt Kilt Oh Ha Music 1997 12 8

38 Look to the Sea The Irish Derek 1993 12 10 Descendants Harrington

39 Four in the Crib Kilt Oh Ha Music 1999 14 9

40 Crystal Clear Jerry Holland Odyssey 2000 20 0

41 Road Rage Great Big Sea Warner Music 2000 19 19

42 Up Great Big Sea Warner Music 1995 15 14

43 Great Big Sea Warner Music 1998 13 12

44 Fiddler’s Jerry Holland Odyssey 1998 15 0 Choice Records

45 Ballads and Bar MacGinty Rocky Coast 1995 12 11 Tunes

46 Suas e! Mary Jane Turtlemusik 1997 11 11 Lamond (A&M)

47 Blooming Irish Sextant 2001 12 10 Bright Star Descendants Records Inc.

48 Nimble Fingers Dave Pickin’ 1996 19 0 Maclsaac Productions

49 The World Is Evans & Self Produced 1998 15 15 What You Doherty Make It

50 Bho Thir Nan Mary Jane 1989 14 14 Craobh Lamond B&R Heritage

51 Tear the House Fables 1998 14 10 Down Actual Music

52 So Far So Irish Warner Music 1999 19 19 Good; The Best Descendants of the Irish Descendants

53 Crossing the Rawlins Ground Swell 1991 12 7 Border Cross Records

54 Make It on Rawlins Warner Music 1998 14 11 Time Cross 117

Recording Recording Recording Recording Released Number of Number of ID Number Title Artist Label Tracks Vocal Tracks

55 Why2 Keilidh Howie self produced 1999 16 0 MacDonald

56 Wind Willow John Allan Margaree 1997 10 Cameron Sound

57 We Remember Buddy Budmac 2000 12 12 You Well MacMaster Music

58 Glencoe Station John Allan All Hands 1996 Cameron Music

59 The Judique Buddy Gordie 2000 14 Flyer MacMaster

60 Sea Songs MacGinty Rocky Coast 2000 13 13

61 Said She The Punters Factor 1997 15 11 Couldn’t Dance

62 Grain Mary Jane Turtlemusik 2000 12 11 Ghàidhlig: Lamond Gaelic Song of Cape Breton

63 Atlantic MacGinty Rocky Coast 1998 14 13 Favorites 11

64 The Dance Last Howie self produced 1998 16 Night MacDonald

65 Another J.P. Cormier Borealis 1996 14 12 Morning

66 Close to the Ashley ancient music 1992 11 Floor Maclsaac

67 Hi How Are Ashley A&M Music 1995 12 You Today Maclsaac

68 Làn Dùil Maty Jane Turtlemusik 1999 11 Lamond

69 Guitar Souls Dave Atlantic 1995 12 Maclsaac/ (EMI) Scott Macmillan

70 Helter’s Celtic Ashley Loggerhead 1999 13 Maclsaac Records

71 From the David Pickin’ 1999 15 Archives Maclsaac Productions 118

Recording Recording Recording Recording Released Number of Number of ID Number Title Artist Label Tracks Vocal Tracks

72 Tried and Trio MacGinty Rocky Coast 1990 10 10 Music

73 Sweet Is the Aselin Odyssey 2002 14 14 Melody Debison

74 Plaid Mackeel PolyGram 1997 11

75 Fit as Fiddle Natalie CBC 1993 13 MacMaster

76 Uprooted The Rankin EMI Music 1998 14 13 Family Canada

77 Portraits Patricia Tidemark 1998 11 Murray

78 Atlantic MacGinty Rocky Coast 1993 12 12 Favorites

79 Fare Thee Well The Rankin EMI Music 1990 11 Love Family Canada

80 Fiddle Music Maclsaac & Maclsaac & 2000 10 101 Maclsaac Maclsaac

81 Coal Fire in Men of the Atlantic 1992 14 14 Winter Deeps (EMI)

82 My Roots Are Natalie Warner Music 1998 13 Showing MacMaster Canada

83 Natalie Warner Music 1999 14 MacMaster Canada

84 Primrose Patricia Tidemark 2001 11 11 Murray

85 A Compilation Natalie Warner Music 1996 16 MacMaster

86 Diamonds in Men of the Waterloo 1997 16 16 the Rough deeps

87 Mining the Soul Rita MacNeil, All Hands 2000 11 11 Men of the Music Deeps

88 North Country The Rankin EMI Music 1993 13 12 Family Canada

89 Will You Wait The Punters Loggerhead 2000 11 10 Records

90 No Boundaries Natalie Warner Music 1996 13 MacMaster Canada 119

Recording Recording Recording Recording Released Number of Number of ID Number Title Artist Label Tracks Vocal Tracks

91 Celtic Rawlins Warner Music 1997 II 0 Instrumentals Cross Canada

92 The Celtic Richard Atlantic 1995 12 0 Touch Wood Music

93 Early Spring Jean Hewson A Pigeon 1992 II II Inlet

94 A Turn of the Rawlins Warner Music 1989 10 6 Wheel Cross Canada

95 Living River Rawlins Warner Music 1996 13 II Cross Canada

96 Fire Dance Richard Self Produced 1997 II 0 Wood

97 Battery Tickle Singsong Inc. 1998 12 5 Included Harbour

98 Reel ’n’ Roll Rawlins Warner Music 1993 12 10 Cross Canada

99 Sailors Story Sons of 1999 10 10 Maxwell

100 The Brule Boys Tickle A Pigeon I99I 12 I in Paris Harbour Inlet Production 120

Appendix B Instrumentation

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrumen- and tation Original M usic

The Broum Set yes yes

Banks of the yes yes unknown Roses

The Marquis of yes yes Huntly’s Snuff Mill

The Island yes yes

Song for Peaee yes yes

Going Down yes yes the Road

Coaltown Road yes yes

My Heart’s in yes yes unknown the Highlands

Ian Hardie Set yes yes

Mouth Musie yes yes unknown ‘97

Darling Be yes yes Home Soon

Clumsy Lover yes yes unknown Set

Row Row Row yes yes

Frostbite yes yes

In the Wink o f yes yes an Eye 121

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrumen- and tation Original M usic

Am Pige Ruadh yes yes unknown

Mo Nighean yes yes unknown Dubh

Caledonia yes yes

Chase the Man yes yes

We Celebrate yes yes

Closer to yes yes Paradise

When I’m yes yes Away from You

Darling Be yes yes Home

Jigs yes yes

Dancing We yes yes Would Go

Heart of Gold yes yes unknown

The Eviction yes yes unknown

Last Thing on yes yes unknown My Mind

Brigid Flynn yes yes unknown

Newfound-land yes yes Forever

Brand New yes yes unknown Song

Fogarty’s Cove yes yes unknown 122

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal Music

Alone by Your yes yes Side

Seasons of a yes yes unknown Sailor

Right All Right yes yes unknown

Our Station yes yes unknown

Hilda yes yes unknown Chiasson- Cormier’s Reel, Temperance Reel

Cowie’s Clog, yes yes Scotland Winston Tune

Reel Made with yes yes Hilda, Miss W atson’s Return

Highland yes yes unknown Dream

Niel Gow’s yes yes unknown Lament

Shetland yes yes unknown Hornpipe, the E flat Tune

Slow Air, yes yes Moving Cloud

The Haggis, yes yes Scotland Caber Feidth

Jerry Sullivan’s yes yes Strathspey, Tammy Sullivan’s Reel 123

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional M ixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrumen­ and tation O riginal M usic

Flannigan’s yes yes unknown Favorite Ole French Reel, Kelly’s- Reel

Horseshoe yes yes unknown Reel, Winter Carnival Reel, Pigeon on the

The Water yes yes unknown Witch

The Spanish yes yes unknown Captain

The Liverpool yes yes unknown Pilot

Me Old yes yes unknown Ragadoo

Le Jeune yes yes unknown Militaire

Gull Cove yes yes unknown

Driharin o Mo yes yes unknown Croi

The Soup yes yes unknown Supper in Clattice Harbour

Blanche yes yes unknown comme la Neige

Tobacco yes yes unknown

Lord Bateman yes yes unknown

Hush o Bye yes yes unknown Baby 124

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional M usic Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal Music

Medley— yes yes unknown Guitars, Fiddle, Flute

If Ever You yes yes Were Mine

Amazing Grace yes yes unknown

Flowers of the yes yes unknown Forest

Fair and Tender yes yes unknown Ladies

The Water Is yes yes unknown Wide

My Ain yes yes unknown Country

Solo Piping yes yes unknown Medley

Song for yes yes Ireland

My Youngest yes yes Son Came Home Today

Reel Medley yes yes

Newport Town yes yes

Mist Covered yes yes unknown Mountains of Home

Dark Island yes yes unknown

ril Take You yes yes unknown Home Again, Kathleen/Isle 125

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional M ixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

For Now I’m yes yes unknown Sixty-Four

Will You Go yes yes unknown Lassie Go

Paddy’s Green yes yes unknown Shamrock Shore

Sweet Forget yes yes unknown Me Not

Cape Breton yes yes Sunrise

Tiree Love yes yes unknown Song

Let Me Fish off yes yes Cape St. Mary’s

The Circle

Raise the Roof

Time Stands Still

How Come

Greenland Whale Fishery

Badger Drive

Tim Finnegan’s Wake

Not Too Good with Names

Sixteen for Awhile 126

Recording Track Title Traditionai Non Originai Traditionai Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditionai Musie Music Traditional Musie Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginai M usic

Jack Was Every Inch a Sailor

Tyree Love Song

South Australia

Stay

The Piccadilly Sand Farewell

Cape Breton yes yes unknown Guitar Set

Doc Tribute #1 yes yes

The Rollo yes yes Boy’s Reel

Irish Guitar yes yes Ireland

Jerry’s yes yes Breakdown

Cape Breton yes yes Set #2

Limerick yes yes unknown

Dixie yes yes Breakdown

Doc Tribute #2 yes yes unknown

The Claw yes yes

The Mathema- yes yes tician/Sleepy Bach

Lonesome yes yes Twelve 127

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional M usic Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal Music

Hawaiian Slack yes yes

Blue Angel yes yes

Whispers of the yes yes North

Haslem’s yes yes unknown Castle

10 Coaltown Road yes yes

10 Standing by the yes yes Subway

10 Beautiful Point yes yes Aconi

10 Kitty Bawn yes yes O ’Brien

10 Highland yes yes unknown Exchange Medley

10 Red Ice yes yes

10 The Lone yes yes Ireland Harper

10 The Island yes yes

10 Rattlin, Roarin yes yes unknown Willie

10 Glenpark yes yes unknown Medley

10 High Bass yes yes Tunes

11 The Wizard yes yes unknown

11 Sheila yes yes unknown Donovan 128

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

11 Robert yes yes Joudrey’s Reel

11 Murray’s Reel yes yes unknown Medley

11 Soppin’ the yes yes Gravy

11 Trip to yes yes Bridgewater

11 Levy’s yes yes Hornpipes

11 Rosebud o f yes yes Avonmore Waltz

11 Temperance yes yes Ireland Reel Medley

11 Banks and The yes yes unknown E flat Tune

11 Daley’s Reel yes yes Medley

11 Tribute to yes yes Joseph Cormier

11 The Merry yes yes MacRae

12 Flower Basket yes yes unknown Medley

12 An Irish Drink/ yes yes Ireland John McKenna’s

12 Flow Time yes yes

12 Didn’t Hear the yes yes Train 129

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Mnsic Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrumen- and tation Original M usic

12 Song for Peace yes yes

12 Isle of My yes yes Dreams

12 Looking Back yes yes

12 Row Row Row yes yes

12 Ian Hardie Set yes yes unknown

12 My Heart’s in yes yes Scotland the Highlands

12 Banks of the yes yes unknown Roses

13 Mauzy, yes yes Monday

13 O ’Brien yes yes

13 Miss yes yes unknown Monahan’s/ Pigeon on the Gate

13 There yes yes

13 Buy Us a Drink yes yes

13 As I Roved Out yes yes unknown

13 Buried in the yes yes Sand

13 Dance, Dance, yes yes Dance

13 Ramblin’ yes yes Rover

13 Sure It’s All yes yes the Same 130

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

13 Down East Day yes yes

13 The Rocky yes yes Ireland Road to Dublin

14 Oh No More yes yes

14 Brennan on the yes yes Moor

14 The Galway yes yes Ireland Races

14 The Man with yes yes the Cap

14 Whiskey in the yes yes Ireland Jar

14 Winds of yes yes Morning

14 The Second yes yes Week of Deer Camp

yes 14 Hi for the yes unknown Beggarman

yes 14 My Baby and yes M yD -18

14 Sailin’ around yes yes

14 Acadian yes yes Saturday Night

14 The Chemical yes yes Workers Song

14 Galway to yes yes Graceland 131

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Musie Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

15 A Sailor’s yes yes unknown Trade is a Weary Life

15 Lowlands yes yes unknown

15 The Maid on yes yes unknown the Shore

15 John Barbour yes yes unknown

15 The Two yes yes Sisters

15 The Lowlands yes yes unknown o f Holland

15 She’s like the yes yes unknown Swallow

15 Suil A Gra yes yes unknown

15 The Green yes yes unknown Mossy Banks o f the Lee

16 Twice a Year yes yes

16 Toonik Tyme yes yes

16 Twin Fiddles yes yes unknown

16 Wedding Party yes yes unknown Medley

16 Memories of yes yes Mary and Mackenzie

16 March- yes yes unknown Strathspeys- Reels

16 The Maid of yes yes unknown Arrochar 132

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

16 The Visit yes yes unknown Medley

16 Tribute to yes yes unknown Robert Stubbert

16 The Clumsy yes yes unknown Lover Set

16 Celtic Harp yes yes unknown

16 Neil Gow’s yes yes Lament for the Death of His Second Wife

16 The Brolum Set yes yes unknown

18 Freedom yes

18 A W oman’s yes yes Heart

18 The Sociable yes yes Song

18 Leaving yes yes Tomorrow

18 Marigold Smile yes yes

18 The yes yes unknown Kelligrew’s Soirée

18 Apologies yes yes

18 The Last yes yes Shanty

18 My Angel yes yes

18 Why Didn’t yes yes You Say So Before

18 Flowers yes yes 133

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic Music Traditionai Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

18 The Nite Visit yes yes unknown

19 She the Ocean yes yes

19 All or Nothing yes yes

19 Part o f Me yes yes

19 Falling yes yes

19 The Question yes yes

19 Goin’ Back yes yes

19 Oh My yes yes

19 Going down yes yes the Road

19 The Ballad of yes yes Lucy Jordan

19 Seallaibh yes yes unknown Curaidh Eoghainn

19 Myopic yes yes

19 Turquoise yes yes Shoes

19 17 yes yes

20 I’d Never Walk yes yes Away

20 October Wind yes yes

20 Leaving on My yes yes Mind

20 Without You yes yes

20 If Only yes yes 134

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional M usic Musie Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

20 All Over Again yes yes

20 It’s Not about yes yes You

20 Somebody yes yes Somewhere

20 Knocks Me ofF yes yes My Feet

20 Turn Up the yes yes Radio

20 Kiss Him yes yes

21 Stormy yes yes New Weather Boys

21 Lukey’s Boat yes yes unknown

21 Rose, Rose, yes yes unknown Rose, Red

21 Mist Covered yes yes Scotland Mountains

21 Colcannon yes yes Ireland

21 Home by Bama yes yes Ireland

21 Sean Vhan yes yes PEI Voght

21 Canoe Round yes yes unknown

21 Carrion Crow yes yes unknown

21 Le Talon de yes yes Acadian Marguerite

21 False Knight on yes yes unknown the Road

21 Sarah yes yes Newfound land 135

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

21 A Tall Tale NA

21 Dance to Your yes yes unknown Daddy

22 From a yes yes Distance

22 Down on the yes yes Promenade

22 La Tempete yes yes

22 The yes yes Reconciliation Two-Step

22 Big City yes yes

22 Breakwater yes yes

22 Marie and He yes yes

22 Destination yes yes

22 Back to Rustico yes yes

22 Raise the Dead yes yes of Wintertime

22 Island Clay yes yes

22 Tales of the yes yes Phantom Ship

22 The Hope for yes yes Next Year

23 More than yes yes Likely

23 Without Love yes yes

23 Something yes yes Unspoken 136

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed O rigin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic Music Traditional M usic Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

23 16 Angels yes yes

23 Smoke and yes yes Mirrors

23 Meet Me at the yes yes Oasis

23 The Band’s yes yes Still Playing

23 Titanic Band yes yes Intro

23 Fisher King yes yes

23 Slow Boat yes yes

23 Lifeline yes yes

24 Freedom yes yes

24 Thomas and yes yes unknown Nancy

24 Auntie Mary/ yes yes unknown Brother’s Jig

24 Snowy Night yes yes

24 4-stop Jigs yes yes unknown

24 The Fisher yes yes unknown Who Died in His Bed

24 Allanadh yes yes unknown

24 Downstream yes yes

24 Captain and yes yes unknown His Whiskers/ Fisherman’s Favorite 137

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

24 Gees in the yes yes unknown Bog

24 Weather Out yes yes the Storm

24 True or False yes yes unknown

24 Breakwater yes yes unknown Boys Breakdown

24 Woman of yes yes Labrador

24 A Sailor yes yes unknown Courted a Farmer’s Daughter

24 Emile’s Reel yes yes unknown

24 Henry Martin yes yes unknown

24 Rumbolt yes yes unknown

24 Tarry Trousers yes yes unknown

25 The Mermaid yes yes unknown

25 Wild Mountain yes yes unknown Thyme

25 Dungarvan My yes yes unknown Hometown

25 Wave to the yes yes unknown Water/The Day the Tall Ships Came

25 Carrickfergus yes yes unknown

25 Lady in yes yes Montana 138

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

25 Save the yes yes Whales

25 Christmas in yes yes the Trenches

25 A Drink for My yes yes Father

25 Road Not yes yes Taken

25 Streets of yes yes unknown London

26 Right Here yes yes with Me

26 You’ll Live yes yes Forever

26 Breath of yes yes Angels

26 The Leaving of yes yes unknown Liverpool

26 No Change in yes yes Me

26 Red Is the Rose yes yes unknown

26 Out from St. yes yes Leonard’s

26 If Anything yes yes Happened to You

26 Somewhere in yes yes America

26 The Traveler yes yes

26 An Irish yes yes unknown Lullaby 139

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional Musie Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

27 Me and Gelas yes yes

27 Scotty Meets yes yes unknown Rene

27 Banjomusik yes yes

27 The B Minor yes yes Set

27 Here’s to You yes yes unknown Scotty!

27 May I Have yes yes This Dance?

27 My Bach Is yes yes unknown Worse than My Bite

27 Pop Goes the yes yes unknown Weasel

27 Alan’s Set yes yes unknown

27 Aren’t We yes yes unknown Feeling “Jiggy” Today

27 Rawhide (Bill yes yes Monroe BMI)

27 Fleetwood yes yes unknown

27 Christie yes yes unknown Married a Frenchman

27 Kenny Baker yes yes Live

27 Martin’s Set yes yes

27 Tulloch Gorum yes yes unknown (aka Broken Fingers) 140

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional M usic Mnsic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M nsic

28 Bad Blood yes yes

28 Henry Martin yes yes Scotland

28 Rumbolt yes yes

28 Yankee yes yes unknown Skipper

28 Inside a Circle yes yes

28 Snowy Night yes yes

28 Jealous Lover/ yes yes unknown Wedding Waltz

28 Weather Out yes yes the Storm

28 Heart of a yes yes Gypsy

28 Woman o f yes yes unknown Labrador

29 I’se the B’y yes yes unknown

29 Berry Picking yes yes unknown Time

29 Jigs; Eaves­ yes yes Newfound dropper’s/ Both land Meat and Drink/ Off We Go

29 Time Brings yes yes

29 Great Big Sea/ yes yes unknown Gone by the Board

29 Drunken Sailor yes yes unknown

29 The yes yes Fisherman’s lament 141

Recording Track Title Traditionai Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal Music

29 What Are Ya’ yes yes At

29 Excursion yes yes Newfound around the Bay land

29 Someday Soon yes yes

29 Irish Paddy/ yes yes St. Festival Reel M ary’s

30 Lies yes yes

30 Islander/ yes yes Connaught- m an’s Rambles

30 Can’t Stop the yes yes Dance

30 If I Should yes yes Leave You

30 Sorry yes yes

30 When yes yes Tomorrow Comes

30 Accordion yes yes unknown Intro/ Rocking Chair Jig

30 Never Puts His yes yes Fiddle Down

30 Lord of the yes yes unknown Dance

30 Forever Love yes yes

30 Live Not yes yes unknown Where I Love

30 Haul Her yes yes unknown Along 142

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usie

30 Rainy Day yes yes

30 Work to Be yes yes Done

30 Lullaby yes yes

31 Dream Angus yes yes Scotland

31 A Lullaby yes yes Scotland

31 Lagan Love yes yes Ireland

31 And Summer yes yes Faire

31 Maid of yes yes Ireland Coolmore

31 La Nourrice du yes yes PEI Roi

31 The Old Turf yes yes Ireland Fire

31 A Chuachag yes yes Scotland Nam Beann

31 Green Grow yes yes the Rushes

31 Cradle on the yes yes Waves

31 Sleep Song yes yes Ireland

32 Ca’ the Ewes yes yes unknown

32 The Country yes yes unknown Life

32 Mairi’s yes yes Ireland Wedding

32 Molly and yes yes unknown Johnny 143

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Originai Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

32 Garten yes yes unknown M other’s Lullaby

32 A Sailor’s yes yes unknown Alphabet

32 A Leg of yes yes unknown Mutton

32 Johnny’s Gone yes yes unknown a Sailing

32 A Rovin’ yes yes unknown

32 I Dyed My yes yes unknown Petticoats Red

32 Tell My Ma yes yes Irish

32 The Shearing yes yes unknown

32 Si J’avais les yes yes unknown Beaux Souliers

32 Lots o f Fish in yes yes unknown Bonavista Harbour

33 Tiger Bay yes yes unknown

33 Bound for the yes yes unknown Rio Grande

33 Clear the Track yes yes unknown

33 The Drunken yes yes unknown Sailor

33 Essiquibo yes y es unknown River

33 Maggie May yes yes unknown

33 Blood Red yes yes unknown Roses 144

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginai Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional M usic M usie Traditional Musie Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

33 Leave Her yes yes unknown Johnny

33 Santianna yes yes unknown

33 Rolling Home yes yes unknown to Nova Scotia

33 The Leaving of yes yes unknown Liverpool

33 Old Moke yes yes unknown Pickin’ on a

33 Oh California yes yes

33 All for Me yes yes unknown Grog

33 Bonnie Hieland yes yes unknown Laddie

33 Haul Away Joe yes yes unknown

33 Pay Me My yes yes unknown Money Down

33 Paddy Lay yes yes unknown Back

33 John Kanaka yes yes unknown

33 The Rosabella yes yes unknown

34 Geese in the yes yes unknown Bog

34 4-stop Jig yes yes unknown

34 Matt Eiley yes yes unknown

34 Rosy Banks of yes yes unknown Green 145

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional Music M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

34 Kissing Dance yes yes unknown Medley

34 Quand J’étais yes yes unknown Fille à l’Age Quinze Ans

34 Tinker behind yes yes unknown the Door

34 The Greenland yes yes unknown Disaster

34 Now I’s 64 yes yes unknown

34 Half Dorr. yes yes unknown Larry’s Lancer/ Mother on the Doorstep

34 Rabbits in a yes yes unknown Basket

34 Emile’s Reels yes yes unknown

34 Fisher Who yes yes unknown Died in His Bed

35 The S laugh yes yes ‘Swoogh’

35 Cape Breton yes yes unknown Lullaby

35 The Giant yes yes

35 Blue’s Hollow yes yes

35 Haul the Jib yes yes unknown

35 Agincourt yes yes unknown Carol

35 The Shearing yes yes unknown 146

Recording Track Title Traditionai Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditionai Music Number tation Instrumen- and tation Original M usic

35 She’s like the yes yes unknown Swallow

35 Salisbury Plain yes yes unknown

35 Maggie Daly yes yes

35 Iridescent Blue yes yes

35 If I Was a yes yes unknown Blackbird

36 Seagulls yes yes

36 Jolly Roving yes yes unknown Tar

36 Something I yes yes Should Know

36 Jakey’s Gin yes yes

36 My Apology yes yes unknown

36 Recruiting yes yes unknown Sergeant

36 How Did We yes yes Get from Saying I Love You

36 End of the yes yes World

36 Donkey Riding yes yes unknown

36 Haven’t Seen yes yes You in a Long Time

36 The Night Pat yes yes unknown Murphy Died

36 When I’m Up yes yes 147

Recording Track Title Traditionai Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional Music Number tation instru m en ­ and tation O riginal Music

36 Ordinary Day yes yes

36 General Taylor yes yes unknown

37 Dylan’s Ghost yes yes

37 Last Call yes yes

37 The Keeper yes yes

37 The Drunken yes yes unknown Dancer

37 Come On yes yes Eileen

37 South Australia yes yes unknown

37 Dream of yes yes unknown Death

37 Fisherman’s yes yes Blues

37 Johnny Bean yes yes unknown Set

37 Honest yes yes unknown Gamble/ Tripping up the Stairs

37 Wrecker’s Den yes yes

37 I Was Made for yes yes Loving You

38 Peter Street yes yes unknow n

38 Fisherman’s yes yes Song

38 Lark in the yes yes unknown Morning 148

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal T raditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal Music

38 Oh No Not I yes yes Newfound land

38 Thousand Tall yes yes Ships

38 Rollin’ of the yes yes Sea

38 Go to Sea No yes yes More

38 Dancin’ Dick yes yes unknown

38 Days of Yore yes yes

38 Rocky Road to yes yes Ireland Dublin

38 Useta Love Her yes yes

38 Last of the yes Great Whales

39 Shift yes yes

39 Lift Up Your yes yes unknown Glass

39 Snappy Jack yes yes unknown

39 De Jigs yes yes unknown

39 Everything’ll yes yes Be Alright

39 Dirty Dinky yes yes Dorrian’s Reel

39 Dylan’s Ghost yes yes

39 Instead yes yes

39 Hold You So yes yes

39 Reels yes yes unknown 149

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic Music Traditional Music Number tation In strum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

39 Sight yes yes

39 Island Kitchen yes yes

39 Rubber Boots yes yes

40 Moladh yes yes Maureen nic Coinnich

40 A J. and yes yes Jeanette Beaton’s

40 Margaret and yes yes Archie Neil

40 O.J. Forbes of yes yes Course...

40 Falcon yes yes Scottish Bigney...

40 Larry yes yes Scotland Reynold’s

40 Meeting Gigi... yes yes

40 The Laird of yes yes Scotland Bemerside

40 Marry Miss yes yes Mary

40 The First of yes yes Spring

40 The Dandy... yes y es unknow n

40 Dr. Shaw... yes yes

40 Glasgow yes yes unknown Strathspey

40 January 16th yes yes 150

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed O rigin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic Music Traditional M usic Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

40 Katie Anne yes yes Cameron ...

40 A Walk yes yes through the Ruins ...

40 Christie yes yes Cape Campbell’s Breton

40 The Blackthorn yes yes unknown Strathspey

40 Sean Maguire’s yes yes

40 Killravock’s... yes yes unknown

41 General Taylor yes yes

41 Excursion yes yes around the Bay

41 Ordinary Day yes yes

41 Mari Mac yes yes

41 I’m a Rover yes yes

41 Fast as I Can yes yes

41 Feel It turn yes yes

41 Lukey yes yes

41 Hangin’ yes yes Johnny

41 Everything yes yes Shines

41 The Old Black yes yes Rum

41 Jack Hinks yes yes

41 When I’m Up yes yes 151

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

41 C oin’ Up yes yes

41 Boston and St. yes yes John’s

41 The Night Pat yes yes Murphy Died

41 Consequence yes yes Free

41 Captain yes yes

41 Donkey Riding yes yes

42 Billy Peddle yes yes unknown

42 Rant and Roar yes yes Newfound land

42 Lukey yes yes unknown

42 Nothing out of yes yes Nothing

42 Wave over yes yes Wave

42 The Chemical yes yes Worker’s Song

42 The Old Black yes yes unknown Rum

42 Something to It yes yes

42 Dancing with yes yes unknown Mrs. White

42 Mari Mac yes yes Scotland

42 Fast as I Can yes yes

42 Goin’ Up yes yes

42 Run Run Away yes yes 152

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

42 The Jolly yes yes unknown Butcher

42 Buying Time yes yes

43 The Night Pat yes yes unknown Murphy Died

43 Rant and Roar yes yes Newfound land

43 The Old Black yes yes unknown Rum

43 Lukey yes yes unknown

43 Something to It yes yes

43 Dancing with yes yes unknown Mrs. White

43 Goin’ Up yes yes

43 Fast as I Can yes yes

43 End of the yes yes World

43 Mari-Mac yes yes unknown

43 When I’m Up yes yes

43 Ordinary Day yes yes

43 General Taylor yes yes unknown

44 Paul Cranford’s yes yes Medley

44 Roderick yes yes Cameron’s Set

44 Dance Your yes yes Heart Away 153

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed O rigin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional M usic Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

44 Dave yes yes ‘Normaway’ Macdonald’s Wedding

44 Glenn and yes yes Karl’s Set

44 For My Dear yes yes Mother

44 Paddy’s Trip to yes yes Irish Scotland

44 Ashley yes yes Maclsaac’s Request

44 Alexander yes yes William MacDonnell

44 Boo Baby’s yes yes Lullaby

44 Miss Hutton’s yes yes Scotland Medley

44 Everyone’s yes yes Fancy

44 Wake Up to yes yes Cape Breton Medley

44 Thelma yes yes Irish MacPherson’s Raised Basset

44 Fiddling yes yes Friends

45 Dirty Old yes yes Town

45 Nancy yes yes unknown Whiskey 154

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrumen­ and tation O riginal M usic

45 Brennan on the yes yes unknown Moor

45 Willie McBride yes yes

45 Swallow’s Tail/ yes yes unknown Kesh/ Tripping

45 Santano/ Sally yes yes unknown Brown

45 Mary Mack yes yes unknown

45 Danny Boy yes yes unknown

45 Roseville Fair yes yes

45 Fiddler’s Green yes yes

45 Streets of yes yes London

45 Ballads and Bar yes yes Tunes/ Ashokan Farewell

46 E Horo yes yes unknown

46 Oran do Ghille yes yes unknown a Chaidh a Bhàthadh

46 Tha Mo Run yes yes unknown air a’Ghille (I Love the Lad)

46 Horo Ghoid yes yes unknown The Nighean (Stepping Song)

46 IÙ 6 ra hiù ô yes yes unknown (Margaret’s Song) 155

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

46 Horo Mo yes yes unknown Nighean Donn Bhôidheach nan Gormshuil

46 Hi ri him bo yes yes unknown

46 Domhnail mac yes yes unknown ‘ic Iain

46 Seinn o yes yes unknown

46 Oran Snlomh yes yes unknown (Spinning Song)

46 Bog a’ Lochain yes yes unknown

47 Blooming yes yes Bright Star of Belle Isle

47 King of the yes yes unknown Pipers/ Up the Southern Shores

47 The Rose of yes yes unknown Allendale

47 The Black and yes yes Ireland Tans

47 She Moved yes yes Ireland through the Fair

47 The Island yes yes

47 Her Father yes yes Didn’t Like Me Anyway

47 City of Chicago yes yes

47 Step it Out yes yes unknown Maty 156

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

47 Caledonia yes yes unknown

47 My Irish Molly yes yes O

47 Emile’s Irish yes yes unknown Reels

48 The Big yes Medley

48 DGA yes

48 The Water in yes the Sea

48 Compliments yes to Jerry Holland

48 Currie’s yes Rambles

48 Nimble Fingers yes

48 The Muddy yes Road to Glencoe

48 Dan Hugh and yes Dan Rory

48 Salute to yes 79 Cheticamp

48 Smith’s yes

48 C If You Like yes This

48 Garthland’s yes

48 Acoustic Irish yes Reels 157

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional IMusic Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

48 Gaelectric yes Blues

48 Mrs. Garden of yes Troup

48 Donald John yes the Tailor

48 Angus yes Chisholm’s

48 The Blue yes Cuckoo

48 Neil Gow’s yes Dobro

49 Late Starters in yes Love

49 Fallen from yes Heaven

49 Sam Hall yes

49 The Swimmin’ yes Song

49 The Lowlands yes Low

49 Together yes

49 Rollin’ in the yes Clover

49 Madeline yes

49 My Only Girl yes

49 I Saw Her in a yes Music Shop

49 The Ballad of yes John Williams 158

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

49 The World Is yes What You Make It

49 The Haying yes Song

49 Mormand yes Breas

49 The Silly Slang yes

50 A Chuachag yes yes Cape nam Beann Breton

50 O, Tha Mise fo yes yes unknown Grummean

50 Air Fàilirinn iù yes yes Cape Breton

50 Cagaran yes yes Cape Gaolach Breton

50 He mo Leannan yes yes Scotland

50 Oran Gillean yes yes Cape Alasdair Mhoir Breton

50 Dan So Shean yes yes Ford

50 Dh’ Olainn yes yes Scotland Deoch a Làimh mo Ruin

50 Piuirt-a-beuI yes yes Scotland

50 O Ba Ba Mo yes yes Scotland leanabh

50 Cha bhi mi yes yes Buan

50 Ho ro ‘s Toigh yes yes Cape Team (bin thu Breton 159

Recording T rack Title Traditionai Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditionai Music Number tation Instrumen­ and tation O riginal M usic

50 Bodach Beag a yes yes unknown Lonean

50 Dhomhnaill yes yes Scotland Antaidh

51 Cock of the yes yes unknown North

51 Dancin’ round yes yes the Kitchen

51 Lilly yes yes

51 Heave Away yes yes unknown

51 Joe yes yes Fitzpatrick’s Reel

51 Spanish Lady yes yes unknown

51 Peter Street yes yes unknown

51 Lazy Tom yes yes

51 Tear the House yes -yes Down

51 Sam Hall yes yes unknown

51 The Rose in the yes yes unknown Heather

51 Fish Out of yes yes Water

51 The Old yes yes Ireland Woman from Wexford

51 Frog in the yes yes unknown Well

52 Barrett’s yes Privateers 160

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

52 The Two yes Ronnies/ Broderick’s Reel

52 Uncle Dan yes

52 Put Out from yes St. Leonard’s

52 Sam Hall yes

52 Never Been yes There Before

52 Rollin’ Home yes

52 Let Me Fish off yes Cape St. Mary’s

52 Last of the yes Great Whales

52 Rocky Road to yes Dublin

52 A Walk in the yes Irish Rain

52 Catch the Wind yes

52 Peter Street yes

52 Raggle Taggle yes Gypsy

52 The Dublin yes Reel

52 Days of Yore yes

52 Rattlin’ Bog yes

52 So to Sea No yes More 161

Recording Track Title Traditionai Non O riginai Traditional M ixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditionai M usic M usic Traditionai Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginai M usic

52 Shamrock City yes

53 Israel Got a yes yes unknown Rabbit

53 Blues For you yes yes

53 Sound of yes yes unknown Sleat/Ale Is Dear

53 Memory Waltz yes yes

53 Peace on the yes yes Inside

53 O ’Neil’s yes yes unknown March/ Haugbs

53 Eleventh Hour yes yes

53 Open Road yes yes

53 Nightfall yes yes

53 Chessboard yes yes Dancer

53 Legendary yes yes

53 Stray Cat yes yes

54 The French yes yes Painter/ Drive ’Er Down

54 The Navvy on yes yes unknown the Line/ Jim Hodder’s Reel

54 A Winter’s yes yes Tale

54 The Deep Blue yes yes

54 Two Islands yes yes 162

Recording T rack Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrumen­ and tation O riginal Music

54 Rockaway yes yes

54 Don’t Wait on yes yes Me

54 Where Would I yes yes Be

54 Some People yes yes

54 Make It on yes yes Time

54 You Will yes yes Always Have My Love

54 The Near yes yes Dearly Departed

54 Boogieland yes yes

54 Crossroad yes yes

55 Ten-Pound yes yes Tumour

55 Vem’s Jigs yes yes unknown

55 Kilts on Fire yes yes

55 Kitchen NA Bitchin’

55 Hillbilly’s yes yes Theme

55 1 Know! yes yes

55 Freddie’s yes yes unknown March

55 M att’s Real? yes yes

55 Mini-Finale yes yes unknown 163

Recording Track Title Traditionai Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Musie Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

55 Phone Home NA yes

55 Old Scotty yes yes unknown Stuff

55 John Paul i yes yes Guit...

55 Stiffen ’m yes yes Brenda

55 Smooth Eddy yes yes

55 Scotch Music yes yes

55 Gordie at the yes yes Citadel

56 Molly Bond yes yes unknown

56 Liberty yes yes

56 Sit Down yes yes Young Stranger

56 Maiy Ellen yes yes Carter

56 Flower of yes yes Scotland

56 Calin’ mo yes yes Ruinsa

56 The Four yes yes unknown Marys

56 The Ballad of y es y es St. Anne’s Reel

56 Wind Willow yes yes

56 Banks of Sicily yes yes

57 Lunenburg yes yes Pride 164

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrumcn- and tation Original M usic

57 Tha mo Ghaol yes yes unknown air Aird a’ Chuain

57 Fisherman’s yes yes Token

57 Getting Dark yes yes Again

57 Song Not a yes yes Rifle

57 Peace in Time yes yes

57 We Remember yes yes You Well

57 Tarsands yes yes Lament

57 No Small Boats yes yes

57 Play It Again yes yes

57 Eight More yes yes Hours

57 Sunny Old St. yes yes

58 Islanders yes yes

58 Evangeline yes yes unknown

58 The M iner’s yes yes Song

58 Roving Gypsy yes yes Boy

58 My Cape yes yes Breton Shore

58 Heading for yes yes Halifax 165

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditionai Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditionai Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginai M usic

58 Saban the yes yes Woodfitter

58 The Parlour yes yes

58 Getting Dark yes yes Again

58 Emigrant Eyes yes yes

59 The Lockerbie yes yes Lament

59 Dunean yes yes unknown Johnstone Set

59 The Second yes yes Star Hornpipe Set

59 Mrs. Ferguson yes yes unknown ofReaths

59 Father John yes yes Angus Rankin Set

59 E Minor Jigs yes yes unknown

59 Trip to Mabou yes yes unknown Ridge

59 Paulette yes yes unknown Bissonnette Set

59 Memories of yes yes unknown Father Charles

59 St. Elmo Clog yes yes unknown Set

59 Captain yes yes unknown O ’Kane

59 Alex yes yes MacDonell’s 166

Recording T raek T itle Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrum en­ Traditional M usic Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

59 Donald Angus yes yes Beaton Set

59 The Kitchen Session

59 The Little yes yes Pickle

60 Farewell to yes yes Carlingford

60 Barrett’s yes yes Privateers

60 Banks of yes yes Newfound-land

60 Bay o f St. yes yes Newfound Ann’s land

60 Rollin’ on the yes yes Sea

60 Fisherman’s yes yes Farewell

60 New York yes yes unknown Girls/Bill Sullivan’s

60 Let Them Build yes yes Ships

60 Fisherman’s yes yes Son

60 Days of the yes yes Clipper

60 The Nellie J. yes yes Banks

60 Home Boys yes yes unknown Home

61 Go to It yes yes 167

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional M usic Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

61 Well You yes yes Know

61 Rufus & Emile yes yes Ride On

61 She Said No yes yes

61 Come Get Your yes yes unknown Duds in Order (Heave Away)

61 The Dancing yes yes unknown

61 Jim Harris yes yes

61 Prohibition yes yes Way

61 Conscience yes yes Calling

61 Polka! Polka! yes yes unknown

61 Spanner in the yes yes Works

61 Brunswick yes yes Street

61 The Electric yes yes unknown Jigs

61 Reena yes yes

61 Jolly Jack yes yes unknown

62 Cead yes yes Deireannach Nam Beann

62 Am Bràighe yes yes

62 Oran a’ yes yes Phiognaig 168

Recording Track Title Traditionai Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditionai Music Number tation In strum en­ and tation O riginai M usic

62 Gun Chrodh yes yes unknown Gun Aighean

62 Ho ro Mo yes yes unknown Chuid Chuideach Thu

62 A Fhleasgaich yes yes unknown Uasail

62 Nighean Dubh, yes yes unknown Nighean Donn

62 Illean Aigh yes yes unknown

62 A Mhnathan a’ yes yes unknown Ghlinne Seo

62 An Cluinn The yes yes Leannan?

62 Dh’fhalbh Mo yes yes unknown Nighean Chruinn, Donn

62 Ô Puirt Eos yes yes unknown

63 Girls of NeiTs yes yes Harbour

63 American Pie yes yes

63 Immigrant yes yes Shore

63 Waltzing yes yes Matilda

63 Getting Dark yes yes unknown

63 Northwest yes yes Passage

63 Life o f a yes yes unknown Country Boy 169

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Musie Musie Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

63 Sleepy Maggie yes yes unknown Fiddle

63 Lord of the yes yes Dance

63 The Unicom yes yes

63 Headin’ for yes yes Halifax

63 Marching yes yes Inland

63 Lukey’s Boat yes yes New­ foundland

63 Don’t Go Out yes yes unknown

64 M om’s Waltz yes yes

64 A Winston yes yes unknown Remake

64 Jerry and Joey yes yes unknown Jig

64 Winston at yes yes unknown Billy the Hook’s

64 David Rankin yes yes unknown Medley

64 From an Arthur yes yes unknown and Dave Medley

64 Natalie... Here yes yes unknown I am!

64 Some Winston yes yes unknown & Angus Tunes

64 A Salute to yes yes unknown Cameron and Arthur Medley 170

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation In stru m en ­ and tation O riginal M usic

64 Lament for yes yes Glencoe

64 Square Set 2nd yes yes unknown Figure

64 Square Set 1st yes yes unknown Figure

64 Thanks Donnie yes yes unknown

65 The yes yes unknown Mathematician/ Sleepy Maggie

65 Long for the yes yes Sea

65 My Life Is yes yes Over... Again

65 Molly May yes yes

65 Blackbird yes yes

65 Hell Freezin’ yes yes Over

65 Fiddle Set yes yes unknown

65 The Island yes yes

65 Gone yes yes

65 Highland yes yes Dream

65 Kelly’s yes yes M ountain

65 Another yes yes Morning

65 You Saw Me yes yes

65 Gilgarry’s Glen yes yes 171

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional Music Number tation In strum en­ and tation O riginal Music

66 The New yes yes unknown Fiddle...

66 Bonnie Anne yes yes unknown Anderson

66 Irish Lasses... yes yes unknown

66 Blue Bonnets yes yes unknown over the Border

66 Miss Eleanor yes yes unknown Stewart

66 Lament for yes yes unknown Prophet...

66 Miss Lyall’s. yes yes unknown

66 Hills of yes yes unknown Home...

66 74th yes yes unknown Highlanders.

66 The Little yes yes unknown House

66 Livingstone yes yes unknown

67 Wing-Stock yes yes unknown

67 Hills of yes yes Glenorchy

67 What an Idiot yes yes unknown He Is

67 Sad Wedding yes yes unknown Day

67 Sophia’s Pipes yes yes unknown

67 MacDougall’s yes yes Pride 172

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional M ixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

67 The Devil in yes yes the Kitchen

67 Rusty D-Con- yes yes unknown Struck-Tion

67 Sleepy Maggie yes yes unknown

67 Breton’s yes yes Delight

67 Brenda yes yes Stubbert

67 Spoonboy yes yes unknown

68 An Nochd Is yes yes unknown Trom Tha Mo Cheum

68 111 Ù ill Ô yes yes unknown illean’s ô

68 Crodh air a’ yes yes Bhruaich

68 Seallaibh yes yes unknown Curraigh Eoghainn

68 Nach Till Thu yes yes unknown Dhomhnaill?

68 A Mhôrag’s na yes yes unknown Horo Gheallaid

68 Cha Tig Mor yes yes unknown Mo Bhean Dhachaidh

Mo Mhaili yes yes unknown Bheag Ôg

68 Fàill ill Ô ro yes

68 A Mhàiri yes yes Bhôidheac 173

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrumen­ and tation O riginal M usic

68 Mo Ghille Mor yes yes Gofhain’ Each

69 Mayaii Bag yes yes

69 Halifax Shuffle yes yes

69 Hometown yes yes Polka

69 Blue Bag yes yes

69 The Stumble yes yes

69 Countiy yes yes Crunch

69 Jig Medley yes yes

69 Lament for yes yes Albert King

69 Hydrostone yes yes Rock

69 Sad Night Owl yes yes

69 All Blues yes yes

69 March, yes yes unknown Strathspey, and 3 Reels

70 The F Clogs yes yes unknown

70 May Renwick’s yes yes Ferret

70 I’m Movin’ On yes yes

70 Oh Yes I Yes I -yes yes Am

70 New Orleans yes yes

70 Gravel walk yes yes unknown 174

Recording Track Title Traditionai Non Originai Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginai M usic

70 The B Flat yes yes unknown Clogs

70 The John yes yes Morrison

70 Belle Côte yes yes

70 The Green yes yes Fields of Glentown

70 Fairy yes yes

70 Johnny Cope yes yes unknown

70 Whiz Kids yes yes

71 King George yes yes unknown V ’s Welcome

71 Mrs. yes yes unknown MacDowal Grant

71 Ronald yes yes unknown Kennedy’s

71 My Wife’s a yes yes unknown Wanton Wee

71 Mary yes yes unknown MacDonald

71 Johnny yes yes unknown Galbraith

71 Winston and yes yes unknown Joe’s

71 Old Square Set yes yes unknown Tunes

71 Henry Ford’s yes yes unknown Old Bam Dance 175

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

71 Cluny Castle yes yes

71 Logan’s Pipe yes yes unknown

71 Tribute to Cape yes yes unknown Breton Violin Duo

71 Captain Ron’s yes yes unknown Hornpipes

71 The Green yes yes unknown Mountain Boys

71 The Hon. Lady yes yes unknown Fraser

72 Reels; Andy yes yes unknown Renwick’s Ferret

72 Last Shanty yes yes

72 You Ain’t yes yes Coin’ Nowhere

72 The Rock of yes yes Merasheen

72 The Fields of yes yes Athenry

72 The Island yes yes

72 Tiree Love yes yes unknown Song

72 The Star of the yes yes Ireland County Down

72 Sonny’s Dream yes yes

72 As Long as yes yes There Is Sail

73 Somedays yes yes 176

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional M ixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditionai Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginai M usic

73 The Island yes yes

73 The Gift yes yes

73 To Say yes yes Goodbye to You

73 Getting Dark yes yes

73 Love so Rare yes yes

73 Once in Every yes yes Life

73 Driftwood yes yes

73 Out of the yes yes Woods

73 Somewhere yes yes over the Rainbow/ What a Wonderful World

73 Moonlight yes yes Shadow

73 Rise Again yes yes

73 Sweet Is the yes yes Melody

73 The Dance You yes yes Choose

74 Fisherman’s yes yes Brew

74 Nova Scotia’s yes yes Hands

74 Thainig I Anall yes yes unknown

74 Heave Away yes yes 177

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginai Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditionai Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

74 Drunken Sailor yes yes unknown

74 Haul Away Joe yes yes unknown

74 On That Day yes yes

74 Beer Goggles yes yes

74 Cranntara yes yes unknown

74 Star of the yes yes Ireland County Down

74 In and out o f yes yes unknown the Harbour

75 Jean’s Reel yes yes

75 If Ever You yes yes Ireland Were Mine

75 The Lass of yes yes Scotland Carrie Mills.

75 Counselor’s... yes yes Ireland

75 I’ll Always yes yes Remember You

75 The MacNeils yes yes Cape of Ugadale... Breton

75 O ’er the Moor yes yes Scotland amoung the Heather...

75 Compliments yes yes unknown to Sean M aguire...

75 Nancy’s Waltz yes yes

75 Carnival yes yes Shetland March... 178

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

75 My Dungannon yes yes Sweetheart...

75 John yes yes Scotland Campbell’s..

75 The Girls at yes yes Ireland Martinfield..

76 One Day I yes yes Walk

76 Farewell to yes yes Lochaber

76 Greenberg yes yes unknown Medley

76 An Innis Àigh yes yes unknown

76 Tailor’s yes yes unknown Daughter

76 Otha mo Dhuil yes yes unknown Ruit

76 Parlour yes yes unknown Medley

76 Wedding/ yes yes unknown Wake and Funerals

76 Cold Winds yes yes

76 Long Way to yes yes Go

76 Maybe You’re yes yes Right

76 Bells yes yes

76 M ovin’ On yes yes

76 Let It Go yes yes 179

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrumen­ and tation O riginal M usic

77 Filly up my yes yes Heart

77 Lovely Joan yes yes Ireland

77 The Call yes yes

77 Turn Ye to Me yes yes Scotland

77 Lakes of yes yes Ireland Ponchetrian

77 M a Theid yes yes Isle o f Skye

77 Come Follow yes yes Me

77 Hometown yes yes

77 My Johnny yes yes Ireland

77 In My Skiff yes yes Orkney

77 Lament for Iain yes yes Isle o f Ruaidh Skye

78 Home in my yes yes Harbour

78 Farewell to yes yes unknown Nova Scotia

78 As Long as yes yes There Is Sail

78 Song for the yes yes Mira

78 The Legend o f yes yes Kelly’s Mountain

78 Barrett’s yes yes Privateers 180

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Originai Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditionai Music Music Traditionai Music Number tation Instrumen- and tation Original M usic

78 Sonny’s Dream yes yes

78 Inverness yes yes Ceilidh

78 Last Shanty yes yes

78 The Bluenose yes yes Song

78 The Ballad of yes yes St. Anne’s Reel

78 The Island yes yes

79 Fiddle Medley yes yes unknown

79 Gaelic Medley yes yes unknown

79 yes yes

79 Fare Thee Well yes yes Love

79 Tripper’s Jig yes yes unknown

79 You Left a yes yes Flower

79 Fair and Tender yes yes unknown Ladies

79 An T-each yes yes unknown Ruadh

79 Orangedale yes yes Whistle

79 Tell Me Ma yes yes Ireland

79 Fisherman’s yes yes Son

80 Tunes in F yes yes unknown 181

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Originai Traditionai Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

80 Reels yes yes unknown

80 Jigs 2 yes yes unknown

80 Jigs 1 yes yes unknown

80 Maxim’s Waltz yes yes unknown

80 Big John yes yes unknown MacNeil

80 The Beauties of yes yes unknown the Ballroom

80 The Christmas yes yes unknown Carousing

80 McKinnon’s yes yes unknown Marching Tunes

80 Tunes in A yes yes unknown

81 The Banks of yes yes Newfoundland

81 Sweet yes yes Guinevere

81 Working Man yes yes

81 Coal Town yes yes Road

81 Ifl Can’t Take yes yes the Island with Me

81 Rolling down yes yes the Old Maui

81 Tramp Miner yes yes

81 You’ll Be yes yes Home Again 182

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

81 She Loves Her yes yes Miner Lad

81 Dad’s Old yes yes Dinner Pail

81 Billy, Come yes yes with Me

81 Coal, Not Dole yes yes

81 M iner’s Life yes yes

82 A’Chuthag yes yes unknown (The Cuckoo)

82 A Glencoe yes yes Dance Set (Live)

82 Queen of the yes yes Ireland West

82 Close to the yes yes Ireland Floor

82 Glad You yes yes Made It, Howie

82 E flat Set yes yes

82 The Shakin’ o’ yes yes the Pocky

82 Balmoral yes yes Highlanders

82 The Wildcat yes yes unknown

82 The Boys of yes yes the Lake

82 Hey Johnny yes yes Scotland Cope!

82 Willie Fraser yes yes Skye 183

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

82 Captain Keeler yes yes

83 Flamenco Fling yes yes

83 Flora yes yes unknown MacDonald

83 Mom’s Jig yes yes unknown

83 Moxham Castle yes yes unknown

83 The Farewell yes yes

83 Get Me through yes yes December

83 Father John yes yes MacLeod’s Jig

83 In My Hands yes yes

83 Space Ceilidh yes yes unknown

83 New York Jig yes yes unknown

83 Blue Bonnets yes yes unknown over the Border

83 Gramma yes yes

83 Welcome to the yes yes unknown Trossachs

83 Olympic Reel yes yes

84 Fear a’ Bhàta yes yes Scotland

84 Hag at the yes yes unknown Chum

84 My Johnny yes yes Ireland

84 I Courted a yes yes Ireland Wee Girl 184

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional M ixed O rigin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional M usic Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

84 Auld Lang yes yes unknown Syne

84 Schoolday’s yes yes Over

84 Caledonia yes yes Scotland

84 A Bheairt yes yes Hebrides Fhiodha

84 Yonec yes yes

84 The Lake yes yes

84 The Lowlands yes yes o f Holland

85 Newcastle yes yes unknown Hornpipes

85 Glen of the yes yes unknown

85 A Buddy Jig yes yes • unknown

85 Black Berry yes yes unknown Blossom

85 Capers Jigs yes yes unknown

85 One for the yes yes unknown Record

85 Johnny yes yes unknown W ilmot’s Fiddles

85 Mountain Road yes yes unknown

85 Road to the Isle yes yes unknown

85 Spey in Spate yes yes unknown

85 The King’s Set yes yes unknown 185

Recording Track Title Traditionai Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditionai Music Number tation Instrumen­ and tation O riginal M usic

85 Mahone Bay yes yes unknown Jig

85 Amelia’s Waltz yes yes unknown

85 Happy Go yes yes unknown Lucky

85 King o f the yes yes unknown Clans

85 Buttermilk yes yes unknown Maty Jigs

86 Coal by the Sea yes yes

86 Rise Again yes yes

No. 26 Mine yes yes Disaster

86 Plain Ole yes yes Miner Boy

86 Dust in the Air yes yes unknown

86 Are You from yes yes unknown

86 Mary Ann yes yes unknown

86 Farewell to the yes yes Rhondda

86 Working Man yes yes

86 Coal Is King yes yes Again

86 Man with a yes yes Torch in His Cap

86 I Went to yes yes Cape Norman’s Breton

86 Sixteen Tons yes yes 186

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

86 Coal Tattoo yes yes

86 Thirty-Inch yes yes Coal

86 Dark as a yes yes Dungeon

87 Working Man yes yes

87 Working in a yes yes Coal Mine

87 Home I’ll Be yes yes

87 I Shall Not yes yes Walk Alone

87 Dark as a yes yes Dungeon

87 Sweet Jesus yes yes

87 In a Town This yes yes Size

87 We Rise Again yes yes

87 Plain Ole yes yes Miner

87 Emigrant Eyes yes yes

87 Farewell to yes yes Nova Nova Scotia Scotia

88 Tramp Miner yes yes

88 Johnny Tulloch yes yes

88 Saved in the yes yes Arms

Christy yes yes unknown Campbell Medley 187

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

88 Rise Again yes yes

Turn That Boat yes yes Around

Ho Ro Mo yes yes Scotland Nighean Donn Bhôidheach

Lisa Brown yes yes

88 Mull River yes yes ShufPle

88 Borders and yes yes Time

88 Oich u agus h-1 yes yes Scotland ùraibh Éile

88 North Country yes yes

88 Leis an yes yes unknown Lurgainn

Come Dancing yes yes

89 Here’s to Life yes yes

89 Golden Green yes yes

89 Candlelight yes yes

89 Will You Wait yes yes

89 Never Been yes yes There Before

89 Uneasy yes yes

89 Wonder What yes yes

89 Getting Baek yes yes

89 Seotty yes yes 188

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumcn- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal Music

89 Rise with the yes yes Sun

89 P Stands for yes yes unknown Paddy

90 The Drunken yes yes Ireland Piper

90 The Beaumont yes yes Texas Rag

90 The Autograph yes yes Ireland

90 Bill Crawford’s yes yes unknown Set

90 Where’s yes yes Cape Howie? Breton

90 Catharsis yes yes

90 Paddy yes yes unknown LeBlanc’s

90 Reel Beatrice yes yes unknown

90 Fiddle & Bow yes yes

90 The yes yes unknown Honeysuckle Set

90 My Friend yes yes Buddy

90 Silverwells yes yes unknown

90 Rev. Archie yes yes Beaton

91 Mae’s Fancy/ yes yes Ireland Give Me a Drink of Water

91 Mairi Nighean yes yes Scotland Alasdair 189

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic Music Traditional Music Number tation In strum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

91 The Little yes yes unknown Beggarman

91 The Rollicking yes yes New­ Skipper B./ The foundland Shimmy

91 Back Down yes yes Scotland Home Medley

91 Israel Got a yes yes unknown Rabbit

91 The Wedding yes yes Gift

91 O'Neil's yes yes Scotland March/ The Haughs o f Cromdale

91 Little yes yes Sara/Jessie’s Jig

91 Macpherson’s yes yes Scotland Lament

91 The Memory yes yes Waltz

92 Plains of Boyle yes yes unknown

92 Our Highland yes yes Queen

92 Dainty Davie yes yes unknown

92 Clog yes yes unknow n

92 Mem. of Dot yes yes MacKinnon

92 Paresis yes yes unknown

92 Jig yes yes unknown 190

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginal Traditionai Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditionai M usic M usic Traditionai Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginai M usic

92 The Celtic yes yes Touch

92 The Bell Plano yes yes unknown

92 Trip to the yes yes unknown Dorymand

92 Fisherman’s yes yes

92 Struan yes yes unknown Robertson’s Rant

93 Pat Murphy’s yes yes Meadow

93 The Gallant yes yes unknown Ship

93 Sweet Forget yes yes unknown Me Not

93 Oh No Not I yes yes New­ foundland

93 Wexford City yes yes Ireland

93 The Jolly yes yes unknown Butcher

93 The Green yes yes unknown Shores of Fogo

93 The Straits of yes yes unknown Belle Isle/ M ate’s Reel

93 Early Spring yes yes unknown

93 The Bonny yes yes unknown Banks of Virgio-o

93 Where Once yes yes Stood a House 191

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrumen- and tation Originai M usic

94 M ac’s Fancy/ yes yes unknown Give Me a Drink of Water

94 Wild Rose yes yes

94 Ghost of Love yes yes

94 Sleepy Maggie/ yes yes unknown Grave Walk/ Little Beggarman

94 Shaken Up yes yes

94 MacPherson’s yes yes unknown Lament

94 Mountainside yes yes

94 Farmer’s yes yes unknown Daughter/ High Reel

94 Colleen yes yes

94 A Turn of the yes yes Wheel

95 Baby-oh yes yes unknown

95 Mairi Nighean yes yes unknown Alasdair

95 The Long Way yes yes Home

95 Through It All yes yes

95 A Little of yes yes Your Lovin’

95 Little yes yes Sara/Jessie’s Jig

95 A Sad Story yes yes 192

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrumen- and tation Original Music

95 When My Ship yes yes Comes In

95 Wild Rose yes yes

95 The Morning yes yes After

95 Forever yes yes Dancing

95 A Matter of the yes yes Heart

95 Open Road yes yes

96 My Ain Kind yes yes unknown Dearie...

96 The Fire Dance yes yes (Club Mix)

96 Cameron yes yes Chisholms

96 Fiddle Fever yes yes

96 Kimura yes yes

96 Cape Wrath... yes yes unknown

96 Reel... yes yes unknown

96 Fire Dance yes yes

96 My Tune for yes yes Darla...

96 Olde Dublin yes yes Jig...

96 Hiawatha... yes yes unknown

97 The Warlike yes yes unknown Lads of Russia 193

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrumen­ and tation O riginal Music

97 The Valley of yes yes New­ Kilbride foundland

97 Water Street yes unknown Jigs

97 The Pretty yes yes New­ Ploughboy foundland

97 Julia Delaney/ yes yes unknown Farewell to Erin

97 The Banks of yes yes New­ Newfoundland foundland

97 I Didn’t Dimk yes yes unknown the Rum/ Jim Keefe’s Gortnatubrid

97 The Reunion yes yes

97 Maurice Kelly yes yes Ireland

97 Teetotalers/ yes yes New­ The Ships Are foundland Sailing

97 Prince Rupert’s yes yes English March/ Trippin’ in Samaria

97 Paddy Fahey’s/ yes yes unknown The White Petticoat

98 The Wedding yes yes Gift

98 MacPherson’s yes yes unknown Lament

98 Colleen yes yes

98 Turn of the yes yes Wheel 194

Recording Track Title Traditional Non O riginai Traditionai Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional M usic M usic Traditional Music Number tation Instrum en­ and tation O riginal M usic

98 Ghost of Love yes yes

98 Dance Hall yes yes

98 Pedestrian yes yes Again

98 Long Night yes yes

98 It’ll Have to yes yes Wait

98 Don’t You Be yes yes the One

98 Reel ’n’ Roll yes yes

98 Mystery yes yes Tonight

99 Barretts’ yes yes Privateers

99 Farewell to yes yes Nova Nova Scotia Scotia

99 Last Shanty yes yes

99 The Leaving of yes yes Ireland Liverpool

99 The Mermaid yes yes unknown

99 Yellow yes yes Submarine

99 Peter Street yes yes unknown

99 Mary Mac yes yes Ireland

99 Irish Rover yes yes unknown

99 Sonny’s Dream yes yes 195

Recording Track Title Traditional Non Original Traditional Mixed Origin of ID Instrumen- Traditional Music Music Traditional Music Number tation Instrumen- and tation Originai M usic

100 O ’Connell’s yes yes unknown Trip to Parliament

100 Polkas yes yes unknown

100 Memory Waltz yes yes

100 The Dionne yes yes unknown Reel

100 St. John’s yes yes M azurka...

100 The Rising yes yes unknown Sun...

100 Flatbrush yes yes Waltz

100 The Waterford yes unknown Boys in Paris

100 Eavesdropper yes yes unknown J i g - 100 Paddy Gavin’s yes yes unknown

100 Kitty Yates yes yes unknown Turn...

100 The Night yes yes unknown before Larry G ot... 196

Appendix C Liner Notes

Recor- Record Title Origin of Lyrics Translated Where Musical Pictures of Picture ding ID Artist Lyrics Obtained Familes/ AC s of AC N um ber Heritage (modern) (old)

0 Breakwater yes yes no NA no no no

1 Until Now vague/Cape no no yes no yes no Breton

2 Closer to no reference yes no yes no no no Paradise

Forever vague/ New- yes NA no no yes no foundland

Return to the yes/ Cape NA NA yes no yes no Cape Breton

Crosshanded yes/ New­ no NA yes yes no yes foundland

Ancestral yes/ PEI no NA no no yes no Voices

Mist Covered Ireland/ yes NA no no no no Mountains Nova Scotia

Celtic yes no NA no no no no Connection

9 Primaiy Colors yes no NA yes no no no

10 Rock in the no yes NA yes no no no Stream

II The Fiddle yes NA NA yes yes no no Album

12 Timeframe no no NA no no no no 197

Recor- Record Title Origin of Lyrics Translated Where Musical Pictures of Picture ding ID Artist Lyrics Obtained Famlles/ AC sofAC Number Heritage (modern) (old)

13 A Time no yes NA no no no no

14 Sailors on the no no NA yes no no no Asphalt

15 The Colour of yes no no yes no no no Amber

16 The Traditional yes yes Album

17 The Barra yes yes MacNeils

18 Higher no yes NA no no no no

19 The Question no yes yes no no no no

20 Ennis Sisters no yes NA NA no no no

21 Dance to Your yes yes NA yes yes no no Daddy

22 Breakwater no yes no no no no no

23 Lifeline no no no no no no no

24 A Retrospective yes no no yes yes no no 1974-

25 Road Not Taken no no NA yes no no no

26 Red Is the Rose yes yes NA no yes no no

27 Heart and Soul yes NA NA yes yes no no

28 Weather Out the yes yes NA yes no no no Storm 198

Recor- Record Title Origin of Lyrics Translated Where Musical Pictures of Picture ding ID Artist Lyrics Obtained Familes/ AC sofAC Number Heritage (modern) (old)

29 Great Big Sea yes no NA yes no no no

30 The Ennis yes yes NA no no no no Sisters 3

31 Cradle on the yes no no yes no no no Waves

32 If Fish Could yes yes no no yes yes no Sing

33 Sailing Ships yes no NA no no no no

34 Figgy Duff no no NA no no no no

35 Forerunner yes no NA no no no no

36 Play yes no NA yes yes no no

37 Kilt no no NA no no no no

38 Look to the Sea no no NA no no no no

39 Four in the Crib yes no NA yes no yes no

40 Crystal Clear yes NA NA yes yes yes no

41 Road Rage yes no NA no no yes no

42 Up yes no NA yes yes yes no

43 Rant and Roar yes no NA yes yes yes no

44 Fiddler’s Choice yes NA NA yes yes no no

45 Ballads and Bar yes no NA no no yes yes Tunes 199

Recor- Record Title Origin of Lyrics Translated Where Musical Pictures of Picture ding ID Artist Lyrics Obtained Familes/ AC sofAC Number Heritage (modern) (old)

46 Suas e! yes yes no yes yes no no

47 Bright Blooming Star

48 Nimble Fingers NA NA

yes 49 The World is ? What no

50 Bho Thir Nan yes yes yes yes no Craodh

51 Tear the House yes yes NA no no yes no Down

52 So Far So Good yes no NA no yes yes no

53 Crossing the yes yes NA no no no no Border

54 Make It on Time no yes NA yes no no no

55 Why 2 Keilidh no NA NA no no no no

56 Wind Willow no no no no no no no

57 We Remember yes no NA yes yes no no You Well

58 Glencoe Station yes no NA yes yes no yes

59 The Judique yes NA NA yes yes no yes Flyer

60 Sea Songs yes no NA yes no yes no 2 0 0

Recor- Record Title Origin of Lyrics Translated Where Musical Pictures of Picture ding ID Artist Lyrics Obtained Familes/ AC sofAC Number Heritage (modern) (old)

61 Said She yes yes NA no no yes no Couldn’t Dance

62 Orain yes yes no yes no no no Ghàidlhig;

63 Atlantic yes no NA yes yes yes no Favourites II

64 The Dance Last yes NA NA no yes yes no Night

65 Another yes yes NA yes yes no no Morning

66 Close to the ? 9 9 Floor

67 Hi How Are no yes no no no no no You Today?

68 Lan Dùil yes yes yes yes no no no

69 Guitar Souls yes no NA no yes no no

70 Helter’s Celtic no NA NA no no yes no

71 From the yes NA NA yes yes no yes Archives

72 Tried and Trio yes no NA yes no no no

73 Sweet Is the yes yes NA no no yes no Melody

74 Plaid yes yes no no no no no

75 Fit as a Fiddle yes NA NA yes no no no 2 0 1

Recor- Record Title Origin of Lyrics Translated Where Musical Pictures of Picture ding ID Artist Lyrics Obtained Familes/ AC s of AC Number Heritage (modern) (old)

76 Uprooted

77 Portraits yes yes yes yes yes no no

78 Atlantic yes no NA no no yes no Favorites

79 Fare Thee Well no no no no no yes no Love

80 Fiddle Music no NA NA no no no no 101

81 Coal Firs in yes no NA no no yes yes Winter

82 My Roots Are yes NA NA yes yes no no Showing

83 In My hands yes yes NA no yes no no

84 Primrose yes yes yes yes no no no

85 A Compilation yes NA NA no no no no

86 Diamonds yes no NA no no no no

87 Mining the Soul ?

88 North Country yes yes yes yes no yes no

89 Will You Wait yes yes NA no no no no

90 No Boundaries yes NA NA yes no no no

91 Celtic yes NA NA yes no no no Instrumentals 2 0 2

Recor- Record Title Origin of Lyrics Translated Where Musical Pictures of Picture ding ID Artist Lyrics Obtained Familes/ AC s of AC Number Heritage (modern) (old)

92 The Celtic yes NA NA no no yes no Touch

93 Early Spring yes no NA no no no no

94 A Turn of the yes no NA no no no no Wheel

95 Living River

96 Fire Dance yes NA NA no no no no

97 Battery Included yes yes NA no no yes no

98 Reel ’n’ Roll yes yes no no no no yes

99 Sailors Story yes no NA no yes no no

100 The Brule Boys yes no NA no yes no no 203

Appendix D Theme Information

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in M isc. ID Title Migration Nautical M ining A tlantic N um ber ______C anada

Banks of yes yes the Roses

Darling Be yes yes Home Soon

Mouth Scottish Music ‘ 97 Gaelic

My Heart’s yes in the Highlands

Coaltown yes Road

Going Cape Down The Breton - Road hard life

Song for Peace Peace anthem Life-Jesus Row Row represen­ Row tation

The Island yes

We celebratio Celebrate n

Darling Be yes Home Soon

When Tm yes Away from You

Closer to yes Paradise

Chase the yes Man

Dancing Dancing We Would Go

In the Wink youth of an Eye 204

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

Caledonia yes

Mo Scottish Nighean Gaelic Dubh

Aim Pige Scottish Ruadh Gaelic

Right All yes Right

Seasons of yes a Sailor

Alone by yes Your Side

Fogarty’s yes yes Cove

Heart of yes Gold

Brand New singing/ Song party

Our Station yes party

Newfound­ yes land Forever

Brigid yes Flynn

Last Thing yes on My Mind

The Evictions Eviction from NF

Lord yes Bateman

Tobacco tobacco

Blanche in French comme la Neige

The Soup kitchen Supper in party Clattiee Harbour 205

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nantirai Mining Atiantic Number Canada

Driharin o yes mo eroi

The Water yes Witch

Le Jeune in French Militaire

Hush-0- love bye Baby

Me Old yes fishing in Ragadoo NF

The yes yes Liverpool Piiot

The yes Spanish Captain

Gull Cove yes

My son,dead Youngest in battle Son Came Home Today

Song for yes Ireland

My Ain yes Country

The Water yes yes is Wide

Fair and yes Tender Ladies

If Ever You yes Were Mine

Paddy’s yes Green Shamrock Shore

Tiree Love yes Song

Newport yes Town 206

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

Sweet yes Forget Me Not

Let Me yes yes Fish off Cape St. Mary’s

Mist yes Covered Mountains of Home

Will You yes Go Lassie Go

For Now aging I’m Sixty- Four

Dark Island yes

Sixteen for yes Awhile

Tim yes Finnegan’s Wake

Tyree Love yes Song

South yes Australia

Stay losing friends

The yes Piccadilly Sand Farewell

Jack Was yes Every Inch a Sailor

The Circle yes logging

Badger Drive

Not Too yes Good with Names 207

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

Greenland yes yes Whale Fishery

How Come super­ stitions

Time yes Stands Still

Raise the yes kitchen Roof parties

Whispers yes living in of the the north North

10 Rattlin, music/ Roarin selling a Willie fiddle

10 The Island yes yes

10 Red Ice seasons changing

10 Coaltown yes Road

10 Kitty Bawn yes yes O’Brien

10 Standing by yes the Subway

12 Banks of yes the Roses

12 Flow Time yes

12 Didn’t Hear yes yes the Train

12 Flower mouth Basket music Medley

12 Song for peace Peace

12 Isle of My war (soldier Dreams gone from home)

12 Looking yes growing Back old 208

Recording Track Love Traveiing/ Saiiing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

12 Row Row analogy Row with Christ

12 My Heart’s yes yes in the Highlands

13 Down East yes music and Day ocean work

13 Sure It’s yes All the Same

13 Dance, dancing Dance, party Dance

13 Mauzy yes Monday

13 O’Brien yes

13 There yes

13 Buy Us a yes Drink

13 As I Roved yes Out

13 Buried in Ignoring the Sand pain

13 Ramblin’ yes yes Rover

13 The Rocky yes yes Road to Dublin

14 The Second deer Week o f hunting Deer Camp season

14 Acadian fishing, Saturday Acadian Night party

14 Sailing’ yes guitars Around

14 My Baby and My D- 18

14 Hi for the yes Beggarman 209

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

14 Galway to yes yes Graceland

14 Brennan on highway­ the Moor man

14 Oh, No yes fishing More

14 Winds o f yes Morning

14 The chemical Chemical workers Workers Song

14 Whiskey in yes yes the Jar

14 The Man yes story o f an with the odd fellow Cap

14 The yes Galway Races

15 Suil a Gra Scottish Gaelic

15 She’s like yes the Swallow

15 The yes Lowlands o f Holland

15 Le Vingt- French Cinq de Juillet

15 A Sailor’s yes Trade Is a Weary Life

15 The Two yes Sisters

15 The Green yes Mossy Banks of the Lee

15 John yes yes Barbour 2 1 0

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coai Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nauticai Mining Atlantic Number Canada

15 Brave French Marine

15 The Maid yes on the Shore

15 Lowlands yes yes Low

17 No More yes Good Times

17 Willie C yes yes

17 Proud house Spirit parties

18 Flowers yes

18 Why Didn’t yes You Say So Before

18 My Angel yes

18 The Last yes Shanty

18 Freedom yes

18 Apologies yes

18 The Nite yes Visit

18 The yes Kelligrew’s Soiree

18 Marigold yes Smile

18 Leaving yes Tomorrow

18 The yes kitchen Sociable party Song

18 A yes Woman’s Heart

19 Myopic self 2 1 1

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

19 Sealliabh yes in Scottish Curaidh Gaelic Eoghainn

19 The Ballad yes yes o f Lucy Jordan

19 Going yes Cape Down the Breton Road

19 Oh My yes yes

19 She The yes yes Ocean

19 17 growing up

19 Turquoise yes Shoes

19 The yes Question

19 Falling seasons

19 Part o f Me yes

19 All or yes Nothing

19 Goin’ Back growing older

20 Turn Up yes the Radio

20 Knocks Me yes off My Feet

20 Somebody yes Somewhere

20 It’s Not yes about You

20 I’d Never yes Walk Away

20 All Over yes Again

20 Kiss Him yes

20 If Only growing up 212

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Saiiing/ Drinking Coai Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nantirai Mining Atlantic Number Canada

20 Without yes You

20 Leaving on yes yes My Mind

20 October growing Wind up/ seasons

21 Lukey’s yes yes Boat

21 Sarah yes

21 Dance to lullaby Your Daddy

21 False going to Knight on school the Road adventures

21 Le Talon de Acadian Marguerite children’s song

21 Carrion nonsense, Crow crows

21 Canoe yes Round

21 Stormy yes Weather Boys

21 Sean Vhan trading for Voght food (PEI)

21 Home By yes Bama

21 Colcannon cooking

21 Rose, Rose, yes Rose, Red

21 Mist yes Covered Mountains

22 Tales o f the yes Phantom Ship 213

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coai Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

22 Island Clay selling land on the island

22 Raise the cutting Dead of winter Wintertime wood

22 Back To yes Rustico- Rustieo home

22 From a yes yes Distance

22 Marie and yes abuse He

22 The Hope hard life, for Next poverty Year

22 Breakwater yes yes

22 Big City city life

22 The yes Reconcilia­ tion 2-Step

22 Down on yes the Promenade

22 Destination yes yes

23 Fisher King yes

23 Lifeline yes

23 The Band’s yes Titanic Still Playing

23 Meet me at yes the Oasis

23 Slow Boat yes

23 More Than yes yes Likely

23 Smoke and yes Mirrors

23 16 Angels yes

23 Something yes Unspoken 214

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

23 Without yes Love

24 Henry yes yes Martin

24 A Sailor yes Courted a Farmer’s Daughter

24 Woman o f trapping in Labrador Labrador

24 True or yes False

24 Weather serving Out the life, Storm growing up

24 Tarry yes Trousers

24 Thomas yes and Nancy

24 Snowy winter Night night

24 The Fisher yes Who Died in His Bed

24 Allanadh in Irish

24 Freedom Newfound­ land Inde­ pendence

24 Down­ eviction stream from New­ foundland

25 Road Not yes Taken

25 A Drink for yes my Father

25 Christmas WWI in the Christmas Trenches

25 Save the yes Whales 215

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nauticai Mining Atiantic Number Canada

25 Lady in yes Montana

25 Streets o f yes London

25 Carrick- yes fergus

25 Wave to the yes Water

25 Dungarvan yes My Hometown

25 The yes Mermaid

25 Wild yes Mountain Thyme

26 No Change yes leaving in Me Newfound­ land

26 The yes Traveler

26 Somewhere yes in America

26 If Anything yes yes Happened to You

26 Out from eviction St. from New­ Leonard’s foundland

26 Right Here yes yes yes With Me

26 Red is the yes Rose

26 Seasons yes

26 An Irish lullaby Lullaby

26 The yes yes Leaving o f Liverpool

26 Breath Of yes leaving Angels home 216

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

26 You’ll Live yes death Forever

28 Weather yes Out the Storm

28 Heart o f a yes Gypsy

28 Jealous yes yes Lover/ Wedding Waltz

28 Snowy yes Night

28 Woman o f yes life in early Labrador Labrador

28 Inside a yes Circle

28 Yankee yes yes Skipper

28 Bad Blood friendship

28 Henry yes Martin

29 Great Big yes Sea

29 Someday politics Soon

29 Excursion yes around the Bay

29 What Are yes Newfound­ Ya’ At? land greetings

29 The Fisher­ yes Newfound­ man’s land fishing Lament industry

29 I’se the B ’y yes

29 Drunken yes Sailor 217

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coai Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

29 Irish yes yes Paddy/ Festival Reel/ Roger’s Reel

29 Time yes Brings

29 Berry yes picking Picking blueberries Time

30 Lord o f the life o f Dance Christ

30 Work to Be yes yes Done

30 Rainy Days yes

30 Haul Her yes working the Along docks

30 Forever yes Love

30 Never Puts fiddle His Fiddle playing Down

30 Lullaby yes

30 Lies yes

30 Islanders yes migration away from the sea

30 When yes Tomorrow Comes

30 Live Not yes yes Where I Love

30 Sorry yes

30 If I Should yes yes Leave You

30 Can’t Stop kitchen the Dance party

31 Cradle on yes lullaby the Waves 218

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

31 Green life Grow the passing Rushes

31 A chuachag yes dead nam beann mother singing to her children

31 The Old yes lullaby Turf Fire

31 Dream lullaby Angus

31 La yes old Nourrice du nursemaid Roi tale

31 Sleep Song lullaby

31 Maid of yes Coolmore

31 And yes Summer Faire

31 Logan yes yes Love

31 A Lullaby lullaby

32 The shearing Shearing the sheep

32 The fanning Country Life

32 Tell My Ma yes

32 Lots of Fish yes in Bonavista Harbour

32 I Dyed My yes Petticoats Red

32 A - Rovin’ yes PEI

32 Johnny’s yes yes Gone a Sailing 219

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coai Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nauticai Mining Atiantic Number Canada

32 Si J’Avais les Beaux Souliers

32 Ca’ the moving Ewes the goats

32 A Leg o f nonsense Mutton

32 A Sailor’s yes Alphabet

32 Molly and yes Johnny

32 Mairi’s yes Wedding

32 Garten lullaby Mother’s Lullaby

33 Paddy Lay yes Back

33 The yes Rosabella

33 Oh yes California

33 The yes Leaving o f Liverpool

33 All for Me yes Grog

33 Bonnie yes Hieland Laddie

33 Haul Away yes Joe

33 Pay Me My yes Money Down

33 Tiger Bay yes

33 John yes Kanaka

33 Old Moke yes Pickin’ on a Banjo 220

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nauticai Mining Atiantic Number Canada

33 Santianna yes

33 Bound for yes the Rio Grande

33 Clear the laying ties Track

33 The yes Drunken Sailor

33 Essiquibo yes River

33 Maggie yes yes May

33 Blood Red yes whaling Roses

33 Roiling yes Home to Nova Scotia

33 Leave Her yes Johnny

34 Rabbits in a yes Basket

34 The yes sealing Greenland Disaster

34 Tinker yes Behind the Door

34 Fisher Who yes Died in His Bed

34 Rosy Banks yes yes o f Green

34 Matt Eiley yes

36 Ordinary optimistic Day view on life

36 When I’m yes Up 2 2 1

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical M ining Atlantic Number Canada

36 The Night yes Pat Murphy Died

36 How Did yes We Get from Saying I Love You

36 Donkey yes Riding

36 Haven’t yes Seen You in a Long Time

36 End o f the changing World times

36 General yes Taylor

36 Seagulls leaving Newfoun- land (and returning))

36 Recruiting recruiting Sergeant Newfound­ landers for WWI

36 My yes Apology

36 Jakey’s Gin yes bootlegging

36 Something yes I Should Know

36 Jolly yes Roving Tar

37 Wrecker’s yes Den

37 Fisher­ yes man’s Blues

37 I Was yes Made for Loving You 222

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

37 South yes Australia

37 Corne On yes Eileen

37 The Keeper yes

37 Dylan’s yes Ghost

37 Last Call yes

38 Rollin’ of yes the Sea

38 Useta Love yes Her

38 Rocky yes Road to Dublin

38 Days of yes Yore

38 Peter Street yes yes

38 Go to Sea yes No More

38 Last o f the yes Great Whales

38 Oh No Not yes Newfound­ I lander sailor

38 Lark in the yes Morning

38 Fisher­ yes man’s Song

39 Island yes kitchen Kitchen party

39 Sight wishing for some­ thing more

39 Hold You yes So

39 Instead yes 223

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

39 Dylan’s yes Ghost

39 Shift human nature

39 Every- yes thing’ll Be Alright

39 Rubber family Boots

39 Lift Up yes Your Glass

41 Donkey yes Riding

41 When I’m yes Up

41 Everything better luck Shines

4f Going Up yes

41 Boston and yes yes St, John’s

41 The Night yes Pat Murphy Died

41 Conse­ a what if quence song Free

41 Captain yes

41 The Old yes Black Rum

41 General yes Taylor

41 Lukey yes

41 Feel it Turn better luck tomorrow

41 I’m a Rover yes

41 Fast as 1 yes Can

41 Jack Hinks yes yes 224

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

41 Mari Mac yes

41 Ordinary optimistic Day song

41 Excursion yes around the Bay

41 Bangin' yes Johnny

42 Run alternating Runaway human nature

42 Going Up yes

42 Fast as 1 yes Can

42 Mari-Mac yes

42 Something yes yes to It

42 Buying yes Time

42 Lukey yes

42 The Old yes Black Rum

42 The factory Chemical jobs Worker’s Song

42 Wave over yes Wave

42 Nothing out yes o f Nothing

42 The Jolly yes Butcher

42 Rant and Newfound­ Roar lander’s Song

43 Ordinary optimistic Day song

43 When I’m yes Up 225

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nantieal Mining Atlantic Number Canada

43 Mari-Mac yes

43 End of the changing World times

43 Fast as I yes Can

43 The Night yes Pat Murphy Died

43 Going Up yes

43 General yes Taylor

43 Something yes to It

43 Lukey yes

43 The Old yes Black Rum

43 Rant and Newfound­ Roar lander’s song

45 Roseville yes yes Fair

45 Fiddler’s yes Green

45 Danny Boy yes yes

45 Mary Mack yes

45 Santiano/ yes yes Sally Brown

45 Streets of poverty London

45 Willie yes McBride

45 Brennan on highway­ the Moor man

45 Dirty Old yes Town

45 Nancy yes Whisky 226

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

45 Ballads and yes Bar Tunes/ Ashokan Farewell

46 Oran spinning Sniomh (Spinning Song)

46 Seinn o milling

46 D6mhnall mouth mac ‘ic lain music

46 E H oro yes

46 Hi ri him yes bô

46 Bog a ’ yes Lochain

46 Horo Mo yes Nighean Donn Bhôidheach nan Oormshuil

46 IÙ o ra hiCi milling 6 (Marga­ ret’s Song)

46 Horo Ghoid reel song Nighean (Stepping Song)

46 Tha Mo yes Run air a’Ghille (I Love the Lad)

46 Oran do yes milling Ghille a Chaidh a Bhàthadh

47 City o f yes Chicago

47 Step It Out yes yes Mary

47 Caledonia yes 227

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

47 My Irish yes yes Molly O

47 Her Father yes Didn’t Like Me Anyway

47 Blooming yes Bright Star o f Belle Isle

47 She Moved yes through the Fair

47 The Black British and Tans control o f Ireland

47 The Rose yes of Allendale

47 The Island yes hard life

49 Mormand yes Breas

49 The Haying haying Song

49 The World making Is What your own You Make fortune It

49 The Ballad yes o f John Williams

49 Rollin’ in yes the Clover

49 I Saw Her yes in a Music Shop

49 The Silly Slang

49 My Only yes Girl

49 The yes Lowlands Low 228

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

49 Late yes Starters in Love

49 Fallen from yes Heaven

49 Sam Hall chimney sweep story

49 The Swimmin’ Song

49 Madeline yes

49 Together compani­ onship

50 O, Tha yes mise fo Gruaimean

50 Air yes yes Fàilirinn iù

50 Cagaran lullaby gaolach

50 Dhomhnaill yes yes Antaidh

50 A chuachag mother’s nam beann love

50 He mo yes leannan

50 Bodach children’s beag a song lonean

50 Ho ro ‘s yes toigh leam fhin thu

50 Cha bhi mi yes yes buan

50 O Ba Ba lullaby Mo leanabh and lament

50 Piuirt-a- mouth beul music 229

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coai Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

50 Dh’ olainn yes deoch a làimh mo ruin

50 Oran yes Gillean Alasdair Mhoir

50 Dan So Shean Ford

51 Lazy Tom yes

51 The Old yes Woman from Wexford

51 Fish Out of yes Water

51 Sam Hall chimney sweep

51 Tear the yes leaving House Newfound­ Down land

51 Dancin’ yes Newfound­ Round the land parties Kitchen

51 Frog in the nonsense Well

51 Peter Street yes

51 Spanish yes Lady

51 Heave yes Away

51 Lilly yes yes

52 Haggle yes yes Taggle Gypsy

52 Shamrock yes City

52 Catch the yes Wind

52 Peter Street yes 230

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

52 Days of changing Yore times

52 Rattlin’ yes

52 So to Sea yes No More

52 A Walk in yes the Irish Rain

52 Let Me yes Fish off Cape St. Mary’s

52 Barrett’s yes Privateers

52 Uncle Dan yes yes

52 Put Out eviction from St. from New­ Leonard’s foundland

52 Rollin’ yes Home

52 Sam Hall chimney sweep

52 Rocky yes Road to Dublin

52 Last of the yes Great Whales

52 Never Been There Before

53 Legendary yes

53 Chessboard yes dancing Dancer

53 Nightfall nighttime

53 Stray Cat yes

53 Blues for yes You 231

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

53 Peace on yes yes the Inside

53 Open Road yes yes

54 Boogieland yes

54 Crossroad choices

54 The Near death Dearly Departed

54 You Will yes Always Have My Love

54 Make It on pressure Time

54 Some living life People

54 Where yes Would I Be

54 Don’t Wait yes on Me

54 Rockaway yes

54 Two yes Islands

54 The Deep yes Blue

55 Phone yes Home

55 Scotch yes Music

55 Kitchen yes Bitchin’

56 The Ballad yes Acadians of St. Anne’s Reel

56 Wind yes Willow

56 The Four yes death Mary’s 232

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

56 Calin’ Mo yes Scottish Ruinsa Gaelic

56 Banks of going to Sicily war

56 Flower of yes Scotland

56 Mary Ellen yes Carter

56 Sit Down yes Young Stranger

56 Molly yes yes Bond

56 Liberty highland wars

57 We remem­ Remember bering the You Well dead

57 Eight More musicians Hours life

57 Play It Again

57 No Sinall yes Boats

57 Lunenburg yes boat from Pride Lunenburg

57 Tarsands yes leaving AC Lament

57 Sunny Old yes Newfound­ St. land

57 Peace in nostalgia Time

57 Song Not a Northern Rifle Ireland

57 Getting yes Dark Again

57 Fisher­ yes man’s Token 233

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Saiiing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautieai Mining Atlantic Number Canada

57 Tha Mo yes Ghaol air’ Aird a’ Chuain

58 Getting yes Dark Again

58 Saban the yes Woodfitter

58 My Cape yes yes leaving Breton Cape Shore Breton

58 Emigrant yes come to Eyes Inverness County

58 Islanders yes from an island

58 The mining Miner’s Song

58 Roving yes Gypsy Boy

58 Heading for yes coming Halifax home

58 Evangeline yes

60 New York yes yes Girls/ Bill Sullivan’s

60 The Nellie yes Rum J. Banks running in AC

60 Days of the yes Clipper

60 Fisher­ yes man’s Son

60 Farewell to yes going to Carlingford Ireland

60 Let Them yes ship Build Ships building in 'AC

60 Home Boys yes yes Home 234

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautieai Mining Atlantic Number Canada

60 Fisher­ yes yes man’s Farewell

60 Rollin’ on yes the Sea

60 Bay of St. yes Ann’s

60 Banks of yes coming Newfound­ back to land Newfound­ land

60 Fisher­ yes man’s Token

60 Barrett’s yes Coming to Privateers Halifax

61 Reena yes yes

61 Brunswick yes Street

61 Spanner in yes the Works

61 Conscience yes Calling

61 Prohibition yes yes rum Way running

61 Jolly Jack yes

61 Go To It yes

61 Jim Harris yes yes

61 Come Get yes Your Duds in Order (Heave Away)

61 She Said yes No

61 Well You yes Know 235

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

62 Dh’fhalbh yes Mo Nighean Chruinn Donn

62 An Cluinn yes The Leannan?

62 A piping Mhnathan song A’ Ghiinne Sec

62 Illean Aigh milling song

62 Ceah lament Deirean- nach Nam Beann

62 A lament Fhleasgaich Uasail

62 Ho ro Mo yes leaving Chuid Cape Chuideachd Breton for Thu work

62 Gun yes yes Chrodh Gun Aighean

62 Oran picnics and a’Phiognaig marriage

62 Am in praise of Bràighe a good storyteller

62 Nighean milling Dubh, song Nighean Donn

63 Lukey’s yes yes Boat

63 Don’t Go yes Out

63 Marching yes Inland

63 Headin’ for yes eoming Halifax home 236

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

63 The unicorn Unicom

63 Lord of the enjoying Dance life- Jesus

63 Girls of yes coming Neil's back Harbour

63 Life of a living in the Country country Boy

63 Northwest Canadian Passage theme

63 Getting yes Dark Again

63 Waltzing Australian Matilda adventure

63 Immigrant yes coming Shore from Ireland

63 American death of 3 Pie rock’n roll stars

65 Another growing Morning old

65 Kelly’s yes yes longing for Mountain Cape Breton

65 Highland homesick Dream for Cape Breton

65 Gone yes passing of old traditions

65 The Island yes missing the island

65 You Saw yes Me

65 Hell yes fishing Freezing’ laws Over

65 The yes Blackbird 237

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

65 The Molly yes May

65 My Life Is yes Over.., Again

65 Long for yes the Sea

65 Gilgarry’s yes immigra­ Glen tion to Cape Breton

68 A Mhàiri yes Bhôidheach

68 Fàill ill 0 or honor to the Lord

68 Mo Mhaili yes Bheag Ôg

68 An Nochd yes Is Trom Tha Mo Cheum

68 Cha Tig yes MorMo Bhean Dhachaidh

68 Mo Ghille yes yes Mor Gothain’ each

68 A yes Mhorag’s na Horo Gheallaidh

68 Naeh Till yes Thu Dhomhnaill

68 Seallaibh yes Curraigh Eoghainn

68 Crodh air a’ yes Bhruaich

68 111 Ù ill 6 yes mean’s 6 238

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

69 Blue Bag yes

72 Sonny’s yes yes Newfound­ Dream land families

72 The Star of yes County Down

72 Tiree Love yes Song

72 The Fields troubles in o f Athenry Ireland

72 As Long as yes There Is Sail

72 The Rocks yes of Merasheen

72 You A in’t thoughts G oin’ on being Nowhere bedridden

72 Last Shanty Irish roots

72 The Island living and loving islands

73 Sweet is singing Melody

73 The Dance yes You Choose

73 Rise Again children

73 Moonlight yes Shadow

73 Somewhere dreaming over the Rainbow/ What a Wonderful World

73 Out of the yes Woods

73 Driftwood yes yes 239

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Saiiing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

73 Some Days yes

73 Once in yes Every Life

73 Love So yes Rare

73 Getting yes Dark Again

73 To Say yes yes Goodbye to You

73 The Island coming to Cape Breton

73 The Gift Christmas gift to Jesus

74 Star of the County Down

74 On That childhood Day in Cape Breton

74 Haul Away yes yes Joe

74 Fisher­ yes yes m an’s Brew

74 Drunken yes Sailor

74 Heaved yes yes Away

74 Nova coming Scotia’s home to Hands Nova Scotia

74 Thainig 1 Scottish Anail Gaelic

75 M ovin’ On yes

75 Let It Go yes

75 Bells yes 240

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

76 Maybe yes You’re Right

76 Long Way fame to Go

76 Cold Winds yes

76 Weddings, patterns of Wakes and life Funerals

76 One Day I yes hard Walk points o f life

76 O tha mo yes dhuil mit

76 Tailor’s yes Daughter

76 An innis Scottish àigh Gaelic

76 Farewell to yes yes Lochaber

Come yes call to Follow Me death

In My Skiff yes

Hometown hometown on PEI

M a Theid yes yes

My Johnny yes yes

Fill Up My yes Heart

Lakes o f yes Ponchetrian

Lovely yes Joan

Turn Ye to yes Me

Lament o f yes lain Ruaidh

The Call yes social conscience 241

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

78 The Ballad yes coming o f St. home to Anne’s PEI Reel

78 The yes Bluenose Song

78 Last Shanty yes

78 Inverness yes Ceilidh

78 Sonny’s leaving Dream Cape Breton

78 Home in yes yes My Harbour

78 Barrett’s yes Privateers

78 The Island coming to Cape Breton

78 The Legend Cape o f Kelly ’s Breton tale Mountain

78 Song for yes the M ira

78 As Long as yes fishing There Is restrictions Sail

78 Farewell to yes saying Nova goodbye Scotia

79 Oangedale decay Whistle

79 An t-each horses Ruadh

79 Fair and yes Tender Ladies

79 Fisher­ yes m an’s Son

79 Tell Me Ma yes 242

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

79 You Left a yes Flower

79 Fare Thee yes yes Well Love

79 Gillis sense o f Mountain history

79 Gaelic Scottish Medley Gaelic

81 Tramp yes Miner

81 Coal, not yes coal fields Dole in Cape Breton

81 Billy, yes Come with Me

81 Dad’s Old yes Dinner Pail

81 She Loves yes yes Her Miner Lad

81 Sweet yes yes Guinevere

81 You’ll be homesick Home Again

81 Miner’s yes Life

81 The Banks yes cold ofN ew - weather foundland

81 Rolling yes cold down the weather Old Maui

81 If 1 Can’t yes loving Take the Cape Island with Breton Me

81 Coal Town yes Road

81 Working yes Man 243

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautieai Mining Atiantie Number Canada

83 In My yes yes Hands

83 Get Me yes through December

84 Yonec yes

84 A ’Bheairt- yes fhiodha

84 Caledonia yes

84 Schooldays yes Over

84 The yes Lowlands o f Holland

84 Fear a ’ yes bhàta

84 My Johnny yes yes

84 I Courted a yes Wee Girl

84 The Lake growing old

84 Hag at the fairies chum

84 Auld Lang friendship/ Syne passing time

86 Thirty- yes Inch Coal

86 Dark as a yes Dungeon

86 Coal Tattoo yes

86 Sixteen yes Tons

86 I Went to yes Norm an’s

86 Man with a yes Torch in His Cap 244

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life In Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

86 Coal is yes yes King Again

86 Working yes Man

86 Coal by the yes yes Sea

86 Mary Ann yes yes

86 Are You yes from

86 Dust in the yes Air

86 Plain Ole yes Miner

86 No. 26 yes Mine Disaster

Farewell to yes yes the Rhondda

86 Rise Again yes yes

87 Working yes Man

87 Plain Ole yes Miner Boy

87 Emigrant coming to Eyes Nova Scotia

87 We Rise aging Again

87 In a Town small town This Size

87 Farewell to leaving NS Nova Scotia

87 Working in yes a Coal Mine

87 Sweet Jesus trust in Jesus 245

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Saiiing/ Drinking Coai Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atiantie Number Canada

87 Dark as a yes Dungeon

87 Home ril coming Be home to Cape Breton

87 I Shall not trust Walk Aione

North yes returning to Country Cape Breton

Oich U yes Agus h-1 iiraibh Éile

Borders yes yes and Time

Muli River yes Shuffle

Lisa Brown yes yes returning to east coast

Ho Ro Mo yes Nighean Donn Bhôidheach

88 Tramp yes Miner

Rise Again aging

Leis an yes yes Lurgainn

Saved in yes death the Arms

Johnny yes Tulioch

Turn that yes yes Boat Around

89 Rise with yes the Sun

89 P Stands yes for Paddy 246

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautieai Mining Atlantic Number Canada

89 Scotty friendship

89 Getting yes Back

89 Wonder yes What It’s

89 Uneasy yes yes

89 Never Been yes younger There sister Before growing up

89 Will You yes yes Wait

89 Candlelight yes yes

Golden yes Green

89 Here’s to yes yes Life

93 The Bonny murders of Banks of a family Virgio-o

93 Early yes yes Spring

93 The Straits yes o f Belle Isle/ M ate’s Reel

93 The Green yes Shores o f Fogo

93 Pat M urphy’s Meadow

93 The Jolly yes Butcher

93 Where yes Once Stood a House

93 Wexford yes City 247

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

93 Oh No Not yes yes Newfound­ I lander looking for a wife

93 Sweet yes Forget Me Not

93 The Gallant yes Ship

94 Wild Rose yes yes

94 Turn of the passing of Wheel life

94 Mountain­ yes side

94 Colleen yes

94 Shaken Up rough times

94 Ghost of yes Love

95 Forever yes yes Dancing

95 A Matter of yes the Heart

95 The yes Morning After

95 Wild Rose yes

95 When my hope Ship Comes In

95 A Sad yes yes Story

95 Open Road yes

95 A Little of yes Your Lovin’

95 Through It yes All

95 The Long yes Way Home 248

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coal Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining Atlantic Number Canada

95 Baby Oh yes

97 Maurice yes fighting a Kelly ghost

97 The Banks yes Newfound­ o f New­ land life foundland

97 The Napo­ Warlike leon’s war Lads o f with Russia Russia

97 The Pretty yes Ploughboy

97 The Valley Newfound­ of Kilbride landers in World War II

98 Reel ’n ’ yes Roll

98 D on’t You yes Have to Be the One

98 It’ll Have yes to Wait

98 Long Night death of lament for musicians Newfound -land musicians

98 Pedestrian living in a Again city

98 Mystery creepy Tonight night feeling

98 Dance Hall yes

98 Ghost of yes Love

98 The Turn of passing of the Wheel life

98 Colleen yes

99 Farewell to yes yes leaving Nova Nova Scotia Scotia

99 Mary Mac yes 249

Recording Track Love Traveling/ Sailing/ Drinking Coai Life in Misc. ID Title Migration Nautical Mining A tlantic N um ber C anada

99 Sonny’s yes yes Dream

99 Peter Street yes yes

99 Yellow Submarine

99 Irish Rover yes

99 Barrett’s yes Privateers

99 The yes Mermaid

99 Last Shanty yes

99 The yes yes Leaving of Liverpool

100 The yes adventures Waterford in lower Boys in level Paris establish­ ment 250

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Discography

The Barra MacNeils. Closer to Paradise. PolyGram, 1993 CD.

Cameron, John Allen Cameron. Glencoe Station. All Hands Music, 1996 CD.

The Celtic Connection. Higher. Actual Music, 2000 CD.

Cormier, John Paul. Heart & Soul. Borealis, 1998 CD.

Debison, Aselin. Sweet is the Melody. Odyssey, 2002 CD.

The Ennis Sisters. Red is the Rose. Cabot, 1997 CD.

Evans and Doherty. Sailing Ships and Sailing Men. Tall Ships, 2000 CD.

The Fables. Tear the House Down. Tidemark, 1998 CD.

Figgy Duff. Weather Out the Storm. Hypnotic Records, 1990 CD.

Holland, Jerry. Crystal Clear. Odyssey Records, 2000 CD.

Lamond, Mary Jane. Bho Thir Nan Craobh. Independent, 1996 CD.

Lamond, Mary Jane. Lan Dull. turtlemusick/Tidemark, 1999 CD.

MacDonald, Howie. The Dance Last Night. Independent, 1997 CD.

MacKeel. Plaid. PolyGram, 1997 CD.

MacMaster, Buddy. We Remember You Well. Budmac Music, 2000 CD.

MacMaster, Natalie. Fit as a Fiddle. Canadian Broadcast Company, 1993 CD.

MacMaster, Natalie. My Roots are Showing. Warner Music Canada, 1998 CD.

McGinty. Atlantic Favourites. Rocky Coast, 1996 CD.

McGinty. Sea Songs. Rocky Coast, 1990 CD.

Murray, Patricia. Primrose. Tidemark Music Ltd., 2001 CD.

The Rankin Family. Fare The Well Love. Chris Irschick, 1990 CD.

The Rankin Family. North Country. EMI Music Canada, 1993 CD. 259

Rawlins Cross. Reel ‘n’ Roll. Warner Music Canada, 1993 CD.

The Sons of Maxwell. Sailors Story. Sons of Maxwell Entertainment, 2000 CD.

Wood, Richard. The Celtic Touch. Atlantic Music, 1995 CD.