Mountains. Science Education Research Unit. Working

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 236'032 SE 043 313 AUTHOR Happs, John C. TITLE Mountains. Science Education. Research Unit.Working Paper No. 202. 'INSTITUTION Waikato Univ., Hamilton (New Zealand).

PUB DATE Mar 82 - NOTE 34p.;.For related documents, see ED 226976, ED 229 442, ED 230 594, ED 235 011-030, SE 043285-302, and SE 043 305-315. 'AVAILABLE FROM Unver5ity of Waikato, Science EducationResearch Unit, Hamilton, New Zealand. PUB TYPE / Reports Evaluative/Feasibility (142)-- Reports Research/Technical (143) EDRS PRICE MFO1 Plui Postagd. PC Not Available fiom I S. DESCRIPTORS Comprehension; *Concept Formation; *Curricul Development; *Earth Science; Elementary School Science; Elementary Secondary Education; Interviews4 -Learning; Science Education; *ScienceInstruction; *Secondary School Science IDENTIFIERS *Learning in Science Project; Mountains;'. *New_ Zealand; Science Education. Research ABSTRACT The Learning in SciencefProject has adoptedthe view that science teaching might be improvedif,teachers can be given.some appreciation of students' views of theworld and the beliefs, expectations, and language that learners biingto new learning situations. This investigationcompares and contrasts views that children and scientists haveon landforms, particularly on two New Zealand mountains (Mounts Egmont and Cook).Individual interviews were conducted with 37 students during which they observedcolored photographs of'various, well-known New Zealandlandforms and described what they saw. Questioningwas then directed toward eliciting their ideas concerningprocesses behind the appearances of mountains. Sample responses are-presentedrelated to such, questions as: What is a mountmin? Is Mount.Egmont a volcano? When did Mount. Egmont. appear? How do volcanb-es develop?What is a range? How did Mount Cook develop? Responses indicatethat children/adolescents hold views about the two mountains whichare likely to be different from scientifically accepted ideas. For example',approximately 63 percent were not aware that Mount Egmont hes thepotential to erupt again. In addition, the majority of studentshad not attained an appreciation of plate tectonics,even at an elementary level of understanding. (JN)

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SCIENCE EDUCATIONRESEARCH UNIT tr-

MOUNTAINS

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL INMICROFICHE ONLY HAS BEEN GRANTED BY University of Waikato TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES Hamilton, N. Z. INFORMATION CENTER (E

2 WORKING PAPER 202 .

The Science Education Research Unit at the

University of Waikato emerged 'from theresearch

activity generated by the original Learning in

Science Project (1979-1982). The aim of the unit

is to facilitate and encourage Science Education

Research.

One of the most successful innovations ot the

Learning in Science Project was the productionof

working papersvhereby research findings couldbe

shared with practising teachers and-curriculum

developers. This present series of papers (the

200 series) continues that tradition for .research undertaken by members of the Unitbut which does not form pait of the Learning in Science Project.

We would welcome comment or information related to the topic of this paper.

Roger Osborne

DIRECTOR, S.E.R.U. MOUNTAINS

John C. Happs,

Science EducationResearch Unit,

University of liaikato,

Hamilton, New Zealand.

March 1982 Working Paper 202 1

:INTRODUCTION :

The Learning in ScienceProject (rRr YBERG, OSBORNE and TASKER,1980) has adopted the view that science teaching,at, all levels might be improved if teachers can be givensome appreciation of students' views ofthe world and the beliefs, expectationsand language that -- learners bring to thenew learning situation. The emphasis throughout the L.I.S.Project hasbeen in the probing of difficulties by means ofsmall-scale, in-depth situdieS that can be relatedto science teaching. The majority of these investigations have beenidentified with the Forms 1 4 science programmes.

Many of thd_earlierin-depth stUdiep, . from the L.I:S.Project havetended to concentrate on areas of biology(STEAD, 1980(a); STEAD, 1980(b)) physics(OSBORNE, 980; STEAD and OSBORNE,'1980) and chemistry (HAPPS,1980; scliciuum,ipal). . Research into students'concepts and understanding in areas within theearth sciences, has beenundertaken (MOYLE, 1980; HAPPS, 1981(a)) and thispaper continues.to add to our understanding Of teaching and. learnirig problems in thisarea. .This investigationlooks at the,topic.-landforms" and, in particular,focuses attention on two ofNew Zealand's better known mountains, i.e. MountEgmont and Mount Cook. This paper considers these landforms whilst comparingand contrasting 'the views that childrenand adolescents hold, regarding these mountains,with the scientifically acceptable /views. In this way, it is hopedthat a satisfactory 'base-line' can beconstructed so that later teaching can more readilymodify, students' existing knowledge.

The topic ,11andformsthas been identified asan important teachingarea, by practising earth scientistsand, secondary teachers, (see HAPPS, 1981(b)) andis included in sections 4(level 4) and 8 (level 5) of the Science: Forms 1 4 Draft Syllabus. The relevant extracts from this syllabusare shown in AppendiX A.

WHY STUDY. MOUNTAINS?

Ndw Zealand hasexperienced volcanic activity since the mid-Tertiary Iperiod. This activity has been largely concentrated inthe North Island, including Northland,Coromandel, Auckland,Taupo and Taranaki. In the SOuth Island,volcanism has occurred in theDunedin area and Banks Peninsula. Numerous volcanic landforms

1. The glossary, in Appendix B, offers an explanatiortof those terms-thatare commonly used by theearth scientist. - 2 -

, . are.to,be fo d in the North_Island and, the con-entration ofa number of dormant and active ce tres,calls for an awareness andvigilance, in terms of selecting sites forth an settlement and commercialactivities., Present day landforms, in the South Island,are dominated by activity alang the Alpine Fault which extends from Lake Rotoroa,near the Marlborough Sounds'in the North East, to Fiordland,in the South West. This fault, which has beendis- placed a distance of 480km represents a geologically interesting feature withina landmass where two major lithospheric plates interactand form a common boundary.

THE EARTH SCIENTISTS' VIEW OF VOLCANISM AND MOUNTAIN BUILDINGIN NEW ZEALAND

Prior to any consideration of the ideas and viewsthat children and adolescents may have, concerning Mount Egmont and Mount-Cook, it shouldprove useful and appro- priate to look at theways in which the earth scientist might regard thosesame itwo land forms.

( ") A common mechanism : : It is now generaly acceptedthat almost all volcanic activity, earthquakes and mountain building (collectivelytermed tectonic activity)is located close to plate margins. Where theseplates interact much of the present day geological activity is taking place. New Zealand is situated astride the boundary where two lithospheric platesmeet, The theory. of plate tectonics proposes that the earth's lithosphereis 'broken' intoa number of large 'plates'. . Theseldates range in size fromseveral hundred to several thoutand km across, moving at velocities of severalcm per.year. As the plates are in motion, so too..-are the continents. Tlates are able to _change both their size and shape with time, thusnew plates can form as original ones breakup. or plates may be 'fused' together during'collision. Some platetcanidisappear completely as one plate underridesanother and, at times, the plates have become stationary.

(ii) Mount Egmont : This feature is a stratovolcano(significantly larger than Mount St Helens,-in the U.S.A.) which has been built up,fromalternating deposits of lava and ash.to a height of 2,518 metres.

Activity probably started at theMount Egmont siteikeout.70,900years before present (B.P.) witha substantial cone having been developed by 2 35,000 years B.P. At about this time a large eruptionled to the collapse

2. More detailed inforMation, concerningthe.I.hstory' of Mount Egmont, Mount Cook and the plate tectonic theory,can be obtained from the list of further reading, at theend of this paper. of the main cone, resulting in a massive mud,and debris flow (lahar). This .deposit covered an:area of 200 kmato a depth of at least 30 metres and this.H'. kind of 'event'has taken place severaltimes since. Four eruptions have occurred during, the last 500years with the most recent activity, from Mount.. Egmont', taking place in 1755. Future eruptions are highly likely, with the present main crater being the most probable site. Such an eruption would most likely be towardshe west and thereis ample evidence to show that largegmud and debris flows'havc, in thepast, reached Inglewood, Kapuni, Cape EgMont and Opunake.

The type of plate margin which isassociated with volcanism in the North. Island of New Zealand,3is destructive, i.e. atanocean trench, two plates approach each other with one'underriding theother.' This process is repre- sented,in Figure 1.

Ne-;ANDESITE VOLCANO

OCEAN ''' ''' /1. TRENC ,CONTINENTAL granitic(granitic

,. . ASTHENOSPHER . . . . . :..ASTHENOSPHERE,.. : ..: RISING . ' : MAGMA

Fig. 1.

Partial melting of the downgoing plate,at a depth between 150 - 250 km, produces andesitic magmas whieh are rich,inpotassium, sodium and aluminium.. The resulting composition of the magmasisdue to a critical combination of pressure, temperature and water content. This less dense magma tends to rise toward the surface along subsurface fractures. Volcanoes such as Mount Egmont, are part ofan 'andesitic line' which surrounds the Pacific OceamBasin.

3. The model of volcanism via lithospheric plateinteraction is simplistic for the purpose of clarity. There are a number of features, about this model,, that may be revised with future research. - 4 - s

(iii) Mount Cook The process of mountain building,in the form of upthrusted ranges, originates where crustal platesconverge. Those active mountain ranges, where movement takes place today and earthquakesare experienced, lie within the Alpine and Circum Pacific regions. ,The Himalayas offer an example of the effects of collision between two continentalplates, yet most of the Earth's active mountain ranges are presentwhere continental plates are in collisionwith oceanic crust.

The Alpine Fault represents the boundary between theIndidE=Australian and the Pacific lithospheric plates., This major fault is calleda transcurrent fault, i.e. the fault movement (slip) is virtually inthe direction ° that the fault lies. The total horizontalmovement along the Alpine Fault has been 480 km, starting at the end of the Jurassic (130million years 4 B.P.), with most of the movement having taken place during thelast 60 million years.

Changes in plate boundary motion have resulted from shiftsin the position of the pole of rotation of the Pacific Plate. This has led/to a change-fromextension to oblique compression across the fault. "Widespread faulting, folding and uplift ofstrata have resulted. Most, earth scientists agree that 10 -20 km of uplift has taken place on the Alpine Fault sincethe late Miocene - 20 million years B.P.) and 5 km of uplifthas been estimated for the last 5million years.

The present uplift on the Southern Alps)i.ncluding Mount Cook)has been estimated at more than 10 mm per year and this rateappears to keep pace with the forces of weathering and erosion. -Without this continual compression and uplift,.. weathering anderosion processes would havereduced the Southern Alps to a region of gentlehills, by now.

A. The actual 'age' of movementalong the. Alpine Fault is still contAntious and the data supplied hereshould be viewed as being indicativeOf approximate time-spans. 5

THE INVESTIGATION

II Thirty-seven students (6x Fl, 5 x F2, 5 x F3, 6 5 x F4, 4 x F5, 6 x F6,5 x F7) from 7 co-educational schools, were interviewed on an'individualbasis. The students6 ,w e selected for interview by their teacher, whowas asked to choose students of "avers scientific ability".7

During the interviews, each of.which lasted forapproximately 30-45 minutes, students were shown coloured photographs (25cm x 20 cm) of various well-known New Zealand landforms.

Students were asked to describe each landform, inturn, and to identify and 'locate' it if possible. Questioning was then directedtoward eliciting the students ideastconcerning the 'processes' behind the appearance. ofMount Egmont and Mount Cook (only these two landformswill be discugsed li!Ithin the scope of this briefarticle). It was emphasised thatwhat was required w the student's own ideas andviewpoints and that there would belittle emphasis placed on whether responseswere 'correct' or 'incorrect'. All interviews were maintained in an informaland non-threatening atmosphere throughout, with students being completelyaware of the purpose behind the interview and the nerA.fortethe use o'f. audio-taping.

A number of cards we shown to students at theend of the discussion phase. A stimulus-word 8 was written on each card so that studentswere given the opportunity to provide information, inaddition to that given when discussion, centred aroundthe photograph.

5. Fl - F7 = Forms 1- 7 (11 17 year olds) 6.' A number of 6th and 7th form students were taking both geographyand science subjects at the time of interview. Those students are coded witha (g). 7. It was considered, by the-investigator, that studentswere generally average to slightly aboveaverage in most cases. 8. The words thatwere pertinent to this investigation were : RANGE. VOLCANO, MOUNTAIN, -7-.

WHAT IS A MOUNTAIN?

The term "mountain" was used by all 37 students in describingMt. Egmont and students were then asked "What is a mountain- in your meaning of the word?"

Six students (2 x Fl,1 x F2, 2 x F3, 1 x F6) described a mountainas being "a large hill", whilst5 students (2 xFl, 1 x F2, 1 x F3, 1 x F4) qualifiedthis idea by stating that a mountain was "bigger thana hill". Other relative sizes of a mountain were noted:

"something over a certainheight" (302)

" a huge bit of -rockand sand that's bigger than anything else" (204)

Six students (1 x F2, 1 x F4, 3 x F5, 1 x F7) talked abouta "big rocky structure", with three students (1 x Fl 1 x F3,.1 x F6) referringto "a big bump in the ground". Other variations oftAIis were:

"a risen piece of laild" (405,504,601)

large landfore (702)

The composition was notedin some definitions ofa mountain:

"a big clump of dirt" (203),,

"soil piled up".. (403)

"high rock made up of eithermolten rock or nick pushed up" (604)

Four students (3 x F4, 1 x F7), envisaged some relationshipbetween a mountain and volcanoes:

"to me it [mountain] meansan extinct volcano." (705(g)) C "a volcano- could be an active volcano or a dormant volcano - whateverP.

I "do you alwayssee those two connected (mountain and volcano)? C "I think. so:' (701)

reference was made to.theage of mountains:

"they've probably alwaysbeen there since the landmass was formed: (602)

Eleven students (4 x Fl, 2 x F2, 2 x F3, 1x F5, 2 x F7) included, within their definition, the fact that mour ins tend to havesnow on them:

" a big hill withlots of usually just got snowon it." (104)

"to me its a big pieceof rock with jagged edges and snow on top!' (501)

Some definitions contained on indication of, thereasons why mountains developed:

"possibly formed by foldingand faulting - otherwise could have beenformed by volcanism", 1605(g)) "created by stresses inthe earth's cruse (704(g))

IS MT. EGMON+ A VOLCANO?

Fifteen students Q5 x Fl, 3 x F7, 2 x F3, 1 x F4,1 x F5, 2 x F6, 1 x F7) did not recognise Mt. Egmont as representing a volcano ofany sort:

I "Is Mt. Egmonta volcano, do you think?" H "No, I don't think se: (606)

Care had to be,eXercised, at this point in the interview,to establish what students understood by the term 'volcano' since theuse of words such as 'extinct and 'dormant', may not be appreciated. Consequently, should a volcanonot be seen to be currently eruptive, then students may fail to Call ita volcano'. Twenty -two students (1 x Fl, 2.x F2, 3 x F3, 5 x F4, 3x F5, 4 x F6, 4 x F7) recognised the,shape. of Mt.Egmont to be that of a volcano: I "Tell me more aboutthe shape." W "It's cone-shaped.. with a bit knocked off the top:s

I sand-does that tell Youanything - 'with the cone-shape?" "It's probablya volcano:' (502)

Eight students (1x F2, 2 x F3, 2 x F4, 2 x F6, 1 x F7) were of theopinion that Mt. EgMont isextinct:

"It was probablya volcano once (402,

I "You are talking about Egmont being extinctnow?" R "I'think it is:' '(7041g))

The other 14 students(1 x Fl, 1 x F2, 1 x F3, 3'x F4, 3x F5, 2 x F6, 3 x F7) felt confident thatMt. Egmont was, or could be, a dormantvolcano. This was stated explicitly:

"It's a sort ofdormant volcano." (701)

WHEN DID MT. EGMONTAPPEAR?

The origin of Mt.Egmont was probed in order to determinewhether, or not, ',, students generally appreciatedthat such landforms have not alwar Lenon the,: Earth's surface.

Twelve students (5 x Fl, 1 x F2, 2 x F3, 2x 15,4, x F5. 1 x FG) felt that Mt-. Egmont had alwaysbeen there:

I "Have you gotany ide'as about how mountains might form - or have they always beenthere - do yoU think?"

"I think they'vealways been the:. ,r (101)

I "How doyou think thatmountain (Egmont) got there or has it always been there? What do you think?" T "I think it would havealways been there" (405).- 12 ,'Further questioning revealed that "always"- meant(to the majority of the students) since the Earthwas formed:,

I "How do you thinkthat MoUntaii0Egrant) 'got there-7 or has: it:always.:beentherel What doyou thinkr, "It's always been there.:

".and*hen yciu,tayalwaYS' you mean :since the Barth was formed?

It "Yes? (303) ,

The term 'always', was used in a different context

I 1!\11o:v., long is ':always'to your D"Ever since maw steppedon the Earth." "HoW long is that- do yOu think?"': D "MillionS of years?

FoUr!..tudentS:(1 x F2, x'71k.

. ;:shortly;:after the Ear th:vaaformed:

"Way back inthe beginningof time? "When the Earth wasformed?" "No - a bit latee

Difficulties were encountered in trying to imagine thesort-of time-spans involved in such an estimate:

"NobodY r don't think anybody's gotan estimate of that timeanyway. They can't really See it." (703)

Other students attempted to estimatea time, during whichMt. Egmont evolved. These estimates ranged from 100 million years By'P.(1x F2, 1 x F7); between 1 and 10 million years B.P.(1 x P3;-2 x F6) .with a span of morerecent dates:

100,000:yeara,B..P..(1 x ro

10(),000years B.P. (1 xFa, 1 x F6)1

Thousands:of-Years (1,xF7) 2,000 years X.F2, l x'F3) findreds ofyears1x..F2) The Concepts, ofgeologic time and major --- geologic events provedto b

.cOnfusing. ones, everi-Ehe,moreexperienced-students:

"I..don't know how far backthe ice age is. butrit (Mt.:_Egmor\t]may haye formed after that It would be a lotcolder and... possibly dinosaurs. I'm not' sure when they were around.!': (702)

HOW DO VOLCANOES DEVELOP?

The stimulus-word 'volcano' was shown and questionsasked to find .out if students could , . offer possible mechanismsfor the development of volcanoes. Mt. Egmont, was used as an example for thosefifteen studentS who recognised thislandfotm as beinga volcano.

Twelve students (5 x Fl, 1 x F2, 2 x F3, 2.xF4, 1 x F5, 1 x F6) considered present-day volcanoes to have ' "alwaysbeen there", withno mechanisms considered: Other students didattempt to explain. that . . some form of development was envisaged, althoughthese explanationswere generally vague:

"It (volcano] forms when the Earth erupts." (504)

Some confusion was metover the term 'evolution':

"It builds up by evolution." (205)

The meaning of the term 'evolution' was probedas it arose:,

A "Evolution."-

I "Tell me about that-'evolution." A "It just grows throughthe years." (406) One yoUnger student (1 x F3) offered/a sound explanationas to how a volcano is builtup over time:

"Well - when they start Offthey spurt out little bits of lavaand it grows up higher and higher and higherand gradually,over the years, it gets tobe that'height_ All the lava builds up."- (305)

Some explanations were linkedwith earthquake activity:

1 4 - 12 -

"Earthquakes shake round the volcanoand makes it erupt!! (402) "It could'have gotten there from like - say the Earth moving7 like an earthquake being puShbd -. - (604)

Reference was madeto weaknesses in the Earth'scrust:

"When.there.isa weak Part-- it The stuff opens up. underneath theEarth- you know - the magma and that - there isa lot of pressure on - it findsa weak part in the the Earth's surfaceand just comes up." (601)

"There's probably(beena weakness in the earth's crustor something and the has come magma up - giving lava andthen it's- flowed down andhardened: (704(g))

. An ideaofpressure building up, under the Earth'sSurface, was mentioned:

"The pressure of lava and steamand all that"

(106) "The mountainhas got all the core of it. pressure in the The pressure buildsup and the core explodes out ofit ", (502)

"It's duel to pressures-be:neath_theEarth finding .a weak pointand then erupting." (702)

Other explanationSconsidered some form of activity alonga fault-line: "If it (Mt. Egmont) hasn't alwaysbeen there there's probably a fault-line and theEarth has just comeup. The molten stuff middle of the from the Earth has justcome up and it's bubbled over and just builta mountain up."., (401)-

"It's got somethingto do with faUlt-lines." (404)

The view thatheat has to get out of the Earthwas mentioned: - 13

"The material underneath the ground getshot and it buildsup, so it has. to find some- where to go- so it comes outthe top." (501)

More idiosyncratic ideas were held by two of theolder students:

I "So how was this (pointsto photograph .\.5 of Mt. Egmorit)actuallyformed - do yo-d think?"' H "By washing of thetides, I suppose:' I "What was washed? H "It was washedaway here (points to base of mountain) fromthe flat ground." (606)

"I think that theTaranaki region is only there because ofthe volcano. It wouldn't be thereif.the volcano wasn't there- I think" I "So what came first-do you think- the volcano or Taranaki?"

C "The volcano and thenit all built from eruptions andstuff coming out around the volcano."' (705(g))

Some hint at a theory involving plate tectonicswas provided by nine students (1 x Fl, 1 x F4, 1x F5, 2 x F6, 4 x F7)

"Sometimes the plates ofthe Earth sort of push up and makethe mountain sort of erupt andgrow.or get smaller." (106)

This'explanation was not significantly improvedupon by older students who had heard of movingplates:

I "How.are.these plates relatedto volcanoes youou think? D"When they collide they make up mountains- from the middle of thetarth all that stuff comes up:' I "What sort of stuff? D "Lava and all that." (503)

1 6 - 14 -

"Where the continents are all divided up- before they separated wherethey come together they grind together- it forces weaknesses in'the Earth'scrust and there- fore the core is ableto pressurise molten lava upwards." (605(g))

"Areas where there are earthquakes volcanoes or big mountains- they think there's, plates which move aroundon the surface of the Earth and = where theyrun into eachother''7 form earthquakes as they slipover or unaer, or pile up into mountains-.ike the,Himalayas."- (603)

C "It's something to dowith the plates of the Earth sort okpOvingand' the mountain could have been sort ofpushed_up." I "Tell me more about theseplates,".. C "These plates are.alwaysmoving. They were once joined together to form thegreatbig -, continent of Pangea andthey drifted apart.- I'm not reallysure ho_ w, the mOuntain.1Mt. Egmont) fOrmed, but I thinkit might be Something when the two plates (701)

WHERE ARE VOLCANOESLIKELY TO BE FOUND?

This line of questioningwas pursued following the stimulus-wOrd 'volcano',..e.g. "In what sort of places wouldyou expect volcanoes to be found?". There wasa 'wide spectrum of theories. .

Eight students (4 x F1,-2 x F4, 2 x/F5) Wereunable.tosuggest .any possible location of other volcanoes, whilst five students (2x F2, 3 x F3), used the term "special places" or stated' that it "depends wherethey pop up", or "they appear where they appear."

I "Do they (volcanoes) justappear anywhere or in special places- or what?" S "It depends ..where theypop up." ')/7 (301)

-.1, I "Do they.:(volcanoes)just sort of happen or - dp7,the happen in special places or just anywhere at all -:or what?" J "It depends where thevorcano is." (304) 17 - 15 -

Other similarresponses were given:

"You find them insome places where a volcanic' plateau is."

Three students (1x Fl, 1 x F3, 1 x F5)'felt that volcanoes couldbe found in all countries:

I "What kind ofplace would you go- where would yougo to find a volcano.- is there ananswer to that - or can they be found

D "They can be foundreally anywhere." (305).

I "Do you feel that you'dfind volcanoes anywhere at all.. or .. M "Yes - I suppoSeyoucan." I "Arly..duntry at all? M "Yes." (504) Three' studentS. (2x F, 1 x .F3) considered the location of volcanoesto be climate dependent:

I "What sort.ot placeswould you go to find volcanoes- anywhere at all - or special places.-or what?' R "Umm - mostly roundwarmer climates." 'I "Russia?

R "No - that's gettinga bit cold." (202)

"They seem to bemore towards the colder areas than up thewarm areas." (302)..

Two students (1 x F3, 1 x F4) were quite definite thatmountains were, always associated with volcanoes:

I "Can you find volcanoesjust anywhere or are they in special places? K "Mountains." (303)

Other idiosyncraticresponses included specific regions where studentsconsidered volcanoes exist:. - 16 -

"Indonesia - and there'ssome volcano islands in the SouthPacific and America -.Mt. St.Helens." (203)

"A lot ofiislandshave them." (606)

Fourteen students(x F4, 1.x F5, 5 x F6, 5 x F7) predicted thatvolcanoes would be found in association with'specific geophysicalphenomena. Four students (2 x F4, 2 x F6)referred o regions where fault-linesoccur:

I "And where wouldyou find these volcanoes anywhere at all? D "On a fault - line."

I "Any fault-line- anywhere in thii world? D "Yes." (602)

Two students (1x F4, 1 x F6) stipulated that volcanoes wouldbe found only in places whereearthquakes are experienced:

"Pretty close toan earthquake belt." (402)

One student :(1-,,xF7).eferred to the presence of volcanoes whereverareas of 'crustal weaknessare located:

"They follow thearc of weakness." (704(g))

Seven students (1 x F5, 2x F6, 4 x F7) discus'sed the movement andinteraction of crustal plates, associating-these with Volcanic ctivity:

I "And how are theseplates relat d to volcanoes - doyou think? D "When they collide -'theyslowly make up mountains and sometimes- from the middle of the Earth- all that stuff ,comes up." I "What sort of stuff? D "Lava and all that." (503)

"It's generally whereyou find most of the plates - `where theplates come together." (605(g)) 7

"And you find them (volcanoes)where - anywhere ?" C "No, not really anywhere ,-either where the two platesmeet on fault lines or where there'sW lot of Earthactivity like in geothermalplaces arid stuff like that." (704(g))

ACONSIDERATION OF MT. COOK

WH;ii' ISTHE LANDFORM?

Only six students (2 x F4,,3 xF6, 1.x F7) recognisedMt. Cook from the photograph althoughi. when the name of the landformwas provided, 25 of the remaining 31 students (4 x Fl, 4 x F2, 5 x F3, 2x F4, 4 x.F5", 2 X F6,.4 x F7) stated thatthey had heard of it. It is quite possible thatthe mountain might have been-identified by more students. had thephotograph. been taken from an alternative vantage point.

WHAT IS A RANGE?.

The term 'range' was immediately used by 23 students (1 x Fl,2 x *F2, 5 x F4, 3 x F5, 4 x F6, 5 x F7)-and all of thesestudents were.able,to use the term in the correct context;, following the question"What is a range- in your meaning ofitheword?"

A typical responsewas:

"A row of mountains suchas the Southern Alps:" (603)

Thirteen students (5x Fl, 3 x F2, 2 x:F3, 1x F4, 2 x F6) had heard of th7 terM''range' but were unable to offer a geologicallyacceptable definition; rather they:showed a tendency to provide everydaymeanings ofthe word." Ten of theSe students (3, x Fl, 2 x F2; 2 x Fi, 1 x F4, F6) talked abou 'range' in terms' ofa large expanse of. grazing

I "Have you heard of that (range)?" C"Only in cowboy movies." (2051

"It's a long lowland- a paddock - a feeding ground." (406) -

"In Texas they haveranges where they keep their steers- and that." (602) Three students (2x Fl, 1 x F2). offered 'range!: lternative definitionsfor the term

"A range of.different things." (105)

"A range of:differentshapes and sizes." (102) "A big hillside." / (201)

HOW DID MTCOOK DEVELOP? /

Fourteen students (2x 2 lc F2, 2 x F3, 2 x F4,2 x F5,2 x F6, x F7) felt confident that Mt Cook was, orstill is a volcano:-

I "Have we got,anyvolcanism there (Mt Cook) doyou think?

C /"Yes ,we would have but I think the plug has sealed- so to speak." (703)

Questions were directedtowards the identification of alternativetheories concerning the fbrmationof. Mt.COok. A variety of explanationswere forthcoming: Ten students (3x Fl, 2 x F2, 5 x F4) considered that Mt Cookhas always been as it is today:

"It could hare been there all thetime." (404) / The meaning of "allsthetime" or "always" was probed, as theseexpressions arose:

A "It might have justbeen there."

I "Always been there?. A "Yes probably." I "Now when you say "always been there"- how long is that? forever or A "Since time began." (406)

The difference betweena landform being 'described as a volcano, or justa mountain, was often linked with its shape and/or isolation: I How wouldyou describe this (Mt Cook)? A"A mountain."

I "Same sort of mountainas Mt Egmont what'swhat's the difference?

A "It''S (Mt'Cook)colder." I "Is it (Mt Cook) a volcanic mountain- do you think?: '1 A "I don't think. so.". I "Why. not? Why don't you think itis? A "Logic."

I "Logic?Tell me about this logic." A "Instinct-yes,. I go by instinct,- it doesn't look. likea volcano. This one -hereAMt Egmont) ismore open- individual." '(406)

I "Is this (Mt Cook)ftom volcanic activity - do you think? J "No."

I "Why do yousay that? U "Because there'stoo much on either side of it." (501)

Other explanations, as to how Mt Cook was formed,considered (i) supernatural phenomena:

"God built it biggerand bigger." (104) (ii) wind deposition:

"From materials beingbrought by the wind and that." (501)

(iii) underground pressure:

"There is probablyalot pressure underneath it and it rt of built up and sort of exploded Over a ,period of time it built.up." (502)

(iv) tidal action:,

H "I suppose it allhas to do with water somehow."

22 - 20 -

I "Tell me about that." H "Well.. with water - all washed away. - ithas changed inthat way."

This last idiosyncraticidea, i.e. material being washedaway, from around the mountain,was also forwarded (by student 606) to explainthe evolution of Mt Egmont:

. "It was washedaway here (points to base of mountain) from theflat ground." (606)

Ten students (1x F3, 1 xF5, 4 x F6, 4 x F7) proposed ideas,for the development of MtCook:Which .involved related phenomena,such as earthquakes, fault-line activity andfolding. However these termswere usually only mentioned. with little elaboration:

R "They (Southern Alps)haven't been formed by volcanism,as far as I know." I "They haven't been? "R "No ... they were formed >>b folding." (704(g))

"It's (Mt Cook) inthe middle of a fault-line." (602) I "How -does that (Mt Cook) get like that- do you think?

D "Oh an earthquake, An earthquake could bring up a lot of land."'

This particular mechanism:.wasn'tSeentoTbs aPplicable i to_ mountain. building:

I "Do you always getearthquakes with mountain ranges- doyou think? D "No - some of themmight just be there. I "What - always beenthere? p "Yes." (305) Seven students (1 x F5, 3 x F6, 3 x F7) mentionedsome aspect of-a 'plate theorY' although none of these studentswas able to offer a detailed scientific view of'Mountain building via a tlieory of plateinteraction. - 21 -

Four students (1x F2, 2 x F6, 1 x F7) envisaged a collisionof plates as being the mechanismwhich resulted in the formation ofthe Southern Alpsand Mt. Cook:

"All I can say-isabout the two plates' when they are pushedtogether - they form mountains andall this." (503)

The two plates,responsible for the development of the SouthernAlps, were named by one student:

"This is where themain Pacific- I think it is - and the Australian Plates meetall 'down the line." (603) One plate was seen to be passingunderneath-the other:

"One plate's goingunderneath the other and, pushing one plateup." (605(g))

I "What's happenedin 'this case- do you think?

C "Well, I-think-thatthey've, collided and one;plate's.sortof... as one plate's gone down theother one's twisted up on itself." (703)

Only one studentreferred to the relative movement of land at eitherside of the Alpine Fault:

"The West Coast'smoving upwards (North) and they (Southern Alpsand Mt Cook) are are moving that wayindicates opposite motion)" (705(g))

The views thatare held by, children and adolescents, concerningthese_two landforms, are both variedand interes4ng. A comparison betweenstudents' views of Mt Egmont andthose held by earth/ scientists are summarisedin Table 1 whilst similar comparisons, with Mt Cook are Shown inTable 2. - 22

, STUDENTS' VIEWS OF 'MOUNT EGMONT CONTRASTED WITHSCIENTISTS' VIEWS

SCIENTISTS' VIEW STUDENTS' VIEWS IDIOSYNCRATIC VIEWS It is a largestrato- (a)Not a Volcano (41%) (a) A mountain IS MOUNT - volcano builtup from can become EGMONT .A alternating deposits (b)It is a volcano. a volcano if it is VOLCANO? of lava and ash.'. shaken by earthquakes (c)It is an extinct volcano (22%) (b) A mountain withsnow on top cannot be a ,(d) It is a dormant volcano volcano (c) Volcanoesare only found in colderareas e.g. Mt Erebus

Andesitic volcanoes (a) Mt EgMont has may form when two (a) Tides washmaterial always been away from around tectonic plates (one there (32%) WHAT IS being oceanic crust) the mountain THE approach andone (b) "plate'tectonics" .(b) Heat has to ORIGIN get out unaerrides the other. (c) crustal weakness of the Earth OF MOUNT. Magma,formed by part- EGMONT? melting bf down- (d) fault7line (c) Goa created it going plate, risesto activity the .surface. (e) pressure build-up (f) buildup of lava

First eruptions (a) No eruptions(41%) abodt 70,000years (a) No changeswill occur B.P. with a sizeable (b) ErUpt,ions WHAT IS cone by 35,000 years envisaged but no THE B.P.. Large erupt- time scale known ions have occurred ERUPTIVE ' HISTORY in'the past with 4 oi,mT '- events' during the EGMONT? last 500 years. 'Recent' activity in 1755 with likelihood of future eruptions.

Table 1 STUDENTS' VIEWS OFMOUNT COOK. CONTRASTED WITH SCIENTISTS'VIEWS

SCIENTISTS' VIEW STUDENTS' VIEWS, IDIOSYNCRATIC "VIEWS. It is not of volcanic (a) Mount Cook is, or (a) It ,could hebomea origin but part of Was( a volcano. (38%) IS MOUNT the Southern Alps voldano if.:shakeri COOK A which have.benup- (b) Part of a mountain b}v.an earthgtsake:' VOLCANO? range lifted via tectonic (bYNolcanoesfound activity. Mt Cook only in warmer ----coriginated as sedi- elimates e.g, mentary rock andany Krakatoa changes (metamorphism) have not occurred via volcanismi,

The SouthernAlps (a) Mount )k has (a) Wind, deposition (including Mt Cook) always WHAT IS !en. there makelqp an,:upthrusted (2710 (b) .Tidal actionremoves THE range of mountains. t material and leaves ORIGIN OF (b) "somet. nc :3 UpthrUst has resulted do .Mountain'range:.:- MOUNT COOK?from the convergence with plate, (c)- Underground and compression of collisions" 15r6gsx*6 two crustal plates. (c) fault-line (d) God created it The Alpine Fault activity represents the boundary betWeen the (d) earthquakes pushup Indo- Australianand (e) folding (no the Pacificplates. mechanism)

Changes in plate (a) No. uplift WHAT IS, process (a)- No changes boundary motion have seen will. occur THE produced uplift of UPLIFT 10-20 km along the (b) Where plate HISTORY' Alpine Fault,over collision is seen OF MOUNT the past 20 million to provide the COOK? _years. Uplift con- mechanism for tinues today ata uplift, no continued rate.of approximately uplift seen today. 2-8 men per year. - 24 -

SUMMARY :

The qualitative information,. from this investigation,tends,to suggest that children and adolescentshold views, about Mount Egmont and MountCook, whiCh are likely to'le different to the scientifically accepted ideas. The following pointsemerge:

1. Mount. Egmontis a large stratovolcano. It is situated closeto a number of Taranaki settlements and there is ample evidence.to suggest' that past mud and debris flows.have reached Inglewood, Kapuni,Opunaki and Cape Egmont. . Despite the-fact.thatthis volcano_is likely to eruptagain in the future, approximately 63 percent of students interviewedwere not aware that Mount-Egmont hasthis potential. Itwould be interesting toascertain whether, or not, students living in Taranaki holdsimilar views.

It has been the changes in plate boundary motion,along the Alpine Fault, which have largely controlled the geolOgy of theSouth Island of New Zealand. Mount Cook is part of a mountain range which has beenuplifted by this plate interaction.

Future research by earth.scientists will inevitablyfocus.emplate. tectonics, in the NeW Zealand region, since this will almost certainly'.add to our understanding of'sediMentary basin form4tion and thepossible tocation-of,:future.oil-and mineral.deposits.pproximately 80 percent of students interviewed were unable .to. relate,. any way, to a theory.of .'mountain -building which involvesplate tectonics:.

It has beenemphasised, within thispaper, that New Zealand is situated astride a major plate boundary and, consequently, is an integralpart of. the circum-Pacific tectonically activezone. Volcanic eruptions and earthquake activity will always bea fact of life for many New Zealanders. A theory of plate tectonics which integratesvolcanicity, earthquakes and mountain building should be an essential component in the scientificeducation of New Zealanders. This investigation has revealedthat such an appreca- tion has not been attained by the majority ofttudents,even at an elementary level of understanding. -25-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS :

I would like to thank Roger Osborne, PeterKamp, Michael. Selby, Brendon,Schollum and David Lowe for casting a criticaleye over the first draft of this paper. Thanks must, as always,be extended to all those studentswho talked:freely.to me about the'mysteries' of mountain building:

I am'grateful to the. staff , - of several schools forallowing me into their classrooms for interviewpurposes. - 26-

_APPENDIX A

SECTION 4 , Earth Science

AIM: To introduce students to the varietyof landforms, and throughan investiOtion'of rocks and soils; their formationemphasis their :changing nature. To involve students in a in outdoor observations and _ variety-of.communicativeskills.

After completingthis section, a student shouldbe able to:

Content

Identify the major landforms in his localarea;. b explain how these landforms may havebeen formed;, c describe, the agenciesof change acting only such agencies on these landformsincluding not as volcanism, earthquakes,water, wind, ice also Man and hismachinery; etc, but" explain the three major ways in whichrocks are formed; e describe how differentrock typeS give rise to different -.. f kinds of soil; discuss how differencesin landforms, use of an area. rocks and soilsinfluence Man's

Skills

2. a Read simplegeological and.topographical mapsof the localarea; b' classify rocks invarious ways e.g, structure, hardness,colour; ,obierve anddescribe the'characteristics a hand lens; of'local rockand soils using d dig a soil profileand infer how the layers may have beenformed. Attitudes

3. a Appreciate the changing nature of the earth'ssurface and the of conservationpractices; importance b show a willingnessto expand their knowledge and!interestin landforms, rocks and soils bycontinuing their and reading. personal observationsinvestigatiOns - 27 -

SECTION 8 Earth Science

AIM: To extend the knowledgeof land forms the earth's crust, gained at level 4by considering the layeredstructure of the earth, the dynamic natureof the surface its atmosphere, of New Zealand. layers and the geologicalhistory

After completing this - section, a studentshould be able to: Content

1. a Describe the platetheory of the earth's. surface and discussthe evidence supportingsuch a theory; b relate the plate theory to earthquakes, mountainbuilding, volcanic zones and major faultlines;- c describe the theory of continental driftand discuss-the supporting sucha theory; evidence define a fossil and describe ways in"whichfossils' may be formed; e outline the major features of New, Zealand'sgeological history; describe the formationof fossil fuels and of their conservation; discuss the importance define a mineral and diicuss Man'suse of minerals in `NeW Zealan .

Skills

. a Produce charts, displays,models or other descriptions of the earth's of the structure crust, its dynamicnature or the geological New Zealand; history of

group fossils, minerals andmajor rock types features. according to characteristic

Attitudes

3. a Display a continuing interest in earthscience, in Man's increasing knowledge of the' nature and history of theearth's crust particularly in the South Pacificand in Man's use and conservation of hisenvironment.

30 - 28 .1-

APPENDIX B

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

,== The following terms have been explainedin a simplified detailed definitions way. More of terms may beobtained by referring geological texts to standard or the Dictionary ofGeological Terms, compiled American GeologicalInstitute. by the

ANDESITE: A fine-grained Volcanicrock which is made up of minerals suchas hornblende, biotite andaugite. Andesite containsbetween 55% and 65%of silica.

ASTHENOSPHERE: A partially molten 'soft' layer of the,Earth, located beneath the lithosphere. The asthenosphere is thought to be the layerin which con- vection currents exist.

BASALT: . A dark-coloured, fine-grained volcanic rock, containingbetween 45% and 55% of silica.-

a BATHOLITH: A large body ofintrusive igneous rock, at least 50 sq.km inarea.

GRANITE: A coarse-grained igneous rock made up of quaftz,feldspars and micas.

JURASSIC: A geologic time period which extendedapproximately) from 200 million years B.P. to about 149 millionyears B.P.

LAHAR: A landslide or mudflow which occurs on the flank ofa volcano. Water input may be from melting snow, heavy rainfallor crater lakes.

LITHOSPHERE: The outer, rigid layer of the Earth, comprisingthe crust and continents. The lithosphere issituated above the asthenosphere.

MAGMA: Molten silicate materials beneath thesurface of the Earth. When magma reaches the Earth's surface,it is termed lava.

MIOCENE: The second time 'division' (epoch) of the Tertiaryperiod, representing a time span of between 22 million years B.P. and 5 millionyears B.P. - 29 -

MOUNTAIN: In a generalsense, any landmass that stands conspicuouslyhigher than its surroundings. Geologically it refers tojparts of the Earth'scrust having thick crumpledstrata, regionally metamorphosed rocks and(sometimes) . granitic batholiths.

PLATE BOUNDARY: An area of tectonic activity lusually alongthe edgeS of two interacting lithosphericplates. Such activity indicatesrelative motion between plates.

STRATA: The layered arrangement of the constituentparticles of a rock body.

STRATOVOLCANO: A large volcanic cone which is stratified bymeans of alternating deposits of lava andash.

TECTONISM: Crustal instability due to the interaction betweenlithospheric plates.

TERTIARY: That geologic time period which extended (approximately)from 65 million years B.F. to 2million years B.P.

TRANSCURRENT FAULT: A fault in which the slip is in the direction ofthe fault trend.

TRENCH: , A long, narrow depression of the deep-sea floor usuallyhaving steep sides. Deep oceanic trenches occur where crustal blocksdescend into the mantle.

VOLCANO: A vent or fissure through which molten and solidmaterials and hot gases pass upwards to theEarth's surface. - 30 -