This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: • This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. • A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. • This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. • The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. • When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. The ‘Scottish Cato’?: A Re-examination of Adam Ferguson’s Engagement with Classical Antiquity Katherine Cecilia Nicolai Dissertation submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of History, Classics and Archaeology University of Edinburgh 2011 Declaration I confirm that the following thesis has been composed by me, and is completely my own work. None of the information has been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. None of the information has been submitted for publication. Katherine Cecilia Nicolai 27 June 2011 i Abstract Adam Ferguson (1723-1816) was one of the leading figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, an influential eighteenth-century moral and political philosopher, as well as a professor of ethics at the University of Edinburgh from 1764 to 1785. There has been a wealth of scholarship on Ferguson in which central themes include his role as a political theorist, sociologist, moral philosopher, and as an Enlightenment thinker. One of the most frequent topics addressed by scholars is his relationship to ancient philosophy, particularly Stoicism. The ease with which scholars identify Ferguson as a Stoic, however, is problematic because of the significant differences between Ferguson‟s ideas and those of the „schools‟ of classical antiquity, especially Stoicism. Some scholars interpret Ferguson‟s philosophy as a derivative, unsystematic „patchwork‟ because he drew on various ancient sources, but, it is argued, did not adhere to any particular system. The aim of my thesis is to suggest an alternative interpretation of Ferguson‟s relationship to ancient philosophy, particularly to Stoicism, by placing Ferguson in the context of the intellectual history of the eighteenth century. The first section of this thesis is an examination of Ferguson‟s response to the Quarrel between the Ancients and the Moderns, modern eclecticism and the experimental method to demonstrate how Ferguson‟s approach to and engagement with ancient philosophy is informed by these intellectual contexts. The second section is a close analysis of the role that ancient schools play in his discussion of the history of philosophy as well as the didactic purpose found in his lectures and published works thereby determining the function of ancient thought in his philosophy. The third section is a re-examination of Ferguson‟s concept of Stoicism and his engagement with Stoic ethics in his moral philosophy re-interpreting his relationship to the ancient school. With a combination of a new understanding of Ferguson‟s methodology and new assessment of his engagement with ancient thought, a new interpretation of Ferguson‟s moral philosophy demonstrates his unique contribution to eighteenth- century thought. ii Table of Contents Acknowledgements v List of Abbreviations vi I. Introduction 1.1 Introductory Remarks 1 1.2 Adam Ferguson 6 1.3 Ferguson and Modern Scholarship: The Scottish Cato? 26 1.4 Solving the Problem of Ferguson‟s Stoicism 50 II. Chapter 1. Ferguson’s Methodology and Eighteenth-Century Context 53 1.1 Ferguson and the Quarrel Between the Ancients and Moderns 55 1.2 Ferguson and the Quarrel: An Ancient or a Modern? 74 2.1 Eclecticism and Ferguson‟s Method 85 2.2 The History of Eclecticism 90 2.3 Ferguson and Eclecticism 109 2.4 Ferguson and the History of Philosophy 115 3.1 Ferguson‟s Adoption of the Experimental Method 122 3.2 The Experimental Method in the Scottish Enlightenment 123 3.3 Ferguson and Experimental Philosophy 132 4.1 Conclusion 143 iii III. Chapter 2. Ferguson’s Methods in Practice: The Presentation of Ancient Philosophy 147 1.1 Ferguson and Ancient Philosophy: A Pedagogical Paradigm 148 1.2 Ferguson‟s Concept of Ancient Philosophy 151 1.3 Stoics and Epicureans: Philosophical Opposites 161 1.4 Conclusion: Further Implications of Ferguson‟s Concept of Ancient Philosophy 169 IV. Chapter 3: Ferguson’s Engagement with Stoicism in his Moral Philosophy 174 1.1 Ferguson‟s Definition of Stoicism 183 1.2 Virtue 184 1.3 The Passions and the Nature of Pleasure 191 1.4 Moral Choice: Or How Should One Make Moral Judgements? 200 1.5 Happiness 212 1.6 Religion and the Role of Providence 221 1.7 Conclusion 229 V. Conclusion 231 VI. Bibliography 237 iv Acknowledgements I would first and foremost like to thank my supervisors Dr. Thomas Ahnert and Dr. Michael Lurie. Dr. Ahnert has been the backbone of this thesis and he has opened my mind to the intricacies of philosophy in the Enlightenment. His support, encouragement and guidance have made this process a pleasure and I owe him my deepest thanks. Without the inspiration, ingenuity, support and guidance of Dr. Lurie, this project would never have developed into what it is now, and I am eternally grateful for his advice and his introduction of the works of Brucker into my life. It was my attendance at a number of conferences which alerted me to some of the issues dealt with in the thesis. I am very grateful to Prof. Richard B. Sher and the Eighteenth Century Scottish Studies Society for allowing me to present my ideas at numerous conferences. I am also particularly grateful to Dr. James Harris who organised several stimulating conferences through the University of St. Andrews on the topics of Scottish philosophy and its relationship to ancient philosophy. It was through these meeting that I had a chance to engage with some of the best scholars in the field and the conversations I have had with people over the years have proved invaluable for this project. I would specifically like to that Professor Alexander Broadie, Prof. James Moore, Dr. Craig Smith, Prof. Aaron Garret, Prof. Colin Kidd, Prof. Chris Berry, Dr. Vincenzo Merolle, and Professor M.A. Stewart for their suggestions and advice. I am also very thankful to the staff, past and present, at the National Library of Scotland and Special Collections at the University of Edinburgh Library. The staff at Edinburgh University have also been invaluable in the completion of this dissertation, both the secretarial staff and lecturers, and I owe them my most humble gratitude for their help, guidance, advice and support over the years. I would like to thank my fellow postgraduates, especially those I have shared various offices with, without them I would not have survived this process. I would like to thank specially Dr. Alima Bucciantini, Dr. Cathryn Spence, Dr. Sally Tuckett, Dr. Tom Turpie, Dr. Melanie Sayers, Tawny Paul, Mariana Vieira and Harriet Cornell for their support through difficult times. I would also like to thank my Pub Quiz team for reminding me that there is a life outside of this thesis, and occasionally supplementing my tuition fees with Quiz winnings. I owe a large debt of gratitude to my family and friends in America for all of their help and support throughout this thesis. I would like to thank in particular Penny Nicolai, for her unending support and helpful advice. I would like to thank my Mother for her love, guidance and support, without her I could not have done this. I would like to thank my Father in particular. He read through the whole thesis, spoke with me about it whenever I needed to figure out an idea, and his help throughout has been immeasurable. Finally, I owe a very special thanks to my flatmate Brian Hannon who not only helped me edit the thesis, he kept me sane and focused over the last three years. v List of Abbreviations ECCO Eighteenth Century Collections Online Essay Essay on the History of Civil Society (1767) by Adam Ferguson EUL Edinburgh University Library HCP Historia Critica Philosophiae Vol. 1 and II (1742-1744), by J. J. Brucker History The History of the Progress and Termination of the Roman Republic (1783) in Six Books, by Adam Ferguson Institutes Institutes of Moral Philosophy (1769) by Adam Ferguson Lectures Lectures on Pneumatics and Moral Philosophy by Adam Ferguson, MS, EUL Special Collections, Dc. 1.84-1.86 Manuscripts The Manuscripts of Adam Ferguson, ed. Vincenzo Merolle (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2006) NLS National Library of Scotland ODNB Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 60 Volumes, ed. H. C. G. Matthew and B. Harrison, Online Edition P.I. Principles of Moral and Political Science, Vol. I (1792) by Adam Ferguson P.II. Principles of Moral and Political Science, Vol. II (1792) by Adam Ferguson vi I. Introduction 1.1 Introductory Remarks The two Scottish literary giants of the long eighteenth century, Robert Burns1 and Walter Scott,2 met only once at a dinner party in honour of Robert Burns held in a small house in a suburb of Edinburgh in 1787. It was an intimate gathering whose guests included James Hutton, Joseph Black, Dugald Stewart, and „the famous aeronaut Lunardi‟,3 all of whom were excited to meet Burns. Walter Scott was a youth at the time and friend of young Adam, the son of Professor Adam Ferguson,4 lecturer in moral philosophy at Edinburgh, host of the party.