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Mortuary Practices in the North-Central Andes, 11Th-18Th Centuries

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Mortuary Practices in the North-Central Andes, 11Th-18Th Centuries The Social Life of Death: Mortuary Practices in the North-Central Andes, 11th-18th centuries Volume 1 Laurie M. Martiarena Thesis submitted in fulfillment of requirement of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of East Anglia Sainsbury Research Unit for the Arts of Africa, Oceania & The Americas School of Art History and World Art Studies June 2014 © This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that use of any information derived therefrom must be in accordance with current UK Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must include full attribution. Abstract For many societies, the world of the dead reflects the world of the living. Studies of mortuary practices are a fundamental way for scholars to research ancient societies, rituals and belief systems. This thesis examines the transformations in funerary practices in the North-Central Andes from AD 1000 to 1799, a period covering both the Inca and Spanish colonisations. This research demonstrates how historical events, political actions and manipulation can affect the habitus of a society. By studying the ways that people treat their dead, scholars can track changes in the social and cultural practices of ancient groups. This research has a multi-disciplinary approach that combines archaeological and ethnohistorical data. It investigates the ideology related to the use of tombs, within a framework of changing social organisation. By drawing on the existing archaeological and historic reports, a unique database has been created which catalogues the tombs of the Ancash highlands in a systematic way. This includes basic formal descriptions of the tombs and analysis of their variability in order to propose specific time periods for tomb use. Archival work completed in Spain and Peru provided information about what people continued to do, or had changed, in their mortuary practices after the arrival of the Spanish and Catholicism. Archival documentation also provided details about the religious organisation and evangelisation of the region. The results demonstrate that there were no drastic changes in mortuary practices with Inca and Spanish colonialism. This would suggest that, in the Ancash highlands, changes in mortuary practices were not a priority for the Incas, who probably ruled the region indirectly through administrative centres. During Spanish colonisation, data reveals two types of behaviour, a continuity in the use of Prehispanic mortuary customs and an adoption of the new ones. Nevertheless, this dualistic practice is a more complex process, where both groups actively adapted and negotiated their cultural identities over two centuries. 2 List of Contents Page No Abstract 2 List of Contents 3 List of Figures 9 Preface 17 Acknowledgements 19 Chapter I: Introduction to the Research Problem 21 1.1 Rationale 21 1.2 Definitions 23 1.3 Methodology and research objectives 24 1.4 Outline Chapters 25 Chapter II: Sacred Landscapes: The Geography and Archaeology 28 of Highland Ancash and the Central Andes 2.1 Geography and environment of the Central Andes 28 2.1.1 Theoretical concepts of landscape 28 2.1.2 Physical landscapes of the Central Andes and 29 their cosmological importance 2.1.3 Climate 32 2.2 Historical formation of the region of Ancash 33 2.3 Prehistory and colonial history of the Ancash north-central 34 highlands 2.3.1 Preceramic period (1800-1500 BC): Guitarrero 35 Cave 2.3.2 Early Horizon (1600-100 BC): Chavín Horizon 35 2.3.3 Early Intermediate Period (AD 1-700), Middle 38 Horizon (AD 700-900): Recuay culture and Wari 3 2.3.4 Late Intermediate Period (AD 900-1440) 39 2.3.5 Inca Period (Late Horizon (AD 1440-1536)) 39 2.3.6 Colonial Period 43 2.4 Archaeological and historical research on mortuary 47 practices in the Ancash highlands Chapter III: The Archaeology and Anthropology of Death and 54 Memory in Past Societies 3.1 Mortuary Studies in the 18th-19th centuries 54 3.2 Mortuary Studies in the 20th century 55 3.2.1 Early 20th Century Mortuary Studies 55 3.2.2 Mortuary studies: from 1960s onward 59 3.2.3 Post-Processual Mortuary Studies 61 3.3 The Andean concept of death and memory in Prehispanic 64 Peru 3.4 European Christian concept of death and the 69 evangelisation of the Andes: Similitudes and discrepancies. 3.4.1 European Christian concept of death 70 3.4.2 Process of colonialism and Christianisation of 75 Peru Chapter IV: Mortuary Practices in the North-Central Andes 89 4.1 The data gathering process 89 4.2 The database 90 4.3 Typologies and tomb definitions in the Ancash highlands 91 4.3.1 Tomb types in the Ancash Highlands 92 4.3.2 Tomb type surveys in the Ancash Highlands 100 Chapter V: Mortuary Patterns in the Ancash Highlands 110 5.1 General Ancash highlands tomb typology 110 4 5.2 Tomb types by region 116 5.2.1 Conchucos tombs general analysis and typology 116 5.2.2 General characteristics and tomb typology 124 of the western slope of the Cordillera Negra sites 5.2.3 General characteristics and tomb typology 131 of the Callejόn de Huaylas sites 5.3 Diachronic study of Ancash Highlands tomb characteristics 138 5.4 Conclusions 150 Chapter VI: Ethnohistorical Analysis of Funerary Practices in the 154 North-Central Andes 6.1 Death and idolatries 156 6.1.1 Death in the Evangelisation of the Andes 156 6.2 Death and idolatries in the Ancash highlands 162 6.2.1 Mortuary practices and burials in the Ancash 164 highlands 6.3 The Cost of burials in Colonial Peru a break into 175 Evangelisation? 6.4 Evangelisation: a game of words 191 Chapter VII: Social Impact of Colonialism on Mortuary Practices 200 in the Ancash Highlands: An Archaeo-Historical Synthesis 7.1 Doing Historical Archaeology in the Andes: archaeology of 201 culture contact and colonialism 7.2 Monuments: markers of resistance and social memory 206 7.2.1 The dead: the social memory of Andean 207 community 7.2.2 Mortuary practices and monuments as acts of 217 resistance 7.3 Religious landscape appropriation and the evangelisation 224 of the New World 7.4 Burial, cultural assimilation, memory and conquest: 226 an Andean regional case 5 Chapter VIII: Conclusions 236 8.1 Mortuary practices in the Ancash highlands from the Late 237 Intermediate Period (900-1440 AD) until the end of the 18th century 8.2 Recommandations for further research 244 Glossary 247 Bibliography 252 (Volume 2) Figures 282 Appendix A Ethnohistorical documents A.1. AGI, Lima 301: 1619. 355 A.2. DE LA JURISDICCION QUE HAN DE TENER LOS 365 ALCALDES (6 november 1575) Francisco de Toledo. A.3. CONFESIONARIO PARA LOS CURAS DE INDIOS - 369 CON LA INSTRUCCIÓN CONTRA SUS RITOS Y EXHORACIÓN PARA AYUDAR A BIEN MORIR Y SUMA DE LOS PRIVILEGIOS Y FORMA DE IMPEDIMENTOS DEL MATRIMONIO (José de Acosta 1583). A.4. AAL, Leg. V: 1 in Duviols 2003: 686-688. 380 A.5. AAL, Leg. 3, Exp 5, Sepulturas y cementerio general: 382 Huaraz, Huaylas (1664). A.6. AAL, Leg. 3, Exp 12, Sepulturas y cementerio general: 383 Huaraz (1673-1674). A.7. DOCUMENTO 30. Año 1614: ANNUA (Polia 1999: 363) 385 A.8. DOCUMENTO 32. Año 1617: ANNUA (Polia 1999: 383) 386 A.9. AAL, Leg. 11, Exp. I, Capítulos: Gogor, 387 Cajatambo (1642) Appendix B Graphs comparing the different patterns of the three sub-areas of the Ancash highlands B.1. Number of LIP to Spanish colonial occupation sites in the 396 Ancash highlands. 6 B.2. Orientation of Type A tombs in the Ancash highlands. 396 B.3. Types of entrances for Type A structures in the Ancash 397 highlands. B.4. Number of rooms in Type A tombs of the Ancash 397 highlands. B.5. Number of entrances in Type A tombs of the Ancash 398 highlands. B.6. Presence of any trace of plaster, painting, stone carving on 398 Type A tombs in the Ancash highlands. B.7. Type A tombs with more than one storey in the Ancash 399 highlands. B.8. Number of Type A tombs in the Ancash highlands 399 according to their roof type. B.9. Number of Type A tombs in the Ancash highlands 400 according to their groundplan. B.10. Type A tombs situated above a platform in the Ancash 400 highlands. B.11. Number of Type A tombs in the Ancash highlands 401 according to their orientation. B.12. Frequency of the area of Type A tombs in the Ancash 402 highlands. Appendix C Tables Table 2.1: Table showing main periods/horizons and local cultural 403 affiliations. Table 3.1: Santo Toribio's visit to Huaylas in 1593 404 (Sources taken from Benito 1937). Table 3.2: Santo Toribio's visit to Conchucos in 1594 406 (Sources taken from Benito 1937). Table 3.3: Number of Churches, doctrinas, clergy, parishioners, 409 hospitals and confraternities in 1619 Corregimiento of Conchucos (Sources: AGI, Lima 301, 1619). Table 3.4: Number of Churches, doctrinas, clergy, parishioners, 411 hospitals and confraternities in 1619 Corregimiento of Huaylas (Sources: AGI, Lima 301, 1619). 7 Table 4.1: Domingo Santo Tomás (1560)/ Diego Gonçalez Holguin 413 (1608) vocabulary comparison. Table 4.2: Comparison of vocabulary about death 16th to 18th 414 century (Words in red are in Aymara and words in black are in Quechua). Table 5.1: Types of Type A tomb entrances according to the area 415 and period. Table 5.2: Comparative table of characteristics of Type A tombs in 416 the three Ancash regions.
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