Relations Between Reactive and Proactive Aggression and Daily Emotions in Adolescents

Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00533-6

Relations between Reactive and Proactive Aggression and Daily Emotions in Adolescents

Christina C. Moore1 & Julie A. Hubbard1 & Megan K. Bookhout1 & Fanny Mlawer1

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019

Abstract The current study examined whether individual differences in reactive and proactive aggression: 1) relate to level of daily emotion, including happiness, sadness, anger, and fear, 2) predict across-day variability in these emotions, and 3) moderate reactivity of these emotions to positive and negative events. Participants were a racially/ethnically diverse sample of 144 adolescents (80 girls, 64 boys; M age = 13.55 years; SD = 1.34). Adolescents self-reported on reactive and proactive aggression in a home visit prior to the collection of daily data. Using daily dairy procedures, adolescents then reported on their daily emotions and positive/negative events over 12 consecutive days. Higher reactive aggression was associated with greater levels of daily anger, more variability in anger across days, and heightened angry reactivity to negative events. Additionally, higher reactive aggression predicted lower levels of daily happiness but greater happy reactivity to positive events. Finally, higher reactive aggression was linked to increased variability in daily fear. In contrast, proactive aggression was largely unrelated to adolescents’ daily emotions, with the exception that higher proactive aggression predicted less variability in happiness across days. Results indicate that reactive aggression is characterized by significant emotionality at the daily level, and proactive aggression is characterized by lack of emotionality.

Keywords Aggression . Emotions . Adolescence

Emotion has been central to understanding the motivation for Reactive Aggression and Emotionality aggressive behavior and has helped delineate two functions of aggression - reactive and proactive. Researchers have docu- Reactive aggression is driven by anger and the need to retaliate mented the important role that negative emotion plays against provocation (Berkowitz 1993). The construct stems as a catalyst for reactive aggression, as well as the lack from the frustration-aggression model (Berkowitz 1993), which of emotion that characterizes proactive aggression, in posits that aggressive behavior results from frustration, provo- studies assessing emotion via questionnaires, observa- cation, or threat. Berkowitz and Harmon-Jones (2004)expand- tions, and psychophysiology. However, these associa- ed this theory to propose that reactive aggression may be related tions have not been tested within the context of youths’ to heightened emotionality more broadly. daily lives. As such, the present study sought to fill this Empirically, anger is more strongly linked to reactive than gap by investigating relations between adolescents’ reactive proactive aggression (e.g., Jambon et al. 2018;Xuetal.2009), and proactive aggression and their daily feelings of anger, fear, with studies conducted as early as toddlerhood (Vitaro et al. sadness, and happiness. 2006a) and using observational or physiological measures of anger (e.g., Hubbard et al. 2002). Moreover, the link between anger and reactive aggression has been supported both longitudinally (Calvete and Orue 2012) and cross-culturally (e.g., in China; Fung et al. 2015). * Christina C. Moore Hostile attribution biases, or the tendency to perceive antag- [email protected] onism in ambiguously provocative social situations, may help to explain this link. Reactive but not proactive aggression is 1 University of Delaware, 105 The Green, Newark, Delaware 19716, positively related to hostile attribution biases (e.g., Orobio de USA Castro et al. 2005). In a recent study, anger co-occurred with J Abnorm Child Psychol hostile attribution biases in real-time, and this co-occurrence Proactive aggression is notable for a lack of affect. The related to reactive but not proactive aggression (Yaros et al. strongest evidence for this notion is borne out of research 2014). These findings suggest that anger and reactive aggres- investigating the psychophysiology of aggressive behavior. sion may result from maladaptive processing of social In general, low baseline autonomic functioning is a robust risk information. In fact, treatments that target these cogni- factor for aggression both concurrently (Lorber 2004) and tive processes (e.g., Coping Power) are effective at re- prospectively (Baker et al. 2013), and this physiological ducing child and adolescent aggression and anger (see Powell underarousal may be especially characteristic of proactive ag- et al. 2011 for review). gression (Raine et al. 2014). Furthermore, recent work sug- Deficits in emotion regulation may also help to explain gests that youth experience blunted physiological arousal at these associations. In one study, the relation over time be- the moment that proactive aggression occurs (Moore et al. tween children’s anger and reactive aggression was weaker 2018), giving rise to terms such as Bcool-headed^ or Bcold- for children with stronger emotion regulation skills (Calvete blooded^ in descriptions of proactive aggression (Dodge and Orue 2012). Studies examining effortful control as an 1991; Hubbard et al. 2010). index of emotion regulation have also revealed unique links Theoretically, low baseline arousal may index fearlessness. to reactive but not proactive aggression in middle childhood Fearlessness theory posits that aggression results from an in- (Rathert et al. 2011) and adolescence (Dane and Marini 2014). ability to experience appropriate levels of fear, placing youth Hyper-arousal of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) at increased risk for aggression due to lack of proper sociali- may underlie regulatory deficits in reactive aggression zation (e.g., Fung et al. 2005; Raine 2002). Empirically, fear- (Scarpa and Raine 2000). Work on the physiology of reactive lessness has been linked to proactive but not reactive aggres- and proactive aggression indicates that children’s SNS reac- sion (Kimonis et al. 2006). Fearlessness theory complements tivity to peer provocation predicts reactive but not proactive social learning theory; if youth do not fear the negative con- aggression (Hubbard et al. 2002; Moore et al. 2018). More sequences of aggressive behavior, such as punishment or recent work suggests that children with low resting vagal tone, harm, then they are more likely to focus on the positive out- an index of emotion regulation, are more likely to engage in comes of aggression, including achieving desired instrumental reactive but not proactive aggression (e.g., Scarpa et al. 2010; or social goals. Xu et al. 2014). Alternatively, low arousal may index sensation seeking. Emotion dysregulation may be a key facet of reactive ag- Sensation-seeking theory posits that aggression occurs when gression in youth. In a meta-analysis combining 11 studies, individuals experience physiological underarousal and engage reactive but not proactive aggression related to emotion dys- in dangerous behaviors to increase arousal (e.g., Raine 2002). regulation (Card and Little 2006). In line with this thinking, Questionnaire measures of sensation-seeking are linked to reactive aggression is linked to negative emotions beyond proactive but not reactive aggression (Xu et al. 2014). anger, including depressive and anxious symptoms in children Moreover, sensation-seeking assessed in early adoles- and adolescents both concurrently and longitudinally (Card cence mediated the relation between boys’ low resting and Little 2006; Evans and Fite 2018; Fite et al. 2014). heart rate in childhood and aggression in late adolescence Reactive but not proactive aggression is also uniquely linked (Sijtsema et al. 2010), a finding replicated in a concurrent to suicidal ideation and behavior (Fite et al. 2017; Hartley study (Portnoy et al. 2014). et al. 2018). These findings raise interesting questions about The lack of emotionality typical of proactive aggression the specificity of reactive aggression to anger dysregulation, may also be explained through intact regulatory abilities. as opposed to emotional dysregulation more broadly. Two studies suggest a positive relation between emotion regulation and proactive aggression (Ostrov et al. 2013; Rathert et al. 2011); these authors theorized that youth Proactive Aggression and Unemotionality whoareskilledinregulatingemotionmaybemore adept at the purposeful, goal-oriented behaviors that Proactive aggression is an unemotional behavior displayed to characterize proactive aggression. Similarly, proactive aggres- reach a goal, whether instrumental (e.g., stealing lunch mon- sion positively relates to response inhibition (Feilhauer et al. ey) or social (e.g., respect from peers; Dodge 1991). The con- 2012) in youth and anger control in adults (Ramirez and struct is based in social learning theory and conceptualized as Andreu 2006). a learned behavior motivated by the expectation of reward The unemotional nature of proactive aggression may also (Vitaro et al. 2006b). Indeed, proactive aggression is associat- be linked to callous-unemotional (CU) traits (e.g., Thomson ed with a propensity to prioritize instrumental over social and Centifanti 2018;Thorntonetal.2013). CU traits parallel goals (e.g., Salmivalli et al. 2005), as well as with more pos- the affective dimension of psychopathy in adults; the construct itive outcome expectations for aggressive behavior (e.g., is defined as deficits in empathy and guilt, failure to put forth Arsenio et al. 2004; Smithmyer et al. 2000). effort, and shallow emotions (Frick et al. 2014). In a sample of JAbnormChildPsychol clinical and typically-developing youths, proactive aggression index of youths’ overall emotional volatility across time. was positively related to CU traits (Feilhauer et al. 2012). Lastly, reactivity to positive and negative events allows for a Children who display proactive aggression or CU traits within-person look at the emotional consequences of events struggle to identify others’ sad or fearful facial expressions on youths’ daily lives. These advantages make the daily diary (Dadds et al. 2006; Marsh and Blair 2008). It may be easier approach an important next step in investigations of the role of for children to remain unaroused and aggress for gain if they emotion in reactive and proactive aggression. are not aware of the negative emotional reactions of their victims. Studies using fMRI indicate that children with conduct disorder display hyporesponsiveness in the amygdala The Current Study when processing fearful facial expressions (Stadler et al. 2010), and these authors speculate that this deficit may be In sum, the goals of the current study were to investigate linked to proactive aggression in particular. In support of this whether individual differences in reactive and proactive ag- idea, this reduced amygdala response is specific to externaliz- gression: 1) relate to level of daily emotions, including happi- ing youth with CU traits (Aghajani et al. 2017; Hwang et al. ness, sadness, anger, and fear, 2) predict day-to-day variability 2016;Vidingetal.2012) and mediates the relation between in these emotions, and 3) moderate reactivity of these emo- CU traits and proactive aggression (Lozier et al. 2014). tions to positive and negative events. We hypothesized that In summary, proactive aggression appears to be best de- reactive aggression would positively predict daily level of scribed as an unemotional form of aggressive behavior. This anger, sadness, and fear, but negatively predict level of daily characterization that may be explained through fearlessness, happiness. Furthermore, we predicted that reactive aggression sensation seeking, well-developed emotion regulation skills, would positively predict variability in all four emotions, neg- and lack of empathy for victims, all of which may support ative emotional reactivity to negative events, and positive youth as they seek to attain goals through aggressive means. emotional reactivity to positive events. These hypotheses regarding variability and reactivity stem from the episodic nature of provocation; because provocation only happens spo- Daily Diary Methods radically, children’s emotional response is likely to vary in a corresponding fashion. As described above, reactive and proactive aggression in Predictions for proactive aggression were less clear. On the youthhavebeenlinkedtoemotion,orlackthereof,asassessed one hand, proactive aggression is goal-directed, rather than by methods including parent−/teacher−/self-report, observa- driven by emotion, suggesting that it may be characterized tional coding, and psychophysiology. To our knowledge, by null relations with daily emotions (e.g., Fite et al. 2014; though, no study to date has investigated how reactive and Hubbard et al. 2002). On the other hand, sensation seeking proactive aggression relate to the emotion adolescents experi- and fearlessness theories posit that proactive aggression re- ence in their day-to-day lives, a question best addressed using sults from a tendency to experience blunted fear, and research a daily diary approach. has in fact documented negative relations with physiological Daily diary methods offer several advantages over previous arousal (e.g., Barker et al. 2011; Moore et al. 2018) and fear/ means of assessing emotion in relation to reactive and proac- anxiety (e.g., Raine et al. 2014). Thus, a case can be made for tive aggression. First, this intensive longitudinal design allows either null or negative relations between proactive aggression researchers to examine the emotional experience of youth in and daily emotion. Given this contradiction, the current their natural daily environment. Second, daily diary methods study’s use of daily diary procedures may help to clarify reduce the risk of retrospective bias inherent in other question- whether proactive aggression is best characterized as naire methods. Third, this approach permits the examination unrelated to or negatively related to daily emotion, in- of both state and trait variation in emotion. Fourth, daily as- cluding level, variability, and reactivity of happiness, sadness, sessment of emotion can help unpack the specificity of reac- anger, and fear. tive and proactive aggression to distinct emotions by covarying other emotions. Perhaps most importantly, these methods can inform how Method individual differences in reactive and proactive predict not only average daily level of emotion, but also daily variability Participants of emotion and reactivity to positive and negative events. The investigation of average daily level of emotion provides in- The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at sight into youths’ general tendency to experience various the University of Delaware. Participants included 144 adoles- emotions. Variability of emotions, or how much an individual cents (80 girls; M age = 13.55 years; SD = 1.34). Parents re- fluctuates around his/her own mean across days, provides an ported participants’ race/ethnicity as 61% European J Abnorm Child Psychol

American, 12% African American, 11% Latino American, 8% adolescent positive and negative affect (e.g., Huebner and Asian American, and 8% mixed. Parents reported annual Dew 1995; Laurent et al. 1999), including both trait (i.e., household income as less than $20,000 (2%), between-person) and state (i.e., within-person) daily mood $20,000–$50,000 (15%), $50,000–$100,000 (27%) and greater (e.g., Merz and Roesch 2011). Regarding convergent and di- than $100,000 (56%). All families had participated three years vergent validity, in both clinical and community samples, the earlier in an evaluation of a school-based bullying prevention positive affect scale negatively predicts depression, whereas program and agreed to be contacted about future studies. A total the negative affect scale relates positively to both depression of 662 adolescents met this criterion, all families were and anxiety (Laurent et al. 1999). contacted in random order, and the first 150 families who We created variables representing anger, sadness, fear, and agreed were enrolled. happiness from the PANAS-C. This discrete approach has been used to assess daily emotions in depressed (Silk et al. Procedure 2011), anxious (Tan et al. 2012), and typical (Silk et al. 2003) youth. Daily anger was assessed by one item (Mad), daily Families were initially recruited through telephone contacts in sadness and fear were assessed with the average of three items which they scheduled a home visit. At the start of the visit, (Frightened, Scared, Afraid and Sad, Blue, Gloomy, respec- informed consent was obtained from parents and assent was tively), and daily happiness was assessed with the average of obtained from adolescents. Adolescents and parents then com- five items (Happy, Cheerful, Joyful, Delighted, Excited). pleted questionnaires including parent-report measures of de- Between-person (how reliably items captured daily emotions mographic information and pubertal status (Petersen et al. across participants) and within-person (how reliably items 1988) and an adolescent-report measure of reactive and pro- captured day-to-day changes in daily emotions) reliability co- active aggression. At the end of the home visit, parents and efficients were obtained for each multi-item scale. Reliability adolescents were each compensated $20. was acceptable for both between- and within-person estimates On the following Monday, participants began completing for all three emotions (Bolger and Laurenceau 2013; Table 1). diaries for 12 consecutive evenings including measures of daily emotion and events. Each evening, participants received Daily Positive and Negative Events We developed the Daily a text/email reminder and completed an online diary 30– Events Questionnaire to measure adolescents’ experience of 60 min before bed. When reporting, participants were positive and negative events with friends, romantic partners, instructed to reflect on the entirety of their day. On average, family, school, extracurricular activities, or other contexts. the diary took 16 min to complete. Participants were paid $2 The questionnaire was modeled after daily diary life event for each diary they completed. Additionally, participants were scales for college samples (e.g., Li et al. 2017;Longuaetal. entered into three separate lotteries to win a $100 Amazon gift 2009). Six items assessed daily negative events (e.g., card each night they completed a diary; if they completed all BSomething negative, unpleasant, or stressful happened in 12 diaries, their chances of winning were doubled. my interactions with friends^), and six items assessed positive Overall, participants completed an average of 82.9% of the events (e.g., BSomething positive or pleasant happened in my diaries. However, only those who completed at least five dia- interactions with friends^). For each item, participants indicat- ries were included in analyses. Although 150 participants ed BNo^ (coded 0) or BYes^ (coded 1). Positive event items completed the diary procedures, six did not complete at least were summed, and negative event items were summed. five diaries, yielding a final sample of 144. These 144 participants completed an average of 85.6% of diaries. Specifically, Reactive and Proactive Aggression During the home visit, 39.0% completed 12 diaries, 21.5% completed 11, 11.1% participants reported on their tendency to engage in aggression completed 10, 3.8% completed 9, 11.5% completed 8, 6.9% for reactive and proactive reasons using the Reactive and completed 7, 3.5% completed 6, and 2.8% completed 5 dia- Proactive Aggression subscales of the Forms and Functions ries. In hierarchical linear models (HLM), number of diaries of Aggression Questionnaire (Little et al. 2003b;1=not at all completed was unrelated to daily emotion. true and 5 = completely true). Reactive aggression was assessed by six items (e.g., BWhen others make me mad or Measures upset me, I often hurt them^; α = 0.83), and proactive aggression was assessed by six items (e.g., BI often start fights to get Daily Emotion Participants completed the Positive and what I want^; α = 0.70). This self-report measure is a well- Negative Affect Scale for Children (PANAS-C; Laurent validated and reliable scale for use among adolescent samples et al. 1999) each evening. Participants rated the extent to (Hubbard et al. 2010;Littleetal.2003a, b). Previous factor which they felt each of 27 emotions over the course of the analysis findings confirm a two-factor structure for the moti- day on a 5-point scale (1 = very slightly to 5 = extremely). The vations of aggressive behavior with strong internal consisten- PANAS-C is a valid and reliable measure of child and cies (Little et al. 2003a, b). This measure reliably distinguishes JAbnormChildPsychol

Table 1 Bivariate correlations and descriptive statistics

Anger Fear Sadness Happiness Negative events Positive events Reactive Proactive aggression aggression

Anger – 0.71** 0.75** −0.13 0.19* −0.15 0.23** 0.06 Fear 0.15** – 0.85** −0.13 0.38* 0.02 0.20* 0.08 Sadness 0.35** 0.39** – −0.24* 0.32** 0.01 0.14 0.03 Happiness −0.23** −0.10* −0.30** – −0.19* 0.42** −0.24** −0.05 Negative Events 0.29** 0.12** 0.32** −0.10** – 0.06 0.09 −0.09 Positive Events −0.03 −0.02 −0.03 0.27** 0.18** – −0.01 0.03 Reactive Aggression –––– – – – 0.33** Proactive Aggression –––– – – – – Mean 1.43 1.22 1.27 3.44 0.51 1.63 1.47 1.03 Standard Deviation 0.39 0.32 0.34 0.81 0.54 1.34 0.40 0.08 Range 1.00–3.67 1.00–3.11 1.00–3.92 1.11–5.00 0–3.83 0.08–6.00 1.00–3.08 1.00–1.50 ICC 0.23 0.39 0.39 0.62 0.37 0.60 –– Within-Person Reliability – 0.72 0.73 0.81 –––– Between-Person Reliability – 0.69 0.71 0.90 ––0.83 0.70

Within-person correlations are shown below the diagonal, and between-person correlations are shown above the diagonal. ICC = intraclass correlation coefficient. Means, standard deviations, and ranges are between-person. *p <0.05,**p < 0.01, ***p <0.001 reactive from proactive aggression on emotional constructs, Next, we examined whether age, gender, race/ethnicity, with reactive aggression positively related to frustration and and pubertal status related to daily emotions by entering these proactive aggression negatively related to frustration when demographic variables as Level 2 predictors in HLM with controlling for the other subtype of aggression (Little et al. each emotion variable entered as the dependent variable in a 2003b). Items were averaged to create a reactive aggression separate model. No significant associations emerged for age, composite and a proactive aggression composite. race/ethnicity, or pubertal status. However, gender (dummy coded 0 = girls, 1 = boys) significantly predicted daily sadness and marginally predicted daily anger and fear. Specifically, Results girls reported lower levels of sadness (B =0.14,t =2.07,p = 0.04), fear (B =0.11,t =1.88,p = 0.06) and anger (B =0.15, Descriptive Statistics, Correlations, and Covariates t =1.92,p = 0.08) than boys. As such, gender was included as a between-person covariate in all primary analyses. Means, standard deviations, ranges, and ICCs are provided in We also assessed the effects of time (i.e., daily diary day), Table 1 where appropriate. The emotion subscales were weekday versus weekend, and whether school was in session skewed; therefore, we used maximum likelihood estimation or out for the summer. Again, HLM was used to examine the with robust standard errors (MLR) in all primary analyses via relative effects of these variables on the four emotions in four Mplus version 7. separate analyses. Only time was a significant predictor Bivariate correlations are also provided in Table 1.Most of daily emotion, and it significantly predicted anger, emotions significantly covaried at the between-person and sadness, and happiness (anger: B = −0.01, t = −2.07, p = within-person levels. Thus, non-focal emotions were included 0.04; sadness: B = −0.01, t = −3.28, p = 0.001; happiness: as covariates in all primary analyses. For example, when eval- B = −0.02, t = −3.81, p < 0.01). Thus, time was included as a uating the relation between daily anger and reactive aggres- covariate in all analyses. sion, daily fear, sadness, and happiness were included as covariates. Of note, the within-person correlations amongst neg- Data Analytic Approach ative emotions (0.15–0.39) were considerably more modest than the between-person correlations (0.71–0.85). This find- HLM was used to account for the nested structure of the data ing suggests that youth differentiated between specific nega- (i.e., days nested within adolescents). For each question (i.e., tive emotions they experienced each day, even though, on level, variability, reactivity), four analyses were run with each average, youth who reported high levels of one negative emo- emotion serving as the dependent variable in a separate anal- tion across days were likely to report high levels of other ysis. A random intercept was included in each model. Within- negative emotions across days. person predictors were time (i.e., diary day; centered by J Abnorm Child Psychol subtracting 1) and level of the three non-focal emotions on that aggression significantly negatively predicted variability in day. For variability analyses, we also included level of the daily happiness. No significant results emerged for variability focal emotion, since preliminary HLM analyses indicated that in daily sadness. level and variability were positively related for the three negative emotions. Between-person predictors were gender, reac- Emotional Reactivity to Positive and Negative Events The tive and proactive aggression (grand-mean centered in all an third goal of the current study was to assess whether individual analyses), and the between-person version of each of the three differences in reactive and proactive aggression predicted non-focal emotions. Non-focal emotions were grand-mean emotional reactivity to positive and negative events. We hy- centered; from this variable, two orthogonal versions of non- pothesized that reactive aggression would moderate the rela- focal emotions were created because these variables varied tion between daily negative (positive) events and daily nega- both between- and within-person. The between-subjects ver- tive (positive) emotions, such that the relation would be stron- sion of these variables was the average score of each emotion ger for adolescents higher in reactive aggression. In contrast, across the daily diary days for each participant, and the within- we expected proactive aggression would either be unrelated or subjects version was created by group-mean centering. negatively related to emotional reactivity to daily events. In each analysis, emotional reactivity was assessed by Primary Analyses regressing the focal daily emotion on daily positive and negative events with random slopes; these reactivity variables Daily Emotion Level The goal of the first set of analyses was to served as the dependent variable of primary interest in each examine whether individual differences in reactive and proac- analysis. Random effects were allowed to covary. Similar to tive aggression predicted the level at which adolescents experienced anger, fear, sadness, and happiness on a daily basis. Table 2 Multilevel model of daily emotion level as a function of We hypothesized that reactive aggression would positively reactive and proactive aggression (N = 144) relate to level of anger, fear, and sadness, and negatively relate to level of happiness, whereas proactive ag- B SE Est/ CI95 SE gression would be either unrelated or negatively related Lower Upper to level of all four emotions. Results are presented in Table 2 (throughout remaining Anger tables, only effects of primary interest are displayed). Intercept 1.46*** 0.05 29.36 1.36 1.57 Reactive but not proactive aggression emerged as a significant Time −0.01 0.01 −1.58 −0.02 0.002 positive predictor of daily anger and a significant negative Gender −0.07 0.05 −1.32 −0.17 0.03 predictor of daily happiness. Neither reactive nor proactive Reactive aggression 0.17* 0.07 2.43 0.03 0.30 aggression emerged as significant predictors of level of daily Proactive aggression 0.05 0.27 0.17 −0.47 0.57 sadness or fear. Fear Intercept 1.18*** 0.04 32.91 1.11 1.25 Daily Emotion Variability The second goal was to examine Time 0.002 0.003 0.54 −0.004 0.01 whether individual differences in reactive and proactive ag- Gender −0.04 0.04 −1.00 −0.12 0.04 gression predicted day-to-day variability in adolescents’ expe- Reactive aggression 0.09 0.09 0.96 −0.09 0.27 rience of anger, fear, sadness, and happiness. We hypothesized Proactive aggression 0.18 0.24 0.73 −0.30 0.65 that reactive aggression would positively predict daily vari- Sadness ability in all four emotions and that proactive aggression Intercept 1.36*** 0.03 39.64 1.29 1.42 would be either unrelated or negatively related to variability Time −0.01*** 0.003 −3.56 −0.02 −0.01 in all four emotions. Gender 0.003 0.04 0.10 −0.01 0.07 The absolute value of the change in each emotion from one Reactive aggression −0.08 0.07 −1.10 −0.21 0.06 day to the next was used as the Level 1 dependent variable in Proactive aggression −0.06 0.21 −0.29 −0.48 0.36 these HLM analyses. Thus, adolescents with 12 completed Happiness daily diaries had 11 within-person emotion change scores, Intercept 3.59*** 0.09 40.74 3.41 3.76 with the first score representing the absolute value of the Time −0.03*** 0.01 −4.59 −0.04 −0.02 change from the first to the second day and the last score Gender 0.12 0.14 0.89 −0.15 0.39 representing the absolute value of the change from the elev- Reactive aggression −0.51** 0.19 −2.64 −0.89 −0.13 enth to the twelfth day. Proactive aggression 0.25 0.78 0.32 −1.28 1.79 Results are presented in Table 3. Reactive but not proactive aggression positively predicted variability in B unstandardized beta, SE = standard error. daily anger and fear. In contrast, proactive but not reactive *p <0.05,**p < 0.01, ***p <0.001 JAbnormChildPsychol

Table 3 Multilevel model of daily emotion variability as a Outcome Predictor Variables B SE Est/ CI95 function of reactive and proactive SE aggression (N = 144) Lower Upper

Anger Intercept −0.37* 0.19 −1.98 −0.69 −0.06 Time 0.00 0.01 0.44 −0.01 0.01 Level of Focal Emotion 0.53*** 0.05 11.52 0.45 0.60 Gender −0.06 0.05 −1.26 −0.15 0.02 Reactive Aggression 0.19** 0.07 2.73 0.07 0.30 Proactive Aggression 0.07 0.30 0.22 −0.43 0.56 Fear Intercept −0.42** 0.14 −2.90 −0.65 −0.18 Time −0.01 0.00 −1.64 −0.01 0.00 Level of Focal Emotion 0.52*** 0.07 7.44 0.40 0.63 Gender −0.07* 0.03 −2.08 −0.12 −0.02 Reactive Aggression 0.17* 0.08 2.14 0.04 0.31 Proactive Aggression −0.19 0.16 −1.15 −0.45 0.08 Sadness Intercept −0.32** 0.11 −3.00 −0.49 −0.14 Time −0.01 0.00 −1.80 −0.01 0.00 Level of Focal Emotion 0.45*** 0.05 9.00 0.36 0.53 Gender −0.08** 0.03 −2.75 −0.13 −0.03 Reactive Aggression 0.07 0.05 1.35 −0.02 0.16 Proactive Aggression −0.02 0.15 −0.11 −0.26 0.23 Happiness Intercept 0.48** 0.18 2.66 0.18 0.77 Time −0.01 0.01 −1.70 −0.02 0.00 Level of Focal Emotion −0.04 0.03 −1.35 −0.08 0.01 Gender −0.06 0.05 −1.04 −0.14 0.03 Reactive Aggression 0.09 0.07 1.21 −0.03 0.21 Proactive Aggression −0.52* 0.24 −2.14 −0.91 −0.12

B unstandardized beta, SE standard error. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p <0.001 the treatment of non-focal emotions described above, within happy reactivity to positive events. Similarly, a positive rela- and between-person versions of daily positive and negative tion emerged between daily happiness and positive events at events were created to ensure that these associations reflect low (B = 0.26, z = 4.69, p=<0.0001), mean (B = 0.29, z = entirely within-person processes. The between-person ver- 4.04, p< 0.0001), and high (B = 0.33, z = 3.63, p< 0.001) sions of positive and negative events were included as Level levels of reactive aggression; however, the strength of this 2 predictors. Finally, of primary interest, four cross-level in- relation increased as reactive aggression increased. No other teractions were included in each model by regressing random significant effects emerged. slopes of daily positive (negative) events on reactive (proactive) aggression. Significant interaction effects were probed at low (1 SD below the mean), mean, and high (1 Discussion SD above the mean) levels using HLM tests of simple slopes (Bauer and Curran 2005). The goals of the current study were to investigate whether Results are presented in Table 4. Reactive aggression individual differences in reactive and proactive aggression: emerged as a significant moderator of adolescents’ angry reac- 1) relate to level of daily emotions, 2) predict day-to-day var- tivity to negative events. Tests of simple slopes show that at iability in these emotions, and 3) moderate reactivity of these low (B = 0.42, z = 3.53, p<0.001), mean (B=0.50, z=3.23, emotions to positive and negative events. Previous studies p< 0.01) and high (B = 0.59, z = 3.04, p < 0.001) levels of have examined the link between emotion, or the lack thereof, reactive aggression, the link between negative events and daily and children’s and adolescents’ reactive and proactive aggres- anger was positive; however, the strength of this relation in- sion using parent−/teacher−/self-report, observational coding, creased as reactive aggression increased. Additionally, reactive and psychophysiological measures of emotion. The current aggression emerged as significant moderator of adolescents’ study expands on this work by using a daily diary approach J Abnorm Child Psychol to understand links between reactive and proactive aggression response to positive events and a marked angry response to and the day-to-day emotional experiences of adolescents. negative events. Social adaptation requires youth to regulate expressions of happiness and excitement as well as negative Reactive Aggression and Emotionality emotionality (e.g., calming down after returning to class from recess, refraining from boasting when winning a game), and As hypothesized, a positive association between daily anger reactively aggressive children and adolescents may struggle and reactive aggression emerged and was robust across daily with emotional overreactivity that encompasses both expres- level of anger, variability in day-to-day anger, and daily angry sions of anger and happiness. Of course, it is likely that anger reactivity to negative events. Of course, these findings do not drives reactive aggression in-the-moment. However, this find- imply that youth reactively aggress each time they experience ing raises the possibility that youth who engage in reactive anger. Rather, they suggest that youth are more likely to reac- aggression live daily lives characterized by emotional reactiv- tively aggress when they experience more anger on a daily ity across the continuum of positive and negative emotions basis, when that anger ebbs and flows over days in a more and in response to both positive and negative events. volatile way, and when they react to negative events with more anger. These results are consistent with past work Proactive Aggression and Unemotionality documenting positive links between reactive aggression and anger when anger is assessed via questionnaires (e.g., Xu et al. The only significant finding to emerge for proactive aggres- 2009), observations (e.g., Hubbard et al. 2002), and psycho- sion was a negative association with variability in daily hap- physiology (e.g., Xu et al. 2014). Moreover, they extend this piness. Youth who reported engaging in more proactive ag- work as the first study to document the important role that gression reported smaller fluctuations in day-to-day happi- anger plays in daily life for youth who report engaging in ness. Sensation seeking theory may help to explain this pre- reactive aggression. liminary finding. When youth do not experience positive emo- Also as predicted, youth who reported more reactive ag- tion in situations that others would find rewarding, they may gression also experienced more variability in fear day-to-day. seek out risky or dangerous activities such as aggression to This finding is consistent with previous literature suggesting increase arousal (e.g., Portnoy et al. 2014; Sijtsema et al. that reactive aggression is linked to anxious symptoms in chil- 2010) or pleasure (e.g., Cohn et al. 2015; Taubitz et al. dren and adolescents both concurrently and longitudinally 2015). This single finding emphasizes the importance of (Card and Little 2006;Fiteetal.2014). Moreover, it suggests assessing both positive and negative emotions, along with that reactive aggression may be linked to volatility or dysreg- multiple indices of each daily emotion (level, variability, re- ulation in negative emotion beyond anger, even though anger activity), as they may capture different emotional processes. in particular may drive reactive aggressive behavior. Importantly, though, no other significant effects emerged Also in support of hypotheses, higher reactive aggression for proactive aggression, including null results for all three predicted lower levels of daily happiness. This finding is con- negative emotions, regardless of whether the analysis focused sistent with work linking reactive aggression to depression on level of emotion, variability in emotion, or emotional reac- (e.g., Fite et al. 2014) and blunted positive affect (Laurent tivity. Although proactive aggression is often described as et al. 1999), as well as a study in which reactively aggressive unemotional, this description may reference one of two pos- boys were viewed by teachers as expressing less happiness sible associations with emotion. On the one hand, theorists and more sadness (Day et al. 1992). Some theorists have pro- may use the term Bunemotional^ to imply null relations be- posed that the link between reactive aggression and depres- tween proactive aggression and emotion, suggesting that pro- sion may result from the tendency to experience remorse and active aggression is unrelated to affective experience, a per- shame following aggressive acts (Card and Little 2006;Dodge spective with empirical support in studies assessing emotion et al. 1997;Fiteetal.2014). To investigate this possibility, both via questionnaires (e.g., Fite et al. 2014) and observation- future researchers should investigate whether anger precedes ally (Hubbard et al. 2002). On the other hand, when theorists reactive aggression and emotions such as shame and guilt use the term Bunemotional,^ they may mean that proactive follow reactive aggression when both aggression and emotion aggression is linked to particularly blunted emotion. This de- are assessed at a daily or momentary level. scription is supported by empirical work demonstrating nega- Finally, as predicted, reactive aggression was positively tive relations between proactive aggression and physiological linked to happy reactivity to positive events. In other words, arousal both at baseline (e.g., Barker et al. 2011) and at the although youth who report more reactive aggression experi- moment that proactive aggression occurs (Moore et al. 2018), ence lower levels of daily happiness, they respond with more as well as studies of proactive aggression and temperamental happiness when positive events do occur. This finding sug- fearlessness (e.g., Barker et al. 2011; Kimonis et al. 2006; gests that reactive aggression is associated with emotional Raine et al. 2014). Given the single significant finding to reactivity broadly, encompassing both a pronounced happy emerge between proactive aggression and daily emotion in JAbnormChildPsychol

Table 4 Multilevel model of daily emotional reactivity to B SE Est/ CI95 positive and negative events as a SE function of reactive and proactive Anger Lower Upper aggression (N = 144) Intercept 1.39*** 0.05 29.46 1.30 1.48 Time −0.002 0.01 −0.52 −0.01 0.01 Gender −0.004 0.05 −0.08 −0.10 0.09 Reactive aggression (RA) 0.15* 0.06 2.35 0.03 0.27 Proactive aggression (PA) 0.14 0.36 0.40 −0.56 0.85 Within positive events X RA −0.07 0.05 −1.51 −0.17 0.02 Within positive events X PA 0.19 0.16 1.20 −0.12 0.51 Within negative events X RA 0.22* 0.10 2.23 0.03 0.41 Within negative events X PA −0.54 0.39 −1.39 −1.31 0.22 Fear Intercept 1.17*** 0.03 41.18 1.11 1.22 Time 0.002 0.003 0.60 −0.004 0.01 Gender −0.01 0.04 −0.36 −0.08 0.06 Reactive aggression (RA) 0.07 0.07 0.91 −0.08 0.21 Proactive aggression (PA) 0.38 0.31 1.22 −0.23 0.98 Within positive events X RA 0.01 0.04 0.26 −0.06 0.08 Within positive events X PA −0.04 0.17 −0.22 −0.36 0.29 Within negative events X RA −0.02 0.05 −0.45 −0.13 0.08 Within negative events X PA −0.07 0.27 −0.27 −0.59 0.45 Sadness Intercept 1.34*** 0.03 41.27 1.28 1.41 Time −0.01** 0.003 −2.72 −0.02 −0.003 Gender −0.01 0.03 −0.15 −0.07 0.06 Reactive aggression (RA) −0.05 0.06 −0.89 −0.16 0.06 Proactive aggression (PA) −0.23 0.26 −0.89 −0.73 0.28 Within positive events X RA −0.04 0.04 −1.00 −0.10 0.03 Within positive events X PA 0.16 0.14 1.21 −0.10 0.43 Within negative events X RA 0.07 0.05 1.35 −0.03 0.16 Within negative events X PA 0.28 0.27 1.03 −0.25 0.81 Happiness Intercept 3.64*** 0.08 46.67 3.48 3.79 Time −0.01 0.01 −1.64 −0.02 0.002 Gender −0.14 0.11 −1.25 −0.36 0.08 Reactive aggression (RA) −0.39* 0.18 −2.10 −0.75 −0.03 Proactive aggression (PA) −0.47 0.77 −0.61 −1.98 1.04 Within positive events X RA 0.09* 0.05 1.95 0.00 0.18 Within positive events X PA −0.20 0.14 −1.42 −0.49 0.08 Within negative events X RA −0.01 0.05 −0.15 −0.10 0.08 Within negative events X PA 0.03 0.31 0.09 −0.58 0.64

B unstandardized beta, SE standard error. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p <0.001 the current study, this investigation provides stronger support suggests (56% over $100,000 per year), and thus not truly for the first interpretation than the second. normative. In fact, adolescents in the current sample reported However, our null findings for proactive aggression should markedly low levels of proactive aggression (range = 1.00– be considered in the context of our use of a community sample. 1.50 on a 1–5 scale). This result is not surprising, given that Moreover, the sample used here may be particularly community samples commonly display significantly less pro- advantaged, as the high income level of many families active than reactive aggression (Dodge et al. 1997). Moreover, J Abnorm Child Psychol the low level and restricted range of these scores is typical It is also important to note the limitations of asking adoles- when this self-report measure of aggression is used with youth cents to report on their own aggressive behavior. Participants in this age range. As examples, Blain-Arcaro and Vaillancourt may have underreported their aggressive behavior, especially (2017)andLeeetal.(2017) used the same measure in longi- proactive aggression; by age 13, adolescents are likely quite tudinal studies of community samples (one assessing youth in aware that most people do not hold a positive view of those 5th, 7th, 9th, and 11th grades; the other assessing youth in 9th, who aggress for personal gain. 10th, and 11th grades) and reported similar descriptive infor- Finally, no significant findings emerged between reactive mation. However, the restricted range of proactive aggression or proactive aggression and daily sadness, null results which scores suggests that a more clinical sample will be need- contradict studies linking reactive aggression and depressive ed to fully explore links between proactive aggression and symptoms (e.g., Evans and Fite 2018). However, these inves- daily emotion. tigations typically evaluate only one type of internalizing symptom. By covarying for non-focal emotions, we may have Limitations and Future Directions limited our ability to detect relations between reactive aggression and daily sadness. This study is marked by several limitations which suggest directions for future research. In one respect, the use of a Conclusions community sample marked by significant economic advan- tage makes the links between reactive aggression and daily The current study add to a growing literature supporting the emotion that emerged noteworthy, because they suggest that divergent validity of reactive and proactive aggression, with emotion plays an important role in the display of reactive reactive aggression linked to emotionality at the daily level, aggression even among typically-developing youth. and proactive aggression characterized by lack of emotional- However, the findings reported here may not translate to youth ity. It is notable that these findings emerged in the context of with significant externalizing behavior, given that the sample rigorous analyses which controlled for both the other subtype reported particularly low levels of proactive aggression. of aggression and non-focal emotions, allowing an examina- Future studies should examine links between reactive and tion of the specificity of associations between each subtype of proactive aggression and daily emotion in clinical samples aggression and each emotion. Additionally, the inclusion of displaying higher rates of proactive aggression. three separate assessments of each emotion at the daily level Second, emotional reactivity was operationalized as the (i.e., level, variability, reactivity) enabled an in-depth analysis within-day covariation between daily events (negative and of how reactive and proactive aggression relate to youths’ positive) and adolescents’ emotional experiences. As a result, daily emotional lives. We are eager to see future researchers we are unable to say with certainty that the daily events re- adopt a daily diary approach to the study of emotion and the ported by adolescents were the catalyst for their emotional subtypes of aggression in more clinical samples. experiences on the same day. While similar methodologies are common in daily diary studies (e.g., Longua et al. 2009), Compliance with Ethical Standards future research should employ measures that directly connect ’ adolescents daily emotional reactions to specific events. Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of Relatedly, although we assessed emotion daily, we only interest. measured reactive and proactive aggression once in a trait- like way. Future investigators should assess events, emotional Ethical Approval This research was conducted with ethical approval by reactions to those events, aggressive responses to the same the University of Delaware Institutional Review Board. events, and the functions of that aggression at the daily level Informed Consent Parental informed consent and child assent were ob- to better uncover how these constructs relate, interact, and tained for all participants included in the current study. sequence in the context of youths’ daily lives. Two studies have used this approach in adult samples, in investigations of the correspondence between daily emotion and daily reactive aggression (Pond Jr et al. 2012) or daily dating violence (e.g., Shorey et al. 2014). Such work should be extended to References externalizing child and adolescent samples who evidence significant aggression at the daily level. Moreover, this work Aghajani, M., Klapwijk, E. T., van der Wee, N. J., Veer, I. M., Rombouts, could be extended to examine events, emotions, and aggres- S. A. R. B., Boon, A. E., van Beelen, P., Popma, A., Verjeiren, R. R. J. M., & Colins, O. F. (2017). Disorganized amygdala networks in sive responses at multiple points across the day to gain a more conduct-disordered juvenile offenders with callous-unemotional fine-grained picture of emotion variability and reactivity and traits. Biological Psychiatry, 82(4), 283–293. https://doi.org/10. its relation to aggressive behavior and its functions. 1016/j.biopsych.2016.05.017. JAbnormChildPsychol

Arsenio, W. F., Gold, J., & Adams, E. (2004). Adolescents’ emotion Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/ expectancies regarding aggressive and nonaggressive events: 0021-843X.106.1.37. Connections with behavior problems. Journal of Experimental Evans, S. C., & Fite, P. J. (2018). Dual pathways from reactive aggression Child Psychology, 89(4), 338–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp. to depressive symptoms in children: Further examination of the 2004.08.001. failure model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47(1), 85– Baker, E., Shelton, K. H., Baibazarova, E., Hay, D. F., & Van Goozen, S. 97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0426-6. H. (2013). Low skin conductance activity in infancy predicts aggres- Feilhauer, J., Cima, M., Korebrits, A., & Kunert, H. J. (2012). Differential sion in toddlers 2 years later. Psychological Science, 24(6), 1051– associations between psychopathy dimensions, types of aggression, 1056. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612465198. and response inhibition. Aggressive Behavior, 38(1), 77–88. https:// Barker, E. D., Oliver, B. R., Viding, E., Salekin, R. T., & Maughan, B. doi.org/10.1002/ab.20415. (2011). The impact of prenatal maternal risk, fearless temperament Fite, P. J., Poquiz, J., Frazer, A. L., & Reiter, N. (2017). Further evaluation and early parenting on adolescent callous-unemotional traits: A 14- of associations between reactive and proactive aggression and sui- year longitudinal investigation. Journal of Child Psychology and cidal behavior in a treatment seeking sample of youth. Child Psychiatry, 52(8), 878–888. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610. Psychiatry and Human Development, 48(6), 903–910. https://doi. 2011.02397.x. org/10.1007/s10578-017-0713-4. Bauer, D. J., & Curran, P. J. (2005). Probing interactions in fixed and Fite, P. J., Rubens, S. L., Preddy, T. M., Raine, A., & Pardini, D. A. multilevel regression: Inferential and graphical techniques. (2014). Reactive/proactive aggression and the development of inter- Multivariate Behavioral Research, 40(3), 373–400. https://doi.org/ nalizing problems in males: The moderating effect of parent and 10.1207/s15327906mbr4003_5. peer relationships. Aggressive Behavior, 40(1), 69–78. https://doi. Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control. org/10.1002/ab.21498. New York: Academic. Frick, P. J., Ray, J. V., Thornton, L. C., & Kahn, R. E. (2014). Annual Berkowitz, L., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2004). Toward an understanding of research review: A developmental psychopathology approach to the determinants of anger. Emotion, 4(2), 107–130. https://doi.org/ understanding callous-unemotional traits in children and adolescents 10.1037/1528-3542.4.2.107. with serious conduct problems. Journal of Child Psychology and – Blain-Arcaro, C., & Vaillancourt, T. (2017). Longitudinal associations Psychiatry, 55(6), 532 548. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12152. between depression and aggression in children and adolescents. Fung, A. L., Gerstein, L. H., Chan, Y., & Engebretson, J. (2015). – Relationship of aggression to anxiety, depression, anger, and empa- Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45(5), 959 970. https:// – doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0204-2. thyinHongKong.Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(3), 821 831. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9892-1. Bolger, N., & Laurenceau, J. P. (2013). Intensive longitudinal methods: Fung, M. T., Raine, A., Loeber, R., Lynam, D. R., Steinhauer, S. R., An introduction to diary and experience sampling research.New Venables, P. H., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2005). Reduced electro- York: Guilford. dermal activity in psychopathy-prone adolescents. Journal of Calvete, E., & Orue, I. (2012). Social information processing as a medi- Abnormal Psychology, 114(2), 187–196. https://doi.org/10.1037/ ator between cognitive schemas and aggressive behavior in adoles- 0021-843X.114.2.187. cents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(1), 105–117. Hartley, C. M., Pettit, J. W., & Castellanos, D. (2018). Reactive aggression https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9546-y. and suicide-related behaviors in children and adolescents: A review Card, N. A., & Little, T. D. (2006). Proactive and reactive aggression in and preliminary meta-analysis. Suicide and Life-threatening childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis of differential relations Behavior, 48(1), 38–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12325. with psychosocial adjustment. International Journal of Behavioral – Hubbard, J. A., McAuliffe, M. D., Morrow, M. T., & Romano, L. J. Development, 30(5), 466 480. https://doi.org/10.1177/ (2010). Reactive and proactive aggression in childhood and adoles- 0165025406071904. cence: Precursors, outcomes, processes, experiences, and measure- Cohn, M. D., Veltman, D. J., Pape, L. E., van Lith, K., Vermeiren, R. R. J. ment. Journal of Personality, 78(1), 95–118. https://doi.org/10. M., van den Brink, W., Doreleijers, T. A. H., & Popma, A. (2015). 1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00610.x. Incentive processing in persistent disruptive behavior and psycho- Hubbard, J. A., Smithmyer, C. M., Ramsden, S. R., Parker, E. H., pathic traits: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study in Flanagan,K.D.,Dearing,K.F.,Relyea,N.,&Simons,R.F. – adolescents. Biological Psychiatry, 78(9), 615 624. https://doi.org/ (2002). Observational, physiological, and self–report measures of 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.08.017. children’s anger: Relations to reactive versus proactive aggression. Dadds, M. R., Perry, Y., Hawes, D. J., Merz, S., Riddell, A. C., Haines, D. Child Development, 73(4), 1101–1118. https://doi.org/10.1111/ J., et al. (2006). Attention to the eyes and fear-recognition deficits in 1467-8624.00460. – child psychopathy. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 189(3), 280 Huebner, E. S., & Dew, T. (1995). Preliminary validation of the positive 281. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.105.018150. and negative affect schedule with adolescents. Journal of Dane, A. V., & Marini, Z. A. (2014). Overt and relational forms of reac- Psychoeducational Assessment, 13(3), 286–293. https://doi.org/10. tive aggression in adolescents: Relations with temperamental reac- 1177/073428299501300307. tivity and self-regulation. Personality and Individual Differences, Hwang, S., Nolan, Z. T., White, S. F., Williams, W. C., Sinclair, S., & 60,60–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.12.021. Blair, R. J. R. (2016). Dual neurocircuitry dysfunctions in disruptive Day, D. M., Bream, L. A., & Pal, A. (1992). Proactive and reactive behavior disorders: Emotional responding and response inhibition. aggression: An analysis of subtypes based on teacher perceptions. Psychological Medicine, 46(7), 1485–1496. https://doi.org/10.1017/ Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 21(3), 210– S0033291716000118. 217. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2103_2. Jambon, M., Colasante, T., Peplak, J., & Malti, T. (2018). Anger, sympa- Dodge, K. A. (1991). The structure and function of reactive and proactive thy, and children’s reactive and proactive aggression: Testing a dif- aggression. In D. J. Pepler & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), The development ferential correlate hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Child and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 201–218). Hillsdale, NJ: Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0498-3. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kimonis, E. R., Frick, P. J., Fazekas, H., & Loney, B. R. (2006). Dodge, K. A., Lochman, J. E., Harnish, J. D., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. Psychopathy, aggression, and the processing of emotional stimuli (1997). Reactive and proactive aggression in school children and in non-referred girls and boys. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, psychiatrically impaired chronically assaultive youth. Journal of 24(1), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.668. J Abnorm Child Psychol

Laurent, J., Catanzaro, S. J., Joiner, T. E., Jr., Rudolph, K. D., Potter, K. I., Portnoy, J., Raine, A., Chen, F. R., Pardini, D., Loeber, R., & Jennings, J. Lambert, S., et al. (1999). A measure of positive and negative affect R. (2014). Heart rate and antisocial behavior: The mediating role of for children: Scale development and preliminary validation. impulsive sensation seeking. Criminology, 52(2), 292–311. https:// Psychological Assessment, 11(3), 326–338. https://doi.org/10. doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12038. 1037/1040-3590.11.3.326. Powell, N. P., Boxmeyer, C. L., Baden, R., Stromeyer, S., Minney, J. A., Lee, K. S., Brittain, H., & Vaillancourt, T. (2017). Predicting dating be- Mushtaq, A., & Lochman, J. E. (2011). Assessing and treating ag- havior from aggression and self-perceived social status in adoles- gression and conduct problems in schools: Implications from the cence. Aggressive Behavior, 44,372–381. https://doi.org/10.1002/ coping power program. Psychology in the Schools, 48(3), 233– ab.21758. 242. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20549. Li, Y. I., Starr, L. R., & Hershenberg, R. (2017). Responses to positive Raine, A. (2002). Annotation: The role of prefrontal deficits, low auto- affect in daily life: Positive rumination and dampening moderate the nomic arousal, and early health factors in the development of anti- association between daily events and depressive symptoms. Journal social and aggressive behavior in children. Journal of Child of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 39(7), 1–14. Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(4), 417–434. https://doi.org/10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-017-9593-y. 1111/1469-7610.00034. Little, T. D., Brauner, J., Jones, S. M., Nock, M. K., & Hawley, P. H. Raine, A., Fung, A. L. C., Portnoy, J., Choy, O., & Spring, V. L. (2014). (2003a). Rethinking aggression: A typological examination of the Low heart rate as a risk factor for child and adolescent proactive functions of aggression. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49(3), 343–369. aggressive and impulsive psychopathic behavior. Aggressive https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2003.0014. Behavior, 40(4), 290–299. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21523. Little, T., Henrich, C., Jones, S., & Hawley, P. (2003b). Disentangling Ramirez, J. M., & Andreu, J. M. (2006). Aggression, and some related the" whys" from the" whats" of aggressive behaviour. International psychological constructs (anger, hostility, and impulsivity). Some Journal of Behavioral Development, 27(2), 122–133. https://doi. comments from a research project. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral org/10.1080/01650250244000128. Reviews, 30(3), 276–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005. Longua, J., DeHart, T., Tennen, H., & Armeli, S. (2009). Personality mod- 04.015. erates the interaction between positive and negative daily events Rathert, J., Fite, P. J., Gaertner, A. E., & Vitulano, M. (2011). predicting negative affect and stress. Journal of Research in Associations between effortful control, psychological control, and Personality, 43(4), 547–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.02.006. proactive and reactive aggression. Child Psychiatry and Human Lorber, M. F. (2004). Psychophysiology of aggression, psychopathy, and Development, 42(5), 609–621. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-011- conduct problems: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130(4), 0236-3. 531–552. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.531. Salmivalli, C., Ojanen, T., Haanpää, J., & Peets, K. (2005). " I'm OK but Lozier, L. M., Cardinale, E. M., VanMeter, J. W., & Marsh, A. A. (2014). you're not" and other peer-relational schemas: Explaining individual Mediation of the relationship between callous-unemotional traits differences in children's social goals. Developmental Psychology, and proactive aggression by amygdala response to fear among chil- 41(2), 363–375. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.41.2.363. dren with conduct problems. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(6), 627–636. Scarpa, A., Haden, S. C., & Tanaka, A. (2010). Being hot-tempered: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.4540. Autonomic, emotional, and behavioral distinctions between child- Marsh, A. A., & Blair, R. J. R. (2008). Deficits in facial affect recognition hood reactive and proactive aggression. Biological Psychology, among antisocial populations: A meta-analysis. Neuroscience and 84(3), 488–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.11.006. Biobehavioral Reviews, 32(3), 454–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Scarpa, A., & Raine, A. (2000). Violence associated with anger and neubiorev.2007.08.003. impulsivity. In J. C. Borod (Ed.), The neuropsychology of emotion Merz, E. L., & Roesch, S. C. (2011). Modeling trait and state variation (pp. 320–339). New York: Oxford University Press. using multilevel factor analysis with PANAS daily diary data. Shorey, R. C., Stuart, G. L., McNulty, J. K., & Moore, T. M. (2014). Journal of Research in Personality, 45(1), 2–9. https://doi.org/10. Acute alcohol use temporally increases the odds of male perpetrated 1016/j.jrp.2010.11.003. dating violence: A 90-day diary analysis. Addictive Behaviors, Moore,C.C.,Hubbard,J.,Morrow,M.T.,Barhight,L.R.,Lines,M.M., 39(1), 365–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.10.025. Sallee, M., & Hyde, C. T. (2018). The simultaneous assessment of Sijtsema, J. J., Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., van Roon, A. M., Verhulst, F. and relations between children's sympathetic and parasympathetic C., Ormel, J., & Riese, H. (2010). Mediation of sensation seeking psychophysiology and their reactive and proactive aggression. and behavioral inhibition on the relationship between heart rate and Aggressive Behavior, 44,614–623. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21786. antisocial behavior: The TRAILS study. Journal of the American Orobio de Castro, B., Merk, W., Koops, W., Veerman, J. W., & Bosch, J. Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(5), 493–502. https:// D. (2005). Emotions in social information processing and their re- doi.org/10.1097/00004583-201005000-00010. lations with reactive and proactive aggression in referred aggressive Silk,J.S.,Forbes,E.E.,Whalen,D.J.,Jakubcak,J.L.,Thompson,W.K., boys. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34(1), Ryan,N.D.,Axelson,D.A.,Birmaher,B.,&Dahl,R.E.(2011).Daily 105–116. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_10. emotional dynamics in depressed youth: A cell phone ecological mo- Ostrov, J. M., Murray-Close, D., Godleski, S. A., & Hart, E. J. (2013). mentary assessment study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, Prospective associations between forms and functions of aggression 110(2), 241–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.10.007. and social and affective processes during early childhood. Journal of Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2003). Adolescents' emotion Experimental Child Psychology, 116(1), 19–36. https://doi.org/10. regulation in daily life: Links to depressive symptoms and problem 1016/j.jecp.2012.12.009. behavior. Child Development, 74(6), 1869–1880. https://doi.org/10. Petersen, A. C., Crockett, L., Richards, M., & Boxer, A. (1988). A self- 1046/j.1467-8624.2003.00643.x. report measure of pubertal status: Reliability, validity, and initial Smithmyer, C. M., Hubbard, J. A., & Simons, R. F. (2000). Proactive and norms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17(2), 117–133. https:// reactive aggression in delinquent adolescents: Relations to aggres- doi.org/10.1007/BF01537962. sion outcome expectancies. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, Pond, R. S., Jr., Kashdan, T. B., DeWall, C. N., Savostyanova, A., 29(1), 86–93. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424jccp2901_9. Lambert, N. M., & Fincham, F. D. (2012). Emotion differentiation Stadler, C., Poustka, F., & Sterzer, P. (2010). The heterogeneity of dis- moderates aggressive tendencies in angry people: A daily diary ruptive behavior disorders–implications for neurobiological re- analysis. Emotion, 12(2), 326–337. https://doi.org/10.1037/ search and treatment. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 1(21), 1–14. https:// a0025762. doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2010.00021. JAbnormChildPsychol

Tan, P. Z., Forbes, E. E., Dahl, R. E., Ryan, N. D., Siegle, G. J., Vitaro, F., Barker, E. D., Boivin, M., Brendgen, M., & Tremblay, R. E. Ladouceur, C. D., & Silk, J. S. (2012). Emotional reactivity and (2006a). Do early difficult temperament and harsh parenting differ- regulation in anxious and nonanxious youth: A cell-phone ecologi- entially predict reactive and proactive aggression? Journal of cal momentary assessment study. Journal of Child Psychology and Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(5), 681–691. https://doi.org/10. Psychiatry, 53(2), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610. 1007/s10802-006-9055-6. 2011.02469.x. Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., & Barker, E. D. (2006b). Subtypes of aggressive Taubitz, L. E., Pedersen, W. S., & Larson, C. L. (2015). Bas reward behaviors: A developmental perspective. International Journal of responsiveness: A unique predictor of positive psychological func- Behavioral Development, 30(1), 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/ tioning. Personality and Individual Differences, 80, 107–112. 0165025406059968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.029. Xu, Y., Farver, J. A. M., & Zhang, Z. (2009). Temperament, harsh and Thomson, N. D., & Centifanti, L. C. M. (2018). Proactive and reactive indulgent parenting, and Chinese children’s proactive and reactive aggression subgroups in typically developing children: The role of aggression. Child Development, 80(1), 244–258. https://doi.org/10. executive functioning, psychophysiology, and psychopathy. Child 1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01257.x. – Psychiatry and Human Development, 49(2), 197 208. https://doi. Xu, Y., Raine, A., Yu, L., & Krieg, A. (2014). Resting heart rate, vagal org/10.1007/s10578-017-0741-0. tone, and reactive and proactive aggression in Chinese children. Thornton, L. C., Frick, P. J., Crapanzano, A. M., & Terranova, A. M. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(3), 501–514. https:// (2013). The incremental utility of callous-unemotional traits and doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9792-2. conduct problems in predicting aggression and bullying in a com- Yaros, A., Lochman, J. E., Rosenbaum, J., & Jimenez-Camargo, L. A. munity sample of boys and girls. Psychological Assessment, 25(2), – (2014). Real-time hostile attribution measurement and aggression in 366 378. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031153. children. Aggressive Behavior, 40(5), 409–420. https://doi.org/10. Viding, E., Sebastian, C. L., Dadds, M. R., Lockwood, P. L., Cecil, C. A. 1002/ab.21532. M., DeBrito, S. A., & McCrory, E. J. (2012). Amygdala response to preattentive masked fear in children with conduct problems: The ’ role of callous-unemotional traits. The American Journal of Publisher sNoteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to Psychiatry, 169(10), 1109–1116. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp. jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. 2012.12020191.