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Disciple, Discipleship μαθητς, the Gospels portray a wider “circle of dis- cipleship” (Dunn: 540) that includes women (Luke I. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament II. New Testament 8 : 1–3) and those committed to Jesus’ teachings III. Judaism who did not join his itinerant band (cf. Dunn and IV. Christianity Meier for historical issues). V. Islam The evangelists’ views of discipleship are multi- VI. Other Religions faceted and expressed by the positive characteristics VII. Literature of Jesus’ μαθητα and other disciple-like characters, VIII. Music as well as Jesus’ own teaching and actions. Negative IX. Film qualities of characters, including the disciples, act as a foil to ideal discipleship (Brown: 145). I. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament 2. Mark. In Mark, Jesus’ μαθητα include the In the HB/OT, the language of disciple/discipleship Twelve or a larger group of followers (2 : 15). They is derived from the root l-m-d, meaning “to learn/ are characterized more negatively than in other gos- teach.” A “disciple” (limmûd) is “one who is taught” pels, providing a strikingly ambiguous portrait (akin to Greek μαθητς, from μανθ νω “to learn”). (Best). Although the disciples follow Jesus (1 : 16– The word occurs several times in the HB/OT, indi- 20) and are called to mission (6 : 7–13; Henderson), cating not a formal master–pupil relationship, but they are characterized frequently as hardhearted a close association. In Isa 8 : 16, it refers to the pro- (8 : 17) and lacking faith (4 : 40) and understanding phet’s circle of supporters who are to preserve the (4 : 13; 9 : 32; cf. Fischer: 201). Mark describes prophet’s unpopular message (see also the referen- women who follow and serve (διακνω) Jesus ces to bĕnê hannĕbîîm “the prophetic guild,” 1 Kgs (15 : 40–41). They stay with Jesus at his crucifixion 20 : 35; 2 Kgs 2 : 3, 5, 7, 15; 4 : 1, 38; 5 : 22; 6 : 1; 9 : 1; and so provide a certain contrast to the Twelve who Amos 7 : 14). The term occurs twice in Isa 50 : 4 to desert Jesus at his arrest (14 : 50). describe a servant figure who is constantly in- Markan discipleship is a journey of following structed by God and is therefore qualified to in- the cruciform Jesus (Best: 247). The ideal disciple struct others. Later in Deutero-Isaiah, the term is transcends the disciples’ opacity and understands extended to all the inhabitants of a restored Jerusa- who Jesus is, trusting him in full allegiance (4 : 35– lem who are “taught by YHWH” – that is, YHWH’s 5 : 43). Mark’s open-ended conclusion encourages disciples (Isa 54 : 13; cf. 30 : 20–21; Jer 31 : 34). The the reader to take on the role of faithful disciple by same word is used in Jer 13 : 23 with respect to in- proclaiming Jesus’ resurrection and continuing his corrigible people who are “practiced in doing evil,” mission (16 : 8). suggesting that formal teaching/learning is not in 3. Matthew. In Matthew, the articular μαθητς re- view, but familiarity with and experience in a cer- fers to the Twelve (10 : 1; exception: 8 : 21). A core tain mode of life (cf. Jer 2 : 24). feature of their portrayal is apprenticing with Jesus In some contexts, the root l-m-d implies inten- in his ministry to Israel (4 : 18–22; 9 : 9), and Mat- tional training in a particular skill. The Pual partici- thew accents their failure to do so as they desert ple is used of temple musicians who are “trained” Jesus (26 : 56). Early Matthean redaction criticism to sing for YHWH (1 Chr 25 : 7); the single occur- stressed the disciples’ understanding (Barth), but rence of the noun talmîd “apprentice” (in a merism recent redaction and narrative work highlights with mēbîn “master”) is found in this context (1 Chr their frequent misunderstanding of Jesus’ mission 25 : 8). Elsewhere, the participle refers to warriors and of their role in it (Brown). “skilled” in battle (Song 3 : 8), a human command- In Matthew, discipleship themes emerge ment “learned” by rote (Isa 29 : 13), and a “domesti- through the example of characters, including Jesus cated” heifer (Hos 10 : 11; cf. Jer 31 : 18). The related himself, and Jesus’ discipleship teachings (Brown: noun malmēd “oxgoad” suggests that prodding and 149–50). Ideal disciples follow Jesus as God’s Mes- encouragement may be involved in learning. siah and kingdom inaugurator, live in community Eunny Lee by forgiving and serving one another (18 : 1–35; 20 : 28), and function as a community to do the II. New Testament “will of the Father,” showing themselves to be 1. Introduction. The term μαθητς (“disciple”) oc- God’s children (5 : 43–48; Pattarumadathil). curs 261 times in the NT, always in the Gospels and 4. Luke-Acts. The μαθητα in Luke most often com- Acts, mostly referring to Jesus’ disciples. In the NT prise a group larger than the Twelve (6 : 17). Jesus and its (infrequent) use in contemporaneous litera- sends out 70 (72) in mission (10 : 1). Numbers of ture (e.g., Philo), the term denotes the general sense women follow and serve in Jesus’ itinerant ministry of someone who follows a teacher (similarly talmîdh; (8 : 1–3) and witness to his resurrection (24 : 8–10). Wilkins: 221). In the Gospels, μαθητς can refer to The Twelve are portrayed quite positively (e.g., the Twelve or a wider group. Beyond use of omission of Mark 14 : 50) as the focal point of the

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Lukan theme of Israel’s restoration (Fuller: 240). III. Judaism Yet they misunderstand the necessity of the cross ■ Second Temple and Hellenistic Judaism ■ Rabbinic until after the resurrection (9 : 45; 24 : 44–45). In Judaism ■ Medieval Judaism ■ Modern Judaism Acts, the Twelve are distinguished from other A. Second Temple and Hellenistic Judaism μαθητα (6 : 2), with the latter denoting the believ- ing community. Jewish sources of the Second Temple period reflect Lukan discipleship centers on the messianic a growing interest in and emphasis on scholasti- community restored by God – an inclusive commu- cism and, with that, a concern for the role and char- nity that welcomes the poor and marginalized acteristics of the sage or teacher. The focus on learn- (Luke 4 : 16–21) and reaches even to the Gentiles ing and wisdom in the biblical books of Ecclesiastes (Acts). The ideal disciple of Luke-Acts, empowered and Proverbs finds parallels in a breadth of litera- by prayer and the Holy Spirit, responds to God’s tures that depict schools of thought in which dis- restorative work and follows the self-giving pattern tinctive bodies of learning or theological belief were of Jesus. Disciples are to commit to service and mis- to be transmitted to future generations. Examples sion over loyalty to possessions (Luke 14 : 25–33). of this are the practical actions of the biblical figure Ezra, who, after leading the Israelite nation back to 5. John. In John, μαθητα specifies the Twelve or a the Land of Israel from the Babylonian exile, ap- broader group of Jesus’ followers (6 : 60). The disci- pointed judges – who needed somehow to learn the ples follow Jesus (1 : 37) and affirm his messianic law – and who dictated to the nation the entire To- identity early in the Gospel (1 : 40–49). Yet they also rah, so that it would not be lost. In the second cen- misunderstand Jesus’ symbolic teaching (11 : 11– tury BCE, Ben Sira focused on the value of wisdom 16). Some from the broader disciple-group even re- and called on the uneducated to “lodge in the house ject his teachings (6 : 52–60). Those who remain of instruction” where, by hearing Ben Sira’s instruc- faithful to Jesus (6 : 67–69) are commissioned to ministry (20 : 19–23). tion, the learner would “acquire silver and gold” Johannine discipleship centers on faith in Jesus (see Sir 51 : 18–30). The significance in this period as Messiah who gives new life (20 : 30–31). True dis- of individual teachers or masters is similarly well ciples abide in Jesus in covenant relationship (Chen- illustrated by the Dead Sea community, with its fo- nattu), from which they bear fruit and love one an- cus upon its Teacher of Righteousness, and by John other as Jesus commanded (15 : 1–17). The the Baptist and his followers, on the one hand, and community of disciples is exhorted to unity and Jesus and his disciples, on the other. love for the sake of witness to the world (17 : 20– While political and religious developments in 23), empowered by the Spirit (20 : 22). the Second Temple period provide clear evidence for the existence of what would have amounted to 6. Other NT Literature. Discipleship in the rest of master-disciple relationships, the exact character of the NT focuses variably on imitation of Christ those relationships is unknown. In no case do the (1 Cor 11 : 1; 1 Pet 2 : 21) and participation “in extant Second Temple sources specify the condi- Christ” (Paul); warnings against wealth and an un- tions or demands of the status of disciple or indi- bridled tongue (Jas); readiness to suffer for Christ cate the nature of the mutual commitment that ex- (Phil 1 : 27–30; 2 Tim 2 : 3; 1 Pet 2 : 19–21; Rev isted between master and student. A model for such 2 : 10–11); and love at the center of a Christian ethic a relationship is detailed only beginning in the sec- (1 Cor 13 : 1–13; Gal 5 : 13–23; Heb 10 : 24; 1 John). ond century CE, in rabbinic literature. There scho- Embodying allegiance to Christ is a hallmark of lasticism, the school, and the model of teacher and NT discipleship. disciple become dominant social institutions and Bibliography: ■ Best, E., Following Jesus (Sheffield 1981). are a focus of attention and concern. Since no earlier ■ Bornkamm, G. et al., Überlieferung und Auslegung im Mat- Second Temple examples exist, this model is often ■ thäusevangelium (WMANT 1; Neukirchen 1960). Brown, J. used to describe and explain, for instance, the rela- K., Disciples in Narrative Perspective (Atlanta, Ga. 2002). tionship between Jesus and his disciples. But while ■ Chennattu, R. M., Johannine Discipleship as a Covenant Rela- tionship (Peabody, Mass. 2006). ■ Dunn, J. D. G., Jesus Re- the rabbinic model is the closest scholars can come membered (Grand Rapids, Mich. 2003). ■ Fischer, C., Les dis- to Jesus’ time and place, the fact that the rabbinic ciples dans L’Évangile de Marc (Paris 2007). ■ Fuller, M. E., model derives from a later period and an essentially The Restoration of Israel (Berlin 2006). ■ Henderson, S. W., different religious and social setting must be taken Christology and Discipleship in the Gospel of Mark (Cambridge into account. This means that we know less than 2006). ■ Longenecker, R. N., Patterns of Discipleship in the we would like to know about discipleship in the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich. 1996). ■ Meier, J. P., Second Temple period and earliest Christianity. A Marginal Jew: Companions and Competitors; vol. 3 (New York 2001). ■ Pattarumadathil, H., Your Father in Heaven (Rome Bibliography: ■ Nickelsburg, G., Jewish Literature between the 2008). ■ Wilkins, M. J., The Concept of Disciples in Matthew’s Bible and the Mishnah (Minneapolis, Minn. 22005). ■ Ver- Gospel (Leiden 1988). mes, G., The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English (London Jeannine K. Brown 2004).

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B. Rabbinic Judaism As an advanced student, a disciple could render The Hebrew term for disciple is talmid ḥakham/im; legal judgments and make his views known. At the literally, “student of (a) sage/s”; a member of the same time, since at least in relationship to his spe- rabbinic class who engaged in Torah study as an cific master he was only a student, the disciple was academic enterprise and adhered to the life style, forbidden from rendering legal judgments in his system of pieties, special language, and distinct master’s presence. Violation of this prohibition was dress that set the rabbinic class apart from the rest understood to lead to the disciple’s untimely death of society. Alongside knowledge of Scripture and (see, e.g., bEr 63a, bSan 5b). At the same time, the rabbinic law, the disciple exemplified proper de- greatest honor a disciple could experience was his portment and piety, which were learned by study- teacher’s affirmation of his judgment, understood ing with and serving under a particular rabbi. The by the rabbis as a circumstance comparable to God’s extent of the disciple’s commitment to Torah study heeding Moses’ request to pardon the people of Is- and his expected success at his learning are cap- rael after the incident of the Golden Calf (Exod tured by bShab 114a: 32 : 11–13; bBer 32a). Who is a disciple of the sages? R. Johanan said: One While almost limitless, the disciple’s dedication who neglects his personal affairs for his study. He also to his master was not an excuse for subverting the said: [A disciple of the sages is] one who, when ques- law. Rather, like all aspects of Jewish life, their rela- tioned about any law from his repertory, is able to an- tionship was to model absolute adherence to the re- swer. quirements of Torah. This meant that a disciple In talmudic culture, disciples, like the rabbis they who knew his master was erring in a legal judg- served, were exempt from taxation. Held in highest ment was required immediately to speak out (an respect by the community, they received preferen- action that both assured an accurate judgment and tial treatment in all aspects of communal support, respected the master, in whose name the correct law including having priority in being ransomed could then be recorded). Similarly, even if he was should they be taken captive. absolutely confident that his master was in the As the English term “disciple” suggests, the tal- right, a disciple was adjured not to allow himself to mid ḥakhamim was attached to a particular rabbinic be the second witness needed to prove the master’s master, whose approach to the law and pious be- case in a court of law, where two witnesses are re- havior the student emulated. Discipleship required quired. Masters and disciples accordingly modeled that the student show his master a level of respect the kind of behavior the rabbinic movement ex- not required towards anyone else. When in his pected to characterize all of Jewish society. The hall- teacher’s presence, for instance, the student was ex- marks of the the rabbi-disciple relationship were pected never even to turn his face away. This means absolute respect for the law demonstrated by adher- that, when the disciple wished to depart, he would ence to all of its details and the highest respect for no more than turn his body and face to the side or those who taught and lived the law. might even leave his master’s presence by walking backwards. While the disciple normally would be Bibliography: ■ Jaffee, M., “The Oral-Cultural Context of precluded from seeing his master in the bathhouse, the Talmud Yerushalmi: Greco-Roman Rhetorical Paideia, he would, if needed, attend on him there, and even Discipleship, and the Concept of Oral Torah,” in Transmit- ting Jewish Traditions: Orality, Textuality, and Cultural Diffusion in that setting would learn rules of proper deport- (eds. Y. Elman/I. Gershoni; New Haven, Conn. 2000). ment (bShab 40b; bPes 51a). ■ Neusner, J., A History of the Jews in Babylonia, 5 vols. (At- Alongside study of the law, discipleship thus lanta, Ga. 1999 [= Leiden 1965–70]). ■ Neusner, J., The Pro- meant learning the behaviors that reflected good gram of the Fathers according to Rabbi Nathan A (Lanham, Md. character. Indeed, a main requirement of disciple- 2009). ship was that the student be a person of genuinely Alan J. Avery-Peck good moral fiber. The Talmud captures this idea in C. Medieval Judaism the statement that “one whose inside is not as his outside may not enter the house of study” (bBer Biblical verses and narratives are rarely cited in me- 28a). Good character was understood to be a quality dieval Jewish sources in connection with disciple- that could not be simply imitated or fabricated; it ship. Nonetheless it could be argued that two in- needed to be a true representation of the sort of stantiations of discipleship in HB, those of Joshua person the disciple was. This good character, it and Elisha, informed later master-disciple relation- bears noting, would be reflected in the disciple’s ships in the medieval period. One or the other of refusal to suspect his master of any impropriety, these discipleship models include the following: ap- even in a situation in which outward appearances prenticeship through constant presence at the side were suspicious (bShab 127b). And just as disciple- of the master; abandonment of hearth and home as ship meant always giving one’s master the benefit a prerequisite for discipleship; and the transferral of the doubt, so one’s status as a disciple of a sage of the divinely granted pneuma from master to disci- merited leniency in any case in which the disciple ple. To a greater or lesser degree these can be found himself committed a punishable sin (bEr 54a). in at least some of the master-disciple relationships

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 2/11/14 2:39 AM 893 Disciple, Discipleship 894 in the medieval period, as the following will make The close relationship between master and dis- clear. ciple was also reflected in the significant role played Numerous models for the master-disciple rela- by disciples both in the theoretical analysis of rab- tionship existed in the medieval period, varying ac- binic texts and in the rendering of halakhic deci- cording to time and place. In particular, this rela- sions. This involvement was not only countenanced tionship in Ashkenazic yeshivot, or academies, was but actively encouraged. This was due in part to quite different from the model followed in the Bab- the dialectical nature of Talmud study in Ashkenaz, ylonian academies. which reached its apogee with the advent of the The relationship between student and teacher Tosafists in the 12th century. This approach framed in the academies of Babylonia was formal and hier- study as a corporate enterprise. Even halakhic rul- archical; consequently the academy head (known in ings were often recorded together with the support- Babylonia as the Gaon) was a remote figure. In Bab- ing arguments, objections and, at times, dissenting ylonia the seating arrangement of the students was opinions of students. Respect for one’s mentor did highly stratified; disciples were seated in rows ac- not negate a student’s confidence in the value of cording to their abilities. Although the Gaon con- his own viewpoint. Even when students used sharp sulted with his disciples before issuing rulings, language in taking issue with their teachers, the their role was purely advisory. This was manifest in teacher’s response was generally mild. Conse- the language of the responsa issued by the acade- quently, the dynamic of Talmud study in Ashkenaz mies, in which only the Gaon was mentioned by was relatively democratic, a quality not found in the name. Even the use of the plural in these responsa Babylonian and Spanish yeshivot. seems to have been no more than an instance of Even after a student had left the yeshiva and pluralis majestatis. Furthermore, the Geonim often was living elsewhere, it was common for him to surrounded themselves with the trappings of roy- turn to his teacher for guidance on difficult matters alty and were honored through elaborate ceremo- of halakhah. Teachers often expected students to nies, thereby putting further distance between maintain a relationship with them, at least by themselves and their disciples. means of correspondence, and sometimes expressed The atmosphere in the academies of Ashkenaz disappointment if this expectation was not met. (northern and central Europe) was altogether differ- During this period there was also a relaxation of ent. As a consequence of both ideology and circum- the talmudic prohibition against a disciple issuing a stance there were often strong and close bonds be- ruling in the presence of his teacher (bSan 5b). This tween teacher and student. was due in large part to the dissemination of writ- As was true in many study circles and yeshivot of ten codes. It was argued by R. Meir of Rothenburg the rabbinic period, students in Ashkenaz regarded (Germany; 1215–1293) and subsequent scholars study with a master not solely as an intellectual ex- that because these written works were repositories ercise but as a form of spiritual apprenticeship as of the collective wisdom of past generations their well. In addition to receiving tuition in understand- authority superseded that of one’s own teacher. ing and interpreting rabbinic texts, students had Consequently, a student who based his ruling on the opportunity to observe their mentor’s conduct one of these codes was viewed as relying on a source with the goal of shaping their own behavior accord- ingly. This intimate bond between student and of authority that superseded the fealty owed his teacher was often facilitated by the students’ living teacher, who like the student was subject to the arrangements, as many students were provided codes’ authority. This viewpoint led R. Jacob Rei- with room and board in the home of their teacher. scher (1670–1733) to require that a halakhist con- This was particularly true when the teacher was a sult the written codes before issuing even the most man of means. At the same time it should be noted obvious of rulings. Given the codes’ authoritative that both the 12th- and 13th-century German Pie- status, failure to do so was, in his view, effectively tists (Judah b. Samuel, Sefer Ḥasidim [“Book of the ruling in the presence of one’s teacher. Pious”], ed. Wistinetzki-Freimann, section 800) and Beginning in the 12th century, it became com- the anonymous author of Ḥuqqei ha-Torah [“Book of mon practice for students to collect and publish rul- the Statutes of the Torah”] (lines 102–10 [Kanarfo- ings and practices of their teachers. Students of Ra- gel 1992: 110–11]) caution against an academy head shi (1040–1105) produced numerous compilations teaching in his own home lest he or his students be of his rulings and practices. Later works include Se- distracted by the presence of female members of his fer Tashbets, compiled by R. Simeon b. Isaac, a disci- family. Both of these works also require that the ple of R. Meir b. Baruch of Rothenburg (see above); master devote himself totally to his students, nei- Sefer Maharil, a record of the rulings and customs ther taking on additional employment nor engag- of Jacob Moellin (ca. 1360–1427) composed by his ing in idle conversation during periods of study and disciple Zalman of Sankt Goar (Sutigwerra); and Jo- instruction (Judah b. Samuel, Sefer Ḥasidim ed.Mar- seph b. Moses’ Leqet yosher, in which he documented galiot, sections 124, 1007; Ḥuqqei ha-Torah lines 87– the practices of his mentor, Israel ben Pethaḥiah Is- 89 [Kanarfogel 1992: 110]). serlein (1390–1460).

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The most thoroughly documented master-disci- Berlin 21924). ■ Judah b. Samuel, Sefer Ḥasidim (ed. R. Mar- ple relationships are those of the 16th-century mys- galiot; Jerusalem 41970). tic R. Isaac Luria (Safed, 1534–1572), also known Eliezer Diamond as the Ari, with his disciples, and with his student D. Modern Judaism Hayyim Vital in particular. The written and oral During the early modern period, master-disciple traditions from this circle portray this relationship, models in Jewish life revolved around the town as well as those among the disciples themselves, as rabbi in the close-knit organized Jewish community stormy and volatile. Vital claimed to be descended (qahal) and the dean (rosh yeshivah) in the religious from a spiritual lineage that was superior to those seminary (yeshivah). Although the town rabbi’s fol- of his fellow disciples and was often at odds with lowing began to endure a sustained loss of its youth them. The Ari, on the other hand, periodically ex- in the 19th century, the rosh yeshivah rose to capture pressed deep disappointment with all of his disci- the passionate imagination of religious young men ples, at one point threatening, according to one tra- with an unapologetically elitist master-disciple rela- dition, to dismiss them all. It is difficult to know tionship, focused on the act of Torah study. whether personality clashes, the intensity of mysti- The pietistic movement of Hasidism challenged cal fellowship and the messianic expectations ac- both leadership structures, and replaced the town companying it, or other factors were responsible for rabbi and the rosh yeshivah with a new spiritual mas- the high level of tension among its members. How- ter, known as the tsaddiq or rebbe. For a brief period ever, it is also possible and even likely that similar in the late 18th century, the tsaddiq was typically a tensions existed in other master-disciple relation- charismatic figure whose spiritual reputation, ships, but that student and teacher alike simply did rather than his talmudic erudition, established his not engage in the same kind of highly personal authority across communities. Hasidim regarded self-disclosure. the rebbe as an absolute monarch, referring to their The doctrine of metempsychosis, or transmigra- tsaddiq as a “king” and the building in which he tion, played an important role in the relational dy- lived and worked a “court.” In keeping with the namics between Luria and his disciples, all of whom regal trappings of the rebbe, within two generations Luria believed to be incarnations of biblical figures. of the development of Hasidism, dynastic succes- For example, the soul of Cain, which was endowed sion became the normative model for transferring with important spiritual gifts and was of a higher the rebbe post, although succession was often dis- quality than that of Abel, underwent a long series puted, which lead to the splintering of Hasidic dy- of purifying transmigrations, ending with Joseph nasties into multiple disciple communities. Karo. Hayyim Vital himself, Luria’s star disciple, The tsaddiq’s authority derived from the belief was an incarnation of this family of souls. He was in his potential for spiritual elevation and his abil- also associated with the soul of Moses, for Luria ity to provide spiritual uplift to his earth-bound taught that “all souls were included in that of Mo- community. In the first known printed Hasidic ses, especially the souls of the righteous.” Luria also text, Toledot Yaaqov Yosef (Koretz 1780), Jacob Jo- associated Vital with the soul of Hezekiah king of seph of Polonnoye describes the figure of the tsaddiq Judah. Hezekiah’s soul was derived from the as “the soul of the Jewish nation, while the rest of “head” of Cain’s soul and enabled the latter to be- the people are the body.” Nearly all of the major gin the process of tiqqun (repair). Another impor- personalities of the HB, and particularly King Da- tant association for Luria’s disciples was with the vid, were reread retrospectively as models of the biblical Joseph, who spilled his seed rather than tsaddiq. submit to Potiphar’s wife’s advances, which action While such doctrinal statements describe the had repercussions in the sefirotic realm, and was spiritual functions of the tsaddiq in relationship to paradigmatic with regard to the formation of cer- his community, at least as important was the social tain kinds of souls. A person’s soul-ancestry could institution of the tsaddiq. In his classic work of account for aspects of his behavior, and the eleva- homiletics, Noam Elimelekh (1788), the early leader tion and perfection of their souls was one of the of Polish Hasidism Elimelekh of Lizhensk (i.e., Lez˙ - disciples’ primary goals (Fine: 333–41). ajsk) develops the idea of the tsaddiq descending to Bibliography: ■ Brody, R., The Geonim of Babylonia and the communicate and connect with his working-class Shaping of Medieval Jewish Culture (New Haven, Conn./London community as they faced illness, financial hard- 1998). [Esp. 43–56] ■ Fine, L., Physician of the Soul, Healer of ships, and fertility challenges. the Cosmos: Isaac Luria and his Kabbalistic Fellowship (Stanford In order to gauge the external influence on the Studies in Jewish History and Culture; Stanford, Calif. mystical doctrine of “tsaddiqism,” early 20th-cen- 2003). [Esp. 300–50] ■ Kanarfogel, E., Jewish Education and tury historians such as Simon Dubnow, Benzion Society in the High Middle Ages (Detroit, Mich. 1992). ■ Kan- arfogel, E., “A Monastic-like Setting for the Study of To- Dinur, and Raphael Mahler elaborated the social, rah,” in Judaism in Practice: From the Middle Ages through the political, and economic contexts of Hasidism. While Early Modern Period (ed. L. Fine; Princeton, N.J. 2001) 191– customs vary according to dynasty and even in suc- 202. ■ Judah b. Samuel, Sefer Ḥ asidim (ed. J. Wistinetzki; cessive generations within dynasties, the rebbe typi-

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 2/11/14 2:39 AM 897 Disciple, Discipleship 898 cally interacted with his Hasidim through interper- of blessing in their own right, individual disciples – sonal public appearances, such as the tish (public including women – were able to disseminate amu- meal), shaleshudes (Yiddish for the third Sabbath lets and even receive written petitions. These mate- meal, lit. three meals; in Heb. seudah shelishit), and rial expressions of the master-disciple relationship ritualized reception lines, as well as the semi-pri- speak to the constitutive role of the disciple in de- vate meeting known as yeḥidut. The rebbe and his fining the relationship and the role of the rebbe in secretaries were typically responsible for collecting Hasidic life. Not only do these objects inform the and dispensing charity for the needy, arranging em- master-disciple relationship during the rebbe’s life, ployment and suitable matches for children, con- but also outlive the tsaddiqim that inspired them, tracting doctors, and generally tending to the prac- leaving the legacy of the tsaddiqim in the hands of tical needs of the Hasidim. their followers who often reshaped the legacy of While several exceptional women participated their masters in succeeding generations to address as tsaddiqim/Hasidim in their own right, in the ordi- contemporary concerns. The collection of portraits nary course, the rebbe and his Hasidim were men; and other objects related to deceased rebbes, the revi- women in the Hasidic world participated as moth- talization of Reb Naḥman of Breslav’s gravesite in ers, daughters, wives, and sisters to the rebbe and the Ukrainian city of Uman as a Hasidic pilgrimage the Hasid. The journey to the rebbe’s court devel- site in the post-Soviet era, and Habad’s public mes- oped as an exclusively male practice, while women sianic campaigns that continued and expanded tended to domestic duties, particularly during the after the death of their rebbe, speak to the ways that festival seasons. At announced times, visitors could Hasidim define their relationship with leaders even have an appointment with the rebbe and present after the leaders’ deaths. him a written petition (qvitl), asking for blessing Although many sorts of students and teachers, and prayer on his behalf and donating monies (pid- followers, and leaders in modern Judaism have yon, “redemption”) for the rebbe’s livelihood and his formed close and lifelong bonds of reverence and communal work. Men typically communicated with even obedience, it is in the Hasidic movement that the rebbe on behalf of their female relatives, al- these relationships are most central. though many rebbes accepted written petitions from Bibliography: ■ Etkes, I., “The Zaddik: The Interrelation- women as well. A Hasid remained loyal to his rebbe ship between Religious Doctrine and Social Organization,” even after the rebbe or hasid may have moved to a in Hasidism Reappraised (ed. A. Rapoport-Albert; London/ distant location, and would often come to visit the Portland, Oreg. 1997). ■ Lamm, N., The Religious Thoughts rebbe for one or more holidays during the year. of Hasidism (New York 1999). ■ Scholem, G., “Tsaddik: The These visits to a far-away court precluded the sort Righteous One,” in On the Mystical Shape of the Godhead (New of family celebrations associated with Jewish festi- York 1991) 88–139; trans. of id., “Zaddik: Der Gerechte,” in Von der mystischen Gestalt der Gottheit (Zürich 1962) 83–134. vals today, necessarily redefining the family around Maya Balakirsky Katz the primary relationship of the disciple to his rebbe. The classic scholars of Hasidism (Simon Dub- IV. Christianity now, Gershom Scholem) tended to study the mas- ■ Greek and Latin Patristics, and Orthodox Churches ter-disciple relationship through the lens of the ■ Medieval Times and Reformation Era ■ Modern rebbe’s literary treatment of the subject. However, Europe and America while Hasidic leaders produced an impressive body of literature, their followers spearheaded and sup- A. Greek and Latin Patristics, and Orthodox ported a far more popular material culture with Churches which to connect to their leaders. Hasidim corre- John Chrysostom described the role of a disciple: sponded with their rebbes, and their letters and peti- For this is a disciple’s part, not to be over curious about tions make up a body of literature that demon- the assertions of his teacher, but to hear and obey him, strates that Hasidim sought advice on all matters of and to wait the proper time for the solution of any dif- religious and practical concern. In addition to the ficulties (Hom. Jo. 46.2). content of these correspondences, Hasidim treas- Or again, ured the material expression of their relationship The teachers’ part is to cast the seed, the disciples’ part with the rebbe, collecting and cherishing portraits is to do the things spoken (Hom. 2 Thess. 3.3). and photographs of their rebbes, as well as objects The disciple imitated the teacher: The Son is the associated with them, from coins imbued with true vine (John 15 : 5) who “has as branches the dis- blessing from contact with the rebbe’s hand to food ciples, his imitators, who themselves also bear the distributed from his table. Autograph collector truth as fruit” (Origen, Comm. Jo. 1.33.206). Abraham Schwadron noted that collecting hand- Μαθητς (“disciple”) and discipulus (Latin) could writing samples from Hasidic masters proved par- be used of non-Christians, heretics, followers of ticularly difficult because Hasidim kept these as John the Baptist, and of Christians (Irenaeus a disci- charms or amulets. Once the Hasidic community es- ple of Polycarp; Mart. Pol. 22 : 2). Most often the tablished these objects as potentially valid conduits word refers to disciples of Jesus:

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Having become his disciples, let us learn to live accord- der that we may be found to be disciples of Jesus ing to Christianity” (Ignatius, Magn. 10 : 1). Christ our only teacher” (Ign. Magn. 9 : 1). His being Of those identified as disciples, the twelve apostles taken as a prisoner to Rome meant he was “begin- are foremost, usually with reference to a text in the ning to be a disciple” (Ign. Eph. 3 : 1), and mistreat- Gospels, as Justin, Dial. 49.5 (Matt 17 : 11–13); 51.2 ment by the soldiers made him “more of a disciple” (Jesus ate and drank with disciples after the resur- (Ign. Rom. 5 : 1; cf. 5 : 3, “now I am beginning to rection); 105.5 (Matt 5 : 20) and Origen, Hom. Jer. be a disciple”). Even though he was in chains and 17.4.4 (Luke 10 : 20); one or more of them: Peter, comprehended heavenly things, he was not yet a James, and John (Justin, Dial. 99.2); Peter (ibid., disciple (Ign. Trall. 5 : 2). “Through suffering I reach 100.4); the evangelist John (Origen, Comm. Jo. 2.34); God, so that I may be found a disciple by your also Paul (Origen, Cels. 1.13, 43; Tertullian, Carn. prayers” (Ign. Pol. 7 : 1). He expected the consum- Chr. 22). Other followers of Jesus included in the mation: when wild beasts become my tomb, “then term disciples were distinguished from the Twelve I will truly be a disciple of Jesus Christ” (Ign. Rom. (Chrysostom, Hom. Act. 21.1 and 3). Of these other 4 : 2). The church at Smyrna wrote, “We love the disciples the 70/72 (Luke 10 : 1) are often men- martyrs as disciples and imitators of the Lord” tioned: “James brother of our Lord and the other (Mart. Pol. 17 : 3). Origen explained that “many of seventy-two disciples” (Apos. Con. 2.55.2; Gregory of the genuine disciples of Christ were honored to be Nyssa, De vita moysis 2.134 reverses the usual termi- witnesses [martyrs] of Christ” (Comm. Jo. 2.34.207). nology by referring to twelve disciples/apostles and When martyrdom was no longer an option, the seventy other apostles). Origen said that after his monks became the standards for exemplary disci- resurrection the Lord appeared to the apostles and ples. The word disciple, however, occurs in the Say- five hundred disciples (1 Cor 15 : 6); Fr. Luc. 85 (255) ings of the Desert Fathers predominantly for the disci- on Luke 24 : 15; cf. Justin, 1 Apol. 67.7. ples of the ascetic masters. Benedict likened the The prophets of the OT were by anticipation monastery to a school (Rule, prol.) and referred to Christ’s “disciples in the Spirit” (Ign. Magn. 9 : 2). the monks as disciples of the abbot (Rule 2). Those who followed the apostles were termed disci- In keeping with Matt 28 : 19, early Christian ples: “having been a disciple of apostles” (Diogn. writers used the idea of becoming a disciple in con- 11 : 1; also “disciples of the truth” and “things texts of evangelism and conversion. Origen com- openly made known by the Word to disciples”; mented that the “disciples were sent out to make 11 : 2). Some of these disciples of the apostles are disciples [teach] all nations” (Comm. Jo. 10.7.42; cf. named: Polycarp according to Papias (Eusebius, Mart. 48, “We were made disciples of the gospel”). Hist. eccl. 3.36.1–2), Papias himself (ibid. 3.394), Justin Martyr claimed that “daily some are becom- Mark a disciple of Peter (Irenaeus, Haer. 3.1.1). ing disciples in the name of Christ and quitting the Disciple was also a term for all Christians. Aber- path of error” (Dial. 39.2). Clement of Alexandria in cius in his epitaph identified himself as a “disciple exhorting pagans to follow Christ said, “We who of the holy Shepherd” (line 3). Origen explained have become disciples of God have received the only that the words of John 4 : 35–36 were spoken by the true wisdom” (Protr. 11). Ignatius expressed the Lord “to every saint and to the genuine disciple of wish for the church in Rome that “those things Jesus” (Or. 13.5). “All we of the faithful who are which you command in making disciples [or in disciples of Christ believe his promises” (Apos. Con. teaching disciples] may be firm” (Ign. Rom. 3 : 1). 5.7.24). The language of discipleship emphasizes the As these latter texts imply, “disciple” could importance in Christianity of teaching and learning have the connotation of advanced Christians. Ori- (see Matt 13 : 51–52). Christians are those who gen noted that “Many of those who believed in him “have been instructed [or been discipled] in the di- did not abide in his word, nor did the many truly vine teachings” (Justin Martyr, 2 Apol. 4.3; “disci- become his disciples” (Comm. Jo. 19.11.66; cf. ples of the true and pure doctrine of Jesus Christ,” 20.13.99 for those “somewhat taught but not truly Dial. 35.2; or “instructed in the whole truth,” 39.5). called disciples of Jesus”). Comparing the church to Those who had been disciples became teachers: an army, Chrysostom named the ranks as those of The persons whom the Lord both chose for himself as teacher, disciple, and private person (Hom. 1 Tim. disciples, certainly to be instructed in all points, and 5.1). appointed to us as teachers to instruct us in all points The most exemplary Christians were the mar- (Tertullian, Scorp. 12). tyrs. Although Ignatius could use “disciple” to refer On their introduction into the school of Christ the Jews to all Christians (“If you love good disciples”; were taught by the disciples glorious things about Jesus Ign.Pol. 2 : 1), he followed Jesus’ words about the (Origen, Comm. Matt. 12.16). true disciple as one who “gives up life for my sake” The apostles appointed those who had learned first to (Matt 16 : 24–25; Mark 8 : 34–35; Luke 9 : 23–24; be teachers of others that were being made disciples [or John 12 : 24–26). Ignatius especially saw the martyr who were under instruction] (Chrysostom, Hom. Col. as the true disciple. If “we patiently endure, in or- 9.2).

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Accordingly, many educated Christians, both ortho- The subsequent early medieval hagiography de- dox (Justin, Clement of Alexandria, Origen) and scribes the virtues and miracles of the saints as acts others (Valentinus, Ptolemy), established private that imitate the incarnate Son of God, re-elaborat- schools; catechetical instruction was important in ing by this the feature of the martyr as imitator of preparing converts for baptism (Cyril of Jerusalem, Christ. Even the voluntary abandonment of one’s John Chrysostom, Augustine); and some monaster- home country, practiced particularly by Irish and ies later became centers of learning. Anglo Saxon monks, is interpreted as a peregrinatio propter Christum. Bibliography: ■ Frank, K. S., “Nachfolge Jesu 2: Alte Kirche und Mittelalter,” TRE 23 (Berlin/New York 1994) 686–91. The occidental comprehension of discipleship ■ Kany, R., “Jünger,” RAC 19 (Stuttgart 2001) 305–46. has a turning point in the poverty movement of the ■ Lampe, G. W. H., A Patristic Greek Lexicon (Oxford 1964). 11th–13th centuries, a development that is a re- [Esp. 820] sponse to changes in economic conditions and men- Everett Ferguson tality that increased the possibility of personal B. Medieval Times and Reformation Era wealth – a condition which, from the perspective of the gospels, affects religious sensibilities. Poverty, 1. Middle Ages. In the medieval Greek context, the conceived as an element of apostolic life, is a basic topic of discipleship appears in “The Ladder of Di- concern of the monastic reform projects of this pe- vine Ascent” of John Climacus, who defines the riod (Vallombrosa, Premonstratensians, Cister- Christian life as an “imitation (μ μημα) of Christ,” cians – in the Exordium parvum the monks are de- as far as possible, in both words and deeds (PG fined as “milites Christi cum paupere Christo pauperes”: 88 : 633B). Matthew 19 : 21 is quoted in the second Bouton/van Damme: 77). Literal obedience to Matt and the 27th of the 30 steps to heaven; in the latter 19 : 21 is what motivated the merchant Waldes at case, the separation from earthly goods and the ac- Lyon in the last third of the 12th century to give ceptance of the cross, interpreted as abandoning all his property to the poor and to live in apostolic one’s own will, are elements of the spiritual still- mendicancy (Patschovsky/Selge: 16, 19; see also Col- ness (συ α) aspired to in the monastic life (PG lectaneum Clarevallense 4.50; CChr.CM 208 : 364). By 88 : 1100D–1101A). The dogmatic work An Exact Ex- this renunciation Waldes gathered around himself position of the Orthodox Faith, written by John of Da- a group that called itself “The Poor of Lyon.” En- mascus, speaks about Christ resurrected as “way couraged initially, as it seems, by the Archbishop and model (δς κα τπς),” who leads his follow- Guichard, a Cistercian, the Waldensians were soon ers to a divinization characterized by incorruptibil- condemned as heretics, but survived as a religious ity and glory, whereby they achieve their creational destination as God’s “image” (4.13; PG 94 : 1137C). underground movement of itinerant preachers who A foretaste of the heavenly fulfilment of this takes realized apostolic life in the terms of poverty, chas- place in the Eucharistic “mystery.” Thus, in the Or- tity and obedience of the younger to the elder. thodox context the topic of discipleship describes On a more theological level, Bernard of Clair- the human divinization that is made possible by the vaux, another Cistercian, re-elaborated the tradi- Son’s incarnation, and which is celebrated in the lit- tional pattern of divinization, declaring that the re- urgy. quired conformity between humankind and God is In Latin medieval theology, the Rule of Benedict characterized not by “glory of majesty,” but by re-affirms the traditional vision of monastic life as “modesty of will” (voluntatis modestia), which is real- militia Christi and defines the monastery as “a ized in the virtues of mercy, piety and gentleness school of divine service,” so that “by never deviat- (In Canticum Canticorum 62.5; SC 472 : 272–74). Re- ing from his doctrine and persevering in the mon- ferring to Song 1 : 3, he interprets the bride’s desire astery in his teaching until death we shall partici- (Trahe me post te) as a wish “to follow the traces of pate at the passions of Christ in patience, so that his lifestyle in order to imitate his virtue (aemulari we shall deserve to be participants in His kingdom” virtutem).” According to Bernard, the human soul is (Prologus; SC 181 : 420–24). Imitation of Christ’s pas- dependent from a divine “pulling” to be able “to sion is concretized in monastic perseverance. Ac- deny herself, to take on herself his cross and to fol- cording to Gregory the Great’s Dialogues, the Eucha- low Christ by this.” Here, imitation means “com- ristic sacrifice “imitates” Christ’s passion, from passion (compati)” with Christ and is opposed to the which the author derives an admonition to penance desire to “enjoy” his glory (In Canticum Canticorum and distance to secular life, “for as we are celebrat- 21.2–3; SC 431 : 150–52). In the same period the ing the mysteries of our Lord’s passion we have to crusades concretize the vision of monachism as a imitate what we do” (4.60–61; SC 265 : 202). More militia Christi in the new-founded military orders explicitly than the Orthodox vision, this conception that were personally supported by Bernard. of imitation concentrates on Christ’s passion. As an About one generation after Waldes, another de- imitation of the Son’s incarnation Gregory inter- scendant of a merchant family, Francis of Assisi, es- pretes Paulinus of Nola’s voluntary self-subjection tablished a brotherhood in which the imitation of under slavery for freeing others (3.1; SC 260 : 264). Christ according to Matt 16 : 24; 19 : 21 and Luke

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14 : 26, realized in obedience, chastity and total (Sermo 34.4 and 304.2; PL 38 : 211–12 and 1395–96), poverty, is of central significance. It is their aim “to now relativizes the traditional gradualism of Chris- follow the humbleness and poverty of our Lord Je- tian ethics. This process has a visible result in the sus Christ,” limiting the brotherhood’s properties late 15th century. Last Supper paintings that show to food and clothing. Referring to 1 Pet 2 : 21, Fran- among the disciples of Christ the lay commissioners cis stresses loving one’s enemy as way to follow in of the work, such as on Dirk Bouts’ Leuven tryptic Christ’s footsteps (Regula non bullata 1, 9 and 22; SC from 1464/67. 285 : 122–24, 140 and 162). In his Admonitions,he Likewise, a 15th-century Waldensian catechism develops the pattern of discipleship in the terms of identifies love and discipleship and admonishes to a relationship between shepherd and flock: as the penance declaring: shepherd has saved his sheep by his passion, they This is the way we must hold to if we want to love, have to follow him in “affliction, persecution, that is, follow Christ: we must observe spiritual poverty shame, hunger, illness, temptation and all the other in our hearts, love chastity and humbly serve God. things,” in order to be rewarded with eternal life (6; Then we might follow the path of Jesus (Nobla Leiçon, vv. 442–46; De Stefano/Papini: 96). SC 285 : 100). Later Franciscan hagiography stresses this aspect of exterior assimilation to Christ, sym- The Hussites not only concentrate discipleship, as bolized in the last period of his life by the stigmata. elesewhere, on the spiritual virtues of faith, love The different ramifications of the Franciscan and hope, but also re-interpret the evangelical movement, and other mendicant orders with them, counsels in the terms of the “Six Small Command- accentuated the principle of apostolic poverty. Con- ments” derived from the Sermon on the Mount, temporaneously, however, this category encouraged which are considered as obligatory as the Decalogue further criticism of the ecclesiastical establishment itself. Furthermore, Hussitism accentuated the im- that escalated into the violent acts in the movement plications of tribulation and suffering linked to dis- of the Apostolic Brethren lead by Fra Dolcino. Ac- cipleship. A part of the Hussite Unity of the Breth- ren, called the “Small Party,” derived from this an cording to Marsilio of Padua, the example of Jesus egalitarian vision by affirming the validity of the has to be followed by practising humility and con- same principles for Christians of any social status tempt of the world. Alluding to the pope, Marsilio (Peschke: 124). says that who desires to be the principal “successor” The medieval mystics’ vision of discipleship is of the apostles has to live in absolute poverty (Defen- somewhat ambivalent. In her “Mirror of the Simple sor pacis 2.11; Scholz: 257). The thesis of the total Souls,” Marguerite Porete considers the observance poverty of Christ and the apostles, affirmed also by of Matt 19 : 21 as perfection in virtues; subse- the Fraticelli branch of the Franciscan Order, was quently, however, she invites the reader to sur- condemned by Pope John XXII in 1323 (DH 930). mount this state by giving licence to the virtues and From the poverty debates onward, the relationship living by faith, not by works, in a state defined between the seeking of sincere discipleship and the “peace of love in an annihilated life” (3–5; CChr.CM ecclesiastical establishment is a problematic one. 69 : 16–19). Similarly, Meister Eckhart, interpreting The classical differentiation between the com- Matt 5 : 3, considers exterior poverty praiseworthy, mandments that are valid for all and the evangelical as Christ himself in earthly life was poor. After that, counsels, which aim at a status of perfection and however, he requires a spiritual poverty realized in have only to be observed by clerics and monks, was the abandonment of one’s own will, one’s concep- re-defined by Thomas Aquinas, who considered tion of God, and one’s knowledge in order to re- only the first essential to perfection, whereas the trieve the eternal essence that is beyond what one second are instruments that serve to reach this aim. has temporally become (Sermon 52; Predigten Interpreting Matt 19 : 21, Thomas distinguishes be- 2 : 478–524). Even the exterior practice of virtues tween the command to leave all possessions to the obscures the interior image of God that the soul can poor (considered a counsel) and the subsequent in- find in herself (Traktate: 113/14). Speaking explic- vitation to follow Christ, judging it a command- itly about “nâchvolgen,” he declares that “Christ ment. According to this interpretation, the main is- did many works, inviting us to follow him spiritu- sue of discipleship consists in love conceived as a ally, not corporally,” imitating, for instance, his mental state, not as fulfilment of exterior exercises fasting in a continuous attention on what one is (Summa theologiae II–II, q. 185, a. 3). Thomas how- attached to (Traktate: 253). Explaining Matt 16 : 24, ever, still considered as basic for discipleship the Eckhart translates tollere by “ûfheben,” developing instruments of poverty, chastity and obedience (q. from there an interpretation according to which 186, a. 3). Jean Gerson, on the contrary, who refers one who really follows God leaves behind all sorrow to Thomas, gives them a “merely” instrumental and pain, acquiring divine imperturbability (Trak- function (Abramowski: 65). The focus of disciple- tate: 45). By this, Eckhart’s vision of discipleship is ship on love, prepared as it is by the Augustinian linked to the scheme of divinization. The fulfilment comprehension of love as a totalizing phenomenon of discipleship is to find peace in oneself, detaching and foundation of any concrete imitation of Christ oneself from all images and thus becoming a son of

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God (Traktate: 111–12). Henry Suso, on the other love and poverty, and by a quest for mystical union hand, avoids such a gradualism and indicates with God. among the exercises that lead to perfection both in- In the treatise On the Freedom of a Christian ternal tranquillity and exterior (1520), Martin Luther concentrates discipleship on imitation of the venerable image of our Lord Jesus the dimension of faith, which he considers the ful- Christ in the highest perfection, as far as possible for filment of all divine commandments. Faith is de- him to do, in humbleness, willful obedience and meek scribed as a state of unity of the human soul with poverty (Letter 23; Bihlmeyer: 475). the divine Word and with Christ himself. This al- An important genre of late medieval spiritual litera- lows Luther to re-elaborate the mystical aspect of ture is the “Life of Christ,” inviting readers to an imitatio and to give discipleship an essential charac- affective identification with the Son of God, partic- ter that goes beyond the notions of learning or obe- ularly with his passion. The most successful among dience. As faith, according to Luther’s treatise, has them is Ludolph of Saxony’s work that is character- to be exercised by love and self-renunciation in the ized by the three steps of lectio, meditatio and oratio. relationship with others, the faithful “becomes to Among the principal texts of 14th/15th-century De- others a Christian, as Christ has become to me” (WA votio moderna, the Imitation of Christ attributed to 7 : 35). Concluding this treatise, Luther identifies Thomas of Kempen starts with a reference to John faith and love as the criteria of discipleship. 8 : 12 (“Whoever follows me will never walk in As an erroneous form of discipleship, Luther de- darkness”). This passage is interpreted as an admo- nounces a meditation practice that aims at pure nition “to imitate his life and conduct (mores),” compassion with Jesus Christ’s suffering (WA which justifies the conclusion that the faithful’s 7 : 29). In his sermons he characterizes “Nachfolge” main concern must be “to meditate on the life of as like-mindedness with Christ and willingness to Christ” (1.1: Lupo: 3). Subsequently, this text gives follow his example in suffering (WA 17/II:348), but an interiorizing version of Christian life as a search also emphasises the difference between Christ’s for God and for love of Christ inside one’s own soul, cross and ours, which consists only in faith and love conceived of as divinization. It contrasts the many (WA 10/III:117). His reservations about a legalistic who love the heavenly reign and the joys that are misunderstanding of discipleship are articulated in announced to them with the few “bearers of his the warning not to imitate ingeniously the works cross” who participate in Christ’s passion. These re- of the Fathers: flections culminate in a chapter that invites the Anyone cannot but consider very religious the imita- reader to conformity with Jesus crucified in earthly tion of their works. No one, however, takes into ac- life, as practiced in the humble acception of “tribu- count that we should imitate not their works but their lation without consolation” (2.11–12: Lupo: 117– faith, which was the author of their works, even if it is 29). The 15th-century Theologia deutsch also invites necessary to do completely different works (WA the reader to “live the life of Christ” that has to be 5 : 478). realized as a sort of via media between the libertinis- Adequate discipleship is described not as reproduc- tic temptation to leave behind the commandments tion of an authorative model, but as existence in and the illusion of being able to gain salvation by faith and love freed from legalistic preoccupations works. In this way, there is a perspective of divini- with an ethical approach that is concentrated on the zation in humbleness and renouncement of the will needs of the neighbor. Luther’s reservations about (chs. 34, 38–39: Der Franckforter 1982: 118 and the notions of teaching and learning used for de- 123–25). scribing the relationship between God and human- Besides this, there is also a mariological concep- kind are also pronounced in his lectures on the pro- tion of discipleship that describes the Mother of phet Isaiah (1527/30), where he limits their God as the model of Christian existence as she was significance to the divine law: shaping Christ inside herself (e.g., Guerric of Igny, If the Law has a strong effect, then it leads to the cogni- Sermons II; SC 202 : 570 and 583). Furthermore, it tion of sin. There is nothing but learning in it. This is must be mentioned that the late medieval patterns the school Christ will destroy. For the laws and monas- of identification with the passion of Christ could tic life produce nothing but disciples, and they remain imply an anti-Jewish attitude. boys for a hundred years … In the realm of Christ, how- ever, there have to be, from the moment of baptism on, 2. Reformation Era. As a consequence of the cen- wisdom and righteousness. It does not appear like that, trality attributed to the divine “Word,” the seman- but we have it in the Word and in the faith. As Christ tic field of teaching and learning is important for is wisdom and salvation, thus I have it, too (WA 31/ all Reformation theology. Also in this epoch, how- II:564). ever, the topic of discipleship does not exclusively In the theology of John Calvin the topic of imitatio work with notions of learning, but is also articu- is crucial for his ethics: lated in other semantics, as those of lordship and The end of regeneration is that the life of the faithful service, or shepherd and flock. It is mostly charac- may exhibit a symmetry and agreement between the terized by a concentration on virtues like humility, righteousness of God and their obedience; and that

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thus they may confirm the adoption by which they are In a polemical treatise against the “carnal” view- accepted as his children (Inst. 3.6.1). points of the Wittenberg theology, Schwenckfeld The model to follow is Christ himself: declares that true faith As God the Father has reconciled us to himself in is swaying above itself, turning towards God and His Christ, so he has exhibited to us in him a pattern, to Son Jesus Christ, whom it seizes and transfers to the which it is his will that we should be conformed. believing heart (CSch 14 : 455). In this sense, Calvin speaks explicitly about an Again, faith is described as a state of union with “imitation of Christ” characterized by self-renunci- Christ himself. The Anti-Trinitarian Fausto Sozzi- ation and obedience to the divine law (Inst. 3.6.3 ni, who affirms a universally valid invitation to and 3.7.1). All these ethical reflections, however, are penance represented by Christ, links salvation to ac- based on the premise of an unmerited relationship tive discipleship: existing between God and the individual believer, He [Christ] will continuously help and fortify in calami- and do not contrast for this reason with the doc- ties and also in death those who have begun and con- tinued the way that was shown to them by His words trine of salvation by faith. Union with God, how- and by His own example, and at the end He will grant ever, requires sanctification, not mysticism: them eternal life (Sozzini 1.601). When we hear any mention of our union with God, we Thus, the topic of imitation of Christ is central for should remember that holiness must be the bond of it; his spirituality (Sozzini 2.128). not that we attain communion with him by the merit In Roman-Catholic Christianity of the Reforma- of holiness …, but because it is a peculiar property of his glory not to have any intercourse with iniquity and tion epoch, Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits (Socie- uncleanness (Inst. 3.6.2). tas Jesu) represent an efficacious re-definition of dis- cipleship in the terms of a clerical fraternity. Orthodox Lutheran and Reformed theology gives a Ignatius’ “Spiritual Exercises” use the “Imitation of more structured configuration to the topic of disci- Christ” and Ludolf’s “Life of Christ” in order to pleship by describing an “Order of Salvation,” pass- make the life of Christ accessible to the retreatant. ing from vocation via conversion, justification, and At the beginning of the second week, he is invited sanctification to the aspired glorification and union to imagine a king declaring that whoever follows with God. him will have to accept the king’s own conditions In the Radical Reformation the notions of disci- of life and tribulations in order to participate, after- pleship and imitatio stress the ethical requirements wards, in his victory. This pattern is subsequently of the divine law. Thomas Müntzer, inspired by his transferred to Christ and the retreatant is invited to self-understanding as apocalyptic prophet who has a prayer in which he proclaims his self-oblation and to announce a “bitter truth” of penitence, inverts desire “to imitate you by enduring all injustice, vi- the Reformation mainstream order of faith and eth- tuperation, and poverty, both factual and spiri- ics, referring to Matt 16: tual.” In his vision of discipleship Ignatius inte- There you will find that no one can believe in Christ grates a clear distinction between commandments before having become similar to him (Müntzer: 300 and evangelical counsels: Jesus has given an “exam- and 224). ple” both of the observance of the law and of evan- Likewise, the Anabaptist Hans Denck binds the gelical perfection by being first obedient to his par- knowledge of Christ to the prerequisite of disciple- ents and then dedicating himself, according to Luke ship in practical life (“das er im nachvolge mit dem 2 : 42–52, in the temple to the divine service (Eserci- leben”; Denck: 45). Both, however, describe this cios espirituales 98 and 134–35). The idea of the con- preparation as motivated by the Holy Spirit, so that formity of the believing soul with Christ also occurs the material difference from mainstream soteriol- in the writings of the two Carmelite mystics Teresa ogy does not consist in a meritorious notion of pen- of Ávila and John of the Cross. The topic of militia itence, but in a divergent conception of the rela- Christi is emphasised by Robert Bellarmine, who de- tionship of faith and ethics. According to Menno scribes the Catholic church as a sort of army led by Simons, who references Mark 1 : 15, discipleship is Christ as emperor, with the Pope as his representa- characterized by crucifying the flesh and human na- tive, the bishops as military tribunes, the priests as ture and by rising with Christ to a righteous and centurions and the lay people as soldiers (De membris penitent life, a way disclosed by God in the “time of ecclesiae militantis, Praefatio; Bellarmino: 145). grace” (Fast: 162–63). Concerning the spiritualistic branch of Radical Reformation, Caspar von Bibliography. Primary: ■ Augustin, “Sermones,” PL 38 (Paris 1845) 21–1483. ■ Bellarmino, R., Disputationes Roberti Schwenckfeld defines a quiet conscience as a status Bellarmini Politiani, Societatis Jesu, De Controversiis Christianae of spiritual union with God in which Fidei, Adversus huius temporis Haereticos, 2 vols. (Naples 1837). a man sees in the light of faith, experiences from divine ■ Bouton, J./J. B. van Damme (eds.), Les plus anciens textes de truth, and comes to know and recognize out of the Cîteaux (Achel 1974). ■ Calvin, J., Institutes of the Chris- Word of Life (which is Christ) that all his doings and tian Religion 1–2 (trans. J. Allen; Philadelphia, Pa. 1936); un-doings are righteous and considered propitiously trans. of id., Joannis Calvini Opera selecta 4–5 (München and well before God (CSch 4 : 894). 1931–36). ■ Climacus, J., “Scala Paradisi,” PG 88 (Turnholt

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 2/11/14 2:39 AM 909 Disciple, Discipleship 910 n.d.) 631–1164. ■ Collectaneum exemplorum et visionum Clare- Angela Merici, the Sisters of the Visitation founded vallense (Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis 1610 by Francis de Sales and Jane Frances de Chan- 208; Turnholt 2005). ■ Denck, H., Schriften 2. Teil: Religiöse tal, and the Daughters of Charity founded by Vin- Schriften (QFRG 24/2; Gütersloh 1956). ■ Denzinger, H./P. cent de Paul and Louise de Marillac (1643), lived Hünermann (eds.), DH (Freiburg i.Br. et al. 402005). ■ Fast, H. (ed.), Der linke Flügel der Reformation (Bremen 1962). simple lives without enclosure, working with the ■ von Hinten, W. (ed.), Der Franckforter (Theologia Deutsch) poor and the sick in their homes, but later were (Münchener Texte zur deutschen Literatur des Mittelalters required to live a cloistered life with monastic prac- 78; München/Zürich 1982). ■ John of Damascus, “De fide tices. In 19th-century France, more than 400 reli- orthodoxa,” PG 94 (Turnholt n.d.) 781–1223. ■ von Kem- gious congregations of apostolic women were pen, T., De imitatione Christi libri quatuor (ed. T. Lupo; Vatican founded; they were devoted to education, care for 1982). ■ de Loyola, I., Ejercicios Espirituales: Autobiografía (Bilbao n.d.). ■ Luther, M., D. Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische the sick, and other works of charity for the poor Ausgabe, 120 vols. (WA; Weimar 1883–2009). ■ Luther, M., and disadvantaged. “Von der Freiheit eines Christenmenschen,” WA 7 (Weimar The 20th century saw an explosion of new com- 1897) 12–38. ■ Marsilius von Padua, Defensor Pacis (ed. R. munities and movements seeking to live out a vi- Scholz; Fontes Iuris Germanici Antiqui; Hannover 1932). sion of Christian discipleship that stressed contem- ■ Müntzer, T., Schriften und Briefe (QFRG 33; Gütersloh plation, simplicity of life, and solidarity with the 1968). ■ Papini, C., La nobile lezione: La Nobla Leiçon (ed. A. de Stefano; Turin 2003). ■ Patschovsky, A./K.-V. Selge poor. Significant influences include the modern li- (eds.), Quellen zur Geschichte der Waldenser (TKTG 18; Güters- turgical movement, the trauma of World War II, loh 1973). ■ Porete, M., Speculum simplicium animarum (Cor- and the charismatic renewal. Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s pus Christianorum Continuatio mediaevalis 69; Turnholt book, The Cost of Discipleship (1937), provided a theo- ■ 1986). Quint, J. (ed.), Meister Eckharts Traktate (Stuttgart logical foundation for a new understanding of dis- 1963). ■ Quint, J. (ed.), Meister Eckharts Predigten, vol. 2 (Stuttgart 1971). ■ Schwenckfeld, C. von, Corpus cipleship. A number of new contemplative commu- Schwenckfeldianorum, 19 vols. (CSch; Leipzig/Pennsburg, Pa. nities represented a rediscovery of the monastic 1907–61). ■ Sozzini, F., Opera omnia, 2 vols. (Irenopolis charism in Protestantism; Pomeyrol in France [Amsterdam] 1656). ■ Suso, H., Deutsche Schriften (ed. K. (1929), Iona off the coast of Scotland (1938), Grand- Bihlmeyer; Stuttgart 1907). ■ Thomas Aquinas, Summa champ at Neuchâtel (1940), and the “Marien- Theologiae, vols. 2a/ae (ed. P. Caramello, Turin 1962). schwestern” (sisterhood of Mary) of Darmstadt Secondary: ■ Abramowski, L., “Johann Gerson: De con- siliis evangelicis et statu perfectionis,” in Studien zur Ge- (1947). Taizé, founded 1940 by Roger Schutz, origi- schichte und Theologie der Reformation, FS E. Bizer (eds. id./ nally a Protestant community, is now ecumenical, J. F. G. Goeters; Neukirchen-Vluyn 1969) 63–78. ■ Frank, with both Catholic and Protestant brothers. K. S., “Nachfolge Jesu II: Alte Kirche und Mittelalter,” TRE Many new communities focused on solidarity 23 (Berlin/New York 1994) 686–91. ■ Gerwig, M., “Imita- with the poor. Charles de Foucauld (1856–1916), tio Christi,” LMA 5 (München/Zürich 1991) 386–7. ■ Kirn, H.-M., “Contemptus mundi – contemptus Judaei? Nachfol- stressing the hidden life of Jesus at Nazareth, was geideale und Antijudaismus in der spätmittelalterlichen the inspiration for the Little Sisters and Little Predigtliteratur, ” in Spätmittelalterliche Frömmigkeit zwischen Brothers of Jesus. The Catholic Worker movement, Ideal und Praxis (eds. B. Hamm/T. Lentes; Tübingen 2001) founded by Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin (1933), 147–80. ■ Köpf, U., “Nachfolge Christi II: Kirchenge- ministers to the hungry and homeless in over 185 4 ■ schichtlich,” RGG 6 (Tübingen 2003) 6–9. Leclercq, J., communities today. Assistants in L’Arché commu- “Sequela Christi e imitazione IV: Il monachesimo medie- val,” DIP 8 (Rome 1988) 1307–11. ■ Matura, T., “Sequela nities, a movement founded by Jean Vanier (1964) Christi e imitazione V: La s. negli scritti di s. Francesco,” to live with those with mental and physical disabili- DIP 8 (Rome 1988) 1311–13. ■ Milchner, H. J., Nachfolge ties, practice a spirituality based on the beatitudes; Jesu und Imitatio Christi (Religionspädagogische Kontexte they encounter Christ in human vulnerability. und Konzepte 11; Berlin et al. 2004). ■ Pelikan, J., Jesus From the tragedy of World War II came the political through the Centuries: His Place in History of Culture (New Ha- theology of Johan Baptist Metz, a precursor of liber- ven, Conn. 1983). ■ Penco, G., “L’imitazione di Cristo nell’agiografia monastica,” CCist 28 (1966) 17–34. ation theology, as he sought to recover the “messi- ■ Peschke, E., Kirche und Welt in der Theologie der Böhmischen anic praxis of discipleship” in place of what he saw Brüder (Berlin 1981). ■ Riches, J. K., “Nachfolge Jesu III: as the bourgeois religion of his day; the Focolare Von der Reformation bis zur Gegenwart,” TRE 23 (Berlin/ Movement, founded by Chiara Lubich (1943), with ■ New York 1994) 691–701. Ruppich, H., Vom späten Mittel- its spirituality of communion; and the Catholic In- alter bis zum Barock, Erster Teil: Das ausgehende Mittelalter, Hu- manismus und Renaissance, 1370–1520 (Geschichte der deut- tegrated Community (Integrierte Gemeinde), founded schen Literatur 4/1; München 21994). ■ Steiger, J. A., in Munich (1968) to bring about a renewed under- “Ordo salutis,” TRE 25 (Berlin/New York 1995) 371–76. standing of the People of God, particularly with its ■ Thieme, K., “Consilia evangelica,” RE3 4 (Leipzig 1898) roots in a living Judaism. 274–78. Discipleship always means a practical Christian- Lothar Vogel ity expressed in everyday life. It is exemplified in a C. Modern Europe and America host of contemporary movements and communities In the Catholic Reformation, new communities of in addition to those already mentioned, for exam- religious women appeared, who were dedicated to ple, Opus Dei (1928), Cursillo (1944), Madonna active ministry. The Ursulines, founded 1535 by House (1947), Communion and Liberation (1954),

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Marriage Encounter (1962), Sant’Egidio (1968), and ments or had pure hearts, but the Ethiopic ḥawāryā, the Neocatechumenal Way (1964). The Catholic “messenger” may be the origin of ḥawārī (Zah- Charismatic Renewal (1967) has been enormously niser: 123). fruitful; it is now present in 238 countries and has Muḥammad himself is not recorded as having touched over 100 million Catholics. In France, a appointed a particular group of disciples, although number of communities tracing their roots to the some of his companions clearly formed a close body Renewal are particularly committed to evangeliza- of supporters around him. Ten of these, including tion. Emmanuel (1972) and Chemin Neuf (1973) are the four men who became the first caliphs of the urban communities now spread worldwide. The Islamic community after Muḥammad’s death, are Communauté Beatitudes (1976) and Verbe de Vie known as the “Ten blessed Companions” because (1976) are mixed communities of families, priests, they were promised entry into paradise. Even so, seminarians, and others consecrated to chastity. they are not regarded as forming a group that was Fondacio (1974) is involved in training lay leaders. necessarily distinctive from the other men and Christian discipleship has at times been more women who followed him. identified with the religious life according to the Su¯ ra 5 : 112 records Jesus’ disciples asking, “evangelical counsels” of poverty, chastity, and obe- O I¯ sā, son of Mary, can your Lord send a table, māida, dience than with the following of Jesus of the gos- down to us from heaven? pels. But discipleship cannot be reduced to an oth- erworldly spirituality. The recovery of the historical Jesus agrees to their request by asking God for a ta- Jesus in modern Christology, and particularly a new ble emphasis on Jesus’ preaching and ministry in the to be a festival, (īd) for us … and a sign from you; to work of scholars such as Jon Sobrino, Peter Phan, give us sustenance since you are the best Sustainer Elizabeth Johnson, and Terrence Tilley has led to a (5 : 114). renewed understanding of discipleship as being at The word for table, māida, is usually understood to the service of the kingdom of God. For Sobrino, it derive from māda, “to feed,” but it may reflect the means bringing the good news of salvation to the Ethiopic expression for a church altar on which the crucified peoples of the world. Tilley stresses wit- Eucharistic elements are laid. This leads several nessing to the reconciling practices of the Jesus western scholars to believe that the Qurānic ac- movement in new times and places. In the words of count is a version of the Last Supper of Jesus with Bonhoeffer, “A Christianity without discipleship is his disciples, albeit without any reference to Jesus’ always a Christianity without Jesus Christ.” (59) death (Robinson: 16). Bibliography: ■ Bonhoeffer, D., Discipleship (Dietrich Bon- A broader definition of disciples of Jesus is hoffer Works 4; Minneapolis, Minn. 2000); trans. of id., found in S 57 : 27, where they are called “those who Nachfolge (Munich 1937). ■ Rausch, T. P., Radical Christian followed him” who demonstrated “compassion and Communities (Collegeville, Minn. 1990). ■ Sobrino, J., The mercy.” However, the followers are more closely de- Principle of Mercy: Taking the Crucified People from the Cross fined as those who invented monasticism, which (Maryknoll, N.Y./New York 1994); trans. of id., El Principio- Misericordia: Bajar de la cruz a los pueblos crucificados (Santander was not prescribed for them, with the result that 1992). ■ Tilley, T. W., The Disciples’ Jesus: Christology as Recon- they did not properly perform what pleases God. ciling Practice (Maryknoll, N.Y./New York 2008). Subsequent interpretation has often distinguished Thomas P. Rausch the early disciples of Jesus as those who showed compassion and mercy from later followers who de- V. Islam viated from the pure message that Jesus brought. The disciples of Jesus are mentioned in the Qurān Since S 5 : 116 suggests that there were followers of in S 61 : 14, where believers are encouraged to be Jesus who worshipped him and his mother, who God’s helpers, anṣār, as Jesus’ disciples, al-ḥawāri- would therefore come under the judgment of God, yūn, were God’s helpers. Su¯ ra 3 : 52 adds the profes- commentators have commonly regarded them as sion of the disciples to Jesus, “We believe in Allah examples of deviant discipleship. If the “true” disci- and testify that we are Muslims.” Since S9:117 ples of Jesus were those who testified to him that commends the anṣār in Medina who helped the mu- they were Muslims (S 3 : 52), then it follows that hājirūn, the first Muslim immigrants from Mecca, after the advent of Muḥammad, no real follower of some traditions from Muḥammad, H adı¯ th, take the Jesus would have refused to become a Muslim disciples of Jesus as a model for the believers in (McAuliffe: 288–90). Medina who helped the Meccan believers to settle Bibliography: ■ McAuliffe, J. D., Qur’ānic Christians: An in their new home. Thus, Muḥammad named Analysis of Classical and Modern Exegesis (Cambridge 1991). twelve Medinans as al-ḥawāriyūn to be for the peo- ■ Robinson, N., “Jesus,” Encyclopaedia of the Qur’ān 3 (Leiden ple of Medina what the twelve disciples were for 2003) 7–21. ■ Wensinck, A. J., “H awārı¯ ,” Encyclopaedia of Jesus (Wensinck: 285). Other traditions from him Islam 3 (Leiden 1971) 285. ■ Zahniser, A. H. M., “Apostle,” connect the name to ḥawar, “intense whiteness,” Encyclopaedia of the Qur’ān 1 (Leiden 2001) 123. and see the disciples as men who wore white gar- Mark Beaumont

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VI. Other Religions groups. However, all of any master’s disciples tend As disciples, Jesus’ “Twelve,” the rabbinic talmidei to assume the responsibility of spreading and real- hakhamim (students of the sages), and Muḥammad’s izing the master’s vision. Membership in the circle “companions” (see “Disciple, Discipleship II. New may require a break, or pravrajyā (Sanskrit for the Testament,” “III. Judaism,” and “V. Islam”), are cer- Buddhist renunciate’s “going out”; Pali: pabbajja), tainly not unique to the three major monotheistic from ordinary life and family. Thus Wach (1944: traditions derived from the Bible and from the bib- 135) analogizes the claim by Jesus that those who lically-related Qurān. Broadly construed by Martin do God’s will are his true family, not his blood rela- Jaffee (2360) as “a particularly intense mentoring tives, to the comment by Buddhaghosa (whom relationship in which a body of knowledge deemed Wach in this instance mistakes for the Buddha him- essential to the wise conduct of life is transmitted self): “For some persons even father and mother are from the mentor (or master) to the protégé (or disci- no hindrances” (Visuddhimagga 3; trans. in Warren: ple),” religious discipleship is likewise found rooted § 97, 434; cf. Mark 3 : 31–35; Matt 21 : 47–50; Luke in other major civilizations’ religious and philo- 8 : 19–21; 14 : 26). Notwithstanding distinguishable sophical systems that emerged from the middle of “types of disciples: a type of Jesus-disciple, of Bud- the first millennium BCE through the middle of the dha-disciple, and … a type of Hellenic, or Sufist, first millennium CE in the Mediterranean world discipleship” (Wach 1988: 21), the western tend- ency has been to regard not only other western, but (viz. Greco-Roman philosophical tradition), Meso- also non-western and pre-Christian examples of dis- potamia, and South and East Asia (viz. Zoroastrian- cipleship through a NT lens: e.g., Weber (224) ism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism). spoke of Ananda as “[the Buddha’s] beloved disci- However, Jaffee’s construal, in concentrating ple, hence, the ‘John’ of primitive Buddhism”; upon transmitted “knowledge,” should be quali- Wach referred to Maidhyoimaonha likewise as the fied, given Joachim Wach’s well-known differen- Zoroastrian “John” (Wach 1944: 135 n. 122) and to tiation between the inherently personal master-dis- Devadatta, the accused schismatic, as Buddhism’s ciple relationship and the teacher-student “Judas Iscariot” (Wach 1988: 23; cf. Kersten: 98). relationship, which “is constituted through com- In the early 20th century, it was speculated that, mon interest in the object of study; the student re- like his temptation, miracles, and other aspects of spects the teacher as the possessor and mediator of his life, the disciples of Jesus and his dealings with certain crafts, knowledge or skill.” The disci- … … them “derived directly from Buddhism” (Hopkins: ple, in contrast, esteems the master “not because … 552). More recently, the multiple parallels between he conveys something useful, something transfer- Jesus and the Buddha in their relation to their disci- able from his possession to the disciple … Rather, ples have likewise struck more than one scholar. the significance for the disciple rests in the master’s Aside from the similarities already noted, the Bud- [individual and irreplaceable] personality” (Wach dha and Jesus have been said to have used the same 1988: 2). Making no reference to Wach, Lee Yearley command in summoning their first disciples: (226) similarly distinguishes between the “acciden- “Come, follow me!” (Kersten: 96) – even though the tal and contingent” relation of the “teacher” to the Buddha’s invitation was “Come and see” (Pali: Ehi student qua “self-legislator,” and the “essential passiko), an expression similar but certainly not (and necessary)” relation of the “savior” to the “dis- identical with Jesus’ “Come, follow me!” (NIV: Matt ciple.” 4 : 19; 19 : 21; Mark 1 : 17; 10 : 21; Luke 18 : 22). In The bond between Jesus and his disciples has each case, the disciples instantaneously renounced been seen by some scholars to find counterparts not all and followed. Both masters required of them a only in Muḥammad’s life but also in the biogra- homeless, insecure lifestyle, devoted to healing the phies of other religious “founders” such as the Bud- sick and other such selfless pursuits (e.g., compare dha, the Mahāvı¯ ra (Jainism’s most recent Jina or Matt 25 : 40 and Mahāvagga 8.26). And both encour- “conqueror”), Zoroaster, Mani, Confucius (Kongzi), aged their disciples to become missionaries, which and Laozi. Each of these, like Jesus, attracted what led to the formation of the “sangha” and “church” Wach – clearly recalling his own involvement in the (Amore: 39, 42–46; Kersten: 97–98). Kreis (circle) around the poet Stefan George (1868– It is beyond this article’s scope to investigate 1933) (see Ziolkowski: 347) – characterized as a “cir- how much, if at all, the NT’s representation of Jesus cle” of intimate fellowship, in which the disciples’ and his disciples may have been influenced by, or transformed existence entails emulation of, identi- may have influenced, the Buddhist pattern of disci- fication with, and dependence upon the master (cf. pleship, or any other comparable pattern in other Jaffee: 2360). religions. Yet it is noteworthy that such patterns are The master may single out one particular disci- still current. For example, in Buddhism (particu- ple as an intimate confidant. Thus Wach compares larly Mahāyāna) and also Hinduism, the disciple/ the “beloved disciple” of John’s Gospel with An- master or devotee/guru relationship remains cen- anda, Maidhyoimaonha, and Yen Hui in, respec- tral. In some Tibetan traditions, the guru is to be tively, the Buddhist, Zoroastrian, and Confucian seen as a Buddha for the student.

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Outside the “mainstream” Christian traditions warrior-companions of his retinue” (Alexander: 88; in which notions of discipleship hark back to the Murphy: 10). Later English mystery plays could paradigms of the NT and imitatio Christi (see “Disci- self-reflexively bring the experience of discipleship ple, Discipleship IV. Christianity”), those same par- to their audiences – as when at the end of the York adigms discernibly informed the gatherings of dis- Emmaus play (15th cent.) the disciples, here called ciples around certain charismatic literary artists: pilgrims, refer to the pressing need to move on be- e.g., Walt Whitman, revered “as a successor to Jesus, cause their own play has ended, but more impor- Kronos, Buddha, and every other religious figure tantly because they must preach the resurrection to of the past” (Robertson: 11); and George, with his the disciples in Jerusalem, just as they have done aforementioned Kreis. on the streets of York (Beadle: 365; see Fitzgerald: 159). In Dante’s Purgatorio (14th cent.), the poet, Bibliography: ■ Amore, R. C., Two Masters, One Message himself a disciple of sorts to Virgil and even Bea- (Nashville, Tenn. 1978). ■ Hopkins, E. W., History of Reli- gions (New York 1918). ■ Jaffee, M. S., “Discipleship,” Ency- trice, falls into and awakens from a mysterious clopedia of Religion, vol. 4 (Detroit, Mich. 22005) 2360–364. slumber that he compares to that of the disciples ■ Kersten, H., Jesus Lived in India: His Unknown Life Before and Peter, John, and James at the transfiguration After the Crucifixion (Shaftesbury 1997). ■ Robertson, M., (32.72–78 Alighieri: 301; cf. Luke 9 : 32). A long tra- Worshipping Walt: The Whitman Disciples (Princeton, N.J. dition of later gospel retellings obviously engages 2008). ■ Wach, J., Sociology of Religion (Chicago, Ill. 1944). the personalities and narratives of the disciples, too, ■ Wach, J., “Master and Disciple: Two Religio-Sociological culminating perhaps in such 20th-century works as Studies,” in id., Essays in the History of Religions (eds. J. M. Kitagawa/G. D. Alles; New York 1988) 1–32; trans of id., Kazantzakis’ Last Temptation of Christ (1951). In that Meister und Jünger (Leipzig 1925). ■ Warren, H. C., Buddhism novel, the tortured relationship between Jesus and in Translation (New York 1976 [.=11896]). ■ Weber, M., The his most important disciple, Judas, is explored to Religion of India: the Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism (eds. great existential and theological effect, for Christ H. H. Gerth/D. Martindale; New Delhi 2007). ■ Yearley, L., requires Judas’ courage to complete his sacrifice. “Teachers and Saviors,” Journal of Religion 65/2 (1985) 225– Perhaps Jorge Luis Borges, in his story “Three Ver- 43. ■ Ziolkowski, E., “Wach, Religion, and ‘The Emancipa- sions of Judas” (1944) goes further, though, imagin- tion of Art’,” Numen 46 (1999) 345–69. ing that this disciple is none other than the Christ Eric Ziolkowski himself, who suffers absolute and desolating pun- ishment for the good of humanity. VII. Literature Beyond those texts in which discipleship oper- The figure of the disciple as a student or faithful ates in terms of direct biblical referents, there are follower, and the theme of discipleship as a devoted many more that treat the topic more obliquely. Two self-fashioning on the basis of an inspired model, examples will suffice to indicate something of the are of course to be found throughout literature. The range of possibilities. Martin Buber’s collected Tales extent to which biblical disciples or discipleship is of the Hasidim records various stories of disciples. a source for later writers, however, will usually be Buber notes that a few in particular illustrate the impossible to determine. The biblical source is significance of discipleship for the early Hasidic sometimes quite clear, though. This is certainly so community, including one in which the Baal Shem in early Jewish and Christian depictions of disciple- Tov is frustrated by his inability to perform the ship. A story in the Babylonian Talmud about the blessing of the new moon because of a heavily greed of Elisha’s servant Gehazi, and the rift it cloudy sky. Meanwhile his disciples, simply danc- causes between servant and master (see 2 Kgs 5), is ing in joy (and without knowing of their master’s retold as though Gehazi were one of Elisha’s disci- angst) cause the moon miraculously to shine forth ples, who is punished for seeking to gain materially “in greater radiance than ever before” (Buber: 54). from the study of Torah (bSot 47a; Rubenstein: 116– A rather different example is to be found in George 49). Jesus, too, is understood to be an erring disci- Bernard Shaw’s play The Devil’s Disciple (first per- ple in the same text. Stories about Mary Magdalene formed 1897), which features a Nietzschean protag- from the NT (e.g., John 20) lead to her reconceptu- onist in America’s revolutionary period bent on alization in the Gospel of Mary as perhaps the most breaking pious proprieties wherever he sees them. important of Jesus’ disciples, although others in He calls out early in the play with provocative bra- that text, such as Peter, cannot entirely accept her vado, for instance, asking: “Now then: how many authority in this regard (see Schaberg: 168–77). Me- of you will stay with me; run up the American flag dieval tradition frequently depicts Jesus’ other dis- on the devil’s house; and make a fight for free- ciples engaging in various post-biblical adventures dom?” (Shaw: 81). Eventually, however, this disci- (Thomas traveling to India, for instance). In the Old ple of an anti-Christian moral code finds himself, English poem Dream of the Rood (6th or 7th cent.) ironically or not, at the point of sacrificing his life the disciples become earls or thanes to Jesus, their for the benefit of another. At the play’s end he is heroic liege, as is also the case in the Anglo-Saxon rescued and is invited into a pulpit to serve as min- epic Heliand (9th cent.), which similarly under- ister and to “wag his pow” (139), or to preach his stands the larger body of Jesus’ disciples as “the alternative gospel.

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Bibliography: ■ Alexander, M. (ed.), Earliest English Poems tury Galilean Jew called Jesus of Nazareth, and (London 1991). ■ Beadle, R. (ed.), The York Plays (London those who followed him, even to his death by Ro- 1982). ■ Borges, J. L., Collected Fictions (trans. A. Hurley; man crucifixion – and beyond – outside the Judean New York 1998). ■ Buber, M., Tales of the Hasidim (trans. O. city of Jerusalem. Marx; New York 1991), trans. of id., Die chassidischen Bücher (Berlin 1928). ■ Dante Alighieri, Purgatorio (trans. A. Man- These Jesus-story films draw in various ways delbaum; New York 1984). ■ Fitzgerald, C., The Drama of upon the narratives in the four Gospels in the NT, Masculinity and Medieval English Guild Culture (New York which feature not only Jesus and his chosen band 2007). ■ Murphy, G. R. (trans.), The Heliand: The Saxon Gos- of twelve disciples, but also a larger group of fol- pel (New York 1992). ■ Rubenstein, J., Stories of the Babylo- lowers, including women, some of whom travel nian Talmud (Baltimore, Md. 2010). ■ Schaberg, J., The Res- with him. Among the films that harmonize all four urrection of Mary Magdalene: Legends, Apocrypha, and the Gospels into a continuous narrative are: the silent Christian Testament (New York 2004). ■ Shaw, B., Collected Plays, vol. 2 (New York 1975). classic, The King of Kings (dir. Cecil B. DeMille, 1927); Jay Twomey two epics from the 1960s, King of Kings (dir. Nicho- las Ray, 1961) and The Greatest Story Ever Told (dir. VIII. Music George Stevens, 1965); the made-for-television, six At present no systematic study seems to have been hour miniseries, Jesus of Nazareth (dir. Franco Zef- carried out concerning the representation of Jesus’ firelli, 1977); and The Passion of the Christ (dir. Mel disciples or of the idea of discipleship in music. Just Gibson, 2004), which focuses on the final twelve as individual disciples (especially Peter) are some- hours of Jesus’ life. Over the years, at least three times mentioned in hymns and other liturgical films have gained prominence by basing their songs in the Middle Ages and beyond, also a few screenplays on individual gospels: The Gospel Accord- well-known oratorios deal with individual disciples ing to St. Matthew (dir. Pier Paolo Pasolini, 1964); the (or apostles) of Jesus: Peter in Marc-Antoine Char- film based on the Gospel of Luke named simply Je- pentier’s (1643–1704) Le reniement de St Pierre about sus (dir. Peter Sykes/John Krisch, 1979); and, more Peter’s denial (Matt 26 : 69–75//Mark 14 : 66–72// recently, The Gospel of John (dir. Philip Saville, 2003). Luke 22: 54–62). Peter and the idea of discipleship Just as the Synoptic Gospels of Matthew, Mark, is also a theme in the section about the founding of and Luke contain lists of the Twelve by name (Matt the church in Liszt’s Christus (1866–72), which sets 10 : 1–4; Mark 3 : 13–19; Luke 6 : 12–16), so several Matt 16 : 18 about building the church on Peter’s films contain scenes that introduce members of the confession to Jesus and John 21 : 16–17 about Peter Twelve individually to viewers through voice-over being a shepherd for Jesus’ flock. Paul is treated in and a walk-by. Among the films taking this ap- Mendelssohn’s Paulus (1836). Elgar’s biblical orato- proach are Ray’s King of Kings and the film called rios The Apostles (1903), including the calling of the Jesus. A more recent movie, which retells the Jesus- disciples, and The Kingdom (1906), built on Acts 1–2 story as a modern tale set in apartheid South Africa, and 4, deal more broadly with narratives about the Son of Man (dir. Mark Dornford-May, 2006), also disciples and early biblical ideas of discipleship in contains a sequence that similarly identifies indi- the church. vidually the chosen Twelve. Dornford-May cleverly indicates that some of the twelve disciples are fe- Bibliography: ■ Hitchcock, H. W., “Charpentier, Marc-An- toine,” Grove Music Online (www.oxfordmusiconline.com; ac- males by changing the traditional names listed on- cessed March 15, 2011). ■ McVeagh, D., “Elgar, Sir Edward screen to feminine forms (e.g., Philippa and Thad- (William),” Grove Music Online (www.oxfordmusicon- dea). line.com; accessed March 15, 2011). ■ Smither, H. E., A For a cinematic take on disciples and disciple- History of the Oratorio, 4 vols. (Chapel Hill, N.C. 1977–2000). ship in the Gospel of John, there is now available ■ Todd, R. L., “Mendelssohn(-Bartholdy), (Jacob Ludwig) Fe- Philip Saville’s The Gospel of John (2003), a word-for- lix,” Grove Music Online (www.oxfordmusiconline.com; ac- cessed March 15, 2011). ■ Walker, A. et al., “Liszt, Franz word visualization based on the Good News Bible [Ferenc],” Grove Music Online (www.oxfordmusiconline.com; translation. Therefore, in this film, even some disci- accessed March 15, 2011). ples of Jesus named in the roll calls of the Twelve Nils Holger Petersen in the Synoptic Gospels become more obvious par- ticipants in his story. Herein John is identified as IX. Film the enigmatic “beloved disciple” (John 13 : 23; The ideas of disciple and discipleship, of a person 19 : 26; 20 : 2; 21 : 7, 20; also 18 : 15; 19 : 35). Thomas following and learning from another, are represen- becomes the one who doubts Jesus’ resurrection ted in movies throughout the history of film, the (John 20 : 24–29). Mary Magdalene appears early-on story-telling and entertainment medium so charac- in Galilee as a follower of Jesus (John 6 : 16–59) and teristic of the 20th century. In Western culture, the becomes a “thirteenth disciple” who joins the men paradigm for this role and these relationships is es- at table for Jesus’ last meal and hears his farewell tablished by the NT Gospels. This brief treatment discourses (John 13 : 1–17 : 26). Although not men- of disciples and discipleship focuses on those films tioned in the Synoptic Gospels, the man named Ni- that depict the relationship between the first-cen- codemus seeks out Jesus (John 3 : 1, 4; 7 : 50) and

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 2/11/14 2:39 AM 919 Disciples, Call of the 920 even assists Joseph of Arimathea in the entomb- The tractate holds special interest because it ment of Jesus’ body (John 19 : 38–39). shows that ritual practices had a place in Hermet- Both Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus play ism, and it also suggests the existence of a Hermetic important roles supporting Jesus before Caiaphas community. Another remarkable feature is the trac- and other members of the Sanhedrin in Zeffirelli’s tate’s emphasis on Egypt and the spiritual superior- harmonizing Jesus of Nazareth (1977). It is Nicode- ity of its native traditions. In the Hermetic corpus mus who serves as the theological interpreter of Je- (CH) it has especial affinity with CH XIII. Of partic- sus’ death in the film. As the crucified Jesus hangs ular interest to NT studies are the notions of rebirth on the cross, Nicodemus looks on and recites the and spiritual offerings. “suffering servant” passage from Isa 53. Each Jesus film calls for an analysis in terms of Bibliography: ■ Camplani, A., Scritti ermetici in copto (Brescia its own nuanced view of Jesus, his followers, and 2000). ■ Dirkse, P. A. et al., “NHC VI,6: The Discourse on his mission, even as the four canonical gospels re- the Eighth and the Ninth,” in Nag Hammadi Codices V,2–5 flect differing views. But collectively these cine- and VI (ed. D. M. Parrott; NHS 11; Leiden 1979) 341–73. matic retellings of the Jesus story portray an itiner- ■ Mahé, J.-P., Hermès en Haute-Égypte, vol. 1 (Bibliothèque ant discipleship that involves radical faithfulness to Copte de Nag Hammadi, Section ‘Textes’ 3; Québec 1978). ■ God and God’s ways as described through Jesus’ Mahé, J.-P., “L’Ogdoade et l’Enneade,” in Écrits gnostiques (ed. id./P.-H. Poirier; Bibliothèque de la Pléiade 538; Paris words, deeds, and death. 2007) 935–71. Bibliographie: ■ Reinhartz, A., Jesus of Hollywood (Oxford Einar Thomassen 2007). ■ Staley, J./R. Walsh, Jesus, the Gospels and Cinematic Imagination: A Handbook to Jesus on DVD (Louisville, Ky. 2007). ■ Tatum, W. B., Jesus at the Movies: A Guide to the First Hundred Years and Beyond (Salem, Oreg. 32013). Disease W. Barnes Tatum /Sickness and Disease

Disciples, Call of the Dishan /Apostles, The Twelve; /Call Stories; /Disci- The name Dishan (MT Dîšān) appears only in refer- ple, Discipleship ence to the seventh son of “Seir the Horite” in the Transjordanian “land of Seir,” an alternate name Disciples of Christ for “Edom” (Gen 36 : 21, 30; 1 Chr 1 : 38). Identified as the father of Uz and Aran (Gen 36 : 28), Dishan /Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) is also attested in MT of Gen 36 : 26, though this instance is no doubt erroneous for Dîšôn (as the Discipline, Manual of LXX, Samaritian Pentateuch, Vulgate, and Syriac suggest; also 1 Chr 1 : 54). /Rule of the Community (1QS, 4QS, etc.) As vocalized in MT (Dîšān), the name stands as a variant of Dishon (Dîšôn), which oddly appears as the fifth son of the same “Seir the Horite” (Gen Discourse on the Eighth and Ninth, 36 : 21, 30; 1 Chr 1 : 38). Indeed, for Dî ān in MT, The (NHC VI,6) š LXX has Ρεισων (probably reading Rîšôn, a corrup- The Discourse on the Eighth and Ninth is a Hermetic tion of Dîšôn) in Gen 36 : 21, 28, 30 and Δησων in dialogue known only from a Coptic copy in the Nag 1 Chr 1 : 38. Yet Dîšôn is probably harmonistic: Hammadi Library. The speakers are Hermes, ad- Dîšān, which all other textual witnesses support, dressed as “father,” and his nameless “son.” The should be retained. instruction concerns the advanced levels of spiritual In any case, Dishan and Dishon are probably perfection, taking the pupil beyond the preparatory knowledge imparted in previous lessons. On this variants of the same name. The latter is the ex- level, understanding can no longer be attained by pected Heb. vocalization (with the Canaanite shift, means of ordinary discourse, but requires prayer, *ā > ō), whereas the former would have been more praise (“spiritual offerings”) and visionary experi- at home in Aramaic and Arabic; whether Dîšān or ence. Ecstatic practices of this kind, performed un- Dîšôn would have been more at home in Edomite der the guidance of a master, bring about the trans- dialect is unclear. Hebrew dîšôn appears once in the formation and the rebirth of the initiate. He then Bible as a common noun referring to a clean ani- becomes one who belongs to the realm beyond the mal, though its precise species is uncertain. planetary Hebdomad: the eighth sphere of the souls Choon-Leong Seow and angels and the ninth sphere where the divine / mind itself is located. See also Dishon

Authenticated | [email protected] Download Date | 2/11/14 2:39 AM Disciple Well is an initiative of Assemblies of God Christian Education and Discipleship. We exist to help you disciple well. To learn more click below. LEARN MORE. Who We Are. AG Christian Education and Discipleship exists to see an intergenerational Spirit Empowered Church demonstrating a growing knowledge of God's word. Disciple Well, an initiative of AG CE & Discipleship, was created the simple goal of helping you disciple well. We are disciples, church leaders, and disciple-making networks. Our main goal is that people would become Jesus-style disciple makers. What is the Discipleship.org Collective? An online community for disciples and disciple makers. Live discussions. Live webinars with disciple-making experts. Online learning community. Disciple-maker social network. Disciple-making resources. Forums, blogs, ebooks & podcasts. Definition and meaning:Disciple, Discipleship During Jesus' earthly ministry, and during the days of the early church, the term that was used most . During Jesus' earthly ministry, and during the days of the early church, the term that was used most frequently to designate one of Jesus' followers was "disciple" (mathetes [maqhthv"], 262 times). Hence, discipleship is a central theological theme of the Gospels and Acts. The situation is different in the Old Testament and in the rest of the New Testament. To learn about what a Disciple is, go to it's wiki page. Here you'll find pages and tutorials that will help you build discipleship and potentially help you build your relationship with God. This page assumes you already have a relationship with Jesus Christ, and simply want to follow closer in his footsteps. If you do not already have a relationship with Jesus, and want to take that first step, try reading the page on Being Saved. Through discipleship, we are able to have a deeper understanding of God and His Word. I have compiled the top twenty-five discipleship training program and researched how each one works. 1. Youth With a Mission (YWAM). YWAM is a Discipleship Training School (DTS) that seeks to bring you closer to God. It is a six-month discipleship program. There are two parts to the training, the first is known as the “lecture phase†​ and the second is known as the “outreach phaseâ€.​ To learn about what a Disciple is, go to it's wiki page. Here you'll find pages and tutorials that will help you build discipleship and potentially help you build your relationship with God. This page assumes you already have a relationship with Jesus Christ, and simply want to follow closer in his footsteps. If you do not already have a relationship with Jesus, and want to take that first step, try reading the page on Being Saved. is that discipleship is (uncountable) the condition of being a disciple while disciple is a person who learns from another, especially one who then teaches others. As a verb disciple is. (obsolete) to train, educate, teach. Other Comparisons: What's the difference? Noun. (uncountable) The condition of being a disciple. (countable) The period during which a person is a disciple. disciple. English. Noun. What is discipleship? Are Christians disciples of Christ and should fellow Christian’s disciple others? The word disciple comes from the Koine (common) Greek word “mathetes†​ which means a pupil, student, or apprentice of some teacher. The Teacher of the disciples in the New Testament was Jesus Christ of course. The word disciple is related to a word for discipline. Any training is a discipline of the mind or body and so that is what Jesus was doing to the 12 disciples He called to be His followers.