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Rural Dairy Technology

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Rural Dairy Technology Rural Dairy Technology C.B.O'Connor International Livestock Research Institute Addis Ababa, Ethiopia January 1995 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ......................................................... xi Foreword ................................................................. xiii ) Introduction .......................................................... 1 2. Milk as a food ........................................................ 3 3. The composition of milk ................................................ 7 3.1 Genetic factors ................................................. 7 3.1.1 Breed and individuality of the cow ......................... 7 3.2 Environmental factors ........................................... 7 3.2.1 Interval between milkings ................................ 7 3.2.2 Stage of lactation ....................................... 7 3.2.3 Age and health ......................................... 8 3.2.4 Feeding regime ......................................... 8 3.2.5 Completeness of milking ................................. 8 4. Milk chem istry ....................................................... 9 4.1 Physical status of milk ........................................... 9 4.1.1 Ionic solutions ......................................... 9 4.1.2 Molecular solutions ..................................... 9 4.1.3 Colloids ............................................... 9 4.1.4 Emulsions ............................................. 9 4.1.5 Dispersions ............................................ 9 4.2 pH and acidity ................................................ l0 4.2.1 Buffer solutions ....................................... 10 4.3 M ilk constituents .............................................. 10 4.3.1 Fat .................................................. 10 4.3.2 Proteins .............................................. 14 4.3.3 Carbohydrates ......................................... 16 4.3.4 M inor milk constituents ................................. 17 5. M icrobiology ........................................................ 19 5.1 Bacteria ...................................................... 19 5.1.1 Bacterial growth ....................................... 20 5.1.2 Factors affecting bacterial growth ......................... 21 5.1.3 Bacteria in milk ....................................... 22 5.2 M oulds ...................................................... 22 iii 2revious Pcage Blank 5.3 Y easts ....................................................... 23 5.4 V iruses ...................................................... 23 5.5 M ilk microbiology ............................................. 24 5.5.1 Pasteurisation ......................................... 25 5.5.2 Sterilisation .......................................... 25 5.6 Microbiology of butter ......................................... 26 5.6.1 Sources of contamination ............................... 26 5.6.2 Control of micro-organisms it. butter ...................... 26 6. Clean milk production ................................................ 29 6.1 Sources of contamination ....................................... 29 6.1.1 The interior of the udder ................................ 29 6.1.2 The cow as a source of pathogens ......................... 29 6.1.3 M ilking utensils ....................................... 30 6.1.4 Miscellaneous sources of bacteria in milk .................. 30 6.2 Cooling m ilk ................................................. 30 7. Milk reception, dairy accounting and record keeping ........................ 33 7.1 Reception .................................................... 33 7.1.1 Q uality .............................................. 33 7.1.2 Q uantity ............................................. 33 7.1.3 Composition of milk ................................... 33 7.1.4 Adulteration of milk ................................... 33 7.2. Dairy accounting and record keeping ............................. 34 7.2.1 M ilk quantity and quality ................................ 34 7.2.2 Processing records ..................................... 34 7.2.3 Records of product quality and sales ....................... 34 7.2.4 Suggested formats for records of milk intake, payment and utilisation ......................................... 35 8. M ilk processing ..................................................... 37 8.1 M ilk separation ............................................... 37 8.1.1 G ravity separation ..................................... 37 8.1.2 Centrifugal separation .................................. 38 8.1.3 Hand separator ........................................ 40 8.1.4 Separator maintenance .................................. 42 8.1.5 Calculations .......................................... 42 8.1.6 Standardisation of milk and cream ........................ 44 8.2 Buttermaking with fresh milk or cream ............................ 46 iv 8.2.1 Buttermaking theory .................................... 47 8.2.2 Theory of the mechanism of churning ...................... 47 8.2.3 Chum preparation ...................................... 47 8.2.4 Churning temperature ................................... 47 8.2.5 Washing the butter ..................................... 48 8.2.6 Salting, working and packing the butter .................... 48 8.2.7 Washing the churn and buttermaking equipment after use ...... 48 8.2.8 Overrun and produce in buttermaking ...................... 49 8.2.9 Butter quality ......................................... 50 8.3 Buttermaking with sour whole milk ............................... 51 8.3.1 Butterm aking ............................................. 51 8.4 Ghee, butter oil and dry butterfat .................................. 53 8.5 Cheesemaking using fresh milk ................................... 53 8.5.1 Rennet coagulation theory ... ........................... 54 8.5.2 Cheese varieties ....................................... 54 8.5.3 Cheese yield .......................................... 67 8.6 Cheesemaking with sour skim milk ................................ 67 8.7 M ilk fermentations ............................................. 68 8.7.1 Fermented milks ....................................... 69 8.7.2 Concentrated fermented milk ............................. 71 9. Cleaning, sanitising and sterilising dairy equipment ......................... 73 9.1 Dairy water supplies ............................................ 73 9.1.1 Bacteriological quality .................................. 73 9.1.2 Chemical quality ....................................... 73 9.1.3 Water softeners ........................................ 74 9.2 Chemicals used for cleaning ..................................... 74 9.2.1 Sterilisers ............................................ 75 9.3 Cleaning procedure ............................................ 75 10. Sampling and analysis of milk, milk products and water ...................... 77 10.1 Sam pling ..................................................... 77 10.2 M ilk pH ..................................................... 77 10.2.1 Measuring pH using indicator ............................ 77 10.2.2 Electrometric measurement of pH ......................... 77 10.3 Titratable acidity test ........................................... 78 10.3.1 Using N10 sodium hydroxide ........................... 79 10.3.2 Using N/9 sodium hydroxide (milk) ....................... 79 v 10.3.3 Using N/9 sodium hydroxide (cream) ...................... 80 10.4 Alcohol test .................................................. 80 10.5 Clot-on-boiling test ............................................ 80 10.6 Fat determ ination ........... ................................. 81 10.6.1 Milk ................................................ 81 10.6.2 Skim milk, buttermilk and whey .......................... 84 10.6.3 Cream ............................................... 84 10.6.4 Cheese .............................................. 85 10.7 Specific gravity of milk ......................................... F5 10.8 Total solids (TS) in m ilk ........................................ 87 10.8.1 Lactometer method .................................... 87 10.8.2 Oven-drying method ................................... 87 10.9 Formaldehyde in milk .......................................... 88 10.10 Methylene blue reduction test .................................... 88 10.11 Resazurin 10-minute test ........................................ 90 10.12 Sediment or visible dirt test ...................................... 91 10.13 M oisture content of butter ....................................... 91 10.14 Salt content of butter ........................................... 92 10.15 Protein content of milk by formaldehyde titration .................... 92 10.16 Estimation of hardness in water .................................. 93 10.16.1 Temporary hardness ................................... 93 10.16.2 Permanent hardness .................................... 93 10.16.3 Water-testing tablets ................................... 94 11. Dairy building design and construction ................................... 95 11.1 Site selection ................................................. 95 11.1.1 W ater supply ......................................... 95 11.1.2 Land ................................................ 95 11.1.3 Other buildings ....................................... 95 I1.LIA Proximity to the road ................................... 95 11.1.5 Effluent disposal ...................................... 95 11.2 Type of building
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