42 Erdkunde Band XXII

TOWNS IN *)

With 3 figures, 4 photos and 2 tables

Ronald J. Horvath

Stadtische in Zusammenfassung: Siedlungen Athiopien theywere substantially different from the towns one Ein Vergleich der Siedlungsvorgange in Athiopien im 19. encounters within the country today. In Messing's Jh. und in der Gegenwart zeigt einen beachtlichen Wandel. study of northern Ethiopia, he observed that towns Friiher gab es in den meisten Gebieten des Landes keine had their origin within the feudal social organization stadtischen Siedlungen, wogegen heute Ansatzpunkte iiber of Amhara 2). cities and towns in all anzutreffen sind. Es ist nur wenig iiber diese stadtischen society Traditionally, the core area of Siedlungen bekannt, und dieser Beitrag greift zwei Aspekte, Ethiopia (the Amhara-Tigre areas) were feudal settlements within a feudal state. Over ihre Entwicklung und ihre wirtschaftliche Grundlage, auf. Die Entwicklung der stadtischen Siedlungen hat sich in drei much of the remainder of what is found within the Perioden die die italienische vollzogen: voritalienische, confines of the modern state of Ethiopia, towns were und die nachitalienische Periode. (1936-41) absent. Today one finds towns developing all over Die stadtischen der voritalienischen Periode Siedlungen Ethiopia; these, however, bear little resemblance to gehorten meist der alten Feudalordnung an, mit Ausnahme towns in historic Ethiopia, in terms of social, political, der Eisenbahnstadte, die mit dem Bau der Addis Abeba and economic Dschibuti-Eisenbahn entstanden und in vieler Hinsicht die organization. This discussion of the and nature of neuere Entwicklung vorwegnahmen. development Die italienische Periode kann als die entscheidende Wende towns in Ethiopia is derived from a study of twenty one towns in of in der Entwicklung stadtischer Siedlungen angesehen wer the immediate umland 3). den, weil die Feudalordnung einen empfindlichen Schlag These towns are contained within a circular area hav erhielt, die funktionalen Verkniipfungen zunahmen und ing a 20-miles radius centering upon Addis Ababa. eine lebhafte in kam. Siedlungsgriindung Gang Ethiopia's capital city itself is not a part of this study. Nach dem der Italiener eine kurze Zeit der Abzug folgte The 20-miles radius has no particular significance and von zahlreichen und Stagnation, abgelost Neugriindungen the circular was a used to solve another deren beachtlichem Wachstum. shape design problem4). It is felt that the conclusions derived Eine Untersuchung der funktionalen Grundlage zeigt, dafi here may be valid for towns over much of diese modernen stadtischen Siedlungen meist zentrale Orte developing reliable studies sind; der Einzelhandel hat die weitaus wichtigste Funktion, Ethiopia today; however, comparative are not available to confirm this observation. und Gasthauser sind die wichtigsten Einrichtungen. yet The purpose of this article is to probe into the nature In their examination of urbanization in Africa, geo of the small town in Ethiopia. Understanding of the on graphers have concentrated large cities. In Ethiopia, for example, there have been two major studies of 2) S. D. Messing, The Highland Plateau Amhara of Addis Ababa by geographers, yet almost nothing has Ethiopia, unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Department of been done on the remaining towns in the country 1). Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, 1957, p. 285; In a continent where there is a to strong tendency -, "The Abyssinian Market Town", P. Bohannon and a ward primate distribution of cities, itmay be argued G. Dalton, Markets in Africa, Evanston, Northwestern an on that focus on the largest city is emphasis the University Press, 1962, p. 389. case. not exception rather than the general It is being 3) The sources of data include systematic field observa suggested that sufficientwork has been done on large tions, interviews of residents of the towns, and aerial photo sets cover area: cities inAfrica, but rather thatmore attention should graphs. Two of air photos the study 1:20,000 held the Authority be directed toward the more representative urban photos by ImperialHighway - and held the Blue Nile both the small town. 1:50,000 photos by Survey, phenomenon were located in Addis Ababa. The photos taken during Urbanization in Ethiopia has undergone funda 1957-1958. The 1:50,000 series were used to construct the mental the twentieth century. metamorphosis during base map for this article. The historical materials largely A of towns existed in historic but system Ethiopia, come from interviews of long time residents of the towns. The multitude of travelers who moved in and out of Addis an intensive *) I wish to acknowledge the financial assistance provided Ababa rarely mentioned these towns, and the to by the African-American Universities Program. To the examination of written literature proved be of little In no census ever students in my two Urban Geography classes at Haile value. addition, national has been taken. were on a Sellassie I University who conducted surveys and wrote Field observations made number of aspects of the towns term papers on two towns, and , as part of including complete surveys of the functions of towns. their course work, I wish to express my appreciation. eight Around Addis Ababa: A 1) E. Berlan, Addis Ababa, Grenoble, Imprimerie Allier, 4) R. J.Horvath, Geographical a on 1963; Martin Johnson, Ph. D. dissertation in process, Study of the Impact of City its Surroundings, unpub of Department of Geography, University of California, Los lished Ph. D. dissertation, Department Geography, Los 1966. Angeles. University of California, Angeles, Ronald J. Horvath: Towns in Ethiopia 43

towns is sought primarily through an examination of The economy and settlement of the Galla in the urban functions. In the first section, the process of study area were relatively simple during the middle near town founding and development is deliniated. This is of the 19th century. The Galla practiced a sub an followed with a discussion of the functional basis of sistence form of mixed farming and grew impressive were the towns. The term town, as used in this study, refers range of cereals, pulses, and oil seeds. Animals to as permanent, agglomerated settlements whose popu very important to theGalla, having ceremonial well as lations are overwhelmingly engaged in urban (non subsistence significance. Periodic markets, which farm) occupations. No size criterion is employed in the were important mechanisms for economic articulation definition; the population of the towns studied ranges above the village level, were few and insignificant from approximately 100 to 6,750. The settlements are from the point of view of the local economy 6). The locally referred to as "ketema", theAmharic word for fabric of Galla settlementwas almost entirely com or city town. posed of small agglomerations of farmsteads which travelers referred to as villages and hamlets 7). Only Background one small urban center called Roggie, which was near the site of the market the same The towns being examined are located in the center present periodic by name was located in the area and it of highland Ethiopia in the province of Shoa (see in (see Fig. 2), study was of a of cities established Muslims set, Fig. 1). The area has a flat aspect as compared part system by in the and trade tomuch of highland Ethiopia despite the thousands of engaged slave, gold, ivory 8). Roggie feet of local relief; themedian elevation is near 8,000 ceased to exist around the turn of the 20th century. The Galla of the area themselves did not feet. Physiographically, the area is a plateau of vol study possess towns. canic origin dotted by a few denuded, volcanic cones. the 1880's the Galla became of the The area has a temperate,wet and dry climate (Cwa) During part Shoan which was located in the northeastern and the soils, which are of volcanic origin, are very Kingdom of Shoa. In the since fertile.Little of the climax vegetation remains and the province century their conquest and into theAmhara theGalla most conspicuous tree is the ubiguitous eucalyptus incorporation kingdom, of the area have meta (E. globulus) which was introduced to Ethiopia near study experienced thorough one the turn of thepresent century (see photo 1). morphosis. Indeed, anthropologist observed "The Shoa Galla in the environs of In order to understand the cultural geographic (central) living Addis Ababa have been so milieu inwhich towns of the study area developed, one strongly influenced by Amhara must culture that be called examine the interrelationships between three they might Galla-speaking Amhara." groups: 1. theAmhara, 2. other Ethiopian tribal groups 9) The are are (theGalla, theGurage), and 3. the foreigners.The vast Amhara important because they the majority of the people in the towns are Galla. dominant group in Ethiopia and as such their culture has context A Cushitic speaking people known as the Galla established the within which other groups in occupied the study area during the 19th century.Galla their empire have operated. The Amhara are a Semitic social structure was quite different than the Amhara. speaking, Coptic Christian people. Unlike the a A basic feature of Central (Tulama) Galla societywas Galla, theAmhara have well stratified society. Tra its decentralized character. The clan was the basic unit ditionally, the elite was composed of the emperor of the society with only weak trans-clan integration such as ritualistic intercourse. One of the periodic 6) C. W. Isenburg and J. L. Krapf, Journals of the Rev. distinctive features of Galla was its society age grade Messrs. Isenburg and Krapf, Detailing Their Proceedings as system known the "gada" system 5). One's position in the Kingdom of Shoa, and Journeys in Other Parts of in the "gada" cycle prescribed one's social, political, Abyssinia in the Years 1839 to 1842, London, Seeley, Burn side and and military obligations to the community. Today, by Seeley, 1843, pp. 187-217; W. C. Harris, The a Highlands of London, Brown, Green contrast, only century since the "gada" system was Ethiopia, Longmans, and 1844, Vol. Bohannon the key institution of Galla society, the author found Longmans, II, pp. 187-202; and Dalton would call these markets Bo few vestiges of the system in the "peripheral". remaining study hannon, 7. area. op cit., p. Indeed, the "gada" system had virtually dis 7) G. Bianchi, Alia Terra dei Galla, 1879-1880, Milano, appeared from thememories of the young Galla of the Fratelli Treves, 1886, pp. 288, 484; Harris, op. cit., Vol. area. Ill, p. 48 and Vol. II, pp. 188, 191. 8) A. Cecchi, Da zeila alle Frontiere del Caffa, Roma, 5) Asmaron Legesse, "Class Systems Based on Time", Ermanno Loescher, 1886, Vol. II, p. 489; M. Abir, Trade of has and Journal Ethiopian Studies, I, 1963, pp. 1-29, put Politics in the Ethiopian Region 1835-1855, unpub on nature together the known surces the of the "gada" lished Ph. D. dissertation, School of Oriental and African see system among the Central Galla. Also Haberland, Studies, University of London, 1964. E. von, Galla Sud-Athiopiens, Stuttgart, W. Kohlhammer, 9) Haberland, op. cit., p. 776; my own brief examina where the sources are 1963, pp. 536-544, historical recapitu tion of changes in some aspects of Galla culture corrobo lated and some new information has been added. rates this observation. 44 Erdkunde Band XXII and a clerical and feudal nobility. The lower class was regarded as ignoble by theAmhara, and non-Amhara largely composed of the peasantry. Today, especially people have performed these tasks 15). Trade is but in the larger cities, the dimension of Amhara culture one of these ignoble occupations and traditionally has expanded. Great numbers of educated people have Muslims conducted the foreign trade. More recently to replaced or joined the old nobility. At the same time a Gurage have come also engage in trade and have middle class has developed 10). been displacing theMuslims in this occupation. It is the Shoan Amhara who are important from the The complex relationship between the various point of view of the area studied. The Shoan Amhara ethnic groups in the study area is but a part of the Kingdom under Menelik II during the last decades of story of the evolution of Ethiopia in the late 19th and the 19th century extended hegemony over much of early 20th century. During the 20th century a great what is southern Ethiopia today. The Shoan Kingdom number of fundamental changes have occurred in could boast a modest system of cities and during the Ethiopia, one of which was the emergence of a system process of Shoan Amhara expansion, Menelik moved of towns. The following is an attempt to relate the his capital city out of Amhara country into Galla way in which part of this system of towns came into country. In 1889, Menelik became emperor of Ethio being. pia and his thenmilitary camp, Addis Ababa, became The origin and growth of towns the capital of Ethiopia n). Between 1890 and the pre sent,Addis Ababa grew from a small temporary settle The evolution of towns in Ethiopia may be divided ment to a metropolis of approximately a half million into three periods: the pre-Italian period, the Italian people 12). period (1936-41), and the post-Italian period. In each we see nature The Gurage are a Semitic speaking people who came period may important changes in the towns. turn originally from a district 40 miles southwest of Addis of the Near the of the present century, towns to Ababa. The Gurage have migrated to Addis Ababa in very much belonged the historical pattern of great numbers and constituted 17.2 per cent of the urbanization in Ethiopia. Before the Italian invasion we to see some of city's population in 1952 13). Today the Gurage re in 1936, already begin signs change. present a small but conspicuous minority within the Addis Ababa had changed inmany profound ways by third of the 20th but in the small study area where they are engaged in fresh vegetable the decade century, towns had not manifested itself cultivation, in various aspects of eucalyptus produc change yet markedly. The located tion, and in the retail shops as merchants in the towns pre-Italian period. Holeta, west of Addis was founded about a decade and periodic markets. Ababa, after Addis Ababa after The Arabs are the largest group of foreigners in the (see Fig. 1). Shortly 1902, Menelik built a summer at Holeta because the towns in the study area. Traditionally Muslims (not palace was to have more always Arabs) controlled Ethiopia's foreign trade. To general vicinity thought pleasant summer weather than Addis Ababa. em day one may find Arabs inmost of the towns in the Ethiopian area had alternative residences in historic study engaged in retail trade. perors commonly and the Haile The population of the towns to be discussed is Ethiopia, present Emperor, Sellassie, has residences all over the primarily made up of the groups mentioned above and Empire. Menelik's Holeta into a settle only a fraction of the population comes from other During reign grew ment of several hundred houses. The basis of groups 14).The relationship between the Amhara and perhaps a on of Holeta was the Menelik had non-Amhara groups varies good deal. The Galla, support early palace. a staff of corvee, and slaves who one hand, have rather readily accepted Amhara norms, permanent freemen, the needs of the while he whereas on the other hand, the Gurage have largely performed varying emperor resisted Amharization. The distinction between the was in residence. There was a clear division of labor, and there were 44 Amhara and Galla is diminishing rapidly inmany of reportedly, occupational groups, been some of which were carpenters, fence makers, the towns. Certain occupations have traditionally guards, and blacksmiths. These people were reimbursed by being given parcels of land (onwhich they grew crops), D. Wax and of 10) Levine, Gold, Chicago, University a small annual salary, and periodic feasts in the palace. Press, 1965, 5. Chicago Chapter Palace duties took up only a portion of their time. "The Foundation and Growth of n) R. Pankhurst, The division of labor inHoleta was manifested in Addis Ababa to 1935", Ethiopia Observer, Vol. 6, 1962, the town's territorial divisions. The emperor alloted pp. 33-61. W. Kuls, ?Addis Abeba: Entstehung und Ent each group an area known as a "sefer". wicklung der athiopischen Hauptstadt", Paideuma. Mittei occupational there was the "sefer" or the lungen zur Kulturkunde, Vol. 6, 1957, pp. 318-325. Thus, carpenter's guard's 12) See Berlan, op. cit. "sefer". Metro a 13) C. K. Wang, "The Population of Ethiopia's Very soon afterHoleta was established, Saturday polis", Ethiopia Observer, I, 1957, p. 57. market was founded. The market met both the needs of 14) One can find an occasional Greek or Italian operat a ing a restaurant, or a Tigre girl working in tavern. 15) Messing, op. cit., 1962, p. 393. Ronald J. Horvath: Towns in Ethiopia 45

_ACHANCHO addition, some craftsmen (weavers) established them selves and land owners and tenant farmers built resi dences. Before the Italian invasion, settlements com posed of 20 to 25 buildings had developed around the original railroad station nuclei of at least two of these settlements. The Italian period. The Italians occupied Ethiopia between 1936 and 1941. During this period they initiated a number of changes of which the build ing of a system of all-weather roads in the country is ' on HOtWWiiARCOS ' noteworthy. The Italians also left their mark the ^^^^^^^^ urban scene by founding towns and stimulating the centers. growth of existing urban The role the Italians played can be illustrated by describing the foundation and development of Sen dafa, located to the northeast of Addis Ababa. After the Italians built theDessie Road, they founded Sen an on dafa by constructing army camp confiscated land. Former officers' barracks, made of stone, can still be seen in the town today. An existing periodic market located a few kilometers away from was RMDS FOUNDATIONPEfttQQS moved to a site to the camp. The f ^t^UDvV adjacent military -+~r*r* RAItROADS PRE-ITALIAN Italians to take residence in P**?* Q encouraged people up SHOAMOViira/ ^^^7 \ CONTOURLINES ITALIAN Sendafa in a of ways. women were || variety Single to VVs_^w-^/ ^^iS^OHLVl :#?>ST-ITAUAN recruited to entertain the troops. According inform ants first beer and mead in the small Fig. 1: Town Foundings in Ethiopia the places selling towns were established during the Italian occupation. the town and of the surrounding peasants, and very Free land was another inducement used to attract soon Holeta's market was one of the mar important settlers and carpenters, blacksmiths, weavers (see kets of the Merchants who traded in themarket region. photo 3), merchants and members of a variety of were attracted to the town and in cases estab many other occupational groups came. The Italians required lished residences. until Nevertheless, approximately that the houses be laid out to from a rough grid 1930 the town almost on the depended exclusively pattern. palace. Budie, Alem Gena, Sebata, Tafkie, and Sen Around 1915 the nuclei of four towns were estab dafa were all founded during the Italian Period. For lished by the company the Addis Ababa building tresses or army barracks were established to form, in Jibuti railroad (the railroad reached Addis Ababa in most cases, the first urban function. To the existing 1917). A stringof stationswas built along the railroad urban centers of Holeta and Akaki, army garrisons and four of these are found within the area: Du study were added. Periodic markets were relocated. In Kaliti kem, Debra Gelan, Akaki, and Kaliti (see Fig. 1). The a biscuit factory was built and in Alem Gena a large railroad company owned a 20-meterwide strip of land garage for repairing truckswas established. By the end the track Thus, the railroad from straddling 16). along of the Italian some of these centers, such Addis Ababa to the Red Sea ran a corridor of land occupation as Sebata or Budie, were little more than a dozen held by people with a fundamentally different concept buildings, although the rest of the settlementswere of land tenure than the land adjacent to railroad prop much larger. erty. This of land was in many ways removed strip the Italians urbanization in several from the feudal social and economic For Thus, promoted organization. new towns were founded. this reason it is that the first were significant ways. Firstly, significant buildings to centers new were Secondly, existing urban functions built on railroad property. Several buildings were built added, such as army and factories which which were multifunctional affairs as rest sta garrisons serving the economic base of towns tions for and residences expanded noticeably. passengers, offices, warehouses, the Italians the of for These settlements slow accre Thirdly, promoted reorganization employees. grew by area. the economy of the For example, many occupa tion during the years following their foundation. Peri tional groups, such as merchants, blackmiths, weavers, odic markets were established at and Akaki, or were scattered over the coun some even carpenters, formerly and merchants put up permanent shops. In tryside in a dispersed pattern of settlement. It is likely most 16) Conveyed privately by Ato Lakew Kiros, General that of the individuals who engaged in these were Manager of the Addis Ababa-Jibuti Railroad. occupations part-time farmers; these now became 46 Erdkunde Band XXII

A Table I: full-time occupations. second example of reorgani The Early Development of Managasha zation was moving existing periodic markets to urban Number Number ofUnits Original Functions centers. In thisway the Italians encouraged theprocess of centralization of non-farm economic activities. 1 1 (1944) Landlord's Residence 2 3 Residence Finally, giving free land to the new settlers in the 1) 2) Restaurant towns provided a break with the traditional land 3) Tavern tenure Thus Italian towns outside system. developed 3 2 Tavern the feudal order. the role in land 1) Clearly, changes 2) Tavern tenure have played in the development of towns in 4 1 Retail Store is crucial. 5 Ethiopia 3 1) Coptic Priest's The post-Italian period. Accompany Residence ing the departure of the Italians in 1941 was a 2) Police Station period of urban decline. The destruction and disor 3) Daily Laborer's Residence ganization resulting from the Ethiopian-Italian con 6 1 Local Administrative flict the economy of the (ca. 1952) seriously disrupted country. Office Shortages of capital, shortages of technical skill, and (?Mikitil Worreda") other problems contributed to economic decline, and this was reflected in the small urban centers. The and technical aid programs. The result of this institu Ethiopian government could not maintain the sophisti tional invasion of the small town ismanifested cated institutions set up by the Italians. All-weather today in a of offices. Soon the total roads deteriorated. In addition, the land confiscated variety governmental number of area was owners people living in cities within the by the Italians returned to its and payment surpassed that of the Italian Period. Until about 1957 of rentwas required of people living on the land. (The one is dependent upon local residents for a railroad company is still involved in litigation in an description of this process, but in 1957-1958 data can be attempt to remove squatters who moved onto railroad gleaned from aerial photographs 19). In 1957 therewere 10,330 property during the Italian occupation.) Many people just could not afford the rent. For a variety of reasons men went back to farming,harlots took husbands, and ^_____ACHANCH0 was urban decline occurred. Budie completely aban doned and, in almost all of the towns,many buildings stood empty. Slowly, however, the pace of urbanization began to /AsULULTA towns were after quicken. Eleven founded 1941 17). a conno The word foundation may have too dramatic ?BUDIE ^7 SENDAFAjg) tation for what actually happened in most cases. In j the of most of the towns, one or BURRIYOU\/ jOSt^"^^ \ early development /^w?LMERA two have been built each In the / ^<^Aa / ^^LAGIDADIE buildings may year. ^-*MANAGASHA^?1^^ _J few has been omarcos 5f^ last years, growth generally rapid (see I hoieta j Fig. 2). The early development ofManagasha illustrates ll^pr^ inwhich of these settlements M theway many grew 18). ^furi\ ROGGIE some structureswere A A From 1944 to 1952 six built. 1 w MARKET \\ SEBATA/-~x/j?ALEMGENAjk . , Several of the buildings had more than one unit. In \ aJ^Jt a<8)v*/ addition, around 1950 a periodic market was estab % / lished. Table 1 summarizes the sequence of buildings \^^^DIMMA Y^^jakaki (gVTAFKIE p ^-/ and the first activities which were housed in each unit. X Xboneya debra^^^x / In after the X GiUAN the period 1941, Ethiopian government \. \ ODECKA f ^|DUKEM established a of and offices in the POPULATION variety programs SCALESHOWS DIAMETER OF KIU3METERS2,0 ^-\ . , ,10 small towns all over Ethiopia, including schools, police PROPORTIONALCIRCLES 0 6 MILES12 stations, local administrative offices, judicial offices, I100180 ?k 1957POPULATION - ROADS 275"36* h?t?k \ Q 1964POPULATION RAILROADS ?\695 ^ =^1309-1597 ( ) INCREASERECORDED A PERIODICMARKETS WITHOUT TOWNS Dimma, Furi, Chancho, Lagidadie, Budie -\2A39 XA 17) Including RECORDED TOWNSWITHOUT PERIODIC MARKETS O DECREASE ?^ (on the site of the defunct Italian garrison), Burriyou, x"C0(? Wolmera, Aba Samuel, Marcos, and Boneya. Managasha, Fig. 2: Town Growth in Ethiopia was not to of information 18) It possible get this kind for all of the towns. In a number of the towns, the author in all urban centers obtained the approximate dates for the building of the first 19) The number of buildings found five or six structures and the kinds of economic functions was obtained from air photos. In 1964 the number of struc was towns. carried on in these buildings. tures counted by the author in the 21 Popu Ronald J. Horvath: Towns in Ethiopia 47

area to a tavern people living in towns in the around Addis Ababa, word "bar" is being used to refer where and by 1964 the population had increased to 23,215 or both traditional Ethiopian and Western beverages are a 125 percent increase20). Growth rate has not been sold. These establishments are operated by women who are in some cases are uniform. Cities south of Addis Ababa have grown married and supplementing their much more rapidly than cities toward the north. Also husbands' income by selling local drinks. More typi towns are not observe that found off the all-weather roads cally, proprietresses married. Ethiopian beve are few and insignificant. rages are produced on the premises by the proprietres our ses or We may now turn attention to determining what hired servants. or activities functions support these urban places. Table 2: The Functions of theTowns 23) The functional bases of the towns 21) Functions Percent No. of Units The small towns in the vicinity of Addis Ababa are quite diverse from the functional point of view. Retail66.9 1,376 Ordinarily one would expect that these towns would Public Administration 1969.5 towns Manufacturing 8.0 165 be central places, i.e., which exist to provide Personal Services 4.4 91 goods and services to the surrounding territory22). Professional Services 71 3.5 However, in part to the of Addis owing proximity & Communications .8 17 the functional base of these towns has been Transportation Ababa, Misc. Urban Functions 91 4.4 modified. The incidence of functions is shown in the Farming 2.5 51 following table. The following is a discussion of each of the func 100.0 2,058 tional classes. The towns are predominantly retailing centers; the retailing activities found in the town Small retail shops selling consumer goods have include taverns, retail shops, butcheries and restaurants. become a standard part of the retail structureof towns In addition, most of the towns also have open air in Ethiopia. These shops are locally called "arab bet" a or the periodic markets where major portion of the retailing "suq"; former literally means Arab's house. activity takes place. Muslims have long carried on a substantial portion of commerce Nearly half (46 ?/o) of the units occupied by eco in Ethiopia, especially that commerce nomic activities are taverns (see photo 4). The tavern involving exotic commodities. Yemeni Arabs are found to inmost of is locally differentiated according the type of drink the towns around Addis Ababa where they a sold; for example, there is "tej bet," literallymead still operate most of the retail shops. The Arabs are "talla or beer house. the term house, bet," Increasingly commonly long residents in Ethiopia and fre quently take Ethiopian wives during their stay. lation were obtained for four towns one figures including Butcher shops and restaurants are two other retail census of Holeta urban class from Haile by my geography activities which are revealed by the unit method. Sellassie I three censuses University and by the National Butchers buy cattle, sheep, and goats at the town's Pilot Area Tuberculosis Control Programme in Alem Gena periodic market. The butchers slaughter the animals Worreda (a subdistrict within the study The average area). and sell the meat to both the town's folk and the number of people living in each structure was found to be peasants who come to the market. or 4.5 and this figure was used to estimate the number of "Mugub bet", houses run women are people living in other towns. by selling prepared food, found were scattered around the small towns. a 20) These settlements classed as towns in 1964 and Commonly, women not in 1957. will convert the frontof her house into a place suitable 21) A bewildering variety of problems is involved in get for serving customers. She will prepare food for the ting at the basis of of the small towns in support Ethiopia. travelers passing through the town or the numerous A national census has never been taken and consequently unattached men livingwithin the town itself. it is to one's own data. The townsfolk are necessary gather The market is an of the unaccustomed to which periodic integral component being queried seriously complicates retail structure of the small towns Periodic a door-to-door In order to overcome some of these today. survey. are was markets weekly, or even problems, the unit method used; the primary economic biweekly, triweekly of at for activity of each unit or discrete subdivision of every build gatherings people recognized sites purposes in the towns was of and services. On ing following eight recorded: Chancho, exchanging goods market day, hundreds or even Furi, Sebata, Burriyou, Managasha, Budie, Akaki, and thousands of people may converge Holeta. Functional not are one units, people, used to determine upon any market. One may encounter at the the nature of town support. These activities were then ordered a rather standard functional clas by using generic 23) The functions are expressed as percentages of the sification. total number of units having economic activities. Only See C. D. Harris and L. 22) E. Ullmann, "The Nature 41 percent of the units in the towns had economic ac of Cities", Annals of the American of Political Academy tivities, whereas the remainder were private residences, and Social Science, CCXLII, 1945, pp. 7-17. vacant, or were under construction. 48 Erdkunde Band XXII

^^HHRflaP^P' '^JSt^BBK/kWmW-^r^^^m

th Ronald J.Horvath: Towns inEthiopia 49

market itinerant merchants, peasants from the market's animals grain (merchants buying) hinterland, and local townsfolk who come for trade red pepper ("berbere") grains, pulses, oil seeds coffe and salt and diversion (see photo 2). Unfortunately, the unit which was to into the method, employed inquire In each section one may find either merchants or functional basis of the small town, takes into account peasants selling goods. In certain sections, such as the only activities occurring in buildings, and for this one manufactured goods section, only encounters reason it will be necessary to consider the market merchants, whereas peasants dominate the grains, pul outside the context of the unit method. ses, and oil seed section. Upon first impression periodic markets might ap pear to be unorganized confusion: people sitting on piles of stones or milling around, women gossiping, donkeys wandering about seemingly unattended, and goats trading a mouthful of grain for a swift stick across their sides.However, themarket organizes itself naturally into a number of recognizable sectionswhich specialize in a particular good or class of goods. One section will sell only large red chile peppers, whereas other sections sell a wide of manufactured may range $ Pices > in goods. Figure 3 shows a fairly standard arrangement Wj of a periodic market. There are 15 commodity groups the classes: REt> '-'and .mmmm including following llSi Ipepper \H n spices butter and cheese cloth pottery local hops ("geshu," Buckthorn) fuel wood and ?poos: hides skins vegetables V| hops;1^ local bread manufactured goods fj^

area. Photo 1: A low oblique of the landscape of the study - In the middle ground is one of the smaller towns Most of the trees seen in the are part Burriyou. photo ' of the around Addis Ababa which eucalyptus plantings Y salt , / meet the fuel and building material needs of Ethiopia's can capital. A discussion of this phenomenon be found in the forthcoming January 1968 edition of The Journal of Ethiopian Studies by the author.Above and slightlyto j ^grainV the right of the town is a market garden area where animals \ V are in the of Gurage people engaged production irrigated I^ OUTER" LIMIT Of -""^ . vegetables for the Addis Ababa market (see Horvath, op. I MARKET cit., 1966, 4, for a discussion of market URBANSTRUCTURES Chapter gardens). >s^lHB| The remainder of the area is devoted to semi-subsistence mixed A rural settlement be seen farming. complex may Fig. 3: Periodic Market Structure in the lower right. All photographs were taken by the author. The periodic markets are of considerable Photo 2: A market scene. Several be importance period people may to the towns inwhich are located. An examination seen or for items. On the side they paying bargaining right of the incidence of markets shows that 14 of the 21 of the middle ground, a merchant (the man in the dark towns have markets, and six of the seven towns with jacket) is trying to buy some goods brought to market out markets are small These by a peasant woman. In the background is a series of quite (see Fig. 2). large concentrate permanent taverns housed in thatched buildings. Almost gatherings of people the meager buying all of the people here are Galla. power of the semisubsistence peasants who then sup port certain activities in the markets and the towns Photo 3: A weaver making a piece of cotton cloth. More which would otherwise be absent from the economic typically, a weaver will have his entire apparatus within his residence. landscape. A peasant woman who earns some money in themarket the on Photo 4: A side street in Holeta. Most of the structures by selling eggsmay spend money some cloth in the retail or have her shown contain taverns. The building frames are made shops grain ground to at the thus the arduous task of of eucalyptus poles, which is applied a mud, dung, millers, foregoing grind straw it at home. A man a and plaster. The wall of the building facing the ing may spend portion of the street is earned to a frequently whitewashed. The riding animals be money pass few pleasant hours chatting to come long Galla peasants who have to town for the day. and drinking with kin and friends in one of the 50 Erdkunde Band XXII

taverns. All in all, on market day the small towns or three generically distinct activities frequently occur come alive: the taverns are full, grain mills are active, within one functional unit. Several attempts were are to occurrence secon and retail shops busy. Clearly, Ethiopian towns made systematically record the of are more predominantly retailing centers than revealed dary functions; however, it was too easy to miss many by the unitmethod as summarized in table 2. of these activities. The assessmentmade here is, for this a one. Public administration, constituting almost a tenth reason, qualitative of the units occupied by economic activities, is repre Secondary functions found within the various units sented a of levels of towns by variety administrative, judicial, in the include personal services, manufacturing, in the towns.Within Ethio men and special purpose offices retailing, and farming. For example, operating a pia there is six level hierarchy of administrative offi Singer sewing machines in Arab-run retail shops are ces common. can startingwith the national level, followed by the Cotton cloth, which either be purchased province, subprovince ("awraja"), district ("worreda"), in the retail shop or in the periodic market, can be a or an subdistrict ("mikitil worreda"), and the smallest unit made into dress apron. Taverns primarily sell or which may be called neighborhood locality ("atbia"). drinks or food; however, these places also very com Administrative and judicial offices for the district, monly function as brothels. Most units are both shop subdistrict and the locality are found in the towns of and residence. the study area; the subprovince offices for the study area are inAddis Ababa. Special purpose offices, such Conclusions as offices of theMinistries of Community Develop ment or are also found in the towns in Agriculture, The origin and evolution of towns can be thought the area. In Holeta is found a sizable reser military of in terms of three periods: the pre-Italian Period, vation. the Italian Period (1936-1941), and the post-Italian Manufacturing occurs in eight percent of the units Period. Before 1936 towns were few. After Addis occupied by some economic activities. Two kinds of Ababa was established (1890) the emperor had several manufacturing may be distinguished: traditional handi alternative residences built. One of these, Holeta, was crafts and modern manufacturing. Traditional handi established within the study area. The next important crafts, includingweaving (see photo 3), blacksmithing, eventwas the coming of theAddis Ababa-Jibuti Rail and basket weaving, are performed largelywithout the road in 1915. Four railroad stationswere built within new these area a sta aid of technology. Formerly, occupations the study which formed part of the chain of were frequently engaged in by part-time farmers in tions fromAddis Ababa to theRed Sea. The building was one nonagglomerated rural locations. of the railroad accompanied by of themajor more in These stations form Modern manufacturing has become far im town-founding spasms Ethiopia. towns. portant than traditional handicrafts in the towns ed nuclei for the development of The Italians around Addis Ababa. In areas further away from the promoted urbanism significantly by founding towns economic base of towns. capital city, this is not likely the case. Two of the and expanding the existing towns in After towns in the study area, Akaki and Kaliti, may be Thus, grew rapidly the Italian Period. a decade of urban decline the properly classified as manufacturing towns because accompanying departure towns were at an manufacturing employs themajority of people earning of the Italians, founded and grew rate 21 towns were iden a living in these towns. In Akaki alone the Indo-Ethio unprecedented and by 1964, tifiedwithin the area studied. pian Textile factory employs 3,000 people. Two new oil tenure were as a types of modern manufacturing, grain milling and Changes in urban land used diag are town. seed pressing, found in just about every nostic element to show the fundamental metamor Nearly eight percent of the units were classified as phosis which has occurred to towns in Ethiopia. Only personal and professional service functional units. The Addis Ababa and Holeta were, properly speaking, specific types of occupational groups involved in both feudal towns. include categories teachers, advocates, barbers, daily The railroad towns represent the first significant and others. laborers, harlots, departure from the traditional pattern of urbanism. Three classes of functions remain: transportation The origin and, in fact,much of the subsequent devel and communications, miscellaneous urban functions, opment of the railroad towns was in many ways and farming, totaling 7.7 percent of the functional independent of the feudal organization. The fact that units. Units classified as transportation and communi these cities started on railway property has been cation units include railroad stations, highway main suggested as being an important change. During the tenance camps, and telecommunications offices. Final Italian Period the free land distributed by the occupa these settlements to ly, a small number of people living in tion government caused what appeared have been are full-time farmers. a decisive blow to the feudal organization, and a was Functional differentiation is in a very early stage major town-founding spasm associated with it. tenure of development within the towns; consequently, two Thus, changes in land signaled the appearance Ernst Giese: Agrare Betriebsformen im Vorland des Tien-Scban 51

a to of new type of town in Ethiopia, and this type of goods and services the surrounding territory. How town exists in the study area today exclusively. ever, non-central place functions, such as manufactu are ring, important in several towns. The proximity of It was shown that the towns are primarily central Addis Ababa is important in explaining the presence are most places which urban centerswhich exist to provide of of the non-central place functions.

AGRARE BETRIEBSFORMEN IM VORLAND DES TIEN-SCHAN *) Mit 6 Abbildungen (Abb. 2 u. 6 als Beilage III), 6 Bildern und 2 Tabellen Ernst Giese

Summary: Forms of Agricultural Organization in the Schlechte Erfahrungen mit allzu grofienMammutbe Tien-Shan Foreland trieben und mit iibermafiig spezialisierten Sovchosen The agriculture of Soviet Central Asia is limited the by fuhrten dazu, den Betriebsumfang zu begrenzen und aridity and marked continentality of the climate. There die Spezialisierung zugunsten eines mehr gemischt fore, the structure and the aims of production of the kolk are wirtschaftlichen Systems aufzugeben. Da die Sovchose hozes and sovkhozes of the Tien-Shan foreland pri im zur Kolchose im eine Neu marily determined by the utilization of melt waters flowing Gegensatz allgemeinen snow findetman sie vor in down from the and ice region of the Tien-Shan in siedlungsgriindung ist, allem den summer. spring and On the basis of irrigation farming the Neulandgebieten der SU (Kazachstan, Nordkaukasien) foreland with its extremely fertile loess-plains has develop konzentriert. one ed into of the most important agricultural regions of Als dritte Betriebsform hat sich innerhalb des um Central Asia. In the western foreland of the Tien-Shan fassenden Kollektivbetriebes derNebenerwerbsbetrieb, with its of radiation and heat and great quantities long die des Kolchos seasons sog. Hoflandwirtschaft3) growing cotton is the chief irrigated crop (oases of nik (Kolchos-Bauer), entwickelt. Sie basiert auf der Fergana, Taskent, Chimkent). Sugar beet, tobacco, fruit, corn privaten eines Hofes, eines kleinen vegetables, and vineyards occupy the irrigated land Nutzniefiung Stuckchens of the eastern oases, where climatic conditions are not so sog. ?Hoflandes" (priusadebnoe ucastok) zu favourable for the growing of cotton. The share of irri (bis 0,5 ha) und der Haltung einer Kuh nebst gation farming is 2h of the area under cultivation, the Kleinvieh verbunden mit Weiderechten in der Kol remainder is under corn in dry farming (Bogar farming). chose. Zunachst lediglich ein Zugestandnis des Staates In the kolkhozes and sovkhozes the of livestock an den zur keeping enteigneten Bauern weiteren Eigenversor involves as as As an alpine pasturing well transhumance. gung, wurde die Hoflandwirtschaft im Laufe der Zeit example of the Tien-Shan piedmont region the foreland of the Alatau near Alma-Ata is described. Zailiyskiy Types Im 1966 fiihrte ichmit der of connective farms are illustrated in detail the kolk *) Friihjahr Unterstiitzung by Deutschen eine Studienreise nach hozes Voroshilov and Luch Vostoka. Forschungsgemeinschaft Sowjet-Mittelasien durch. Die Anregung dazu gab mir Herr Prof. Miiller-Wille (Munster), der urspriinglich selbst diese I. Kolchose und Sovchose Reise mit Prof. Hempel unternehmen wollte. Besondere Umstande Hefien ihn zunicktreten, so dafi ich diese Studien Mit dem Kollektivierungsprozefi der bauerlichen reise mit Prof. Hempel durchfiihren konnte. Im Mittel Landwirtschaft entstanden in der Zeit von 1929 bis punkt meiner Untersuchungen standen agrare Betriebsfor men sowie neue 1933 in der Sowjet-Union (SU) zwei neue Organisa alte und Formen der Bewasserungswirt schaft. Stationen der Reise waren die Stadte Alma tionsformen landwirtschaftlicherNutzung, die Kol Taskent, Ata, Samarkand, Buchara und Aschabad. Sie bildeten den chose und die Sovchose 2). Die Kolchose als staat Ausgangspunkt fiir eine Reihe von Exkursionen, die in den lich organisierter und gelenkter fabrikahnlicherAgrar Zailijskij Alatau (Tal derKleinen und GrofienAlmatinka) betrieb, in dem die Produktionsmittel, der Viehbe und in das Zeravsangebirge sowie in die Za stand und die (Kara-tjube) Agrarprodukte genossenschaftliches darom-Steppe, in die Circiktalung und an den Kara-Kum der der Grund und waren Eigentum Kolchosmitglieder sind, Kanal fuhrten. Verbunden die Untersuchungen mit Boden aber ausschliefilich dem Staat gehoren und von dem Besuch mehrerer Kollektivwirtschaften (u. a. der Kol chosen diesem zur Verfiigung gestellt werden, resultiert aus Pravda, Kizil Uzbekistan und Luc Vostoka) und der der in einer Sied einiger Forschungsinstitute. zwangsweisen Zusammenfassung - Kolchose und Sovchose deutsche Formen der russi lung gelegenen individuell gefiihrten Bauernbetriebe. 2) schen kolchoz Abkiirzungen (von kollektivnoe chozjajstvo Demgegenuber ist die Sovchose ein landwirt = Kollektiv-Wirtschaft) und sovchoz (von sovetskoe choz schaftlicherStaatsbetrieb, ein Grofibetrieb, der in der = jajstvo Sow ersten Phase der auf einen bestimmten jet-Wirtschaft). Entwicklung 3) Der Begriff Hoflandwirtschaft bzw. Hoflandbetrieb war und nach seiner ist von Produktionszweig spezialisiert dem in der Sowjetliteratur und Sowjetstatistik ge eine landwirtschaftlicheFabrik darstellt. fiihrten Ausdruck Organisation priusadebnoe chozjajstvo abgeleitet.