Ancient History Pompeii and Herculaneum

Page 1 of 64 Ancient History Glossary Terms

Key Term Definition Insula (Insulae) A multi-storeyed apartment or tenement block with taverns, shops and businesses on the ground floor and living space on the higher floors; the name also refers to a block of various buildings at Pompeii surrounded on four side by streets Tufa Volcanic ash hardened with water Aedile A magistrate whose duties included maintenance of town infrastructure Stratigraphic Relating to the order or arrangement of strata or layers, in this case the layers of volcanic ash deposited on Pompeii Strata (stratum) Te layers of material built up or deposited at a site Pyroclastic Surge A low-density turbulent cloud of hot ash and rock that billows over the ground travelling at incredibly high speeds of up to 300km per hour Pyroclastic Flow A dense, hot, dry avalanche of ground-hugging molten rock, pumice, and gas that moves more slowly than a surge, reaching up to 50km per hour Nuées Ardentes French for ‘burning clouds’, these are white-hot clouds of gas, ash, and lava fragments ejected from a volcano, typically as part of a pyroclasts flow Garum Tick, salty fish sauce Imperator A Latin word originally meaning commander, but later incorporated into the titles of the emperor Epigraphic/ Te study of inscriptions on stone or metal epigraphical Termal Shock A large and rapid change in temperature that can have dangerous efects on living organisms Fulminant Shock A cause of death associated with intense heat Doric Column A type of Ancient Greek column featuring a smooth or fluted column and a smooth, round capital Hellenistic Relating to Greek and Mediterranean history between 323 and 31 BC Travertine A type of marble used for building Suggestum A platform where political candidates gave speeches and canvassed support for elections Mensa Ponderaria A table of ofcial weights and measures A bench with nine holes of varying sizes for diferent measured amounts Macellium A rectangular courtyard with a circular building or tholoa in the centre Market stalls and shops on the north and south sides Tolos a circular-shaped building from the ancient world Forum Holitorium Located on the west side of the Forum Page 2 of 64 Ancient History Amphora (amphorae) A two-handled pottery storage jar with an oval body tapering to a point at the base Termopolium Food stall (Termopolia) Peristyle A row of columns enclosing a court or other space, or the space surrounded by these columns Cache Valuable items concealed in a hiding place Putti A representation of a naked child, especially a cherub Sesterce A bronze or silver Roman coin valued at a quarter of a denarius; also referred to as a ‘sestertius’ Counsul One of two annually elected chief magistrates in the Roman political system Ofcinae Workshops Dolia Large round pottery containers Aediles magistrates (in Pompeii there was two of them) Pulses Edible seeds such as peas or beans Itinerant Traveling Programmata Public notices advertising candidates in forthcoming elections Wet Nurse A woman employed to suckle another woman’s child Guilds Associations of crafsmen or merchants Vestibulum Entrance Fauces Hallway Atrium Religious and social centre of a Roman house, clients waited here to pay their respects (salutario) to the master of the house (or patron) Compluvium Rectangular hole in the roof, provided lighting for the interior of the house, inward-slopping roof designed to catch maximum amount of rainwater Impluvium A large pool sunk into the Atrium floor, water was channelled into a cistern beneath the Atrium floor. Triclinium Dining room, winter dining room inside, summer dining room in garden or open onto garden Herm A rectangular, tapered stone base supporting a creed head or bust Fourth Style One of the four styles of Pompeian art described by August Mau: characterised by the painting of framed scenes, ofen featuring human figures and architectural motifs Proscenium Stage area of an ancient Greek or Roman theatre Greave Armour worn to protect the lower leg Tunic A rectangle of wool or linen pinned at the shoulder Toga Worn over the tunic and ofen made from wool Toga Praetexta Broad purple border and was worn by magistrates and some high priest in formal settings

Page 3 of 64 Ancient History Toga CAndida Bright white toga worn by candidates for public ofce Fibulae clasp to pin a woman’s stola on one shoulder Gargoyle A carving of an ugly human or animal head or figure projecting from the gutter of a building, acting as a spout Hypocaust An Ancient Roman heating system whereby air heated by furnaces was directed into hollow spaces beneath the floors of buildings Stucco Bas Relief A render applied wet to a sculpture in low relief, in which the forms project slightly from the background Triton A Greek god, messenger of the sea, son of Neptune and Amphirite. Uraeus A protective device on the front of a pharaoh’s headers in the form of a cobra Divination Telling the will of the gods from signs and omens, reading the entrails of sacrificed animals Paterfamilias head of the Roman family Lares household deities who protected the family, headed by the family spirit (lar familiarise, had their own shrine in a cupboard, any food dropped at a meal was ofered to them Genius the god of the male line o descent worshipped on the birthday of the paterfamilias, sometimes represented as a snake Penates gods of the larder or food store, their statuettes were placed on the table at mealtimes Quadriporticus A rectangular area surrounded on all sides by a colonnade or covered walkway Quadriporticus A rectangular area surrounded on all sides by a colonnade or covered walkway Motif A decorative image or design, usually repeated to form a pattern. Fullonicae art of fulling

Page 4 of 64 Ancient History Geographical Context

Physical Environment

• Fertile, crescent shapes volcanic plain in Southern Italy (Campania) and had two seasons (hot dry summers and wet, mild winters)

NATURAL FEATURES Mt Vesuvius • 30 Eruptions since its explosion in 79AD • Diodorus wrote “Te Greeks knew of the manta’s active nature” • Strabo commented “Ash-coloured summit, as it shows pore-like cavities in masses of rock that are soot- coloured, these masses looking they have been eaten out by fire”

Bay of Naples • Provided safe anchorage for boats and became the main naval station of the Roman fleet

River Sarno • Supported the fishing and shellfish industry

EVIDENCE • Pliny the Ender - Campania was “one of the loveliest places on earth … a fertile region so bless with pleasant scenery that it was manifestly the work of nature in a happy mood” Plans and Streetscapes

Pompeii Herculaneum

• Greek influenced • Population in 79AD was 5,000 • Population in 79AD was 20,000 • More residential than • Main streets commercial • Via dell’Abbondanza (Street of abundance • Had a sea wall • Via di Nola • Only 30% has been excavated • Via Stabiana • Underneath modern city of • Raised foot paths and stepping stones (due to poor drainage) Erculano • Numbering system - regions - insulae • Superior sewage system • Defensive walls (semi-destroyed) • Much smaller than Pompeii • Seven Gates • Marine • Herculaneum • Vesuvius • Nola • Sarno • Nocera • Stabia • Roads were 2.5m wide and experience heavy trafc due to evidence of cart grooves

Page 5 of 64 Ancient History The Nature of Sources and Evidence

The Eruption

• Buildings that were in the process of repairs or needed to be repaired - Te temple of Isis due to the 62 AD earthquake • Plinian Phase - 24th August Pompeii • Mainly impacted Pompeii and rained down Pumic, ash and gas which was breathed in by the people the pumic expanded inside their lungs choking them • Pompeii was covered in 6 metres of pumic before this, buildings began to collapse under the weight • Pliny the Youngers letters • “Described as an umbrella pine • Fiorelli’s plaster casts • dying dog - sufering in pain • Pelean Phase - Herculaneum • Pyroclastic flow - hot gas travelling at 100-200km/h • Buried Herculaneum under 20m • People had time to escape since they could see Vesuvius erupting • People in the boat sheds • Woman with femur through her torso shows a brutal fast death • Discolouration of skulls of the people in boat sheds shows that their brains ‘exploded’, and quick death Economy

• Pompeii had an active and healthy economy as Pompeii’s population was large and more diverse • Ideally positioned for trade • River Sarno have access to the town allowing trade. Seen as the trading centre of Campania • Agriculture - known for producing raw materials (wine, olive oil, cereals, fruit, vegetables, meat and wool) for the retail and industrial workforce • Evidence : Amphorae which were labelled showing origin and type of wine contained • Two large dole that could hold 100 gallons • “Never stopped growing” - Pliny the elder • Wall painting showing Bacchus in front of vineyard and covered with grapes • Fishing - fished crustaceans, molluscs and fish to make Garum or fish sauce which Pompeii was known for • Garum vessels wth inscriptions • “No other liquid except unguents has come to be more highly valued” - Pliny • Fish of the sea fresco depicting many types of sea creatures • Pottery • Shows that Pompeiians imported a limited range of goods from other places and mainly made their own • Tere were plenty of workshops that had pottery and was locally made • Wool/Fullery - a building in the Pompeiian forum called the Edifice of Eumachia is where they dyed the wool where it would also be sold • Te fullers did the laundering, bleaching, and recolouring of clothes. Pee was used to clean the clothes and they were dried on brick pillars in an atrium • Evidence - Fresco’s showing manufacturing processes almost like instructions • Bakeries - where bread was made and there was over 30 in Pompeii • Evidence - grain mills made from volcanic rock used to grind the grain, spun by donkeys attached to a wooden piece • Also the preserved bread loaves that had probably been baked the morning of the eruptions Page 6 of 64 Ancient History • Brothels - there was only one brothel found but prostitutes were in high demand and the aediles decided to tag them • Grafti of sexual comments regarding women • Commerce • Forum was where the largest and most prominent businesses were • Tere was two market places in the forum - two permanent and one weekly • Te Macellum (meat and fish) • Forum Holitorim (dry food - cereals) • No forum excavated in Herculaneum but a few Termopolis and a tavern was found • Herculaneum was more residential/holiday town for the richer people as it was near the ocean • Had a fishing economy for the local population but didn’t trade very much Social Structure

PEOPLE • Tere are no definitive numbers for the Population of Pompeii or Herculaneum but it is estimated around 10,000 people lived in Pompeii

Freeborn • People who were free and ranged from people who were elite or people who Pliny referred to be as ‘plebs’ • Could run for ofce but women could not

Freemen • Slaves that are freed, some become wealthy and influential • Many were involved in crafs, trade, and commerce • Wealthy free men ‘imitated the cultural language of nobility in order to establish membership in society’ • Epitaphs show that patrons ofen paid for the graves of deserving freemen

Slaves • Large population of Pompeii was slaves • Played the role of the washers, over stokers, servers, cooks, entertainers, tutors, nurses, clerks, etc • Not really mentioned in historical sources and it is hard to determine who is a slave from archaeological evidence • Poppaea Note, “a freed woman of Priscus … had slaves of her own”

Women • Women were supposed to stay at home and look afer the household as well as the children • Influential woman such as Eumachia (Priestess) < Julia Felix and Maria had great influence in society • Could not vote • Lower class run shops and engage in crafs and trades to each profits • Buildings were dedicated to some women such as the Edifice of Eumachia and the Temple of Lares • Women were educated and used wealth through architecture and building • Evidence - “women could on property, do business, pay for construction, hold honorific and cultic ofce and go about in public” • Fresco’s show women with pens and ballots or a book

Political Life

Aediles • Junior magistrates • Tere were two • Elected annually by voting assembly • Supervisors of public works, maintenance of public buildings, market/temples/street activity, regulation of festivals and enforcing order • “Elect, I pray you, … Aedile. He makes good bread” - Grafti Page 7 of 64 Ancient History

Duumvir • Highest judicial magistrates • Must have been aedile before as the power is much more extensive • Power to govern community, preside over courts and council and oversaw tax and revenue • Does not have military power • Funded public works to remain popular • “Te duumvirs stood at the summit of the political life” - Estelle Lazer

Duum Quinquenales • Always males • Elected every 5 years • Conducted census • Could banish any aedile or duumvir

Everyday Life

Leisure Activities • Te Odeon - seated 1200 people. Wall paintings and mosaics show supports holding up a canvas roof for protection against the elements • Te Grand Teatre - seated 5000. Had entertainment such as miming, acting, clowning, dancing, juggling and musical entertainment • Te Grand Palaestra - surrounded by a portico and had a large swimming pool in the centre. Young boy were also schooled in the covered portico. Events such as discus, wrestling, javelin and athletics took place on the grassed area • Amphitheatre - seated 20,000 people. Where people would watch gladiatorial contests but may only contest 2-3 times a year and could also be seen in the amphitheatre

Dining • People reclined while eating (adopted by Romans from Greeks) • In more well of houses, dining rooms (Triclinium) were overlooking the garden • Most Triclinium were small and had three couches holding thee people. Te small table in front of the couches (Mensa) • Dinner parties - Bound a patron to his large network of clients and was an essential ‘Tool of social and political control’. Diners wore fine white togas

Food • Ate cheese, beans, grapes, wine, olives, fresh fruits, bread, fish, pine nuts, walnuts, hazelnuts, etc • Rich people ate milk, water, bread and cheese for breaky • Tree phases of dinner • Gustatio - Eggs, vegetables, olives, sausages with honeyed wine • Mensa - fish, shellfish, poultry, stufed roasts of meat and vegetables served with wine • Mensae Secundae - fresh dried fruits, nuts, cheese followed by salty dishes, snails, oyster olives • Termopolia - ancient snack bars with doll sunk into a counter containing hot food. You could either sit in the lounging dining area for lengthy eating or the more ‘fast food’ eating

Baths • Tree diferent baths - central baths, forum baths and Stabian baths • Had diferent sections from cold to hot - frigidarium (cold), tepidarium (tepid), Calidarium (hot). Achieved by running pipes through the wall cavities • Men • Bathing was a communal activity but the men separated from the women in most cases • Forum baths - men’s part is the better preserved part • Women • Were less grand than the men’s but was still a communal activity • 1300 lamps were discovered suggesting bathing may have been a night time activity

Page 8 of 64 Ancient History

Water Supply • Pompeii and Sanitation • Didn’t have a good drainage system and this is proved by looking at how flooded Pompeii becomes afer it rains. Had drainage but wasn’t very good. Stones across roads to allow people to wall across • Had the Augustus Aqueduct which brought water into the pipes and to the houses, service areas and gardens • Herculaneum • Had subterranean sewers allowing for better drainage and better sanitation

Clothing • Fashion was a cultural element of both Pompeii and Herculaneum • Upper class - of white, knee length tunics with a belt • Ofcial positions - ofen wore purple • Women - wore stola and jewellery was considered a common accessory • Slaves - wore hats

Public Buildings

Pompeii

Basilica • Originally a market place, it was changed in the first century to become the law courts • Main entrance was through the forum • Was covered by a large tiled roof • Large hall was surrounded by twenty eight Ionic columns • Was built in hellenistic style with corinthian ionic columns

Temples • Temple of Isis - Roman temple dedicated to the Egyptian goddess Isis. First temple found in Pompeii • Temple of Apollo • Temple of the Capitoline Triad - Jupiter: Protector of the state, Juno: Protector of women, Minerva: Patroness of crafsmen • Temple of Lares

Fora - Forum • Large rectangle space surrounded (Pompeii) • Yet to be uncovered in herculaneum • Te Macellum - market specialising in fish, meat and vegetables • Te Edifice of Eumachia - dedicated to the Imperial Julian clan. Where the cloth and wool merchants were • A possible voting hall • A granary • Municipal ofces

Teatres • Te large theatre and the odeon • Te large theatre was constructed on the greek model with semicircular, tiered seating with a capacity of 5000 • Te lower tiers were clad in marble and were reserved for the elite members of society • Te odeon was a covered structure of smaller capacity • It was roofed and was well suited for poetry and concerts

Palaestra • Was used for an exercise ground for the military • Spacious, open air arena • In centre was swimming pool fed with fresh water from nearby aqueduct • Herculaneum palaestra was slightly smaller than at Pompeii

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Amphitheatres • Buildings in Pompeii associated with gladiatorial contests • Te Great Amphitheatre — could hold 20 000 people

Private Buildings

Houses • Fasces – Entrance, Tabernae – Shops, Atrium – Demonstrated wealth, Impluvium – Collected water, Tablinum – Passage room, Triclinium – Dining room, Andron – Doorway, Alae – Side room, Cubiculum – Bedroom, Culina – Kitchen, Posticum – Backdoor, Exedra – Garden room, Piscina – Fish pond, Peristylium – Open courtyard surrounded by a portico.

Shops • One or two roomed residences behind or above shops and workshops

Villas • Designed for hospitality and large-scale admission of visitors. • Ofen had two atria, large ornamental gardens. • Some had two peristyles. • Were richly decorated. • Pompeii – House of Julia Felix, Villa of Mysteries, Villa of Diomedes. • Herculaneum – Villa of Papyri.

Greek Influence

Art • Many statues were copies of Greek originals eg. statue of Doryphoros • Mosaics eg. Alexander mosaic found in the House of the Faun in Pompeii depicting Alexander the Great • Many murals depict characters and scenes from greek myths

Architecture • Features of the theatres reflect hellenistic design eg. the horseshoe shaped terraces, doric columns etc • Palaestrae reflect Greek design • Many buildings reflect Greek architectural elements: Doric and Corinthian columns peristyle (House of the Faun) • Temple of Isis actually displays corinthian columns

Religion • Herculaneum named afer the Greek god Heracles, the roman god hercules • Images of Hercules found in the temple of Isis in Pompeii • Sanctuary to Dionysus found near the amphitheatre • Villa of the mysteries contains murals thought to depict initiation rites into the cult of dionysus • Mosaic of dionysus from the house of the faun

Egyptian Influence

Art • Te water feature in the praedial of Julia Felix represents a Delta branch of the Nile • Te temple of Isis

Architecture • Nile scenes in mosaics: mosaic from the House of the Faun depicting crocodiles, hippos and ibis • Wall paintings with Egyptian motifs: the temple of Isis has Egyptian-style landscapes and scenes from Egyptian mythology

Page 10 of 64 Ancient History

Religion • Te cult of Isis was represented in statues, paintings and in household shrines • Egyptian gods are represented on household shrines

Religion

• Te religious landscape in Pompeii and Herculaneum was vibrant and diverse • Te Roman state religion was based upon the worship of the Capitoline triad: Jupiter, Juno, Minerva • And there were foreign religions and cults eg. cult of Dionysus and Isis

Te Imperial Cult • Tere was the imperial cult which worshipped the divine spirit of the emperor • Te imperial cult have citizens an opportunity to publicise their loyalty to the peror as well as move upwards socially. Membership of the Augustales • Te temple of Augustan Fortuna opposite the forum baths was dedicated to the worship fo the emperor and Fortuna Augusta, the goddess of abundance • Temple of Vespasian

Temples • Temple of Jupiter: dedicated to the Capitoline triad: Jupiter, Juno, Minerva • Temple of Vespasian: centre of imperial cult in Pompeii • Sanctuary of the public lares: located on the east site of the forum where the town lares were worshipped and important statues displayed • Temple of Venus: dedicate to the patron goddess of Pompeii Temple of Isis • Popular with women and freedmen • Isis promoted fertility • Besides the altar was a purgatorium: where sacred Nile water was kept

Household gods • Most homes featured a lararium: a shrine to the gods of the household • Worship of the household gods was a daily ritual led by the paterfamilias • Oferings such as incense may be made • Te lares were the household deities who protected the family Foreign Cults Cult of Isis • Promoted message of inclusion Cult of Dionysus=Bacchus

Tombs • General acceptance within all roman religions of an aferlife • A decreased person’s spirit either entered the underworld or remained on earth as a ghost • Tombs were always located outside the city walls by roman decree • Inscriptions on tombs provide insight into the lives of activities of many wealthy/influential citizens • No tombs have be discovered in Herculaneum but at Pompeii they line the entrance into the city walls • Most of Pompeii’s tombs have been found leading from Herculaneum Gate • Te tomb of unbricius Scaurus shows scenes from a gladiatorial games given in his honour: reflecting his stats

Page 11 of 64 Ancient History Investigating Reconstructing and Preserving the Past

Changing Interpretations

• New emphasis on restoration and conservation over past 30 years

NEW RESEARCH Wallace Hadrill • Challenging general held belief that population size based on estimate of number of people lived in house • Suggests no evidence of how many people lived in a house + number of occupants per house can vary • Based on population size on estimate of occupants is no longer accurate • Challenges beliefs of socio-economic status of population • Examined 127 houses — hypothesis that artefacts in them could have been inherited or collected overtime • Terefore not accurate reflection of status or wealth of occupants

Penelope Allison • Challenging interpretation that eruption in 79CE came as surprise • Believes Pompeiians knew of eruption because of previous earthquake in 62CE — seen as warning warning by wealthy citizens • Research where she examined contents of 30 houses — population departed from Pompeii more gradual than previously thought

Sarah Bisel • Unlocked information about body remains in Herculaneum • A lack of children’s bones indicated low fertility or they decayed quickly • Dental - teeth were good due to seafood diet but gum disease was present • Evidence of lead poisoning • Found consumption of animal protein indicating diets of vegetable protein and seafood

Estelle Lazer • Used studies based on skulls, hips, pelvis, legs and arm bones to determine the makeup of the population • Forensic medicine, physical anthropology used to determine sex, age of death, signs of disease and population afnities of the victims • “Lady of Oplontis” was cast of a body studied by a radiologist, anatomist and forensic scientist • Found the main cause of disease was asphyxiation or thermal shock • Examined work at the House of Menander

Giuseppe Fiorelli • Divided Pompeii into nine regions with 22 insular each • Numbered each building • Cleared debris from earlier excavations • Found cavities in ash and took plaster casts to recreate them

Page 12 of 64 Ancient History NEW TECHNOLOGIES X-ray • Help develop our understanding of human and animal remains • Lady of Oplontis was X-rayed in 1994 • Piagio machine like other previous technologies were destructive to evidence More advanced: X-ray phase constrast tomography • Read villa of papyri scrolls (collection of over 1800 scrolls first discovered in 1752) • More powerful than convention X-ray which was unable to unroll and read the scrolls

CT Scans • Helped develop our understanding of human and animal remains • 86 of plaster casts at Pompeii scanned with CT scanner • Used by Estelle Laser - Pompeii Cast Restoration Project (Te Great Pompeii Project) • Has helped change understanding of dental heigene

Dual Energy • Has been used to study pottery by Jay Makenzie Clark and John Magnison Computed • Method uses two x-rays = more accurate • Not as destructive as early methods to investigate pottery, such as Petrological Tin Section Analysis

3D Imaging/ • Used by Lund University (Sweden). Has allowed for 3D construction of the House of Caecillius Auto CAD Luncundus • Provide tourists virtual access to sites or artefacts not open to the public due to conservation reasons

Drones • Has enabled reconstruction of areas of the sites • Documenting sites, positive experience for tourists

Other technology: Infrared Photography, Digital Photography Reconstruction and Conservation Issues

CONSERVATION… Involves the documentation, analysis, cleaning and stabilisation of an object or structure to prevent further deterioration - to preserve it in its existing state. Current principles of conservation are to do no harm, to use materials that are no strong than the original and to ensure that everything that is done is reversible.

RESTORATION… Involves the repair of an object or structure and the replacement of missing parts to make it appear as it was at a particular time. Current principles are to make new material clearly distinguishable from original material.

RECONSTRUCTION… Is the recreation of an object or structure that no longer exists. Te reconstruction may be actual, using original and/or new materials, or virtual, using digital archaeological techniques to create multimedia and virtual reality representations

PAST MISTAKES IN RECONSTRUCTION AND CONSERVATION • Inappropriate excavation: Spinazzola’s decison to expose the façades of buildings along the via dell’Abbondanza → collapse from weight of soil and water • Incorrect construction methods: Timber roof built on the House of Mileage in Pompeii could not support the weight of the tiles → collapse

Page 13 of 64 Ancient History • Inappropriate materials: Iron reinforcing rods and beams were used in contact with modern concrete in structures designed to ‘repair’ or protect ruins → exposed iron had rusted and expanded, weakening the protective structures • Unsuitable conservation processes: Carbonised wooden features in the College of the Augustales in Herculaneum were covered with glass or fibreglass before being conserved and stabilised → microclimate and deterioration

EXCAVATION VS CONSERVATION Decisions to be Made … for Archaelogists … for conservators

• Where to excavate? • Which objects or structures to conserve? • How much to excavate? • In situ protection eg. roofs, awnings • What structure(s) to excavate? OR • What level to excavate - AD 79 or earlier? • Ex situ eg. removing frescoes to a museum? • How to present the object or structure Excavation or Conservation? In Favour of Excavation In Favour of Conservation Te value of what may be found, (eg. the Latin section of It would be irresponsible to expose any more of the villa the Villa's library) far outweighs the costs. Excavation without being able to guarantee the protection of what is should be undertaken without delay, before seismic or found. Te priority is to conserve what has been exposed at volcanic activity or other forces make the site inaccessible Herculaneum rather than undertake new excavations. forever.

ISSUES Weathering and • Wall paintings and fresco’s have been exposed to the sun due to it being uncovered which means it Bird Poop will fade and will not look the same • Carbonised objects have also deteriorated very quickly • Tere are highly polluted conditions in Campania speeding up the fading and bleaching of paintings and breakdown of organic materials

Tourism • Has been consistently changing where people are not allowed access due to the wearing down of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Allows for the site to ‘rest’ and ‘renew’. • People touching things has also caused the deterioration of wall paintings, grafti and paint. • Resulted in grafti, littering and bags rubbing against walls and fingers rub walls.

Poor • Archaeologists of the past have contributed to the decay due to their attempts at restoration and Restoration conservation Work • Eg. doors and windows have been replaced by sof wood instead of hardwood resulting in rotting • Rotting of reinforced concrete used for repairs have split open causing the collapse of the new and ancient structures

Looting • Between 1975 – 2000 nearly 600 items were stolen from the sites. • Fresco’s have been cut from walls. • People may pick up a rock and take it home with them.

Page 14 of 64 Ancient History PROJECTS Ango-American • Began in 1994 Project • Reinterprets Amedeo Maiuri’s findiges • Focused on Region VI in Pompeii • Focused on conservation

Te Villa of • About the ancient site of Oplontis; two villa’s outside of Pompeii Oplontis Project • Shows the complex social structure of Pompeii • Shows the lives of its inhabitants • Shows how much has really afected the Villa’s wall paintings and how we must preserve them • Uses interactive 3D models, allowing users to see the reconstructed state of the building

Pomepian • Began in 1988 Forum Project • Involved completing existing architectural plans of the forum as they were inaccurate and incomplete • Architectural and decorative remains documented were rapidly deteriorating • Used an electronic surveying device that interfaces with AutoCAD

Ethical Issues Regarding Human Remains

FOR AGAINST Education Human dignity • Te educational benefits overrides all other issues • Wrong to display human remains without consent, no Plaster casts aren’t actual remains matter how old the remains may be • Technically speaking they aren’t actually remains, Spread of misinformation whether they resemble the individuals or not • Tey way in which many of the remains are displayed is Bones aren’t from one individual overly dramatised, thus reducing educating • Due to the less than systematic approach to excavation opportunities anyway prior to Fiorelli, many of the skeletons from the boat Religious/spiritual/cultural reasons sheds were jumbled up • Many religions and cultures across the world place a Remains do not equal individual particular significance on burial. Tus the display of • Bones do not equal person unless information about human remains may be deemed ofensive their life is known and understood, Tus it is not Not properly signed disrespectful to display the remains, as nobody knows • Tey confronting nature of the display of human who they belong to anyway and thus cannot pass remains, at the very least, should be signed properly and judgement respectfully - this is not done so properly in Pompeii Italian Tradition and Herculaneum • Italy has a tradition of displaying human remains - bodies of saints and martyrs. To suggest that the displays of human remains is wrong, to some, is to disrespect Italian culture

EXCAVATION, TREATMENT AND DISPLAY • Maiuri, in an attempt to attract tourists in Herculaneum, used a skeleton of a young boy to completely stage a table in what he called ‘the room of the weaving girl’

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Science vs • “Human skeletons are indispensable for archaeological research. Ancient diets, disease pathologies, Cultural genetic pattern and environmental adaptions are but a few research areas that osteo-archaeological Sensitivity remains can illuminate” (R.Ford) • “Archaeologists and anthropologists have long considered archaeological human remains an important source of information about both biological and cultural aspects of prior human populations. Data derived rom human populations of all ethnic and socio-economic groups are critical to our understanding of many aspects of modern human biology as well as to the field of forensics.” (A Cheek and B Keel)

Treatment and • People are questioning whether it is ethical to jeopardise the physical characteristics of bone for Storage of Bones potential future analysis on elements that have not necessarily survived in the sample • Proper conservation and storage practices — wrapped in acid free paper, protective container, guarded against thef

Display of • Sensitivities of certain religious groups (eg. Jews, Muslims), who object to being in close proximity Human to human remains Remains in • “No ethnic identification should be afxed of it is demeaning, or if no useful purpose is served” — Museums R.Ford

Casts at • Intended to help the general public understand Fiorelli’s unique contribution to archaeology Pompeii • question of excavation, treatment and display of human remains is ‘an evolving topic’

Value an Impact of Tourism

VALUE • Positive benefits to the local economy eg. cruise ships • Since 1997, proceeds from tourism have been diverted directly back into the conservation of Pompeii and Herculaneum • Educational value - increases the historical awareness of visitors

IMPACT AND PROBLEMS Erosion • Large No. of visitors = heavy foot flow wearing down pavers eg. Street of Abundance

Increased Costs • Revenue • Money spent on maintaining on facilities = could money be better spent on conservation?

Accidental • Sitting down or standing on walls, resting or taking photos Damage • Visitors wanting to touch frescoes • Flash photography

Overcrowding • Erosion • Temple of Apollo: 2016 steps of temple being worn down by constant flow of tourists taking same route

Modern grafti • Ancient grafti valuable • Tourists want to leave their own mark

Vandalism • Columns being pushed over • Artefacts stolen or broken

Competing • Not everyone agrees on best approach to deal with tourism - those in charge and archaeologists Agendas

Page 16 of 64 Ancient History SOLUTIONS • UNESCO established a World Heritage Sustainable Tourism Program in 2011 • encouraging tourists to visit other tourists sites in the area - relieve pressure on Pompeii • World Heritage Report - sustainable tourism • Redirection of tourists to other areas of site • providing range of varied itineraries • presenting special exhibitions in less visited areas • 3D virtual reality tours + headphone commentaries • Rotation of access to parts of the sight to help reduce the flow and impact of tourists — and to enable maintenance to be carried out • Restriction of the number of people in a building to be carried out • Provision of cordons, viewing platforms, and boardwalks to allow non-destructive viewing • Provision of better signage, presentation and interpretation of sites to inform and engage tourists • Tourists understand the significance of site = value it + behave in ways that minimise damage • Employment and training of more site custodians, both ‘fixed’, stationed at key points, and ‘roaming’ • Installation of surveillance technology and alarms to help prevent deliberate vandalism and thef • Provision of ‘tourist-sensitising’ programs, eg. on-ship, on-site or through social media networks, to alert visitors to the significance of the site and the potential damage they can cause • Education of tour operators to promote greater understanding of the damage tourists can do and the importance of appropriate behaviour • Liaison with publishers of tourist guidebooks and websites to encourage them to be more proactive in providing information about the need for appropriate behaviour at the site • Encouragement of tourists to visit other less crowded sites eg. Oplontis, Stabia and the Villa Poppaea

Page 17 of 64 Ancient History

The Greek World

Page 18 of 64 Ancient History Glossary Terms

Key Term Definition Achaemenid Dynasty Relating to the hereditary rulers in Persia from Cyrus I to Darius III (553-330 BC) Acropolis A fortified hilltop in ancient Athens, containing the Parthenon and other notable buildings, mostly dating from the 5th century BC Agora A public open space in ancient Athens used for assemblies and markets Archonship Ofce of the nine chief magistrates (archons) of ancient Athens City-State A sovereign state, consisting of a single city and it’s dependent territories Delphic Oracle Te priestess of Apollo, in his sanctuary at Delphi; she uttered prophecies on behalf of Apollo, the go of prophecy Democracy Government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised directly by them or their elected representatives Dionysia An Athenian dramatic festival from which Greek comedy and tragedy developed; it was held to honour the god Dionysus Diplomatic Protocol Ofcial procedure or rules governing afairs of state or diplomatic occasions between diferent states Epigraphical Relating to the study of inscriptions on stone or metal Epigraph Words written in memory of a person who has died, especially as an inscription on a tombstone Helots Te enslaved population of Sparta Hoplite Warfare An Ancient Greek form of battle in which foot soldiers fought in tight, highly disciplined formation with overlapping shields Oligarch A member of an oligarchy, a government in which all power is vested in a few persons or in a dominant class or clique Ostracism In classical Athens, banishment of a citizen for 10 years by popular vote; the name of the person to be ostracised was written on a broken piece of pottery called an ostrakon Peloponnesian Belonging to the Peloponnese, a peninsula in southern Greece Periokoi Free but non-citizen residents of Sparta Prytany A period of 5 weeks for which each of the prytanies (the 10 divisions of the Athenian Council of 500) presided in turn Tribute Money or valuables paid to a state or ruler to acknowledge submission Trieme A gallery with three rows or tiers of oars on each side, one above another, used chiefly as a warship.

Page 19 of 64 Ancient History Persian Wars

Persian Imperialism

• Persians originally settled in area known today as Iran • Tribes took their names from the areas they settled - Medes in Media and the Persians in Persia • Te Tigris and Euphrates River (Babylonia) • Te Zagros mountains, which are as high as 4500 m Ionian Revolt

Cities: Miletus, Mycale, Ephesus, Chios, Samos, Naxos, and Cos. Source Herodotus (Greek bias, no Persian written account). Herodotus blames the Ionian Revolt on Aristagoras the tyrant of Miletus. Herodotus saw the conflict as one between two incompatible civilisations - tyranny and democracy • Persian Greeks unhappy with aspects of Persian rule and interference in trade • 499BC, Aristagoras of Miletus failed an attempt to takeover Naxos, incident prompted him to organise a revolt of Ionian Greeks against Persia • Appeal to Greek mainland for help, only from Athens (20 ships) and Eritrea (5 ships) • 498 BC: Athens, Eritreans and Ionians marched against Persia and set fire to Sardis. Greeks were pursued and defeated, all Ionian cities back under Persian control by 494 BC

SIGNIFICANT FOR IONIA • Miletus destroyed, temples burned, people killed or enslaved • Tyrannies were replaced by democratic Government and a fair land tax was implemented • Future conflicts were to be settled by arbitration

SIGNIFICANT FOR MAINLAND GREECE • Miltiades former Greek tyrant of the Chersonese, fled to Athens. He had vast knowledge of Persian customs and military tactics Raphael Sealy attributes the Greco-Persian wars to “the tendency of empires to expand” and the fact that “the Persian ruling class set a value on conquest” Battle of Marathon

KEY SHORT TERM • Athenian casualties (192) vs Persia lost over 6000 • Athens was saved from Eretrias fate • Miltiades briefly became Athens undisputed ruler • Athens’ reputation soared among the Greeks • Heroes of Marathon gained a special place in Athenian life

MEDIUM TERM • Relations with Persia now dominated thinking in Athens • Tis would afect relations with other Greek states, naval policy and internal politics • Another greater attack was anticipated, as Darius and his successor Xerxes, would never leave matters settled as they were in Marathon Page 20 of 64 Ancient History

Role of Miltiades

• Elected general before Marathon campaign • First-hand knowledge of Persian tactics (former tyrant) • Experienced soldier, natural leader • May have been responsible for devising tactics that helped Greeks win (not conclusive) • Convinced Athenians to march North to Marathon rather than wait • Advised generals (Callimarch) to attack • Rushed Athenian soldiers back to Athens in case the Persians attacked the city • Used strength of Athenian hoplites and weaknesses of Persian soldiers (superior armour vs wicker shields, training in cooperative combat vs multinational forces) Inter War Period

Persian Greek

• Delays due to rebellions in Egypt and Babylon • Hellenic League formed in 481 BC (United front to face • Joint sea and land attack planned Persia) • Submission demanded (481 BC) Some states considered medicine • 4 years to assemble troops, stores and equipment • United Greek army was under control of King Leonidas of (Herodotus) Sparta, which took control • Raised 200 000 men at Sardis from all over the • Navy under Eurybiades’ command empire, 5 million is an exaggeration (Herodotus) • Sparta gathered 40 000 hoplites and 350 ships to fight • Canal cut through mount Athos • Internal disputes set aside (Athens + Aegina) • 2 bridges constructed across the Hellespont (314 boats • Spies sent to Asia to report on movements of Xerxes’ army in one and 360 boats in the other) • Envoys sent for help to Syracuse, Corcyra, Argos and • Roads and supply depots Crete • “Te army (Persian was indeed far greater than any • Ostracised citizens recalled other in recorded history” - Herodotus • Decision to hold Termopylae and Artemisium

Battle of Thermopylae

• Defensive line to hold the narrow pass of Termopylae. holding method to delay the Persians • Coordinated battle with Artemisium • 300 Spartans, 2000 helots, Arcadians, Tespians, Tebes (unwillingly) + Phocis blocked path for a week • Persians gained access to the mountain passes (betrayed by Tebes), surrounded Greeks, Leonidas told Greek’s to leave, Spartans + 2000 others stayed and were killed (20 000 Persians killed and 4000 Greeks) • King Leonidas slaughtered, legend of the brave 300 rose • Increased moral fo Greeks • Tebes = traitor “Te early evacuation of Attica would imply that the Athenians had little confidence that the Persians could be held at Termopylae” - Bury Page 21 of 64 Ancient History “Go tell the Spartans … obedient to our laws we lie” - epitaph of the Spartans “400 here from Peplos and against 3 million once did stand” epitaph of the Greeks (Herodotus) “…he (Xerxes) had many men indeed, but few soldiers” - Herodotus Battle of Artemisium

• Coordinated naval battles under naval leadership of Eurybiades • Battle was indecisive, storm destroyed half Persians fleet but army remained strong • Greeks retreated once they heard of Termopylae to evacuate Athens • Herodotus claims Persians were own enemy as they damaged each ship trying to manoeuvre around • Afer defeat at Termopylae, the Greeks were forced to retreat in order to evacuate Athens “Eurybiades … was bound to stay at Artemisium so long as the land army was at Termopylae” - Bury and Meiggs Battle of Salamis

• Spartans retreated to Isthmus, not keen to participate • Command of Spartan Eurybiades • Temistocles planned to lure Persians into straits of Salamis (minimised numbers), sent slave to Persians saying Greeks were retreating • Persians tricked into believing that Greeks triremes were evacuating to the south. Persian ships blocked each other and the smaller Greek trims could manoeuvre around and between the Persians. Greeks rammed and sank Persian vessels and regained control of Aegean sea • Persian supply lines and communication were cut and had fleet enormous losses. Xerxes was so angry he executed the Phoenician captains of his fleet for cowardice so the Phoenicians and Egyptians decided to leave and desert him, this is why he lost his fleet • Greeks controlled Aegean Sea afer victory • Xerxes back to Persian, Ionians encouraged to revolt • Demonstrated unity + Temistocles strategy + skill • Persian army lef in greece under the command of Mardonias to “bring Greece to Xerxes in chains” “First we shall be fighting in narrow waters and there with our inferior numbers we shall win” - Plutarch “Temistocles was a natural genius…” - Tucydides “Without a fleet the Peloponnese could not be conquered” - Cook “Te Greek fleet worked together as a whole while the Persians had lost formation” Herodotus Battle of Plataea

• Persians chose the plain of Plataea in Boeotia to confront Greeks • Spartans and Persians elite fought fiercely • Victory came to Greeks afer their forces were taken to higher ground to escape the Persian cavalry • Spartan hoplites decided the outcome • Mardonius riding a white horse, was killed and the Persians broke ranks and fled Battle of Mycale

• Greek fleet had crossed the Aegean to Mycale where it destroyed the remaining Persian fleet • Mycale was both a land and sea battle: could have taken place on the same day as Plataea

Afer the Battle, the decision was made to enrol the Ionians into the Hellenic League

Page 22 of 64 Ancient History • Te Greek fleet, with Ionian reinforcements, sailed to the Hellespont to destroy Xerxes’ bridge bout found that had already gone. Te Peloponnesian's then sailed home. However, the Athenians, under Xanthippus, collected the bridge ropes intending to dedicate them as an ofering in their temples Ushered in a new phase of Greek history - one based on the supremacy of Athens Themistocles’ Role and Contribution

• Encouraged Athens to build up its fleet in the interwar period • Convinced assembly to use silver from Larium to build a fleet • Began the fortification of the Harbour at Piraeus for naval protection + trading base • Served at Marathon (aged mid-20s) and behind evacuation preparations of Athens (Troezen inscription) • Behind the formation of the Hellenic League (481 BC) • Main Greek tactician during Persian invasion of 480-479 BC • Major strategy to defeat the Persians was to destroy their navy so it could not supply + support land forces • Point Artemisium - leader of Athenian naval continent - message to Ionians (carved into rocks on route back to Athens to ‘fight badly’) • Plans in event of Persian attack ‘Te Temistocles Decree’ • Battle of Salamis (largely responsible for decision to stay + fight) • Urged Eurybiades to abandon Peloponnesian plans to sail and defend the Isthmus • Sent messages to Xerxes to start battle • Anti-Spartan politics + conflict with conservative politics (Cimon pro-Spartan) • Ostracized in 472 BC Tucydides view of Temistocles was ambiguous: “through force of genius and rapidity of action, this man was supreme doing precisely the right thing at precisely the right moment” Leonidas’ Role and Contribution

• King of Sparta 490 - 480 BC died at Termopylae • Major contribution = leadership of Greek forces at Termopylae • Decided on the battle location (narrow pass minimised Persian numbers) • Holding tactic so Athens could be evacuated • Saved troops by sending them away once he realised all was lost, delayed Persians roughly for days Barry Strauss claims this time allowed Temistocles time to convince other leaders to fight at Salamis Eurybiades’ Role and Contribution

• Spartan commander (polymarch) in chief - Artemisium + Salamis • Important for Greek defence although overshadowed by Temistocles because Peloponnesian allies refused to Athenian commander • Strong working relationship with Temistocles + mutual respect even though tension between Athens and the Peloponnese • Awarded prize of valour • Position of Greek fleets: easy for shelter, retreat + attack, between Persian fleet plus army interrupt communication and supplies • Assisted in Salamis although Temistocles got most credit • Convinced Temistocles to not destroy the bridges at Hellespont

Page 23 of 64 Ancient History Pausanias’ Role and Contribution

• Responsible for win at Plataea (fire) supported army of 100 000 from 24 cities for weeks even through threats of attack, starvation + dehydration • Spartan regent for Leonidas’ young son • Greek general (strategoi) at Plataea in 479 BC • Tactically outsmarted Mardonius and used terrain to his advantage, eliminating Persian calvary’s efectiveness • Herodotus states, “the finest victory in all history known to me was won by Pausanias…” • Gained respect from all Greeks • According to Plutarch, Pausanias treated his allies harshly and arrogantly, insulting them with his activities • Expelled by Athenians in 477BC, dressed like a Persian, looked down on Athenians and treated people badly • Died in Sparta in 470 BC insane and in disgrace Reason for Greek Victory and Persian Defeat

• Greeks came together and united them into a solid front to fight for their own freedom • Spartans had superior fighting skills • On own terrain • Persian strategies were known • Persian forces were large, but disorganised, ill-equipped and came from all parts of the empire/poor communication and ill-discipled conscripts • Superior armour over Persians • Better political and military leadership • Xerxes made important mistakes • Geography and weather favoured the Greeks Olmstead attributes the defeats to Xerxes’ “repeated military and diplomatic blunders” Tucidides concurs, saying it was “chiefly his own fault that the Barbarian (Xerxes) failed” Victor Ehrenberg attributes the result to “intelligent leadership” and “courage and discipline by almost everyone on the Greek side” Herodotus “Tey (Persians) fought through fear of punishment by the Great King if they failed. Te Greeks fought to protect their homeland” Development of Athens and The Athenian Empire

Delian League

ORIGINS Te fify years between the Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War saw the rise to power of Athens, first as the leader or hegemon of a group of allies in the Delian League and then as the head of a powerful empire, which reached its political, economic and cultural peak at the time of Pericles • Te Ionian Greeks looked to Sparta to secure and maintain their independence • Te leadership was transferred from Sparta to Athens. Reasons for this include: • Tucydides says that allies took initiative in the transfer of power while also mentioning they had already decided to remove Pausanias “and arrange matters in a way that would best suit their own interests”

Page 24 of 64 Ancient History • Te Spartans were content to give up leadership because, geographically, Sparta’s interest lay in the Peloponnese rather than the Aegean region and to focus on domestic problems (fear of helots revolting) as well as consolidating their leadership in the Peloponnese • Sparta did not possess a navy as large as Athens and this would have been essential to fight of Persia • Tucydides felt that the Spartans did not want to be disgraced by one of their ofcials again, afer the behaviour of Pausanias to the Ionians and other Greeks. Plutarch - “treated his own allies harshly and arrogantly” • Te period is marked also by the gradual deterioration of relations between the two leading Greek states due, according to Tucydides, to the fear and jealousy that Athens’ power inspired in Sparta and her allies

AIMS • Maintain the freedom of Greeks from the Persians - to organise a defensive alliance so that the Greeks would be prepared for future attacks • Ehrenburg - “the main purpose was aggression against Persia” • Liberate Greek city-states still under Persian rule • Tucydides states that the ofcial aim was “to compensate themselves for their losses by ravaging the territory of the King of Persian”

ORGANISATION • In 447 BC, Aristides called on interested Greek states to attend a meeting on the island of Delos. Te Ionian cities also joined the alliance, hoping to gain their freedom from Persia • Te League’s organisation: • All members were to be free and independent • Each state had one vote and all votes were equal • Aristides devised a regular system of contributions Although the League was an alliance of equal city-states, Athens had considerable power and received the greatest benefits

OTHER ASPECTS Finances • Delian League needed a strong fleet and adequate funds. Some states were to provide money others were to provide ships • Plutarch explains that since the allies wanted each city to be daily assessed, they asked Athens for Aristides to help “ … fix their contributions according to each members worth and ability to pay” • Total contribution amounted to 460 talent and was collected and supervised by Athenian ofcials (hellentomiae) • Tose who contributed ships retained control of them, they were only needed for a portion of the year • Te photos (money payment) was collected and went straight into the treasury at Delos

Independence • Te allies were initially independent states with their own particular forms of government of Allies • It was not long however, before rebellious states lost their independence and became subject to Athens

Council • It is probable that Athens - as the leader and most influential state - could control the vote by her (Synod) of patronage or intimidation of smaller states who would follow her lead the Leage • Te Synod decided League policy and strategy, and Athenian ofcials carried them out

Te Oath • Tis oath, sworn bilaterally between the Athenians and the allies, indicated that Athens was to be hegemony for as long as the League continued, and the league was meant to be permanent • Aristotale says that it was Aristides “… who swore the oaths to the Ionians that they should have the same enemies and friends, to confirm which they sank lumps of iron in the sea” • Tucydides states that when Naxos revolted, she was forced back into allegiance

Page 25 of 64 Ancient History

Athens • From the beginning, Athens had considerable power Position • She was the permanent leader • As hegemon, she had executive powers. Aristides assessed the tribute, ten Athenian ofcials collected and supervised the contributions, and Cimon was the leader of the fleet • She presided over the Synod and could influence policy and strategy • She contributed the largest number of ships and men Although individuals may at an early stage have seen the potential for an empire, there is no real evidence to suggest that the Athenian people aimed at making Athens an imperial power.

ACTIVITIES Tucydides - “Against the Persians, some against their own allies when they revolted, against the Peloponnesian powers” Te activities of the League involved a range of attacks against the Persians, but on the part of Athens there was also coercion of the other Greek states and even its own allies to remain League members.

Byzantium 478 BC • Pausanias campaign that disgraces Sparta • Athens gained leadership • Persians cut from their garrisons in Trace • Access to the Black sea (“extending their political and commercial interests in those regions” - Bury)

Eion 476 - 475 BC • First combined action of the league • Cimon led expedition against Persian garrison in Trace • Eion was besieged and captured • Athens claimed settlement • Te rich hinterland and resources (timber, silver) were later used in Athen’s transformation into an empire

Scyrus 474 - 473 BC • Cimon defeated the Dolopian Pirates who once interfered with trade • Scyrus was taken by Athenian settlers

Carystus 472 BC • Not initially a member, had given help to Persians • Cimon attacked and forced Carystus to join the Delian League • Carystus had to pay tribute as it was ‘enjoying the peace’ from the league

Naxos 469 BC • Tried to withdraw from the league • Dissatisfied with league’s action against Persia • Athens refused and were worried it would start an unfavourable precedent • League forces attacked Naxos and Tucydides says the people of Naxos were enslaved • Naxos subjugated and reduced to tributary status “Naxos and Carystus were deprived of their autonomy. Tey became in fact subjects of Athens” - Bury

Battle of Eurymedon • Te Persian fleet was massing at the mouth of Eurymedon River River 467 BC • CImon sailed with 300 ships (200 Athenian) to meet the Persians • Cimon victorious - 200 Persian ships sunk • Te existence of the League was justified - Ionian cities were liberated • Tere was question as to whether the league should continue, having achieved it’s aim “Te victory of Eurymedon lef Athens free to pursue this inevitable policy of transforming the confederacy into an empire” - Bury

Page 26 of 64 Ancient History Cimon’s Role and Contribution

• Replaced Aristides and Temistocles • Followed policy of PanHellenic idealism, particular favour to the Spartans (pro-Spartan) • Cimon took 4000 hoplites to assist the helot revolution in Sparta. Declined his help, returned home and was blamed for Spartan attitudes • Ostracised 461 BC by Pericles • Established Athenian Imperialism and Prepared Athenian Empire • Drove Pausanias out of Byzantium • Merged leagues aims with Athenian ambition and five year peace plan with Sparta Aristides’ Role and Contribution

• Structure + organisation of the League largely attributed to him • Developed a regular system of photos + contributions • Plutarch states that the allies “approached Aristides and pressed him to accept the supreme command and rally around him the allies who had long wished to be quit of Sparta and to transfer their support to Athens • One of the founders of the Delian League - Aristides took over Pausanias when Athens gained hegemony Transformation into Athenian Empire

• At first Athens had no intention of becoming an Empire • Subjugation of Naxos and Tasos showed change in Athenian imperial policy • 446 - 445 BC no doubt Athens wanted to become an empire with the Chalcis Decree (decree lef no doubt in the members of the League that they were subject of an imperial power • Tucydides states the initial capture of Eion, Scyrus, Carystus and Naxos were stepping stones to become an empire • “It was the actual course of events which first compelled us to increase power to its present extent; fear of Persia was our chief motivator” • Break down in relation between Athens and Sparta increased Athen sneed for power - two potential threats (Persia) • Pericles lead to imperialism in the Delian League • War with Aegina and Battle of Tonagra showcased motives • Subjected Aegina to pay 30 talents to league - punishment increased growing fear of subjugation • Athens suggested treasury be moved to Athens • Reasons for - Athens believed faced possible threat at delos • Treasury was used for Athens own personal interests - certain % was spend on increasing Athenian temples and building funds (Pericles building program) • Te remainder went to League

METHODS USED TO CONTROL ENEMIES • Garrisons established in rebel cities - sent to protect Athenian ofcials • “…Te council installed by the (Athenian) inspectors and garrison commanders and in future by the (outgoing) council and the garrison commander” • Athens established democratic forms of government modelled on her own • Replaced the Tynrannies and Oligarchic governments • Oaths of alliance were sworn to Athens • (Athenian Tribute lists) - “I will not revolt from the people of Athens nor will I permit another to do so” • Athens became involved with judicial afairs in 462 BC • Chalcis Decree 446 - 465 Athens began to control local courts of some allies • Athens became insisted that they take cases to her own court Page 27 of 64 Ancient History • Cleruchies were settlers of Athens in allied cities • Strengthened Athens control over allies • Lead to bitterness of Athens - Athenians would take best agricultural land • Plutarch “a healthy fear of rebellion” • Euboea reviled in 447 - 6, Pericles “transported the whole population of Histea from their territory and replaced them with Athenian colonists” - Plutarch

BENEFITS FOR ATHENS FROM THE EMPIRE • Tucydides records the Athenians explanation for their empire; “we have done nothing extraordinary, nothing contrary to human nature in accepting an empire when it was ofered to us and then in refusing to give it up. Tree very powerful motives present us from doing so - security, honour, and self-interest” • Tey received great benefits - funds to pay ofcials and jurors, maintenance of fleet and payment of rowers and soliders, building temples and to subsidise festivals • Between 447 and 432 the Athenians did not need to pay any direct taxes to the states • Athens could control trade, other states had to use Athenian coinage, measure, and weights

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES FOR MEMBER STATES • Membership of the empire provided advantages such as peace, better protection, democratic governments, and prosperity through increased trade • However, the loss of the member’s independence in domestic and foreign afairs, their economic dependence on Athens and her high-handed actions towards them far outweigh any advantages gained. Tey saw her becoming a tyrant state • Treatment of Samos, which in 440 stood up for its right to go to war with another state, was an example of its ‘tyranny’ Nature of Athenian Imperialism

• Middle 5th Century Athens dominated by Pericles • Responsible for completing Athenian democracy between 462 - 450 BC • Pericliean Athens centre of Greek commercial world and cultural activity • Empire bought wealth and prestige • Introduced reforms to help make country more democratic • Payment for state services • Participation of lower class in government • Establishment of social welfare • Extensive building program • Former allies were subjects to Athens • Tribute paid to Athenian treasury - maintain fleet, suppress members and non-members of League and rebuild the city of Athens Modern scholar, Christian Meier claims the Delian league was now the Athenian empire

CHANGING RELATIONSHIPS WITH ALLIES • Developments afer the Battle of Eurymedon River were significant as the Persian threat was neutralised • When allies + subjects became discontented with the restrictions placed on them Athens tightened their control • Allies used to fight other Greeks (Aegina - Peloponnesian League), also used to gain territory • Moved the treasury from Delos to Athens in 454 BC • Rebellions forced tighter control • Pericles set up system of Kleroi around the Aegean (Athenian citizens on the territory of others) planted on allies • Coinage Decree 446 BC - Athenian coinage only, all other coins to be melted down and mints closed, took away allies economic independence • 447 BC Euboea revolted, Athenian forces brought it back • 446 - 5 BC Athens issued decree relating to Euboea, which showed they were truly subjects of an imperial power Page 28 of 64 Ancient History

Key Democratic Developments

Democratic Changes • Cimon payed no attention in the democratic constitution • Power of aristocratic Aeopagus, was reduced politically by its loss of judicial powers • Pay for jurors + state services, and archons + thetes introduced • Magistracies open to all citizens except poorest classes

Tetes • Increased importance on thetes (lower class, rowers) • Demanded more and more say in the political decision making process • People wanting to be strategies could not ignore Tetes ‘people power’ Citizenship Law Both parents had to be born in Athens to be a citizen • Pericles introduced citizenship law to determine government ofcials have the correct qualifications + limits • So strict Temistocles wouldn’t have been considered (parents were foreigners) • i.e - Temistocles removed Aristides Ostracism 10 year exile • Introduced as people were suspicious of those in power • “Tis law had been enacted because of their suspicion of those in power…” - Aristotle • Plutarch believes attempt to keep people humble • “It was described for the sake of appearances as a measure to curtail and human a man’s power and prestige in cases where these had grown oppressive” - Plutarch • Organised through vote • “…Tey decided by vote whether there is to be a vote on ostracism or not” - Aristotle • “Each voter took an ostrakon, or piece of earthware, wrote on it the name of the citizen he wished to be banished and carried it to a part of the market place” - Plutarch Athens and Sparta

Impact of Persian Wars

• Athenians keen to develop power - Spartans returned to status quo • Rebuilding of the long walls • Tensions build when Spartans tell Athenians to abandon the rebuilding of the long walls between Athens and the harbours (protected city from attack) • Temistocles delayed responding to Spartans until walls were built • Delian League • Spartans wanted to deal with Peloponnesian afairs passed leadership to Athens • Years passed and Spartans grew uneasy about Athenian imperialism growth • Cimon’s pro-Spartan Policy • CImon’s friendly policy with Spartans • Believed Athens + Sparta could share power in Greece • Spartan - land, Athens - sea • nature, composition and activities of the Peloponnesian League - Spartan responses to Athenian imperialism

Page 29 of 64 Ancient History • Revolt of Tasos - Tasos revolted and appealed to Spartans for help, got help up due to Messian revolt and earthquake, Athens punished Tasos • Messian revolt - Spartans appealed to allies for help, Cimon (Athens) sent a force but upon their arrival was sent home, Athens were ofended, broke treaty of alliance • Eclipse of CImon - due to Sparta refusal of Athenians help Cimon’s political oppression ostracised him thus abolishing his pro-Spartan policy • Athenians wanted to expand in the Peloponnese which faced war between Athens + Sparta (Peloponnesian Wars) Peloponnesian League

ATHENS AND SPARTA • Athenians planned to keep their leadership afer the Peloponnesian Wars • Spartan requested Athenians to abandon rebuilding their fortifications, but still continued to finish them (advised by Temistocles) [long walls between Athens and harbour] • 458 - Athens defeats Aegina, and they are forced to join Delian League • 457 - Battle of Tanagra • Battle of Oenophyta • Payment for jurors into Athens • 453 - Erythrae Decree • 451 - Te 5 year truce between Athens and Sparta • Athens citizenship law • 449 - Peace of Callias • 447 - Battle of Coronea • 447 - 446 - Revolts in Euboea and Megara • 446 - 430 - 30 year peace • 445 - Chalcis Decree (Coinage decree) • 440 - Revolt of Samos

Page 30 of 64 Ancient History

Spartan Society

Page 31 of 64 Ancient History Glossary Terms

Key Term Definition Amphora (pl. A two handled pottery storage jar with an oval body tapering to a point at the base. amphorae) Austerity Simplicity, even severity, of lifestyle as opposed to luxury and comforts. Autonomous Having the freedom to act independently. Chattel A slave or an item of property. Chine A cut of meat across or along the backbone. City-State A sovereign state, consisting of a single city and its dependent territories. Classical Period Te period of Greek history from c. 500 to 323 BC. Delphic Oracle Te priestess of Apollo, in his sanctuary at Delphi; she uttered prophecies on behalf of Apollo, the go of prophecy. Dorian Referring to the earliest inhabitants of the Peloponnese, ancestors of the Spartans. Ephor One of five annually elected magistrates in the Spartan government. Ethos Te set of attitudes and beliefs typical of an organisation or group of people. Hellenic Relating to Greece; from Hellas, the Greek word for their country. Helots Te enslaved population of Sparta. Hoplite Citizen soldier. Karneia A religious festival of ancient Sparta. Krater A large Greek vase for mixing water and wine. Martial Ideology A system of ideas relating to warfare. Mercenary A professional soldier hired to serve in a foreign army. Mess A gathering of men in barracks to share meals and socialise. Oba (pl. obai) A village. Oracle A communication from a god indicating divine will; a prophecy. Pediment A decorative architectural feature, usually a triangular shape placed above doors and windows. Placate To calm or soothe. Prerogative A right claimed by a particular person or group of people. Rite of Passage A ceremony or event marking an important stage in someone’s life. Run a Gauntlet A type of punishment, in which the ofender has to run between two rows of people who strike with weapons.

Page 32 of 64 Ancient History Sedentary With limited physical activity. Serfdom Slavery, bondage. Slingers Lightly armed troops in ancient armies who fought using slingshots. Slip A mixture of clay, water, and pigment used for decorating the surfaced of pottery. Spartiate Male citizen of Sparta. Supplicant A person who asks humbly for favours. Tyrant An absolute leader. Votive Ofering An object deposited in a sacred place for religious purposes. Wet Nurse A woman employed to suckle another woman’s child

Page 33 of 64 Ancient History Historical and Political Context

Geographical Setting

GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING • Te Peloponnese - peninsula of mainland Greece • Occupied an area called Laconia • Messenia (area Spartan’s conquered) to the west of Sparta • Sparta - city • Only Greek city with Greek slaves • Gythium -> periokoi community/import and export port • Murex Shellfish -> cloaks

NATURAL FEATURES • Eurotas Valley - river provides fresh water to Spartan villages • Mountains formed natural defensive barrier • Taygetus (west) • Parnon (east) • Arcadian (north) • Te Parnon Mountains and Arcadian Mountains make Sparta protected and isolated • Natural harbour at the Gytheum - sole port of Sparta, used for trade, fishing port post-Lycurgus

CLIMATE • Cold in winter/hot in summer • Mountain ranges remained snow-capped all year and lower wooded slopes provided excellent hunting grounds and valuable timber • Mountains also formed a natural barrier/fortress for Sparta

RESOURCES • Olive oil, grapes, figs • Barley, wheat, honey • Beef, pigs, wild boar, hare, fish • Copper, clay, iron, lead, marble and limestone The Issue of Lycurgus and the Great Rhetra

Context

• 2nd Messenian war/7th century Sparta - a time of turmoil • At some point afer the Messenian wars, the Spartans undertook a drastic and revolutionary reorganisation of social and political systems • Te whole state became geared to a militaristic way of life; a new system of law and order, or eunomia, was established • Lawgiver, allegedly established most of Sparta’s political and social institutions • Controversial - mythological figure” Page 34 of 64 Ancient History

Ancient Opinions

• Lawgiver who established most of Sparta’s political and social institutions • Herodotus - possibly divine, brought about changes which “put the Spartan government on a sound basis” • “a man of distinction among the Spartans” (Herodotus) • Lycurgus “changed all the laws and made sure these changes should not be transgressed” when he died they dedicated a temple to him and “revere him greatly” (Herodotus) • Xenophon - “remarkably wise”, emphasises his role in establishing laws diferent from other states • Plutarch - “controversial”, once king of Sparta, “intention to sweep away the existing order and make a complete change of constitution” • Plutarch, writing in 2nd centre AD, bemoans the lack of precise evidence of Lycurgus Modern Opinions

• Mythical figure used by ancients to explain social, political and economic changes • Fitzhardinge - “probably a primitive local god … adopted by the Spartans afer the Messenian wars” • Michel - “we cannot afrm his existence by equally we cannot deny it … balance of probabilities on Lycurgus’ side” • Forrest - “possibly a mythological figure. the Spartans believed he was mortal and I agree with them” • Andrews - “the perpetuation of his name was one of the most successful frauds in history” Great Rhetra

• Te Spartan constitution established by Lycurgus • Lycurgus allegedly went to the oracle of Delphi to gain approval from Apollo for law reforms • Institutions were to provide eunomia - “excellent order of things” • “but the people must have the authority and power” • Te Rider - additional clause by later king limiting the power of people (veto) Reforms

• Xenophon and Plutarch • Institutions - diarchy, gerousia, ephors, ekklesia, syssitia, agoge • Redistribution of resources - kleroi, helots working farms, government owned land • Reorganised army - regiments, equipment, tactics, roles (professionalised) • Transformation from luxury to austerity - outlawed coinage to defer greed, expelled superfluous arts and crafs • Rules for citizen’s development from birth to death - education/agoge, marriage and relationships, public behaviour • Forrest • Not historically accurate that one man made all the changes • “Lycurgus took what he found and partly by accident, partly by design, made a system of it” (Forrest) • Already existing in Spartan society - 9000 men called themselves Spartan citizens, 2 kings, 3 ephors and council of elders, agoge and common messes, allegedly no coinage • Merely defines what already exists and made it military focused

Page 35 of 64 Ancient History Government Structure

Roles and Privileges of the Two kings

Origin • Belonged to the two leading families (eurypontids and agiads) among original Dorian tribesmen (it was hereditary) • First two kings were Eurythenes and Prokles Succession Succeeded by his eldest son, but a son born prior to his father’s accession to the throne had to give way to the first born afer his father became king Political Role Sat as members of the Gerousia and could take part in debates. Had no more power than the other 28

Religious • Acted as high priests of Zeus Role • Herodotus describes the “two priesthoods of Zeus Lakedaemon and Zeu Uranius” • Tis entitled them to spiritual and material prerogatives in the form of sacrifices on behalf of their patron gods, the state gods and prior to leaving for war and before a battle, both in Sparta and abroad • Personally allowed the skins and chines of all animals allowed for sacrifice • “priviledge of taking parts of the animals sacrificed” (Xenophon) • In Xenophon’s case piglets, in Herodotus’ cows • Unique access to the delphic oracle • “He laid it down as law that the king shall ofer in behalf of the state all public sacrifices as being himself of divine descent…” (Xenophon) • At public religious celebrations “they are the first to sit dow at the dinner”, “served first” (Herodotus)

Judicial Role • Decided issues relating to marriage of unbetrothed heiresses, public roads, highways and adoption of sons • Contributed two votes in the Gerousia • Responsible for the safe-keeping of all oracles (the Pythians also have knowledge of them) • “definite legal matters are lef to their sole decision” (Herodotus)

Restrictions • Took an oath every 3 months before the ephors to rule in accordance with the laws on Power • Two kings kept a check on each other. Contrast to other city-states in Greece where monarchies were early overthrown • Accompanied by two Ephors on campaign • Could appear before the gerousia and ephors for misconduct and could be deposed by the people • “…Even the most powerful king … could be challenged and occasionally cut down to size if his behaviour served to unite the elements against him” (Andrews) • Kings cannot retire

Special • Supported at the expense of the state and received income from lands of the periokoi Honours • A hundred picked men shall accompany the king upon expeditions • Presented with skins and carcasses of animals sacrificed to the gods • Served first at public meals and given double portions • Given seats of honour at all festivals and when they entered the assembly, all - apart from the ephors - stood • Mourned publicly for 10 days afer death. Involving elaborate funeral rites

Page 36 of 64 Ancient History

Military Role • Commander in Chief of the Army • “the power of declaring war on who they please” (Herodotus) • ‘the kings go first and return last” (Herodotus) • “should lead the army whenever the city despatches it” (Xenophon) • Spartan Militarism required Kings assert strong generalship • “Heriditary Generals” (Aristotle) • Only one king went on campaign; the other remained in Sparta, though in early times, both Kings went to war • At the time of Kleomenes and Demaratus it was decided that only one king would attend battle • On campaign the king held absolute authority • Te Diosccuri, twin sons of zeus, castor and pollux served as mythical representatives of the two Spartan kings. Tis symbolic image accompanied the kings into battle • “At home, a Spartan king’s powers of initiative and executive decision making were comparatively limited, in comparison to their greater powers … at the head of an army.” (Paul Cartledge) •

While they have privileges, there is little division between a king and someone like a Spartiate warrior • “nothing much above the level of private citizens” (Xenophon) • Sidelined - 2 votes out of 30 • Most impressive role was in the military Gerousia

Eligibility • 28 members (60 yrs of age or older) and 2 kings • Male Spartan citizens over 60 • Elected for life by Ekklesia acclamation • Plutarch said that the Gerousia are elected by acclamation and “whoever was met with the most shouting and the loudest, was the man declared elected” • Any Spartan male should be chosen in theory, but in reality, they come from a circle of wealthy aristocratic families or ex ephors • Pre-Lycurgen, possibly modified

Function • Oligarchic, conservative body meant to balance democratic and monarchial elements of government • Judicial administrative and legislative - serves as Sparta’s highest court • Probouletic power - put laws forward to be voted on by Ekklesia • Criminal court - judge’s cases for death, exile, trial of king, treason, homocide • Provides balance and conservative values (at 60 years old they were likely heavily indoctrinated with Spartan ethos)

Powers • Could veto decisions of Ekklesia • Made decisions related to war

Limits on Power • Influenced by ephors and kings • “Mind grows old as well as the body” (Aristotle)

Privileges • Elected for life • honoured by citizens

Page 37 of 64 Ancient History Ephorate

Eligibility • 5 magistrates - one from each territorial region • Elected annually by Ekklesia, could only hold ofce once • Any homoioi over 30 was eligible • Each month the kings and ephors exchanged oaths • Ephors swore to maintain the kingship and the kings swore to rule according to the Law • “there is a monthly exchange of oaths, ephors acting for the city, a king on his own behalf” (Xenophon)

Function • Democratic element - representatives of the people • ‘Overseer’ of kings - on military campaigns 2/5 would monitor the king • Executive branch - laws and administration: judged civil cases, received foreign envoys • Finances - agriculture, economy, kleroi • Preside over Gerousia and Ekklesia • Control agoge and Krypteia

Powers • Power over all citizens including kings • Power to summon/arrest king

Limits on Power • Elected by Ekklesia • Hold ofce onlyonce, for one year • Automatically go on trial afer their year by new Ephors to prove they did well - can be called to account for actions once ofce ends • “Open to bribery” (Aristotle)

Privileges • One would have name given to the year (year of ____) • Live and eat together in residence

Ekklesia

Eligibility • All homoioi (male Spartan citizens over 30) • Largest government institution, was the assembly attended by those over the age of thirty who held full citizenship • -9000

Function • Voted on proposed laws via acclamation (cannot create/amend them) • Elect Ephors and Gerousia • Vote on freeing Helots and stripping of citizenship of homoioi (tresantes)

Powers • Ratify treaties with foreign nations • Power to declare war • Choose which kings lead army

Page 38 of 64 Ancient History

Limits on • Cannot amend proposals/introduce laws Power • Vote by acclamation • Decisiosn can be vetoes by Gerousia • Could easily be manipulated by ephors initiation - eg. Sthenelaidas singling out those against through the wording of the question • While they had little power, the Ekklesia was useful for the image of the higher powers - by giving the impression of democratic approval, the public image of kings, Gerousia and ephors was protected. Nevertheless, it was on the road to democracy

Privileges • Separated Spartan citizens from other - role in government Social Structure

• Spartans most likely had relation with Periokoi and Helots to protect them and to be overlord who had responsibility to govern appropriately, in return for labour from the surfs • Surfs payed Spartan’s 50% of their year’s produce Spartiates

Homoioi: equals, peers • Achieved status through Dorian ancestry, completion of agoge and acceptance into syssitia • Equal under the law • Subject to disciplined and rigorous training - forbidden to engage in farming, trade and industry so they could focus on subduing helots and maintaining eunomia • Supported by state - provided with kleros and helots • Right to participate in government - ekklesia • Totally loyalty to the state - expected to uphold Spartan values • Lived without luxuries, survived on healthy but frugal diet. minimum clothing & brief speech • Preferred death in battle to defeat Perioikoi

Perioikoi means ‘dwellers around’ • ↳ 100 communities in area controlled by Sparta • Dorian settlers • “Teir villagers served as a wall or bufer zone against escaping helots” (Bradley) - subjugation of helots • Autonomous but owned allegiance to Sparta • “Served in the army as hoplites in their own units” (Michel) - doubled the size of of army • Could be bought before Ephors for trial • Provided kings revenue and land • No role in Spartan politics • Fishermen, smiths, potters, shipbuilders, best sailors in army • Teir chief contribution was economic - engaged in trade and industry by making red cloaks, military hardware, farming implements, furniture • “[the Spartan system] could not have run without them, no without their consent” (Weich)

Page 39 of 64 Ancient History Inferiors (Hypomeiones)

• Tose who were displaced from original social group or had blurred social status - this blurring of social lines kept Spartiates and helots in check • Free but no political rights - “not slaves but not citizens” (Michel) • Tey had to sit alone at festivals; were unable to marry; and had to wear special dress and go unshaven • Tey were not banished - warning or means of humiliation

Hypomeiones Failed agoge, didn’t gain membership/contribute to syssitia

Tresantes • Homoioi who lost citizenship through cowardice in battle Tremblers • “Cowards whose lives were filled with grief and misery” (Plutarch)

Mothoces • Helots associated with a Spartiate since childhood - mother wet-nurse of Spartan boy Adopted playmate • “Young helots who had been playmates and had shared to some degree in the training and education of the Spartan boys” (Michel)

Neodamodes • “Helots who had been given their freedom by the State for some meritorious action” (Michel) - Freed Helots usually bravery on battlefield • “Allowed to live wherever they please and were no longer tied to the kleros of their master” (Michel)

Parthenai • “Tose who had been born from irregular unions … they were refused citizenship and denied Mixed blood kleroi” (Michel) • Problematic because they were numerous - a threat to state security - showed resentment towards Spartans, rebelled once (Plutarch records)

Helots

• State owned Serfs - no political/legal rights • Teopompus tells us that the helots were enslaved populations of Messenia and Laconia who were owned by the state of Sparta • Main duty - supply fixed amount of produce for masters, allowed the military society to work • Ofen harshly treated - killed by krypteia to keep them under control, fear tactic • Constant threat to Spartan security - discontented and rebellious, outnumbered Spartan citizens 20:1 • “Te Spartans did … genuinely fear helot revolt” (Cartledge) • Tyrtaeus compared helots to “asses exhausted under great loads” • Ritualistic humiliation “so that they would never forget they were slaves” (Myron) Role of the Spartan Army

• “When they fight in a body … they are the best of all” (Herodotus) • Hoplites trained to fight to the death - “it is a good thing when a young man dies fighting for his fatherland … young men! Fight! Stand fast by one another! Never falter or retreat!” (Tyrtaeus) • Hoplite (infantry) - Corinthian style helmet, 3m spear, apsida (rounded shield), stabbing sword, upper body cormlet over cloth tunic, red cape, bronze shin guards • Phalanx - interlocked shields for defence to push forward and overwhelm enemies - Xenophon says ~ 8-12 rows

Page 40 of 64 Ancient History Strengths Weaknesses

• Disciplined forces working towards corporate success • Breaks in formation afect strategy - lose many men rather than individual glory • Vulnerable at flanks and back • Unity and identity • Vulnerable to calvary and archers • Sophisticated armour and protection • Manpower shortages during 4th century • Les focus on show of wealth • Inflexible to change • Fearless of war - fearful of dishonour and cowardice

COMPARED TO OTHER GREEK ARMIES Similarities Diferences

• Every not as Equal as appears - elite force (300) protect • Full time professional army King • Train since 7 • Chain of command - all Spartans report to pole march • Armour and weapons supplied by state • Opportunity for heroism • red cloak, long hair • Advance in battle to music • Severe penalties for desertion

Battle of Thermopylae

• 480 BC (Peloponnesian War) • 7000 Greek soldiers held the Termopylae pass for 7 days against Persian army - Herodotus says 1 million Persians, likely 100,000 • Ephitatus (local) reveals secret earth behind Greek likes to Persians • King Leonidas realises he is about to be outflanked - dismisses the bulk of army and makes heroic last stand • 300 Spartans (Leonidas’ body guards, 700 Tesbians, 400 Tebans • Military defeat but allowed for Greek army to regroup and defeat Persians later • Encourages Spartan mirage - “go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by, that here, obedient to her laws, he lie” (Herodotus) Battle of Sphacteria

• 425 BC (Peloponnesian War) • 440 Spartans stranded on Sphacteria island - 120 homoioi surrender to Athenians • Shows flaws in Spartan mirages Battle of Leuctra

• 371 BC • Teban commander Epaminodas studied Spartan tactics and used against them • Teban victory shattered myth of Sparta’s military superiority - lost hegemony over Peloponnese • Tebans liberated helots, ending Spartan system established by Lycurgus

Page 41 of 64 Ancient History Helots

Control of the Helots

• Helots kept under control through fear and subjugation

Te Military • Under instruction of Ephors • Ephors declare war on helots annually - can be “killed without pollution” (Plutarch) by the Spartan • Always ready to quell riots and rebellions

Syssitia • Helots free to make profit from agricultural work once their quota from syssitia had been met - encouraged them to stay loyal and work hard

Krypteia • Secret police - group of elite Spartans from agoge • Major role in control and suppression of helots through reign of terror • “At night they made their way to roads and murdered any helot whom they caught … they made their way through the fields, killing the helots who stood out for their physique and strength” (Plutarch) • Shows Sparta’s paranoia/fear of helot uprising

Artisans and Helots

• Periokoi fulfilled the economic work of artisans - engaged in mining, manufacture and commerce • Gitiadas (Spartiate) - an architect, builder and sculptor, mentioned by Pausanias as the architect responsible for the temple of Athena Chalkiakos - breaks the Spartan mirage that homoioi were just about war Educational System

• “Te whole course of their education was one continued exercise of a ready and perfect obedience” (Plutarch) • “It is obvious that the whole of this education tended, and was intended, to make the boys crafier and more inventive in getting supplies, while at the same time it cultivated their warlike instincts” (Xenophon) • In order to become highly trained warriors, Spartiates submitted themselves to the rigorous education system and discipline code of Sparta known as the Agoge • Education was a state of responsibility and a government ofcial, the paidonomos, was in charge of the agoge. According to Xenophon, the paidonomos had to administer severe whippings to the disobedient. Tis is corroborated by Plato who asserted Spartans were educated “not by persuasion but by violence” • Each stage of Spartan education took 6 years • Xenophon • “Habituate them to a single garment the whole year through, thinking that so they would be better prepared to withstand the variations of heat and cold” • “Te Spartans, visit penalties on the boy who is detected thieving as being but a sorry bungler in the art. So to steal as many cheeses as possible was a feat to be encouraged; but, at the same moment, others were enjoined to scourge the thief,

Page 42 of 64 Ancient History which would point a moral not obscurely, that by pain endured for a brief season a man may earn the joyous reward of lasting joy”

Birth • Ten days afer birth, male children were examined by a council of elders to determine whether they could live or be exposed • Boys and girls at home, raised by wet-nurse, distanced from family

0-7 Years • Under the supervision of their mother and raised by wet-nurse • “Trained children … not to be frightened of dark … or to be prone to ill-bred fits of temper or crying” (Plutarch) • At 7 boys lef home to live in the herds of boys (agelai) at the barracks • Tey were taught physical military exercises as well as the basics of reading and writing • Te boys were hardened by exercising naked and barefoot • “Instead of sofening their feet with shoe or sandal, his rule was to make them hardy through going barefoot” (Xenophon) • “As soon as they were seven years old they were to be enrolled in certain companies and classes, where they all lived under the same order and discipline, doing their exercises and taking their play together” (Plutarch)

7-12 Years • 1st formal phase Paides • Enrolled in groups, live in barracks with other boys (Plutarch - “herds”) • Under supervision of paidomos (respected homoioi) • Athletic training, minimal literacy, obeying orders, being punished (not too severe), sharing responsibility • Competitions - song and dance to encourage teamwork • Wear light tunics, head shaved

13-18 Years • Most demanding phase, harsh punishment and stressful Ephebes • Learn endurance, tolerance, survival skills - sent to Mt Taygetus to survive for ~ 10 days • Barefoot, minimal food, naked exercise, little/no bathing, one clothing garment, made own mats out of reeds to sleep on • Expected to steal food but not get caught - story of fox club: “in order to escape detection he was prepared to have his insides clawed and bitten by the animal, and even to die” (Plutarch) • Under supervision of sirens (18-20 y/o’s) - responsibility because leadership potential, entitled to punish ephebes (thumb biting)

19-24 Years • Train for military but not yet allowed to fight front line Firens • Learn: Phalanx, spears, weapons • Supervise education of younger boys, permitted to punish them

24-30 Years • Not yet homoioi (30 y/o) Hoplite • Not allowed to live at home • “Te ephors pick 3 men in their prime called Hippagretai, each of those chooses 100 men … each group individual aims at being outstanding” (Xenophon) - special service in Kings Guard

Involvement of • Any adult male Spartan has right to instruct, correct, punish younger boys Older men in • Youth step aside for elders in street education • “Everyone regarded himself father, tutor and commander of each boy” (Plutarch) • Older men involved in romantic relations with youth - encouraged • ‘Mentoring’ element

Page 43 of 64 Ancient History Role and Status of Women

• Unique in Greece - still 2nd to males with no political rights, but enjoyed greater level of social and physical freedom • Active social role - expected to uphold Spartna values and shun those who didn’t provide (tresantes) • Other Greeks saw them as promiscuous - clothing (peplon) ‘thigh flashers’, allowed to openly express opinions, participate in religious festivals • Spartan women were bearers of children, mothers of warriors - “I bore him so that he might die for Sparta” (Plutarch), Heiresses, and manages of estates

Education/ • Girls remained at home with their mothers but were still expected to be educated Daily Life • Tey were taught basics of reading and writing (like the Spartan boys) • Similarly to boys they were organised into bands for team games and choral singing • “Adolescent girls went through a process of public education and socialisation that imbued with the society’s ideals and to the realisation that their own adult behaviour was critical” (Cartledge) • Exercise every day (naked, with men), probably starting at 7 • “Making them run and wrestle and throw discus and javelin” (Plutarch)

Land • “Tey were entitled to own and manage property in their own right, without the legal intervention of a Ownership male” (Cartledge) • Even with a husband, women manage kleros • Independent, control own finances, managers and owners of estates

Inheritance • Women able to inherit land, due to declining numbers of homoioi over time (death, becoming inferiors) • Criticised by Aristotle - “nearly two-fifhs of the country are held by women” • Aristotle wrote disapprovingly of their free lifestyle and the influence they had their husbands, he believed that it was partly for these reasons the greatness of Sparta declined - “he mustn’t just regulate the men and allow the women to live as they like and wallow in expensive luxury” (Plato)

RELIGIOUS ROLES • Te most famous cult centre in Sparta is that of the goddess Artemis Orthia • associated with childbirth, and large quantities of votive ofering have been found at the sanctuary • Tese oferings, were thought to have been brought by women who were barren, pregnant or survived childbirth

• When Spartan women married, Spartan mothers made sacrifices to the goddess Aphrodite Hera • At festivals, Spartan women performed special religious dances, sometimes with men sometimes separately • eg. Hyprochema in honour of Apollo, Caryatid in honour of Artemis at Caryae • At the famous Hyakinthia festival in honour of Apollo, women took part “riding on richly decorated carriages made of wicker work, while others yoked chariots and drove them in a procession for racing” (Hooker) The Economy

Land Ownership

• “[Lycurgus] gave an equal share in the state to all law-abiding citizens … if anyone should shirk the efort required to keep in his laws, then he would no longer be considered one of the equals” (Xenophon) Page 44 of 64 Ancient History • because each Spartan citizen was a full time soldier the state supported them by supplying kleros • 2 competing theories • Life of Agis - inherited from father • Life of Lycurgus - land and helots assigned to all Spartan boys at birth • “Elders of the tribes ofcially examined the infant, and if it was well-built and sturdy they ordered the father to rear it and assigned it to one of the 9000 lots of land” (Plutarch) • Kleros Farmed by family’s of helots, provided: • Support for the homoioi and family • Mandatory contribution to Syssitia • Surplus to pay perioikoi for armour and weapons • Food and shelter for hellos • 9000 equal kleroi aimed to eliminate social inequity • Not equal because the quality of land difered and some had private property additional to their inherited kleros • Property as indicator of wealth - “the rules governing [ownership] and inheritance exercise a fundamental influence upon the nature of the social system” (Hodkinson) Technology

• Smelting and casting of metals - done by perioikoi • Moulded lead objects, popular votive ofering • pottery from Sparta - quality and design • Clay from banks of River Eurotas • highly decorated and detailed • Developed understanding of kiln and firing process of pottery • Used these skills to make armour - greaves, shields, breastplates Economic Roles of Perioikoi and Helots

Periokoi Helots

• Lycurgus forbade homoioi from crafs and trades - role of the perioikoi • It is argued the Spartna • Tradesmen, crafsmen and merchants - involved in mining, fishing, trading, economy was based around the manufacturing and commerce labour of the helots • Mineral and marine resources of Laconia and Messenia • “Te helots farm for the • Manufactured leather armour, iron weapons and everyday items - clothing (dyed Spartans” (Aristotle) with red/purple from molluscs), clothing, pottery, wooden and iron objects Enabled Sparta to be militaristic • Non-agricultural trades because the homoioi could • Perioikoi could become very rich through Spartan trade and business concentrate on training

Economic Exchange

• Lycurgus discouraged trade and coinage to take away greed/status (Plutarch) - only desirable trades continued • Currency • Apparently used iron bars (pelanors) - heavy and useless, supposed to stop wealth and corruption • most likely used currency of Agina (necessary for certain transactions) • Plutarch mentions mess contributions in coin payment • Sparta forced to import materials - lead, tin, copper, possibly bronze • 7-6th century - evidence of trade and culture contact • Spartan objects found in Italy, Sicily, other Greek areas, Libya, Gaul, Asia Minor Page 45 of 64 Ancient History • Decline in Laconian trade - 5th century • Because the Lycurgen laws were enforced? • Because Sparta loses market share - Athens and Corinth produce better/cheaper products? • Because dealign with helot revolts, less able to participate in trade? Religion Death and Burial

Gods and Goddesses

Zeus • Ruler of gods - sky, clouds, thunder • Kings are chief priests • Shrines - Zeus of fair wind, Zeus of wealth • Statue at acropolis • Honoured at Olympic games • Wife Hera known as ‘goat eater’ - people sacrificed goats to her

Artemis Orthia • Sister of Apollo • Wilf, hunter (alike to Spartan women) birth, protector of women’s health and children • Women give oferings/votives to give birth to strong warriors

Poseidon • Zeus’ brother • Sea, earthquake (important because Sparta situated on tectonic plate), storm • Temple at Cape Tainaron, sanctuary at racecourse • Earthquake 464 BC believed to be a punishment from Poseidon for Spartan massacre of heats who’d sought refuge at his temple (Tucydides) - catalyst for exempted worship

Apollo • Son fo Zeus • Sanctuary of Amyklaion, very honoured • God of light, music, wisdom, reason, logic - closely connected to eunomia • Many prominent festivals dedicated to him - Hyakinthia, Gymnopaedia

Myths and Legends

Lycurgus • Ancestral hero • Sparta revered him - was worshipped, now shrouded in myth • Herodotus - Delphic oracle acknowledged his divinity, afer death a temple built in his honour • Plutarch - embodies wisdom and virtue • Pausanias - sanctuary to Lycurgus, shrine on Eurotas river

Page 46 of 64 Ancient History

Te Dioscuri • Castor and Polydeuces - legendary divine twins, brothers of Helen • Myth they led the Dorians into Sparta to conquer the land • 2 kings believed to be descended from them • Helped those who fell unexpectedly into peril in battle • Associated with athletic contests, especially the Olympic games - “two brothers, the Dioscuri, at the games of spacious Sparta … they have a great care for men of justice. Truly the gods are faithful and sure” (Pindar) • 6th century relief of Dioscuri - egg (divine birth), naked (heroic status, athletics), amphorae (prizes at athletic festival)

Festivals

Hyakinthia • Origin - myth of Apollo killing Hyakinthos accidentally with discus, turns himself into a flower • To mourn the death of Hyakinthos - focus on death and symbolic rebirth • 3 days, early summer at Amyklaion • 2 stages • Grieve for the death, rites of sorrow • Celebration of life, rebirth, new generations >> processions, dance, sacrifices, feast, women play big role associated with birth • music, choirs, flue, dance

Gymnopaedia • ‘festival of the naked boys’ • Commemorated death of those killed at battle of Tyrea 550 BC • 5 days, July • Dancing, athletics, food, musical contests - young males and females participate (rite of passage) Opportunity for boys to show of physical excellence from agoge • Girls judge boys - songs to uplif: or critique

Karneia • 9 days, aug-sept • Agricultural festival, celebration of the harvest • Important - would not go to war during (battle of Marathon & Termopylae) • Ancient Dorian ritual • Young boy chosen to be runner • Garland of wool put on head, prayed to the gods & ran away, chased by boys • If caught good omen, not caught bad omen • Large feast, athletic contests, women participate

Funerary Customs and Rituals

• Cemetery inside town - “Lycurgus … did away with superstitions altogether by allowing them to bury bodies in the city itself … in this way he made the young men used to such things … so that the would not … dread death” (Plutarch) • Only those who died in battle or childbirth given tombstones • Soliders buried wrapped in red cloak with olive leaves around them • Women carry out funerary rituals (if died within Sparta) - laid out body, funeral procession, burial • Grave goods/oferings not put in grave • Strict period of mourning enforced - 11 days, 12th day sacrifice to Demeter which ends the grieving • Can grieve again at Hyakinthia • Kings Special burials

Page 47 of 64 Ancient History • Women beat cauldron as a signal for 1 man and woman in household to put on grieving clothes (fines for non- compliance) • 11 days grieving - communal displays of grief - men and women struck foreheads, wailing, proclamations he was ‘the best king ever’ • No business/politics • no Spartan can shave • No husband/wife relations • Procession - 1 family member expected to be at funeral, but all Laconians compelled to attend • If killed at war, statue made

10th century Foetal position with stone ‘pillow’ burials

8th century • Pithos (jar) burials with grave goods • Male found with iron sword and dagger • Female found with bronze cylinders and spiral ring

7th/6th century • 4 ‘cist graves’ (lines cavities in ground covered with tumulus) found in Mesoa • Amohora depicting hunting scenes • Sighs of sacrifice - bones of oxen, horse

6th - 2nd century • Two story tombs (describe by Pausanias) - burial made in lower story, afer decay the bones moved to 2nd • one hillside tomb - site of hero worship • Tomb is soldiers reward for valour in battle Cultural Life

Art

Sculpture • Made from limestone and marble • Stone sculpture reliefs in marble of Laconia • Stone carvings - hoplite soldier

Pottery • Spartiates probably did not craf art • Decoration reflects interests - hunting, equestrian, religion, military • Can trace Spartan cultural life through sequencing of Laconian pottery vessels • Laconian I (7th century) - geometric decoration, influences from Corinth, occasionally animal and human figures • Laconian II (early 6th century) - decorative bands with birds, fish, radiating decoration rising from base of cup - fish swimming around tie central ‘wheel of fish’ • Laconian III (late 6th century) - scene or narrative from life of mythology, archaeological sources - banquets, scenes of riding, hunting, fighting - Arkesitas Cup shows King Arkeilas II with men supervising load of cargo on boat, every space filled with animals, birds

Bone and Ivory • Ivory imported from Syria - strong influence from east Carving • Votive oferings found at sanctuary of Artemis Orthia • Archaeological evidence - plaque showing warship leaving port

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Bronze Figurines • Excelled - finest Greek metalwork • Small objects - brooches, pins, mirrors, votive oferings • large vessels - bronze bowl for King Kroisos of Lydia • Hydras - diplomatic gif, traded • Bronze statue of Apollo at Amyklai

Architecture

Amyklaion • At Amyklai • Shrine to Apollo, large bronze statue in centre • 3 sides and an opening for people to enter • Many oferings • Burial place of Hyankinthus? - festival of Hyakinthia

Te Sanctuary of • “By far the most important of these military sanctuaries was that of Apollo and Hyakinthos, Apollo at Amyklai located at Amyclae” • Excavated in 1890 • Important festival of Hyakinthos took place at Amyclae: “Significantly here at the Amyklaion and not in Sparta town that the spartan’s principal national religious festival was celebrated” • Te throne of Apollo including an altar was found • A colossal statue of Apollo on three sides and was decorated with reliefs

Menelaion • Overlooked Eurotas valley/river • Dedicated to Menelaus, husband of Helen of Sparta - revered as heroes, Helen known for her beauty • Separate alters for Menelaus/Helen? • Many bronze votives, 1 believed to be Helen • 7th century perfume vessel inscribed “to Helen, wife of Menelaus” • Shrine of Menelaos and Helen • “Te story is that Menelaos and Helen are located here” (Pausanias) • 5km southeast of Sparta on top of Mt Parnon • Excavations were carried out by the British Archaeological school at Athens in 1909 • Remains of the first monumental building form 500 BC • A classical cistern built to provide water supply to the shrine • Te significance of this site that it shows continuous occupation from the 8th century BC through to 2nd century AD

Sanctuary of Artemis • Near Eurotas outside centre of Sparta Orthia • Bronze fertility votives • Clay masks - ritual dances honouring gods • Stealing of the cheeses • Festival held May/June • Young men live in wild, return participate in ritual • Rite of passage - boys going from padded to ephebes • Te sanctuary was excavated by the British Archaeological school at Athens in 1906 • Many inscriptions were found bearing dedications by boys who won contests in honour of Artemis • Figurines and clay masks • Carved bone and ivory objects interpreted as oferings • Tis show Spartan did not conform to the perception of a society void of aesthetic culture

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Te Acropolis at • “Tere is a sanctuary build here of Athena of the city … Te Laconians erected the temple and Sparta the bronze statue” (Pausanias) • Excavations been at the end of the last century • Various monuments have not yet been restored but there is a pan for the conservation of the ancient theatre • Found an ancient Maple Laconian warrior • Bronze statue of a trumpeter 500 BC • Statue of Leonidas 480 BC

Writing and Literature

Alcman • Spartan poet 7th century • reflects early Spartan views - focus on beauty, love, nature, religion • maiden songs - choruses sung & danced by choirs of girls at festivals • “Aphrodite commands, and love rains upon my body and melts my heart” • “7 couches were spread with poppy cakes and linseed and sesame, and among the wooden flagons were honey cakes for the young” • “She wears a gold chain of slender petals of purple flowers

Tyrtaeus • Spartan poety 7th century, wrote during and afer 2nd Messenian War • reflects Sartan values during transitioned into militaristic society • discusses eunomia • peoples talk about the “discipline and devotion to the state which held ranks stead in the face of certain death” • portrays the good soldier - “young men, fight shield to shield and never succumb” • “Let us battle for our country and freely give our lives” Everyday Life

Daily Life and Leisure Activities

Leisure Time of • Life of Lycurgus - Plutarch praises Lycurgus for giving Spartans leisure time (because helots for Homoioi farms), stresses that he did not want Spartans to waste their time in idleness • Lycurgus demanded homoioi sped their time “in choral dances, festivals, banquests, hunting trips, physical exercise and conversation”

Athletics • Acceptable leisure activities: discus, pankration (wrestling), panathaea (sprinting) • Dromon (athletic track) for footraces • Credited with inventing boxing

Hunting • boar, deer & hare hunted by the younger boys • Hunting expeditions in organised groups at Tygetus mountains • Good for training, taught teamwork and cohesion

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Equestrian Skills • Horses were bred by the Spartan’s with more land • Liked these because they were associated with the Dioscuri • Hyakinthia - woman rode chariots (religious purpose) • Kyniska, Spartan princess, won Olympics x2

Animal Fights • Cockfighting, boar fighting • Symbolic of male strength, stressed values of courage & fighting to the death

Music + Dance • Stringed & wind instruments • Used in war, training, religious festivals, always important • Song embodied Spartan religious, social & political virtue • Army kept perfect step to the rhythm of the flutes, “there was no break to their line” (Plutarch)

Food

• Other Greeks saw food as frugal, plain, unappetising • Nutritious and efective - Lycurgus thought would make them tall and health • Zamos, porridge, bread, figs, olive oil, goats milk, honey, fish, poultry, hunted game • Banquets • Syssitia - compulsory, mandated by Lycurgus • Served by helots, food from Kleros • Special banquets associated with religious functions - symposion • Banquet scenes depicted on drinking cups - ‘kylikes’ Clothing

• Shows who was free/enslaved/inferior/young • Adornment avoided, fit bodies showed of beauty • men for tunics (athletic tunic exposed 1 breast, showed thighs) • Women wore tunics, peplos (split skirt) on formal occasions • Boys wore chiton (cloth wrapped around body) - at 12 y/o wore himation (cloak) • Phonikis - red military cloak of soldiers, fine wool dyed purple/reddish to conceal blood • Inferiors wore diferent clothing, half beard - humiliated by looking diferent • Helts wore clothing to suggest they are on the level of animals - dogskin cap, skin of animals • Hair/beard groomed diferently with age/status - soldiers grew out hair, boys had it short • According to Plutarch and Xenophon, Lycurgus laid down rules for dress Marriage Customs

• Women perform gymnastics, exercise in public naked - men survey potential partners (consider wealth, status, family) • Men married ~20s, women > 18 so they’d be strong for childbirth • “Not when they were slight or immature, but when they were in their prime and ripe for it” (Plutarch) • Marriage by capture - probably ritualised and not a kidnap • Older women would prepare the girl - shave her hair, put in male tunic, placed in dark room • Would have sex and man goes back to training • Girl dressed as boy to ease the men (theory used to being with other men in agoge) • J. Ball suggests that mothers however did have some say in whom their daughters would marry, and thus the actual ‘capture’ was probably a symbolic act

Page 51 of 64 Ancient History • Plutarch describes a marriage ritual as a secretive ceremony with unusual aspects such as when the bride “first shaved her head” and “dressed … in a man’s cloak and sandals”, detailing that the bridegroom would spend “only a short time with her” and would “depart discreetly so as to sleep wherever he usually did along with the other young men” (Plutarch) • • ‘Wife sharing’ common practice afer marriage • “He made it honourable for worthy men to share children and their production” (Plutarch) • Emotions no part in marriage, only for breeding • Childbirth • Wives wanted to reproduce strong children for the state - unmarried people were ridicule for not producing sons • “While the women themselves would also bear their pregnancies with vigour and would meet the challenge of childbirth in a successful, relaxed way” (Plutarch) • Marriage only ofcial when child is produced • Secretive nature of marriage mentioned by Plutarch • “Ashamed and apprehensive” • “Warily visit his bride” • “Helped to plan how they might meet each other unobserved” • “Some might even have children before they saw their own wives in daylight” Occupations

• One’s occupation was largely determined by ones position in the social hierarchy - Spartiate, perioikoi or helot • Spartiates - full time soldiers, government ofcials, priests • Women - child bearers • Helots - agricultural workers, domestic servants, workers • Perioikoi - crafsmen, traders, industry workers, fishermen

Page 52 of 64 Ancient History

Xerxes

Page 53 of 64 Ancient History Glossary Terms

Key Term Definition Achaemenid Dynasty Relating to the hereditary rulers in Persia from Cyrus I to Darius III (553-330 BC) Apis Bull Cult Egyptian worship of a bull sacred to the city of Memphis Aryan Referring to an ancient people who spoke Into European language; they invaded northern India in the 2nd millennium BC Behistun inscription An Inscription recording the victories of Darius I against those who rebelled against his rule Concubine A secondary wife, usually rankings lower than ofcial wives in a king’s hosuehold Ideology of Kingship A set of beliefs or principles relating to the state of being a king Persepolis Two groups of clay administrative archives found in Xerxes’ capital at Persepolis Fortification Archive and Persepolis Treasury Archive Satrapy System Te system used by the Persian kings to govern the empire, based on regions run by provincial governors or satraps

Page 54 of 64 Ancient History Historical Context

Geography and Topography

• Persian empire one of the largest ever • Stretched from Indus River in the east to far North Africa in the west, the Caspian, Black and Aral Seas in the north of the Persian Gulf and Arabian Seas in the South • Tirty nation, covering 7 500 000 km2 • Stretched over what had been the Lydian, Babylonian and Median Empires • Vast empire meant near unlimited resources • Contained low-lying deserts, mountains up to 5000m, fertile plains, rivers and streams and an extensive coastline Resources of the Persian Empire

• Economy Largely based on agriculture and livestock • Produced barely, wheat and fruit • Conquest of Media: grain and horse producing regions • Babylonia and Mesopotamia: wild animals such as lions, bears and ostriches, fertile plains - barley, figs, dates, pomegranates, sesame and wine made from date palms • Timber of mountains: iron, copper, tin and lead • Metals available included iron, copper, gold and tin. Other resources include stone marble and alabaster

Oxus treasure - 170 pieces of metal work in silver and gold Maps Inscriptions at Susa “Tis palace which I erected at Susa, it’s materials have been brought from afar… at splendid Susa” Political Structures

• Political and religious ideals not forced onto subject states, enlightened policy that generally provided for stability • “Tere is no nation which so readily adopts foreign customs as the Persians” — Herodotus • Achaemenid political structure feudal and patriarchal • Marriage alliances between royal family • “Tey have a progressive scale of administration and government” — Herodotus •

Te Persian King: • Was an absolute monarch, king of kings • Owned all land and its peoples • Was owed obedience by all subjects • Was expected to be a good leader • Delegated the tasks of ruling to royalty and nobles • Had a special relationship with the god Ahura Mazda • Was not divine • Was descending from Archaemenes, founder of Persia • Exercised power over subject peoples through satrapy system • Ruled with the sanction of Ahuramazda

Page 55 of 64 Ancient History Social Structures

1. Te king 2. Royal princes — including Persians, Medes and non-Persians 3. King’s bow-bearer and spear-bearer — Members of royal family or high-ranking courtiers 4. Important non-Persians — eg. Demaratus, Temistocles 5. Eunuchs, women, royal wives, princesses

ROYAL WOMEN • Female social status determined by rank of male relatives • Persian kings had many wives to increase ofspring • Non-Persian women could be concubines of king but not wives • Few sources of woman survived except Persepolis Fortification Archive and Persepolis Treasure archive + personal seals — indicate high-ranking women led privileged lives • Could own estates and employ workers to manage them Military Structures

• Ideal Persian manhood was a warrior, one who could ride and shoot arrows • Nucleus of army — specially picked Persians: the 10 000 Immortals • All men up to 50 years of age ad an obligation to serve their community as royal warriors • Army consisted of a professional core of Persians and Medes — manned garrisons at key points throughout the empire, river crossings, mountain passes and on routes connecting provincial capitals with frontiers • Grander states that “the military was of extraordinary importance in maintaining the political union of the empire. Because of the challenge of the size of the empire which stretched from Aegean to the Indus valley and from the black sea to Egypt” • Herodotus: land army. He identifies the infantry, names 47 national groups and what they wore. Persian wore a sof hat, iron scales and trousers, carrying wicker shields. Arrows, cavalry (main destructive attacking force of the army) bow and arrows used before the infantry advanced into close combat • Myriad (10 000 men) -> Hazarabam (1000 men, commanded by a hazarapatis) -> Satabam (100 men) -> Dathabam (10 men) • Battle formations — line of spear-men armed with shields in front of long lines of archers • Herodotus gives a detailed roll call of the many diferent subject peoples who marched in Xerxes huge army + clothing and weaponry

CALVALRY • Herodotus: fight on horseback • Expert cavalry • Open landscape gain advantage of cavalry • Great cavalry contingent, mainly Medes and Lydians

NAVY • Persia a landlocked nation, possessing no navy of its own, relied on use of navies of the maritime nations it conquered — fleets of Phoenicians, Egyptians + Ionians core of Persian navy • Protect transport of horses and food • Attack at Salamis 480BC • Herodotus says there were 1207 triremes • Under command of there own naval ofcers but under overall command of Persian admirals

Page 56 of 64 Ancient History Expansion of Persian Empire

• Expansionary tradition among Persians begun by Cyrus the Great • Cyrus: Median empire, Babylonian empire • Cambyses: Egypt • Darius: Widespread including Trace and Indus valley • Darius was preparing to continue into Greece when Xerxes took the throne Religion in Persian Empire

• Persian religion largely based on Aryan religion (a people group who settled the Iranian plates pre-6th century BC) • Ethical concepts and dualism between good and evil introduced through the prophet Zoroaster • Ahuramazda and Mithras particularly important, represented truth and justice • Te world also seen to be filled with evil spirits resulting in a constant conflict between good and evil, truth and falsehood • Ahuramazda became the chief go of the Achaemenid empire during the reign of Darius • Te King was seen as Ahuramazda’s earthy advocate • Tolerant of other religious gods and practices

“Persian religion tolerance was as a result of an inclusive imperial ideology, but it was still a tactic of domination and could work well for some, harshly for others” — Allen Concept of Kingship

• Te King was seen as Ahuramazda’s earthly advocate • Treasury reliefs — show physical superiority, holiness of king • Tolerant of other religious gods and practices • Both Darius and Xerxes sought to emphasise their legitimacy as Kings due to lack of succession guidelines • Te main duties of a Persian king were: • Religious policy, continuing the worship Ahuramazda • legitimacy and public image • Warfare and expansion of empire ie. unfinished business such as Athens and revolts • Building program • Administration of empire

“the Great King, King of Kings, King of lands containing many men” — Daiva Inscription at Persepolis “It is interesting that Achaemenid iconography is more concerned to show the king as a peaceful ruler than conquering warrior” — Antiquity 2 Background and Rise to Prominence

Family Background

• Te son of Darius the Great and Queen Atossa, who was the daughter of Cyrus the Great • Was not the first-born son; Artabazanes, the son of a daughter of Gobryas, was • Xerxes was the first born afer Darius became king, and Xerxes was also a direct descendant of Cyrus the Great Page 57 of 64 Ancient History

Education

• Little specific evidence for Xerxes’ early life or training • Assumed similar education to that described by Darius in Behistan • Inscription where he emphasises that he was a good bowman, horseman, and told the truth • Herodotus states that Persian education promoted three qualities: “to ride, to use the bow and to speak the truth” • Xenophon states that he had a “remarkable fondness for horses … in archery … eager to learn … age for hunting … enthusiastic and too ready to take risks” • Unknown what specific training Xerxes may received • Documentary evidence from Borsippa that Xerxes resided as personal representative of father • Olmstead: Xerxes position of ‘Viceroy’ of Babylon for 12 years, gaining valuable administrative experience • No definite evidence to support view apart from mention of King[s son building a house in Babylon • MA Dandamaev states that Xerxes lived in royal palace in Babylon, but there is no evidence for this Status

• Noticed as ‘Great King’, allowed tribute bearer to recognise him. Larger than all people, to emphasise strength and deter opposition • Central relief at Persepolis of Darius in centre, shows king as central focus • King as a mythical hero, slaying beasts. Follows Assyrian tradition, representing king defeating hostile forces and creating peace/security over empire • King in a religious role, ofen depicted with Ahuramazda hovering overhead • Cylinder seals of King hunting Lion in Persepolis • Treasury Tablets in Persepolis show Xerxes holding winged bull-man by hoofs, with inscription, “Xerxes, the Great King” • Supreme, all powerful, ruler of Persia — owned all of Persian land • Special relationship with Ahuramazda • Received enormous income from estates, workshops, tributes, taxes, gifs • Supreme commander of army, accompanied forces to Greece Succession to Kingship

• Son of Darius the Great, whose own ascension to the throne was shrouded in controversy due to his usurping of Cambyses (son anther of Cyrus) Darius had seven children - Artabazanes was first, Xerxes was his first while on the throne and to his second wife, Atossa • Darius was already on the throne of Persia when he was born whereas Artabazanes was born before… it was therefore neither reasonable nor fair that the crown should pass to anyone other than Xerxes” — Herodotus • Succession was made unclear • In 500Bc Darius went to war against Greece and Egypt, meaning he had to appoint an heir, causing a dispute between the two first-borns • …according to Persian law the king may not march with his army until he has named his successor… it was between these two (Artabazanes and Xerxes) that a dispute rose” — Herodotus • An inscription in the foundations of Persepolis alludes to this struggle • In order to win the crown Xerxes put forward the argument that, as the son of Atossa and thus the only one with direct lineage to Cyrus • “Other sons of Darius were there, (but) — Tsu unto Ahuramazda was the desire — Darius my father named me the greatest afer himself” — Inscription in Limestone [Persepolis]

Page 58 of 64 Ancient History • Dematarus (Spartan prince) said to have encouraged him to point out that he was first born while Darius was on the throne • Herodotus accredits Xerxes victory to this • Te decision was made by 486BC at the latest • Doorjamb at Persepolis (486 BC) — pictures Xerxes as crown prince Career

Administration

• Administrative system established by Darius and Cyrus • “Xerxes administration aimed at the Maximisation of economic return for the imperial cofers … evidence from such sources as the Ahiqar Scroll demonstrates that trade flourished in Egypt during Xerxes reign” — Granger • System was functioning efectively during Xerxes time, as shown in Herodotus account of preparations for the Greek campaign • Empire slit into 23 satrapies, each governed by a Persian sarap, directly responsible to the king • High ranking family members ofen appointed ie. Xerxes brother Achaemenes in Egypt mentioned from Herodotus • Satrapies responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining peace and conscription of troops to the Persian army • During his reign Xerxes divided the star in Babylon into two smaller satraps and abolished the governor of Babylon, possibly in response to the Babylonian revolt • Granger asserts that he also tightened control over Lydia, demonstrating his capabilities as an administrator and understanding of the importance of control in this area • Weights and measurement were standardised throughout the empire, gold and silver coins (daric) introduced by Darius • Royal road served as the empire’s highway with over 100 sentry posts. Te 2500km long road allowed for messages to be relayed anywhere in 15 days • Communication and trade also done by sea, particularly in the Eastern Mediterranean and Egypt • Te manufacture of goods and agriculture was the backbone of the empire • Te king controlled all tenure of land, based on the feudal system • “Xerxes, in the process of assembling his armies had every corner of the continent ransacked” — Herodotus • Fortification tablets [Persepolis] • A royal cubit — black limestone ruler measuring 45.7cm Revolts

• Decisively pro-active in response to both revolts. Main strategies of control were to decrease political power and acquire assets • “…When I became king there was among these countries one that was in rebellion. Ahuramazda bore me aid. By the grace of Ahuramazda I smote that country and put it down in its place.” –- Daeva Inscription • “Te emotive tale of statue thef may in fact have been a small symptom of dissatisfaction over the transfer of property afer the revolt…” –- Stopler

EGYPT • Reconquered 486BC (revolts) • J.M Cook suggests Egypt’s revolt was a result of upset at increased taxation; possibly to fund Xerxes building program and/or in preparations for Greek invasion • Used military force to slash rebellion within two years. Persian-owned stone quarries were being worked again by 484BC

Page 59 of 64 Ancient History • Stopped using Egyptian title (King of Upper and Lower Egypt) in light of the revolt in order to decrease political influence • Assigned his brother Achemenes as satrap • Egyptian inscription, ‘Satrap Stele’ (311 BC) records Xerxes change of name and Achaemenes appointment • Herodotus cites Xerxes reaction as harsh, however Granger says this is likely exaggerated

BABYLON • Revolts punished by separation of satrapy (Babylon and Beyond the River) • Happened over two separate occasions, the first in 484 BC (being crushed quickly) and the second in 482 BC • Dropped ‘King of Babylon’ from name, split Babylon into two satrapies • Reported by Herodotus to have ransacked the Esagila temple and stolen the statue of Bel-Marduk to melt it down • Te severity of this contended by modern historians ie. Stopler Religious Policy

• Modified version of the Zoroastrian faith • Worship of Ahuramazda of great political and military importance • Ahuramazda was given the central position in royal inscriptions, and was believed that he created man and earth and that he bestowed kingship onto the Achaemenids • Concept of ‘Arta’ meant truth or righteousness identified with political loyalty and religious truth • Central tenant of Truth (Arta) versus Lie, which demonstrates the aspect of free will • Inscription from Xerxes time: “Worship Ahuramazda and the holy Arta” [Persepolis] • Daeva inscription speaks intensively about ‘daevas’ (false spirits) and the worship of Ahuramazda • “Ahuramazda bore me aid. by the grace of Ahuramazda I smote that country and put it down in its place” — Daeva inscription • Te inscription also deals with the ‘banishment’ of other gods however it is unclear whether these are Persian gods or foreign gods • “Everywhere they went, temples were burnt” — Herodotus Persepolis Building Program

• Persepolis served a variety of functions from administrative work to religious ritual • Xerxes made the greatest contribution of any Persian king

Te Gate of all Lands • Impressive gate/double staircase served as the entrance to the Apadana (Gate of Xerxes) • Ornately decorated by guardian figures

Te Apadana • Began by Darius, completed by Xerxes • 60m2 audience hall that could have accommodated up to 10 000 people

Palace of Xerxes • Modelled on the Palace of Darius but much grander

Te Harem • Large collection of small rooms attached to Xerxes palace assumed to be his ‘harem’

• Multicoloured reliefs and decorations reveal decadence and variety in Xerxes reign • “Archaemenid art reached it’s peak during his reign” — Vicky Stevens, Ruins of Persepolis • “(the reels were) a way of incorporating the entire empire into the fabric of the palace” — Allen • “Whatever goo construction is seen, all that by the favour of Ahuramazda” — Inscription

Page 60 of 64 Ancient History

Images and Representations of Xerxes as King

• Presents himself in an extremely favourable light in inscriptions and reliefs • Presented as tyrannous and vengeful by non-Persian writers • “I am Xerxes, the great king, king of lands containing many men.” -– Daiva Inscription • Reliefs showing physical superiority • “No other man was fit to wield so vast a power” –- Herodotus • “His rashness emptied Asia of it’s men” “Learnt folly in fools company” –- Aeschylus Foreign Policy and Role in Invasion of Greek Mainland

• Was lef with the commission to exact revenge on Athens as well as an inherent Persian duty to expand the empire

Preparations • Diplomatic manoeuvres — 481BC Xerxes sent envoys throughout Greece collecting earth and water, thus clearing a path through the mainland • Recruitment of army — combined number of 200 000 assembled from all satrapies • Included 10 000 immortals and 1200 triremes • Navy included war ships, supply ships and horse transport • “Te army was indeed greater than any other in recorded history … Xerxes in the process of assembling his armies had every corner of the continent ransacked” — Herodotus • Bridging the Hellespont • Supply deports set up along coasts of Trace and Macedonia • bridging Stryman River • Canal dug through Mt Athos peninsula

Strategy • Based in use of overwhelming numbers — more suited for open Persian plains • Archers and cavalry heavily used • both strategies unsuited for the Greeks chosen battleground

Outcomes • Terrain didn’t suit Persian tactics: archers fired on own army, calvary couldn’t be used • Reliance on superior numbers was unsustainable due to greek hoplites vast superiority in weapons and armour (Termopylae) • “Tey made it plain… he had in his army many men but few soldiers” - Herodotus • Large ships difcult t manoeuvre (Salamis) • “Fighting in a confined space favours us but the open sea favours the enemy (Temistocles)” — Herodotus • “Xerxes when he realised the extend of the disaster was afraid that the Greeks might sail to the Hellespont” — Herodotus • “Te weakness… was in the high command. Xerxes had little experience of war” — J.M. Cook

Relationship with Prominent Persians and Non Persians

• Xerxes lived in seclusion • Xenophon talks about Xerxes secluded life • Surrounded by a very tight circle of royal families and nobility — could only marry within 7 families • ofen appointed his own siblings in positions of power such as Achaemenes in Egypt • Subject nations had to comply to Persian rules but were not slaves • Persians readily adapted to aspects of other cultures Page 61 of 64 Ancient History • Notable Persians include Mardonius: cousin of Xerxes, key war advisor, and Masistes: Xerxes brother, murdered by Xerxes in a power struggle • Herodotus dramatizes ‘harem intrigues’ eg. Masistes and Artayne • Xerxes eventually killed by members of his own court • Had good relationships with both Dematarus and Temistocles • “Greek fantasies are highly fabricated” - Granger Manner and Impact of his Death

• Xerxes murdered by people in his own court • Details of his death shrouded in mystery, happened approx. 464 BC • Murdered in his own bed as a victim of a palace plot • Ctesias — account of Xerxes death • Artabanus, Aspamitres and Artaxerxes likely involved • “Xerxes — his son murdered him” — Babylonian tablet • Death may have resulted in political instability • Many also cite Xerxes death as the beginning of a descent into decadence for the Persians • Te court turned on itself and was caught up in it’s own petty jealousies and silliness Evaluation

Impact and Influence on his Time

• Provided stability • Continued efective system • Stable administration • Help from Persian court • Provided prosperity • Satrapies • “Tis is God’s guidance and it is by following it that we have gained great prosperity” — Herodotus • Provided security • Suppressed revolts • Garrisons in satrapies maintained security and control over empire • Fair and just • Treatment of revolting nations exaggerated • R. Granger — “Little to no archaeological evidence of temple burning” • Building program • Greatest contributor of any Persian king • “Achaemenid art reached it’s peak during his reign” — Vicky Stevens • Fulfilled kingly duties • Worship of Ahuramazda — Daeva Inscription • Invasion of Greece

Page 62 of 64 Ancient History Assessment of His life and Reign

SUCCESSES FAILURES Smooth accession to the throne Had to punish Babylon twice for rebellion Rebellions in Egypt and Babylon put down Troops and leaders not trained to match Greek tactics Organised a huge navy and supplies Did not expire the Greek coast Mobilised and moved the army a great distance into Outwitted by Temistocles at Salamis unknown territory, as well as feeding, watering … them Constructued bridges over Hellespont and Strymon river Lost Battle of Plataea and Mycale and canal at Mt. Athos Won at Termopylae and sacked Athens twice (got revenge Lost numerous male relatives in Greece (two brothers at for Sardis and Marathon) Termopylae) Persuaded Macedonia, Tessaly and Tebes to medise and Lost many Immortals and foreign troops extended empire to the East (Saka) Built extensively at Persepolis, finished building at Susa and Lost territory in Greece and Ionia added to Van in Turkey Returned safely from Greece Was assassinated Promoted religion but continued to assist Jews Ruled for 21 years

Legacy

PHYSICAL • Monuments • Reliefs • Inscriptions

NON-PHYSICAL • Traditions • Concepts • Institutions • Visitors to modern Iran witness the remains of Persepolis • Sheer scale of structure and aura of imperial grandeur give a lasting testament to his reign • Te empire remained for another 150 years afer his death • Representations in popular culture — eg movies like the 300

Page 63 of 64 Ancient History Ancient and Modern Images and Interpretations of Xerxes

ANCIENT SOURCES Written sources on Xerxes generally seen to be biased due to Hellenistic context

Aeschylus • Playwright for Greek audience • Shows Xerxes as rash, arrogant, made and gullible in order to appeal to a post-war Athenian audience “…his rashness emitted Asia of it’s men” “…learnt folly in fools company” • Equated Xerxes ambition with madness: “He in his mortal folly thought to overpower immortal gods… was not this some madness that possessed him?”

Herodotus • More historical focus, showing reverence to Xerxes “Te only man fit to wield so vast a power” • Also shows Xerxes as foolish and weak-hearted

Other Persian • Only other sources are Persian, likely commissioned by Xerxes himself, and thus should be sources taken as Persian propaganda “Te great king, king of kings…”

MODERN SOURCES • Able to present Xerxes in a less biased light, due to access to a wide variety of sources • Opinions vary greatly from ancient depictions while also varying among modern historians

G. Callender • In light of his actions at Egypt and Babylon, G. Callender paints Xerxes as a “…decisive leader and skilled planner in war”

O’neill • However, many modern writers see Xerxes as passive — rather than the tyrant he is depicted as by the ancients “Xerxes was not the deep-dyed villain the Greeks imagined him to be. If anything, he was a weak- willed ruler with little interest in, or aptitude for, military afairs who much preferred building activities”

Olmsted • Similarly to O’neill, Olmstead says: “Te fine promise of Xerxes younger years had not been fulfilled”

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