Why a Critical Skills Curriculum on Psychotropic

June 2008

A Critical Curriculum on Psychotropic Medications • Principal Investigator: • Research Coordinator: – David Cohen, Ph.D. – Inge Sengelmann, M.S.W.

• Professional Consultants: • Flash production and design: A Critical Curriculum on – David O. Antonuccio, Ph.D. – Sane Development, Inc., and (psychology) Cooper Design, Inc. Psychotropic Medications – Kia J. Bentley, Ph.D. (social • Voice narration and Flash editing: work) – Saul McClintock – R. Elliott Ingersoll, Ph.D. (counseling & psychology) – Stefan P. Kruszewski, M.D (psychiatry) – Robert E. Rosen, J.D., Ph.D. (law) www.CriticalThinkRx.org

CriticalThinkRx CriticalThinkRx was made Module 1 possible by a grant from the Attorneys General Consumer and Why a Critical Skills Prescriber Grant Program, funded by the multi -state Curriculum on settlement of consumer fraud Psychotropic Medications? claims regarding the marketing of the prescription drug Neurontin ®

Curriculum Rationale Part A Physicians write prescriptions, but other professionals often influence Curriculum Rationale, who gets prescribed and why Funding and Contents Training for these professionals is mostly haphazard and often influenced by the pharmaceutical industry

Module 1 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 1 June 2008

Curriculum Objectives Critical thinking

Help practitioners in mental involves assessing beliefs, health and child welfare arguments and claims to arrive sharpen critical thinking skills at well -reasoned judgments to deal with complex and uses standards such as clarity, evolving issues about accuracy, relevance, and psychotropic medication completeness

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Critical thinking CriticalThinkRx asks “who benefits? ” is sensitive to the influence of A prescription for vested interests on information critical thinking about emphasizes the ethical psychotropic implications of treatment medications decisions

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Curriculum funding Funding source of CPGP • Received from the Attorneys General 2003 : Attorneys General of 50 Consumer & Prescriber Education states charged Warner Lambert, a Grant Program (CPGP) subsidiary of Pfizer, Inc., with • CPGP is overseen by the Attorney conducting an unlawful marketing General offices of Florida, New York, campaign promoting the off -label Ohio, Oregon, Texas and Vermont uses of the anticonvulsant drug (plus two rotating states) Neurontin

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Module 1 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 2 June 2008

CPGP awards grants Neurontin settlements 2006 : CPGP funded 28 2004 : The company settled for $430 million applications in 19 states – CriticalThinkRx , funded at Florida —$21 million was earmarked for International University, is the only research and education aimed at project targeting non -medically health professionals trained professionals in child welfare and mental health

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CPGP aims to improve prescribing CPGP requires that practices by educating health professionals about the curriculum be maintained in the public domain, freely the drug development and approval accessible by anyone process the investigators and their pharmaceutical industry marketing consultants forego funding from knowledge and skills to evaluate drug information critically the pharmaceutical industry for the duration of their grants

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Selection of content Mainstream views Systematic literature searches Researchers agree that clinical were conducted in 2006 -2007 on practice has far outpaced the were conducted in 2006 -2007 on empirical evidence, yet … databases in medicine, – Mainstream mental health pharmacology, public health, practice subscribes to a social work, counseling, and “medical ” model supporting psychology medication of children with little evidence of safety or – Materials were selected based on efficacy relevance and accuracy

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Module 1 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 3 June 2008

Content bias Content orientation CriticalThinkRx offers CriticalThinkRx emphasizes the alternative views based on ethical dictate: “First, do no empirical evidence to harm ” stimulate critical thinking and CriticalThinkRx tries to close gaps a more balanced evaluation between research and practice to based on ethical codes of maximize opportunities to help practice clients and avoid harm

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Curriculum design Principal Investigator

David Cohen, Ph.D., L.C.S.W. • Professor of Social Work, Modules designed by experienced Florida International University, Miami, and a researcher/clinician with input private practitioner • Author of numerous from independent consultants in publications on psychiatric drugs, medicalization , and counseling, psychology, law and psychiatry • His latest books are Your Drug May Be Your Problem psychiatry, social work, and law (2nd rev. ed , 2007) and Critical New Perspectives on ADHD (2006)

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Research Coordinator Consultant: Counseling Inge Sengelmann, M.S.W. • Professor of Counseling, College R. Elliott Ingersoll, Ph.D. of Education and Human • M.S.W. with a Services, Cleveland State background in University journalism and • A licensed psychologist and corporate clinical counselor in Ohio, he communication has authored books, book chapters, and articles on • Clinician focused on psychopharmacology, spiritual holistic approaches to approaches to counseling, and the treatment of Integral theory in mental health trauma -related mood • Author, Psychopharmacology and behavioral for Helping Professionals: An problems Integral Exploration (2006)

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Module 1 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 4 June 2008

Consultant: Social Work Consultant: Psychology

Kia J. Bentley, Ph.D., L.C.S.W. • Professor, Department of David O. Antonuccio, Ph.D. Psychiatry, University of • Professor, Director of the Nevada School of Medicine Ph.D. Program, and Associate Dean for Strategic • Fellow, American Initiatives in Social Work at Psychological Association; Virginia Commonwealth Diplomate , clinical University, where she has psychology, American Board of taught since 1989 Professional Psychology • Author, The Social Worker & • His articles on the Psychotropic Medication comparative effects of (3rd ed., 2006) (with Joseph psychotherapy and Walsh) pharmacotherapy have received extensive national • Editor, Psychiatric coverage and are models of Medication Issues for Social careful scholarship Workers, Counselors and careful scholarship Psychologists (2003) • Has received many prestigious awards for his outstanding contributions to clinical 25 science and research 26

Consultant: Psychiatry Consultant: Law Robert E. Rosen, J.D., Ph.D. Stefan P. Kruszewski, M.D. • Harvard Medical School • Professor of Law, University of graduate and board - Miami, Coral Gables, FL certified in adolescent • Has taught courses in children psychiatry and the law, professional responsibility, and sociology • Pensylvannia -based and the law clinician and scientist • Has served as member of working with U.S. and Miami -Dade's Community -Based international judicial, Care Alliance, and is a reviewer legislative, and for Foster Care Review regulatory bodies • Holds a J.D. from Harvard Law School, and a Ph.D. in sociology • His publications appear from the University of in American Journal of California at Berkeley Psychiatry and BMJ • Former fellow, Harvard ’s Program in Ethics and the Professions 27 28

Use of drug names Most prescription drugs have a Part B generic and a brand name (e.g., fluoxetine /Prozac) In this course, charts show both Case Studies names, but discussions use brand names because they are more familiar to laypersons

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Module 1 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 5 June 2008

Case 1: Rebecca Riley A recent tragic case (April 11, 2002 – Dec.13, 2006) raises questions What went wrong? about the use of psychiatric medications in young children

Some salient facts In 2002, then again in 2005 -2006, Massachusetts ’ DSS investigated complaints that the three Riley children might be sexually or physically abused and neglected by their parents DSS ruled complaints unfounded

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By 2006, all three Riley children were Rebecca, the youngest child, was diagnosed with Bipolar I Disorder and prescribed psychotropic drug first medicated at age 2 cocktails by same child psychiatrist – By age 4, she was taking Seroquel from Tufts Medical Center (antipsychotic) , Depakote – Parents were also diagnosed and (anticonvulsant) , and clonidine mother received Paxil (antihypertensive) – As discussed in next modules, diagnosing children with Bipolar – She also took 2 over -the -counter Disorder I is a questionable and cold medicines controversial practice

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Module 1 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 6 June 2008

Dec. 13, 2006: Rebecca Riley is found Parents indicted … dead on her parents' bedroom floor Michael Riley, 34, and Carolyn – Autopsy later indicated cause of death Riley, 32, indicted in 2007 for the st as “intoxication due to the combined 1 degree murder of their daughter Rebecca (charge later effects ” of clonidine , Depakote , and reduced to 2 nd degree murder) two cough medications – Parents charged with giving her © Copyright 2007 – “The amount of clonidine alone in “excessive amounts ” of clonidine The Patriot Ledger Rebecca ’s system was fatal. ” – Child ’s doctor told mother Rebecca “was already on a high dose of clonidine ” and a higher dose could kill the child

(Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Feb. 5, 2007) 37 (Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Feb. 5, 2007) 38

Case leads to resignations … … puts careers on the line February, 2007

April, 2008

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March 10, 2007

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Module 1 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 7 June 2008

Case shines light on therapists ’ roles … … and on school personnel An LCSW made 12 home visits in In her pre -school, Rebecca was summer 2006, working with Rebecca observed to be very lethargic and and her 6 -year -old sister have “a tremor in her hand ” – Therapist was “initially concerned ” about the medication regimen, since Mother was observed to be she “did not observe any behavior “lethargic ” and “fall asleep during consistent with the diagnoses ” interviews ”

(Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Feb. 5, 2007) 43 44

Leads one doctor to hold Case stirs heated debate another “morally culpable ” among doctors over bipolar diagnoses

“… I felt compelled to name Joseph Biederman , head of the Massachusetts General Hospital's Pediatric Psychopharmacology clinic, as morally culpable in providing the ‘science ’ that allowed Rebecca to die. ” -- Lawrence Diller, M.D.

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Case 2: FDA “black box ” warnings on Depakote ignored? “Susan, ” 10 years old Parents divorced 5 years ago, custody awarded to mother Father seeking shared custody —only sees Susan a few times a year Susan presented behavior problems since the age of 3

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Module 1 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 8 June 2008

Loss and instabililty Multiple diagnoses Susan ’s life filled with losses Diagnosed with ADHD, OCD, of friends, pets, homes, bipolar disorder adopted -away brother Lives in a residential treatment center Since age 5, Susan moved 10 Her file describes many times, attended 7 schools, behavioral outbursts, attributed was assessed by 20 physicians to “bipolar disorder ” and therapists 49 50

Since age 5, Susan has taken: Susan now takes: 5 antipsychotics 4 anticonvulsants 2 anticonvulsants 3 stimulants 3 antidepressants 1 antipsychotic 2 benzodiazepines 1 stimulant, and 2 other sedatives (incl. 1 antihypertensive antihypertensive) lithium

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No evaluations of medication … No one expressed any A psychologist and a social worker concern about giving conducted separate assessments of Susan ’s situation for the Court 5 psychiatric drugs Neither commented on Susan ’s drug (including 4 central nervous treatment or suggested any system depressants) connections between the medications and her behavioral to a 10 -year -old outbursts 53 54

Module 1 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 9 June 2008

Part C

Questions to Ask About the client Yourself About Your Client ’s Medications

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• Could any of client ’s • What are the client ’s problems be caused by symptoms or observed current medication? behaviors of concern, who has observed them? • Has the client experienced any recent or chronic life events or stressors that may contribute to the problems?

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• Does the client ’s psychiatric diagnosis truly reflect the client ’s • Why is medication being prescribed problems? Is the diagnosis useful to for this client? What other plan for interventions with this medication has been prescribed client? currently or in the past? • What interventions have been tried • How long before we see to address client ’s problems? By improvements? How will the whom, and with what results? improvements be measured? • Are alternative interventions • How long will the patient be on the available to address client ’s medication? How will a decision to problems? Why have they not yet stop be made? been tried? 59 60

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• If client is a minor, is the medication designed to benefit About the medication the child, or the About the medication child ’s caregivers?

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• Why is this particular medication prescribed for this client? • Have any studies been evaluated by professionals working with this child? • How long has it been on the • How much scientific support is there market? Is it FDA -approved for for its helpfulness with other children use in children? Are there any with similar conditions? FDA “black box ” warnings about • How much scientific evidence exists this medication? to support safety and efficacy of this • What is the recommended drug in children, alone or in dosage? How often will the combination with other psychotropic medication be taken? Who will medications? administer it?

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• Do any laboratory tests need to • Has this medication been shown be done before, during, after use to induce tolerance and/or of this medication? dependence? What withdrawal • Are there other medications or effects may be expected when it foods the child should avoid is discontinued? while on this medication? • What are all the potential positive and adverse effects of this medication?

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Module 1 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 11 June 2008

• How will the effects of the • How much does this medication medication be monitored? By whom? Where will they be cost and who is paying for it? documented? What should be • Are there cheaper, generic done if a problem develops? versions of this medication? • How will the use of medication impact other interventions being provided?

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• What is the experience of the physician prescribing the medication? • Would you consider the physician ’s prescribing habits as About the prescriber cautious and conservative? • Does this physician have any financial relationships with pharmaceutical companies? Have these been disclosed to patients?

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• Have all the risks and benefits • Do I or my client/client ’s of this medication, and those of alternate interventions, family have the opportunity been evaluated and discussed to speak regularly with the by the physician with the physician and other client or the client ’s family? healthcare providers about • Is there an adequate the medication ’s effects? monitoring schedule and Should my feedback be follow -up? expressed in writing?

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• Has a comprehensive assessment (e.g., biopsychosocial, holistic, integral) been conducted? About the Does it offer plausible reasons therapist ’s role for the client ’s problems? • Are there other explanations for the child ’s behavior?

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• Am I familiar with all the risks • If necessary, do I have access to and benefits of this medication, supervision to help me think as well as those of alternate through the medication issues? interventions? Have I discussed them with the client/client ’s • How knowledgeable is my family? supervisor about psychotropic • Do I know how the client/client ’s medications? • Do I know how the client/client ’s family feel about the use of medication?

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• What is my role and has it been clearly delineated with • Do I feel confident that I can all other providers? recognize the effects, adverse or otherwise, of this medication on • Has the client/client ’s family my client? How should I record been provided with all the my observations? information necessary to provide informed consent? Do • Will I be able to educate my they understand their client about these effects so choices? he/she can raise concerns with the prescribing physician?

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Module 1 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 13 June 2008

• What alternative services/interventions does This course, in the this family need or want? remaining modules, is • Can I provide these or help intended to help you them obtain access? answer the preceding questions

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A Critical Curriculum on Psychotropic Medications

Module 1 The End

www.CriticalThinkRx.org

Module 1 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 14 June 2008

A Critical Curriculum on Psychotropic Medications

• Principal Investigator: • Research Coordinator: – David Cohen, Ph.D. – Inge Sengelmann, M.S.W.

Module 2 CriticalThinkRx was made possible by a grant from the Attorneys General Consumer and Increasing Use of Prescriber Grant Program, Psychotropics funded by the multi-state settlement of consumer fraud Public Health Concerns claims regarding the marketing of the prescription drug Neurontin®

Surveys and insurance databases show increasing use Part A

Medicating Youth 5-8 million children in the U.S. (8-11% of all children) receive prescriptions for psychotropic medications

5 6 (Medco, 2006; St. Luke’s Health Initiatives, 2006)

Module 2 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 1 June 2008

Prescriptions of psychotropics to youths Drug treatment without tripled in the 1990s and are any other still rising in this decade form of therapy is In some drug classes, rates in becoming the norm children rival adult rates

(Olfson et al. 2002, 2006; Thomas et al. 2006; Zito et al. 2000, 2002, 2003)

7 (Olfson et al. 2002, 2006; Thomas et al. 2006; 8 Zito et al. 2000, 2002, 2003)

A worldwide phenomenon… In the U.S., “cultural” differences remain

White children are twice as likely …but the proportion of children as Black and Latino children to prescribed psychiatric drugs receive prescriptions remains 2 to 20 times higher – Difference appears unrelated to in the U.S., Canada, and Australia socio-demographic, access, or clinical than in other developed nations factors, and may relate to parental than in other developed nations attitudes 9 (Cooper et al. 2006; Dos Reis et al. 2005; Leslie et al. 2003) 10 (Wong et al. 2004)

“Off-label” use common

The practice of administering Off-Label Uses and medications for indications or age Polypharmacy groups not approved by the FDA, as indicated on the drug’s “label”

11 12 (Vitiello, 2001; Zito et al. 2003)

Module 2 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 2 June 2008

Concerns about off-label use

“Bearing in mind that some off- 75% of all medication use label use is perfectly justifiable, it is fair to say that much of it in children is off-label is not justifiable. If there is not evidence presented to the FDA about a given indication, it is certainly a user-beware situation.” – Jerry Avorn, M.D., Professor of Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, and author, Powerful Medicines (2005)

(Vitiello, 2001; Zito et al. 2003) 13 14

Polypharmacy common

Polypharmacy: concomitant or multiple 40% or more of all psychotropic medication psychiatric drug treatments use today involve polypharmacy

(Bhatara et al. 2004; Olfson et al. 2002; Safer et al. 2003) 15 16

Concerns about polypharmacy Concomitant = ≥ 2 drugs taken on the same day Basic empirical support of efficacy in children is lacking for most Multiple = ≥ 2 drugs taken individual medication classes during a given period No studies have established the safety and efficacy of combination treatments in children

(Bhatara et al. 2004; Jensen et al. 1999; Martin et al. 2002; Vitiello, 2001) 17 18

Module 2 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 3 June 2008

Increases behavioral toxicity The “prescribing cascade” Behavioral toxicity = Adverse effects are often drug-induced adverse effects confused with symptoms of and behavioral changes, disorders, leading to co- including apathy, agitation, morbid diagnoses, and even aggression, mania, suicidal more complex drug regimens ideation and psychosis

(Safer, Zito & dosReis, 2003) 19 20 (Safer, Zito & dosReis, 2003)

Examples of behavioral toxicity

Medicating Preschoolers

(Safer, Zito & dosReis, 2003) 21 22

Similar patterns in Newer drugs top the list preschoolers Use of most classes of Fastest increases psychotropics among 2-4 have been in year-olds continues to newer drugs increase without – Almost half of those established receiving prescriptions efficacy or safety received two or more profiles medications (Pathak et al. 2004; Rappley, 2006; Zito et al. 2000) (Coyle, 2000; Rappley, 2006; Zito et al. 2000) 23 24

Module 2 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 4 June 2008

Concerns Treatment of preschoolers with psychiatric drugs 2006: more than 1,100 Florida Medicaid children has barely been studied under age 6 received atypical antipsychotics

(St. Petersburg Times, 2007) (Rappley, 2006 ; Vitiello, 2001; Waller et al. 2005; Zito et al. 2000) 25 26

Insufficient evidence to…

• Provide guidelines for treatment • Establish efficacy of treatment • Guarantee safe use • Evaluate short- and long- term consequences on development (Rappley, 2006 ; Vitiello, 2001; Waller, Lewellen & Bresson, 2005; Zito et al. 2000) 27 28

March 13, 2007

Youths in Foster Care

More likely to be medicated

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Module 2 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 5 June 2008

National foster care Group homes Children in child welfare settings After controlling for demographic are 2 and 3 times more likely to are 2 and 3 times more likely to and clinical factors, youths in be medicated than children in the group homes still twice as likely general community general community to be medicated than youths in therapeutic foster care

31 32 (Breland-Noble et al. 2004; Raghavan et al. 2005) (Breland-Noble et al. 2004; Raghavan et al. 2005)

Concerns in Florida Florida concerns led to law Reports in 2001 and 2003 highlighted problems with: Senate Bill 1090 introduced in – Medication without signed consent 2005 to restrict the state’s ability – Medication without medical to medicate foster children evaluations and proper follow-up without the proper consent of monitoring their parents or a judge and – High rates of polypharmacy required improved tracking of these children (Green, Hawkins & Hawkins, 2005; Florida Statewide Advocacy Council, 2003) 33 34

“No List of Kids on Mood Drugs”

(September, 2006) Part B

Child welfare officials acknowledged lacking an accurate list of children in Public Health Concerns state care receiving psychiatric drugs – Advocates called use of these drugs in children “chemical restraints” used to control behavior

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Module 2 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 6 June 2008

Numbers of American children on psychotropics: 2006

Stimulants: 3.6 million Antidepressants: 2 million Anticonvulsants: 900,000 Antipsychotics: 540,000

37 (Medco Health Solutions, 2006) 38

2004: FDA issued a “Public Health 2006 FDA warning on cardiovascular Advisory” about all antidepressants, effects also alerts doctors to stimulant- warning of drug-induced: induced psychosis and hallucinations – Anxiety and panic attacks – Agitation and insomnia – Irritability and hostility – Impulsivity and severe restlessness – Mania and hypomania

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FDA “black box” warns: “Antidepressants increase the risk of suicidal thinking and 2005: FDA extends “black box” behavior (suicidality) in short- warnings to children and term studies in children and adolescents adolescents with Major 2007: FDA extends “black box” Depressive Disorder and other warnings to young adults 18-24 psychiatric disorders”

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Module 2 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 7 June 2008

Antipsychotics

Skyrocketing numbers despite safety concerns

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Antipsychotics = Fastest rise Number of non-institutionalized 6- 18 year-olds on antipsychotics:

1993: 50,000 2002: 532,000

(Olfson et al. 2006)

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(2007) Nationwide, antipsychotics typically prescribed to children More than 18,000 kids on Florida Medicaid prescribed atypical for non-psychotic conditions antipsychotics in 2006 Most frequent diagnoses: – disruptive behavior disorders, including ADHD (38%), and mood disorders (32%)

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Module 2 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 8 June 2008

In Florida too… Antipsychotics =

2006: Only 8% of (2007) polypharmacy Florida Medicaid children receiving antipsychotics 77% to 86% of youths had a diagnosis of psychosis taking antipsychotics – Half were do so with other drugs diagnosed with attention or conduct disorders

49 (Medco, 2006; Olfson et al. 2006) 50

Safety and efficacy Adverse effects of “atypicals” unknown

“We don’t know the first thing about safety and efficacy of these drugs even by themselves in these young ages, let alone when they are mixed together.” Dr. Steven Hyman, former NIMH director, Harvard University provost

(2006)

(Correll, 2006; USA Today, 2006)

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“Doctors need to be judicious when prescribing antipsychotic drugs to children. The use of these drugs can have the pediatric patient trading a Part C behavioral condition for a lifelong metabolic condition that can lead to significant health complications” Expenditures Soar —Robert Epstein, M.D., chief medical officer, Medco

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Module 2 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 9 June 2008

2004: 17% of total drug spending for children was for psychotropics – greater than cost of antibiotics and asthma drugs

55 (2004) 56

State insurance increases Use of newer antipsychotics likelihood of medication grows faster Medicaid-enrolled children are 1996-2001: increased most more likely to: dramatically in these Medicaid – Receive psychotropics populations: – Be treated with multiple – Preschool children (61%) medications – Ages 6-12 (93%) – Receive medications as sole – Ages 13-18 (116%) treatment

(Goodwin et al. 2001; Martin et al. 2002, 2003) 57 (Cooper et al. 2004; Olfson et al. 2006; Patel et al. 2005) 58

Medicaid programs struggle to contain costs Medicaid pays more for 1997 – 2004: Tripling of Medicaid psychotropic spending on psychotropics drugs than other attributed to the expanding use of Federal buyers… expensive atypical antipsychotics

(Duggan, 2005; Stagnitti, 2007; OIG, 2003) 59 60

Module 2 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 10 June 2008

Antipsychotics top Medicaid Average prescription price for spending on psychiatric drugs top 2 antipsychotics, 1993 vs. 2001 10 state Medicaid programs paid $562 million on 25 1993: Haldol, Mellaril = $29 psychotropic drugs – 67% of this total spent on nine antipsychotics 2001: Zyprexa, Risperdal = $286

(Duggan, 2005; OIG, 2003; Stagnitti, 2007) 61 (Duggan, 2005) 62

Florida Medicaid (fee-for-service) spending Part D on atypical antipsychotic drugs, 2002-2007 drugs, 2002-2007 Conclusions and Recommendations $1.1 billion

(Farley, R., St. Petersburg Times, April 12, 2008) 63 64

Usage is increasing Ongoing debate Usage of all psychiatric drug Debate persists on whether classes has skyrocketed during disorders are under- or over- past decade in all age groups, diagnosed, and under- or overall ethnic/racial groups, all treated, with heated arguments from supporters and critics in settings professional and public discourse

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Module 2 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 11 June 2008

Supporters argue… Critics reply…

• Up to 1/5 of youth have a • Medication use outpaces research “DSM-diagnosable disorder” evidence • Popularly-accepted causes of • Growing use leads to increase in disorders are neurobiological pediatric adverse effects • Medicating the developing brain • Medications remove “blame” may lead to long-term negative • Stimulants greatly impact changes in functioning ADHD-like behavior • No pathophysiological variable is associated with any DSM disorder

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Fastest rise: Antipsychotics Racial issues Antipsychotics with serious Black children: fastest-growing adverse effects growing faster group being prescribed than any other drug class antipsychotics – More frequently used in – Increase related to enormous rise in – More frequently used in the diagnosis of bipolar disorder in this polypharmacy and for non- population psychotic disorders, with no research evidence

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Soaring State Medicaid Young children spending Children are particularly vulnerable to harm by Largest spending increases on psychiatric drugs because their antipsychotics brains are still developing – Until now, states appear unable to contain such fast-rising drug Research is needed to track costs subtle changes in children’s developing personality resulting from drug’s impact on brain

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Module 2 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 12 June 2008

Children in foster care Children in foster care Little empirical evidence exists to Experts recommend antipsychotics support the use of drug should not be considered first-line interventions in traumatized treatment for childhood trauma children because of their serious adverse – Clinicians need to consider effects risk/benefit analysis of drugs vs. evidence of effective psychosocial interventions

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A Critical Curriculum on Psychotropic Medications

Module 2 The End

www.CriticalThinkRx.org

Module 2 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 13 June 2008

A Critical Curriculum on Psychotropic Medications Principal Investigator: Research Coordinator: – David Cohen, Ph.D. – Inge Sengelmann, M.S.W.

Professional Consultants: Flash production and design: A Critical Curriculum on – David O. Antonuccio, Ph.D. – Sane Development, Inc., and (psychology) Cooper Design, Inc. Psychotropic Medications – Kia J. Bentley, Ph.D. (social Voice narration and Flash editing: work) – Saul McClintock – R. Elliott Ingersoll, Ph.D. (counseling & psychology) – Stefan P. Kruszewski, M.D (psychiatry) – Robert E. Rosen, J.D., Ph.D. (law) www.CriticalThinkRx.org

CriticalThinkRx was made Module 3 possible by a grant from the Attorneys General Consumer and The Drug Approval Prescriber Grant Program, Process funded by the multi -state settlement of consumer fraud claims regarding the marketing of the prescription drug Neurontin ®

Part A All drugs intended for prescription in this country The FDA must be approved by the U.S. Food & Drug and Drug Regulation Administration (FDA)

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Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 1 June 2008

There are huge The FDA was established by Congress in 1906 to enforce financial and health standards on purity of stakes in drug medicinal compounds approvals approvals Today, the FDA ’s Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER ) oversees testing and approval of medications

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The CDER conducts no drug tests Some FDA mandates of its own —drug firms (sponsors) grant permission to test drugs on humans pay for and conduct all tests review data on safety and efficacy set criteria for drug approval Based on data submitted by grant or deny approval of new drugs sponsors, CDER judges a drug ’s require more studies , disclosure of risks “efficacy ” and “safety ” impose fines on drug makers order drugs removed from market

9 10 (Avorn , 2004)

1938 Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act: FDA ’s drug testing rules tightened after Basis for FDA regulation of drugs thalidomide , prescribed to – Passed after 100 deaths in 1937 pregnant women in Europe from a toxin in a batch of sulfa in 1960, caused birth drugs defects

(Ballentine , no date) 11 12

Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 2 June 2008

As a result, 1962 amendments to More recent FDA laws have Food, Drug, & Cosmetic Act of been controversial 1938 required sponsors to: Some scientists, advocacy demonstrate efficacy in controlled trials groups, and legislators often report serious adverse effects to accuse the FDA of treating FDA industry , not the public, as list all known risks (on drug label its client and in drug ads to doctors)

(Hawthorne, 2005; Sharav , 2007) 13 14

Prescription Drug User Impact of user fees Fee Act, 1992 Since 1992 and the birth of To speed up approval times, To speed up approval times, user fees, the FDA has slashed FDA collects fees from FDA collects fees from its own testing laboratories and sponsors network of independent drug User fees now make up over safety experts in favor of hiring 50% of CDER ’s budget more people to approve drugs for the pharmaceutical industry (Avorn , 2007) 15 16 (Harris, 2004)

Draft Guidance on Direct -to - “User fees have undoubtedly Consumer Advertising , 1997 constrained the FDA ’s independence and influenced After 15 years of industry pressure, the its decisions. ” FDA allowed sponsors to advertise prescription drugs directly to consumers Marcia Angell , former editor, New – DTCA is praised for providing drug England Journal of Medicine – DTCA is praised for providing drug information to consumers – DTCA is criticized for increasing drug costs and promoting least effective drugs

17 (Gellad & Lyles, 2007; Hollon , 1999) 18

Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 3 June 2008

Pediatric Research Equity Act , 2003 & Pediatric Exclusivity Act , 2004 Part B FDA can request studies to be conducted on children, giving sponsors an extra 6 months of exclusive marketing for every drug studied FDA ’s – Acts are praised for stimulating research on Drug Approval Process drug effects and indications in children Drug Approval Process – Acts are criticized for griving drug firms unneeded profits and using kids as guinea pigs for unnecessary drug testing

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Few drugs make it to market FDA requires that drugs 5,000 molecules screened in the intended for prescription lab = 1 obtains FDA approval as a medication undergo pre -clinical and clinical testing From start to finish, sponsor will spend $100 - $400 million to obtain FDA approval

(Goozner, 2004; Ng, 2004) 21 22

Pre -clinical testing: 2-4 years A promising molecule is If drug remains promising after tested in laboratory and on pre -clinical testing, sponsor animals may apply to start clinical – to establish its main biological trials on humans activity and trials on humans – to rule out that it causes cancer, mutations, and birth defects

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Phase I trials: 1 -2 years Phase II trials: 2 -3 years

Drug is given to 20 -80 healthy Drug is given to 300 -500 people volunteers to establish safe with the illness for which the dosage levels, main adverse drug is supposed to be effects, “abuse potential ” marketed – The goal is to show promising therapeutic effects in order to justify the next phase of trials 25 26

Phase III trials: 2 -4 years FDA approval requires only 2 positive Phase III trials, even if In randomized controlled trials more trials are negative (RCTs ), 1000 -3000 diagnosed patients from many sites are Positive trial : on a symptom randomly assigned to receive rating scale, drug -treated either the drug or a placebo group shows statistically – Neither investigators nor patients significant advantage over are supposed to know who is placebo -treated group receiving what ( “double -blind ”) 27 (FDA, 1998) 28

A drug showing “efficacy ” With 2 positive Phase III trials, has shown <5% chance of being sponsor can make a New Drug worse than placebo Application (NDA) , requesting has not shown that it helps FDA approval to market drug patient ’s condition to remit, or for a specific indication and that it works better than another that it works better than another age group covered in the trials drug

(Avorn , 2004) 29 30

Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 5 June 2008

Drug label FDA reviews pre -clinical and Label summarizes information from pre - clinical studies and decides clinical and clinical trials whether the drug ’s benefits Exact contents are negotiated in private outweigh its risks by FDA and sponsor A shortened form must appear in all drug packaging and advertising, except broadcast Drug must also receive an Label is considered the authoritative approved drug label drug information

31 32

Phase IV trials: Post -marketing surveillance As a condition for approval, FDA Part C usually requests sponsor to conduct post -marketing trials These trials evaluate the drug under Limitations of ordinary conditions, with ordinary patients Clinical Trials Phase IV trials give more realistic view of drug ’s harms and benefits

33 34

To discover new drugs for Not the same process for physical diseases mental disorders … Cellular/molecular biology of mental Researchers start with a target disorders is unknown —drugs tested for of drug action identified by these problems don ’t target known biological anomalies understanding how a disease These drugs are selected based on their affects the body at the effects on animal behavior and cellular/molecular levels expected effects on people ’s complaints and behavior

35 (Moncrieff & Cohen, 2005) 36

Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 6 June 2008

Flaws in clinical trials No biological markers exist Analysts and critics have revealed To repeat – mental and emotional many problems with the design and problems are not equivalent to conduct of clinical trials of physical diseases psychotropic drugs No cause has been shown to be exclusively biological Overall conclusion : Clinical trials do not provide definite basis There is no biological marker for any to determine benefits or risks of drugs DSM “primary mental disorder, ” including schizophrenia

(Cohen, 2002; Safer, 2002) (Charney et al., 2002) 37 38

Trials at all phases neglect Phase II & III trials are most psychoactive effects very short Practice : Most last only 3 -8 weeks, Practice : Trials focus on measuring narrowly selected complaints and and up to 70% of subjects drop behavior out before trial ’s end Problem : Main psychological Problem : Only some acute effects alterations produced by drugs are detected —not those emerging remain unknown over a longer time

(Jacobs & Cohen, 1999; Cohen & Jacobs, 2007) 39 40 (Cohen & Jacobs, 2007)

Subjects are wrongly assumed Inert pills are used as to have the “same ” disorder comparisons Practice : In a depression drug trial, a subject Practice : Drugs with psychoactive effects are meeting DSM criteria for depression is compared to inert sugar pills eligible Problem : Placebos can be active (causing Problem : 200 distinct symptom combinations = physical sensations) or inert (no sensations) DSM diagnosis of depression Because they are more powerful, active Also, subjects usually meet DSM criteria for several diagnoses placebos are almost never used The “sameness ” of subjects ’ problems — Also, sponsors routinely screen and exclude needed for a valid comparison of placebo responders from clinical trials

treatments —is not established (Abboud , 2004; Fisher & Greenberg, 2003) (Beutler & Malik , 2002; Cohen & Jacobs, 2007; Emslie et al. 2002) 41 42

Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 7 June 2008

The “blind ” is often High doses of comparison broken drugs are used Practice : It ’s assumed that patients and investigators are “blind ” to Practice : When comparing a new drug to treatment status an older drug, very high doses of the Problem : Obvious side effects in drug - older drug are used treated subjects cue everyone about Problem : The older drug produces more which treatment they ’re getting. side effects, making the newer drug This breaks the “blind ”—making appear safer objective studies impossible (Geddes et al., 2000) (Fisher & Greenberg, 1993) 43 44

Outcomes are researcher -rated Adverse effects are rather than patient -rated carelessly investigated Practice : Main outcome measures Practice : Most trials elicit side effects are rated by researchers by asking subjects general questions once a week, or waiting for subjects Problem : In all Phase III pediatric to report them spontaneously trials of antidepressants, not one Problem : This underestimates rates of of 10 parent - or child -rated scales side effects, especially psychological showed advantage for the drug and behavioral ones, giving false impression of drug ’s safety

(Greenhill et al., 2003) (Jureidini et al., 2004) 45 46

Adverse effects are Strattera pediatric trial : mis -coded Mis -coding why patients dropped out How it was How the re-coded Practice : Sponsor decides which What the researcher wrote sponsor after FDA coded it effects qualify as “adverse drug reanalysis events ” and how to name them “Parents felt ‘too many side effects ’; stopped drug early; Protocol Adverse Problem : Many adverse events are Abdominal pain, nausea, Violation Event anxiety ” coded as something else, giving “Increasing behavior problems, Physician Adverse worsening oppositional false impression of drug ’s safety Decision Event behavior; depression ”

(Breggin , 2002) (Lillytrials.com , 2007) 47 48

Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 8 June 2008

Post -treatment ratings Post -marketing trials unreported rarely conducted

Practice : Sponsor gathers data for weeks As of late 2006, more than 70% of after subjects stop treatment, but does promised Phase IV trials had not yet not submit them to FDA promised Phase IV trials had not yet started … Problem : How subjects rate their treatment once they ’re off drugs may contradict their ratings while on drugs. This discrepancy is rarely discussed or explored

(Avorn , 2007) (Healy & Farqhar , 1998) 49 50

The preceding limitations of The increasing clinical trials give clinicians and policymakers false ideas about involvement of industry how medications can help and how in clinical trials has they can harm people further muddled this – FDA approval by itself does not worrisome situation guarantee that a drug is either safe or efficacious for its intended uses

(Strom, 2006) 51 52

Huge payoffs can follow an Part D FDA drug approval

Zyprexa sales since 1996: $20 billion Blurring Science and Marketing These create enormous incentives to turn clinical trials into marketing tools

(Smith, 2005) 53 (Smith, 2005)

Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 9 June 2008

How sponsors turn trials into For the FDA , a clinical trial is a limited test of the marketing tools efficacy of a product design studies solely to get positive results For the sponsor , it ’s a ticket suppress and twist negative to get its product past the results FDA hurdle —and possibly to publish positive results multiple blockbuster status times

(Smith, 2003) 55 (Quick, 2001) 56

Contract Research (2008) Organizations ( CROs ) To get drugs approved by the FDA, sponsors outsource clinical trials to CROs , a $15 billion/year business “According to the published literature, These private firms make it easier to: it appeared that 94% of the trials These private firms make it easier to: conducted were positive. By contrast, – Enroll thousands of subjects the FDA analysis showed that 51% – Conduct more multi -site trials were positive. ” – Shield trials from public scrutiny

57 (Hunley , 2007) 58

Funder ’s drugs Conflicts in research come out ahead In 90% of studies pitting one “It's a house of cards built on a fundamental conflict of interest. newer antipsychotic against The problem is that drug another, the best drug was the companies have inordinate study sponsor ’s drug influence over the evaluation of their own products. That, on the face of it, doesn't make sense. ” – Marcia Angell , former editor, New England Journal of Medicine , author, The Truth About the Drug Companies 59 (Heres et al., 2006) 60

Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 10 June 2008

Independent studies don ’t favor newer drugs

NIMH ’s (CATIE) study compared 5 antipsychotics in largest schizophrenia “You cannnot separate trial. Older, cheaper drug worked as well trial. Older, cheaper drug worked as well advertising and marketing from (or as poorly) the science anymore. ” – Regardless of drug, ¾ of patients stopped treatment because they did not improve or – Arnold S. Relman , MD , Professor Emeritus, Harvard had intolerable side effects Medical School, and former editor, New England Journal of Medicine

(Lieberman et al., 2005) 61

Part E

Problems in Drug Safety After Marketing

63 64

Because of the limitations of clinical trials, detecting adverse This is when most adverse effects from drugs falls to post - effects, and a more accurate marketing surveillance , when portrait of the drug ’s risk - drugs are commonly prescribed, benefit ratio, emerge and used for longer periods, in more natural conditions, by more varied patients Yet such post -marketing monitoring also appears spotty

(Strom, 2006) (Lasser et al., 2002) 65 66

Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 11 June 2008

Newer drugs more likely to have hidden risks Black Box Warnings If the adverse drug reaction is serious 50% of warnings occur within 7 enough to require extraordinary years of a drug ’s introduction monitoring or special screening, the FDA will ask the drug sponsor to insert Half of the withdrawals occur a “black box warning ” in all marketing within 2 years and product information to alert clinicians and consumers of the nature of the risk (Lasser et al., 2002) 67 68

Safety questions are “answered ” post -marketing Former and current FDA officials, outside scientists, 51% of drugs get label changes 51% of drugs get label changes and advocates for patients say 20% of drugs get new black box the FDA ’s efforts to monitor warnings the ill effects of drugs on the 3-4% of drugs are withdrawn market are insufficient

(Strom, 2006)

69 70

Example: Prozac, 2004

(December 3, 2007; http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-12-02-fda_N.htm) Prozac was on the market for 17 years before FDA warned of increased

(December 3, 2007; http://www.abcnews.go.com/WN/story?id=3947922) suicidality

Sponsors of several SSRIs have been accused of not disclosing all the data from 71 clinical trials 72

Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 12 June 2008

Example: Vioxx , 2004 Serious Adverse Events ( SAEs ) Vioxx was taken by 20 million – Fatal or life -threatening, cause Americans before Merck disability or require hospital stay withdrew it after links to heart attacks and strokes Only 1% to 10% of all drug -related SAEs are actually reported to Merck accused of not disclosing the FDA through MedWatch all the data from clinical trials Medwatch

73 74 (Moore, Cohen & Furberg, 2007)

26,000 deaths suspected to Thousands die annually be linked to 15 drugs, Reports to Medwatch of fatal including: drug reactions tripled between 3 antipsychotics and 1998 -2005 1 antidepressant – Over 80,000 deaths suspected from medications were reported by health professionals and others Clozaril , Risperdal , Zyprexa , Paxil during that 7 -year period

(Moore, Cohen & Furberg, 2007) 75 (Moore, Cohen & Furberg, 2007) 76

Part F

Conclusions and Recommendations

77 78 (Moore, Cohen & Furberg, 2007)

Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 13 June 2008

Clinical trials provide skewed FDA ’s independence FDA ’s independence portrait of drug risks and in question benefits As a result of inordinately close Predictable limitations of trials ties to drugmakers , the FDA suggest that their positive appears to have compromised findings cannot generalize to its independence and its real -life clinical conditions mandate to protect the public Trials are especially poor at from dangerous products detecting adverse effects

79 80

Most psychological alterations Clinical trials ≠ objective produced by drugs are unstudied evaluations of drug effects Drugs ’ main psychological and Excessive involvement of behavioral effects can remain sponsors in testing drugs unknown even years after may have tainted the their approval by FDA and use research process, turning by millions of people many clinical trials into “infomercials ”

81 82

Conflicts of interest = Need for skepticism suppression of negative and vigilance trial findings Professionals should view “Selective reporting of clinical announcements of clinical trial trial results may have adverse findings with skepticism and consequences for researchers, review them critically study participants, health care professionals, and patients. ”

(Turner et al. 2008) 83 84

Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 14 June 2008

Use new drugs cautiously Your role in post -marketing The first users of a newly marketed surveillance? FDA -approved drug are the true research subjects Non -medical professionals and consumers can play an important role in observing and Public Citizen recommends waiting 7 years after marketing to use new drugs reporting adverse drug reactions to FDA, thus helping to create a “The public misunderstands drug safety, more accurate portrait of believing that a drug is safe at the time of medications and their marketing. ” impact on people ’s lives

(Strom, 2006) 85 86

A Critical Curriculum on Psychotropic Medications

Module 3 The End

www.CriticalThinkRx.org

Module 3 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 15 June 2008

A Critical Curriculum on Psychotropic Medications • Principal Investigator: • Research Coordinator: – David Cohen, Ph.D. – Inge Sengelmann, M.S.W. A Critical Curriculum on • Professional Consultants: • Flash production and design: – David O. Antonuccio, Ph.D. – Sane Development, Inc., and Cooper (psychology) Design, Inc. Psychotropic Medications – Kia J. Bentley, Ph.D. (social • Voice narration and Flash editing: work) – Saul McClintock – R. Elliott Ingersoll, Ph.D. (counseling & psychology) – Stefan P. Kruszewski, M.D (psychiatry) – Robert E. Rosen, J.D., Ph.D. www.CriticalThinkRx.org (law)

CriticalThinkRx was made possible by Module 4 a grant from the Attorneys General Consumer and Prescriber Grant Program, funded by the multi -state Pharmaceutical Industry settlement of consumer fraud claims Influences on Prescribing regarding the marketing of the prescription drug Neurontin ®

Pharmaceutical drugs = Part A Big business

World sales: Expanding $643 billion in 2006 Drug Markets $685 billion projected for 2008 5 (IMS Health, 2006, 2007; Pharmaceutical Executive , 2007; Los Angeles Times , 2007) 6

Module 4 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 1 June 2008

Brand -name drugs Generic drugs Once patent on marketing Manufacturer holds an Manufacturer holds an a brand -name drug exclusive patent to market expires, drug becomes a them for about 15 years “generic, ” and sells for – 40% of prescription volume much less, as other – 90% of revenues manufacturers may apply to market it

(IMS Health, 2007; Pharmaceutical Executive , 2007) 7 (IMS Health, 2007; Pharmaceutical Executive , 2007) 8

“Blockbuster ” drugs Generate more than $1 billion of Antidepressants, revenue each year antipsychotics, Are heavily marketed, so their manufacturer can make profits anticonvulsants: during the marketing exclusivity among top 6 drug classes period among top 6 drug classes 7 of the top 10 companies have sold in U.S. 1 psychotropic drug among their top 3 blockbusters (Pharmaceutical Marketing , 2006) 9 (Pharmaceutical Executive , 2007; IMS Health, 2006) 10

Growing consensus: “Medicalization ” Psychotropics are not – Defining or treating a popular because they are problem as a medical particularly effective disease, requiring medical …“ medicalization ” and “disease treatments mongering ” also stimulate drug use

11 (Conrad & Leiter, 2004; Mintzes, 2002) 12

Module 4 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 2 June 2008

“Disease mongering ” – Turning ordinary ailments into diseases – Framing conditions as being severe and widespread – Seeing mild symptoms as serious – Seeing risks as diseases

(Moynihan, Health, & Henry, 2002; Moynihan, 2002) 13 14

15 16

Cost of marketing and Part B promoting drugs in U.S.

Industry Independent estimates: estimates: Marketing Expands $29.9B $57.5B Drug Markets (Donohue, Cevasco & Rosenthal, 2007) (Gagnon & Lexchin, 2008) 17 18

Module 4 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 3 June 2008

It influences physicians to Drug company prescribe through: marketing targets Gifts: – free lunches all players in the health – drug samples care system – continuing medical education – payments for lecturing, consulting and research

19 20

It influences physicians to It influences consumers prescribe by: to seek drugs through: funding countless activities of funding countless activities of direct -to -consumer -advertising professional organizations professional organizations (DTCA) drug advertising in professional drug advertising in professional “disease awareness ” campaigns journals funding “patient advocacy ” groups paying doctors to serve on “expert committees ” that create and promote online medical information and guidelines for drug treatments used by promotions other doctors 21 22

It influences legislators and It influences experts to evaluate government agencies to approve drugs positively by: drugs and create favorable paying researchers to run clinical conditions for drugmakers through: trials and develop treatment guidelines lobbying at all levels of signing “secrecy agreements ” with government researchers to conceal negative large donations to political parties drug information paying academics and researchers payment of “user fees ” to the FDA to lend their names to articles they have not written ( “ghostwriting ”) 23 24

Module 4 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 4 June 2008

100,000 drug reps Drug Reps in the United States

~ 1 for every 6 doctors

25 26 (Oldani, 2004; Greene, 2004; Fugh-Berman & Ahari, 2007)

Doctors who meet frequently Reps know just which doctors with reps: to target and how increase prescribing of newer, Health Information Organizations combine purchased pharmacy data, AMA physician data, costlier drugs and patient data to determine which drugs reduce prescribing of generics individual physicians prefer for which diagnoses and which patient groups increase nonrational prescribing This prescription tracking is used to tailor use rep as main information source marketing to physicians and evaluate effects of promotions on their prescribing behavior

(Dana & Loewenstein, 2003; Reist & VandeCreek, 2004, Schwartz et al. 2001; Wazana, 2000) 27 (Fugh-Berman, 2008) 28

Gift -giving Very effective, even when doctors don ’t think so

29 30

Module 4 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 5 June 2008

Are doctors “on the take ”?

Among a sample of 3,200 physicians: – 83% received food at work – 78% received drug samples – 35% were reimbursed for CME – 28% were paid to give lectures or recruit patients in trials

31 (Campbell et al., 2007) 32

1 in 3 Minnesota psychiatrists received money from drugmakers “One in three Minnesota psychiatrists has 1997 – 2005 : drug companies received funding from drug manufacturers paid Minnesota doctors $57 in the past five years, including seven past million presidents of the Minnesota Psychiatric Society, two state drug policy advisers and – psychiatrists received $6.7 17 faculty psychiatrists at the University of million Minnesota. ”

33 (Olson, 2007) 34 (Ross et al., 2007; The New York Times , 2007)

“Free ” samples …

introduce drug into doctor ’s office generate sales, influence brand choice Psychiatrists receiving Mostly go to wealthy/insured patients money from drug 63% of total promotional spending companies more likely to prescribe “off -label ” Return -on -investment: antipsychotics to $10 in sales for every $1 spent children (Adair & Holmgren, 2005; Backer et al. 2000; Chew et al. 2000; 35 Cutrona et al. 2008; ugh-Berman & Ahari, 2007) 36

Module 4 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 6 June 2008

Small gifts are powerful The “gift cycle ” Studies suggest that the most powerful form of influence might A three -way exchange of gifts Drug be small gifts Doctors between s le Reps p The more gifts a doctor received, m doctors, drug a doctors, drug S / A the more he/she believed that they C reps, and T had no influence on prescribing D patients Patients

37 38 (Reist & VandeCreek, 2004; Dana & Loewenstein, 2003; Oldani, 2004) (Reist & VandeCreek, 2004; Dana & Loewenstein, 2003; Oldani, 2004)

1997: FDA allows full -scale, “Ask your doctor …” direct -to -consumer advertising (DTCA) of prescription drugs – DTCA only allowed in the U. S. and New Zealand

39 (Gellad et al. 2007) 40

DTCA increases drug use by DTCA increases spending by

encouraging people to visit stimulating sales of newer, costlier doctor drugs above older generics encouraging patients to request advertised drugs influencing doctor ’s behavior through patient requests (Gellad et al., 2007; Donohue & Bernd, 2004; Wolfe, 2002; Consumer Reports , 2007) 41 (Gellad et al., 2007; Donohue & Bernd, 2004) 42

Module 4 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 7 June 2008

Example: 2007 Geodon ad Accuracy of DTC ads questioned Example: 2007 Geodon ad “false and misleading ” 1995 to 2004 : FDA sent 1,359 2007 FDA letter : maker warning letters to drug companies exaggerated claims of efficacy for false or misleading advertising and did not mention risks of neuroleptic malignant syndrome, tardive dyskinesia , Only 4 FDA staffers review hyperglycemia and diabetes thousands of ads “exaggerated claims,

(Donohue et al., 2007; Zalesky, 2006) 43 downplayed risks ”””” 44

Industry funds “patient ” o National Allliance on Mental advocacy groups Illness received $11.7 million from 18 drugs firms in three years 2005 -2006 : $29 million to 6 groups o Children and Adults with Attention – 7% -91% of the groups ’ budgets Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder is funded by Shire PLC, the #1 ADHD Groups rarely disclose funding drugmaker Funds decline when drugmakers o Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance receives more than half its don ’t benefit funding from drug firms

(Philadelphia Inquirer , 2006; Los Angeles Times , 2007) 45 (Philadelphia Inquirer , 2006; Los Angeles Times , 2007) 46

NAMI, CHADD, and DPSA, among “patient advocacy ” Continuing Medical groups receiving most groups receiving most Education industry funding, promote view of distress as chronic “Educating ” to expand brain disease , requiring latest markets? drugs and neurobiological research 47 48

Module 4 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 8 June 2008

Medical Education Communication Industry -sponsored CME Companies ( MECCs ) highlights sponsor ’s drugs earned over $1 billion in 2004 and is associated with to deliver industry -sponsored increased prescriptions continuing medical education of those drugs (CME)

(Relman, 2001; Elliott, 2004; Wazana, 2000) 49 (Relman, 2001; Elliott, 2004; Wazana, 2000) 50

Concerns in U.S. Senate

Concern over drug firms ’ “Ghost ” Marketing influence on CME, and its Industry marketers and impact on off - scientific journals label drug use

51 52 (Report to Committee on Finance, US Senate, April 2007)

“Ghostwriting ” “Ghostwriting ” works because … Pharmaceutical firms hire MECCs to ~ 76% of doctors consider medical journals write academic papers favorable to their most important source of their products information MECCs then hire academics to publish the articles under their name without disclosure about the true source

(Moffat & Elliott, 2007) 53 (Source: www.RxPromoROI.org; Fugh-Berman et al. 2006) 54

Module 4 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 9 June 2008

Even without ghost -writing … A drug firm may pay a journal $1 million for reprints, creating enormous incentive for the journal to publish a favorable article A former editor of British Medical Journal Government and the called journals “extensions of marketing arms ” of drug firms and urged journals to stop politics of influence publishing all clinical trials , and only evaluate them critically

(Moffat & Elliot, 2007; Smith, 2004; The New York Times , 2002) 55 56

PhRMA hired hundreds of lobbyists to help Pharmaceutical Researchers and pass the Medicare Manufacturers of America ( PhRMA ) Part D bill in 2004 represents pharmaceutical and Originally estimated biotechnology companies in the U.S. to cost taxpayers $534 billion, Medicare Part D forbids the PhRMA head is government from Billy Tauzin, negotiating drug former Republican prices congressman from Louisiana 57 58

Drug industry lobbyists Large investments in outnumber Congressmen 2:1 lobbying 2006 : Drug interests employed 2005 - 2006 : $182 million spent about 1,100 lobbyists, including on federal lobbying 40 former members of 2005 - 2006 : $100 million spent on campaign contributions Congress Sales of top 20 lobbying spenders = 77%

(Center for Public Integrity, of the US drug market 2007; CBS News/60 Minutes , 2007) 59 (CBS News/60 Minutes , 2007; Center for Public Integrity, 2007) 60

Module 4 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 10 June 2008

Defending industry interests

Main goal in 2007: Part C – Oppose laws that would strengthen FDA ’s ability to monitor drug safety Conclusions and – Fight bills that would allow Medicare to negotiate drug prices, which Recommendations could reduce government drug spending by 60%

(CBS News/60 Minutes , 2007; Center for Public Integrity, 2007) 61 62

Conclusions Skepticism of industry grows

Industry promotion of expensive Previously “hidden ” practices are drugs permeates all phases of the increasingly exposed and life -cycle of drugs scrutinized Deceptive drug marketing is Government hearings and legislative “pervasive, dangerous and efforts highlight concerns over primarily aimed at doctors ” public health and public spending

63 64

Some doctors call for limits Medical students take action Asking for stringent regulation to • Only 5 of 116 eliminate conflicts of interest: medical schools got – no gifts, no speaking at industry - an “““A:A:A: for having a sponsored CME, no ghostwriting, disclose policy restricting sponsored CME, no ghostwriting, disclose drug industry research and consulting contracts , access to students replace free samples with vouchers to and faculty patients

(Troyen et al., 2006; Washington Post , 2006) 65 66

Module 4 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 11 June 2008

But medical schools States attempt legislation lag behind and sue drug firms • The International • A study of 108 medical Committee of Medical schools’ agreements to Most states have introduced bills or Journal Editors (ICMJE) conduct research for resolutions aimed at marketing requires full disclosure drug firms found that of drug companies’ role ICMJE guidelines were in research rarely followed Several states are suing drugmakers for • But even major journals • Researchers have little off -label promotion of antipsychotics and still can’t ensure access to data or power transparency over publishing for hiding drug risks (see Module 5)

(Rivera & Cummings, 2002) (Schulman et al., 2002) 67 (Reist & VandeCreek, 2004; Zalesky, 2006) 68

9 in 10 Americans Recommended reforms favor reforms to research Create a public registry of all clinical trials Fund clinical trials publicly, and cease drugmakers ’ ties to clinical research Make raw clinical trial data accessible for independent analyses

(2007)

69 (Antonuccio & Healy, 2008; NJPIRG Law & Policy Center, 2006) 70

Researchers ’ commitment? Teach prescribers, academics and consumers to: Because research participants expose themselves to risk, information derived critically evaluate drug marketing from them should not be misused, rely on independent sources of suppressed, or distorted information Researchers should promise to make all implement best practices to minimize raw research data available publicly , or industry influence in schools, forego approval from Institutional professional organizations, and mental Review Boards health providers

(Antonuccio & Healy, 2008) 71 (NJPIRG Law & Policy Center, 2006) 72

Module 4 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 12 June 2008

A Critical Curriculum on Psychotropic Medications

Module 4 The End

www.CriticalThinkRx.org

Module 4 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 13 June 2008

A Critical Curriculum on Psychotropic Medications • Principal Investigator: • Research Coordinator: – David Cohen, Ph.D. – Inge Sengelmann, M.S.W.

CriticalThinkRx was made possible by a grant from the Module 5 Attorneys General Consumer and Prescriber Grant Program, funded by the multi-state Specific Drug Classes: settlement of consumer fraud Use, Efficacy, Safety claims regarding the marketing of the prescription drug Neurontin ®

“Psychotropic ” or Part A “psychoactive ” drugs Overview: affect the Psychotropic Drugs central nervous system Used with and alter feeling, thinking, Children and Adolescents and behaving

5 6

Module 5 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 1 June 2008

“Approved use ” means …

FDA has reviewed limited data on Fewer than 10% of safety and efficacy for one psychotropic drugs are indication, usually in one population FDA -approved for any A “label ” for the drug is psychiatric use in established to guide dosage and children describe observed side effects

7 8

Stimulants approved by FDA for pediatric use

Psychiatric Age group Focus: Stimulants Brand Name Generic Name Indication Adderall , Adderall XR, amphetamine, ADHD, Dexedrine, 3 + dextroamphetamine narcolepsy Dextrostat Concerta , Ritalin, Daytrana , Metadate methylphenidate, dexamethylphenidate Focalin , Focalin XR ADHD 6 + Vyvanse lisdextroamphetamine

Strattera (not Strattera atomoxetine considered a stimulant )

9 10

Long -term evidence of Stimulants act quickly benefits doubtful APA Report noted lack of Stimulants change behavior data supporting long -term within one hour in 60 -70% of efficacy or safety – Stimulants show minimal children who take them efficacy in general life domains of the child, including social and academic success

(APA Working Group on Psychoactive Medications for Children and 11 Adolescents, 2006; MTA Cooperative Group, 2004) 12

Module 5 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 2 June 2008

Short -term desirable effects Effects misconstrued as of stimulants at usual doses therapeutic in children Increase alertness and Increased repetitive, persistent wakefulness behavior Induce sense of well - Decreased exploration and social being (euphoria) behavior Improve accuracy on Increased compliance brief physical and mental tasks

(Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005) 13 (Breggin, 1998) 14

Undesirable behavioral Undesirable physical effects of stimulants effects of stimulants • Nervousness, restlessness • Increased blood pressure • Insomnia • Dizziness, headaches • Agitation • Palpitations • Depression, “zombie ” look • Stomach cramps, nausea • Irritability, Aggression • Apetite /weight loss • Psychological dependence • Stunted growth • Mania, Psychosis • Cardiac arrest (Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005) 15 (Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005) 16

Stunted growth Emergency room visits

Decreases in growth 2,500 children visited ERs in 2004 after averaging ¾” and 6 lbs. taking stimulants for ADHD, most due without evidence of to accidental overdoses rebound 3 years after – 1 in 4 children had heart or blood pressure stopping treatment symptoms including palpitations, chest pain or fainting

(Swanson et al., 2007) 17 (Waters, 2007) 18

Module 5 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 3 June 2008

2006: FDA warning on stimulants Definite risk of tolerance and dependence increased risk of sudden death in patients with heart problems Stimulants prescribed to children increased aggression, mania are Drug Enforcement and/or psychotic symptoms Administration (DEA) "Schedule II (including hallucinations) Drugs," indicating a high risk of tolerance and dependence

19 20

FDA -approved antidepressants for pediatric use

Psychiatric Brand Name Generic Name Age group Indication Sinequan doxepin 12+ Focus: Antidepressants Sinequan doxepin 12+ Focus: Antidepressants Anafranil clomipramine 10+

Luvox fluvoxamine OCD 8 +

Zoloft sertraline 6 + Tofranil imipramine

Depression, Prozac fluoxetine 7 + OCD 21 22

But are they effective?

Meta -analys es of drug vs. placebo studies show 75 -82% of the response was duplicated by placebo – 57% of studies submitted to FDA failed to show a difference between drug and placebo 2007

(Moncrieff et al., 2004; Kirsch et al., 2002; Kirsch & Sapirstein, 1998) 23 24

Module 5 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 4 June 2008

Unimpressive evidence from FDA analysis of pediatric FDA ’s complete adult database trials concurs “[I] n 189 trials of 53,048 adult subjects with Only 3 of 15 published and psychiatric disorders … Approximately 50% of subjects who received active drug and 40% of unpublished randomized controlled subjects who received placebo were trials show SSRIs as more effective designated as responders. ” than placebo in depressed children (Stone & Jones, 2006) The entire scientific case for antidepressants rests on this 10% None of the studies found drugs better difference —which may result from biases on client - or parent - rated measures in the conduct of clinical trials 25 (Laughren , 2004) 26

Short -term desirable effects No evidence that at usual doses older antidepressants Increased physical activity (tricyclics or MAO Elevated mood inhibitors) Decreased expressions of have any efficacy with distress such as crying, hopelessness depressed youths Improved sleep and appetite

(Somers-Flanagan & Somers-Flanagan, 1996) (Bezchlibnyk -Butler & Jeffries, 2005) 27 28

Undesirable behavioral Undesirable physical effects of antidepressants effects of antidepressants

• Anxiety, nervousness • Gastrointestinal distress (nausea, vomiting, • Agitation, irritability stomach pain, constipation, diarrhea) • Mood swings, mania • Sexual problems (loss of libido, anorgasmia , erectile dysfunction) • Aggressiveness • Sleep disruption (insomnia, hypersomnia ) • Thoughts of suicide • Urinary retention • Attempted or actual suicide • Blurred vision • Weight gain • Headaches, dizziness (Antonuccio et al., 1999; Preda et al., 2001; Healy, 2003) 29 30 (Antonuccio et al., 1999; Preda et al., 2001; Healy, 2003)

Module 5 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 5 June 2008

Six clusters of withdrawal effects Antidepressants double likely upon abrupt discontinuation risk of suicidality of SSRI antidepressants 1. Neurosensory (vertigo, tingling & burning) 2. Neuromotor (tremor, spasms, visual changes) 2005: FDA issues “black box ” warning of 3. Gastrointestinal (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, “Suicidality in Children and Adolescents ”: weight loss) “Antidepressants increase the risk of 4. Neuropsychiatric (anxiety, depression, crying “Antidepressants increase the risk of spells, irritability, suicidal thinking) suicidal thinking and behavior ( suicidality )” 5. Vasomotor (heavy sweating, flushing) – (22 RCTs testing 9 antidepressants: 2.3% rate 6. Other (insomnia, vivid dreaming, fatigue) of serious suicidal events among drug -treated children, vs. 1.2% among placebo treated —no completed suicides) 31 32 (Schatzberg et al., 2006)

“Activation ” syndrome: Concern over A more common risk “prescription cascade ” FDA also warns of increased Continued exposure to the drug can lead agitation, irritability, aggression, to effects misinterpreted as psychiatric symptoms (such as mania), leading to worsening anxiety, severe increases in dosage or additional drugs — restlessness, and other unusual when reducing or stopping the drug behaviors in youth treated with would relieve the patient ’s discomfort antidepressants

(Breggin, 2006) 33 (Breggin, 2006) 34

Anticonvulsants on U.S. market (antiepileptics , antiseizure drugs) Focus: (antiepileptics , antiseizure drugs) Brand Name Generic Name Yr of intro

Anticonvulsant Drugs Tegretol , Equetro carbamazepine 1968, 2004 Neurontin gabapentin 1993

Lamictal lamotrigine 1994 Depakene , valproate 1995 Depakote

Topamax topiramate 1997

Trileptal oxcarbazepine 2000 35 36

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Anticonvulsants FDA -approved for Anticonvulsants widely promoted pediatric seizure disorders as “mood stabilizers ” Brand Name Generic Name Approved Indications Age Tegretol , carbamazepine Any Equetro Use started in 1980s -1990s due to

Gabitril iagabine 12 + dissatisfaction with lithium and antipsychotics in treatment of Bipolar Depakote divalproex sodium, Depakene valproate NO 10 + Disorder PSYCHIATRIC Topamax topiramate Use spread rapidly with the promotion INDICATIONS Neurontin gabapentin 3 + of "mood stabilizer" expression and of Bipolar Disorder diagnosis in children Lamictal lamotrigine 2 +

Trileptal oxcarbazepine 37 (Healy, 2006) 38

40 -fold increase in less than a decade

39 (Moreno et al., 2007) 40

Polypharmacy without Scant empirical support psychotherapy No studies confirm the efficacy and safety of anticonvulsants to treat Bipolar Disorder More than 90% of children in children and adolescents diagnosed with Bipolar Disorder “Despite the frequent use of antiepileptic drugs in received more than 1 psychoactive the treatment of juvenile bipolar disorder , drug migraine, and neuropathic pain, the data are insufficient to make recommendations regarding Less than 40% received the efficacy of antiepileptics in these conditions in children and adolescents.” (Golden et al., 2006) psychotherapy (Kowatch et al., 2000, 2005; National Institute of Mental Health, 2000; (Moreno et al., 2007) 41 Ryan, Bhatara & Perel, 1999) 42

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Most trials are open, small, and show limited response in youth Desired behavioral effects Half of all participants in an open of anticonvulsants trial of lithium, divalproex , or Reduce aggression and carbamezepine did not respond to impulsivity treatment – 58% received at least one mood Calm restlessness and stabilizer plus a stimulant, an excitability atypical antipsychotic, or an antidepressant

(Lopez -Larson & Frazier, 2006) (Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005) (Lopez -Larson & Frazier, 2006) 43 44

Undesired behavioral effects of anticonvulsants 2008 : FDA warns anticonvulsants • Depression, sedation double risk of suicidal behavior • Hostility and irritability • Anxiety, nervousness or ideation • Anxiety, nervousness • Hyperactivity Risk is highest in treatment of • Abnormal thinking epilepsy —which rules out • Confusion and amnesia psychiatric status as confounding • Slurred speech variable • Sedation, sleepiness

45 (Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005) 46

Undesired physical effects Birth defects of concern of anticonvulsants given new patient profiles • Nausea and dizziness Anticonvulsants cross placenta • Vomiting and abdominal pain and increase the risk of fetal • Headaches and tremors malformations and cognitive • Fatal skin rashes • Fatal skin rashes impairments in children • Hypothyroid • Blood disorders exposed in utero • Pancreatitis, liver disease – Highest rates for • Birth defects and menstrual irregularities valproate and • Withdrawal seizures carbamazepine (Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005; Gonzalez-Heydrich et al., 2003) 47 (Adab et al., 2006) 48

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FDA black -box warnings

Liver toxicity (particularly for under 2 Depakote yrs of age); birth defects; pancreatitis

Aplastic anemia and agranulycytosis Tegretol (severe reduction in white blood cells)

Serious rash requiring hospitalization; Focus: Stevens-Johnson Syndrome for under 16 Lamictal yrs of age (fatal sores on mucuous membranes of mouth, nose, eyes and Antipsychotic Drugs genitals)

All Suicidal ideation and behavior anticonvulsants

49 50

“Atypical ” (newer, 2nd generation) FDA -approved psychiatric indications of antipsychotics on U.S. market atypicals

Autism, bipolar mania, Yr of Risperdal 5 + Brand Name Generic Name schizophrenia intro Abilify Schizophrenia 10+ Clozaril clozapine 1989 Treatment resistant Clozaril schizophrenia Risperdal risperidone 1994 Zyprexa Zyprexa olanzapine 1996 Seroquel Seroquel quetiapine 1997 Adults only Bipolar mania, Geodon Geodon ziprasidone 2001 schizophrenia Symbyax Abilify aripriprazole 2002 Invega Invega paliperidone 2007 51 52

FDA -approved psychiatric “Typical ” & “Atypical ” indications of typicals for antipsychotics children Since 1950s, antipsychotics were Psychiatric Brand Name Generic Name Indication Age used to treat psychoses , despite Tourette ’s Disorder (for high toxicity and limited Orap pimozide 12 + Haldol non -responders) effectiveness Schizophrenia, Tourette ’s Haldol haloperidol 3 + Disorder Newer, expensive “atypical ” antipsychotics were heavily Mellaril thioridazine Schizophrenia 2 + promoted in the 1990s as safer and Typicals make up less than 5% of FL more effective Medicaid prescriptions of antipsychotics 53 54

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Yet, newer no better than older … Non -psychotic diagnoses in children treated with atypicals

% of F lorida Medicaid Diagnosis children on 2005 : largest -ever schizophrenia antipsychotics (2006) treatment study finds atypicals ADHD / Conduct Disorder 48 Nonpsychiatric , Anxiety, neither more effective nor better 27 tolerated than older drug Other Psychiatric Bipolar / Depression 13 – 75% of patients quit either drugs Schizophrenia / Psychosis 8 within 18 months due to inefficacy or intolerable side effects Austism / Mental Retardation 4

(Lieberman et al., 2005) 55 (2007) 56

But do antipsychotics effectively control aggression? “Aggression ” said to effectively control aggression? The latest randomized -controlled account for most of the trial found placebo more effective antipsychotic than either a typical (haloperidol) or atypical ( risperidone ) antipsychotic prescribing in children to reduce aggression in patients with and adolescents intellectual disability Trial had no drug company sponsorship

(Tyrer et al., 2008) (Patel et al., 2005) 57 58

Few pediatric clinical trials of “Antipsychotic drugs should atypicals for any indication no longer be regarded as acceptable routine As of 2006, only a few studies of direct AAP comparisons with treatment for aggressive placebo behavior in people with Most studies are short -term intellectual disability.” (3 -6 weeks) and results favor the funder ’s drugs

(Tyrer et al., 2008) 59 (McDonagh et al., 2006) 60

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“There are no studies that have Dopamine -blocking action of shown ( atypicals ) are safe, or for that matter, that they are all antipsychotics explains effective for children …The bottom indifference, sedation, drowsiness, apathy line is that the use of psychiatric line is that the use of psychiatric reduced spontaneity and affect medications far exceeds the reduced ability to monitor one's state evidence of safety and increased abnormal movements effectiveness. ” effectiveness. ” cognitive and motor impairments Ronald Brown, Chair, 2006 American Psychological Association confusion and memory problems Task Force on Psychotropic Drug Use in Children depression, mood swings, agitation

(Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005) (2007) 61 62

Desirable effects of Effects misconstrued as antipsychotics at usual doses therapeutic suppress psychotic symptoms increased indifference (delusions, hallucinations, reduced spontaneity and affect agitation) reduced ability to monitor one's suppress manic symptoms state (euphoria, expansiveness, increased compliance with social irritability) norms

(Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005) (Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005) 63 64

Undesirable behavioral Undesirable physical effects of antipsychotics effects of antipsychotics

• Cognitive and motor impairments • Weight gain, high blood sugar • Sedation, drowsiness • Abnormal movements (all body parts) • Confusion and memory problems • Diabetes • Anxiety • Cardiac problems • Depression, mood swings • Liver problems, jaundice • Abnormal thinking • Neuroleptic malignant syndrome • Hostility, aggression • Death

(Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005) 65 (Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005; Lindenmayer et al., 2003; Meyer, 2001)66

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Extrapyramidal symptoms Hormonal dysfunctions (abnormal movements) Elevated prolactin levels cause: Akathisia : inner distress, rocking, pacing, agitation sexual and menstrual disturbances Dystonia : sudden, bizarre muscle spasms infertility Dyskinesia : rhythmic movements of face, decreased bone density mouth and tongue, sometimes of hands and feet Parkinsonism : rigid muscles, loss of facial expression, unsteady gait, drooling

(Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005; Correll & Carlson, 2006; Patel et al., 2005)67 (Campbell, Rapaport & Simpson, 1999) 68

Tardive dyskinesia risk Weight gain and diabetes highest for typical antipsychotics 50% of patients on antipsychotics gain 20% of Long -lasting abnormal movements their weight (primarily as fat) affect 12% to 35% of children who Weight gain linked to "metabolic receive typical antipsychotics for syndrome" more than 3 months

(Campbell, Rapaport & Simpson, 1999) 69 (Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005; Correll & Carlson, 2006; Patel et al., 2005)70

Neuroleptic malignant 3 atypicals suspected in syndrome nearly 4,500 deaths reported Can occur with any antipsychotic to FDA, 1998 -2005 agent, at any dose, at any time Symptoms : extreme muscular Clozaril: 3,277 deaths rigidity, high fever, & altered Risperdal: 1,093 deaths consciousness Zyprexa: 1,005 deaths 1-2% rate per year Fatal if untreated

(Bezchlibnyk-Butler & Jeffries, 2005; Silva et al., 1999) 71 (Moore, Cohen & Furberg, 2007) 72

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FDA “black-box” warnings "For many adults, and a small number of children, these agents can be an important component of treatment. All Increased mortality in frail elderly atypicals However, it's so rare to find an example where evidence -based Serious risk of agranulocytosis (severe alternatives were exhausted prior to drop in white blood cells), seizures, starting an atypical antipsychotic in a Clozaril myocarditis , and other cardiovascular child that I have not found one yet in and respiratory effects three years of searching." Risk of suicidality in children and Seroquel Mark E. Helm, MD, MBA adolescents Medical Director, Evidence-Based Prescription Drug Program University of Arkansas Medical Sciences College of Pharmacy, 2007 73 74

States sue drug makers for Part B illegal marketing of Lawsuits against drug unapproved uses to recover money states makers shed light on paid to purchase atypical illegal promotion and antipsychotics and the serious risks costs of medical care for serious risks the people injured by these drugs

75 (Pringle, 2007; Kesselheim & Avorn, 2007) 76

Patients sue, charging that drug makers did not adequately warn about severe weight gain, pancreatitis, diabetes, and other risks

(Pringle, 2007; Kesselheim & Avorn, 2007) 77 78

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Zyprexa lawsuits 2007: Zyprexa settlements 2007 : Several states sue Eli Lilly for top $1.2 billion, so far downplaying or hiding data linking use of the drug to weight gain and Eli Lilly has paid more than hyperglycemia $1.2 billion to settle 30,000+ – Most of those states ’ Medicaid Zyprexa lawsuits spending on antipsychotics is for – The settlements required data Zyprexa on rates of adverse effects be kept secret

79 (Berenson, 2008) 80

2008: Feds, Eli Lilly negotiate $1 billion Zyprexa fine

If a deal is reached, it would be the 2007: Bristol -Myers Squibb largest fine ever paid by a drug pays $515 million over company for breaking the federal laws governing how drugmakers can illegal marketing and promote their medicines pricing of Abilify , Serzone , other drugs

81 82

Litigation has

exposed shady practices of pharmaceutical manufacturers uncovered previously hidden data Part C about adverse events helped doctors reassess risks and Conclusions and benefits of some drugs and think critically about the available Recommendations “evidence ”

(Kesselheim & Avorn, 2007) 83 84

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Evidence “poor ” for the use Need to rethink of psychotropics in children risk -benefit ratio • Little or no evidence of efficacy and Risks for adverse events, including safety of long -term use of these drugs in death, increase with the number of children concomitant drugs administered • Clear evidence of harm and risk of Risks for adverse events are higher serious adverse events, including death in children, who are receiving adjusted adult dosages of drugs • Risk -benefit ratio especially poor for rarely studied in children antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and antipsychotics 85 (Brown & Sammons, 2002; Riddle, Kastelic & Frosch, 2001; Vitiello, 2001) 86

Side effects leading to Available evidence does multiple medications? not justify use of After initial medication, side psychotropic drugs as effects may be viewed as mental disorders and drugged, in a first -line treatments for “prescribing cascade ” of children and polypharmacy that keeps children at risk with no sign of behavioral adolescents improvement

87 88

Reassess all cases? A Critical Curriculum Reassess all cases? on Psychotropic Medications Given known risks and dearth of valid studies showing benefits, cases of Module 5 children receiving psychiatric medications should be reassessed Children are involuntary patients. To The End support continuing psychotropic drug treatment, rock -solid rationale should be provided in every single case be provided in every single case www.CriticalThinkRx.org

89 90

Module 5 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 15 June 2008

A Critical Curriculum on Psychotropic Medications • Principal Investigator: • Research Coordinator: – David Cohen, Ph.D. – Inge Sengelmann, M.S.W.

CriticalThinkRx was made Module 6 possible by a grant from the Attorneys General Consumer and Non -Medical Professionals and Prescriber Grant Program, Psychotropic Medications: funded by the multi-state Legal, Ethical and settlement of consumer fraud Training Issues claims regarding the marketing of the prescription drug Neurontin ®

Who can prescribe? Part A Most states grant full or partial prescriptive authority to licensed physicians , dentists , Legal limits to prescribing advanced nurse practitioners , psychotropic medications pharmacists , podiatrists , and optometrists

5 (NASW, 2005;Norfleet, 2002; Wiggins & Wedding, 2004) 6

Module 6 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 1 June 2008

Who cannot prescribe? Discussing any and all medication issues with clients is OK Social workers, mental health counselors, and most For example, Florida and California counselors, and most do not prohibit non -medical psychologists are not professionals to discuss any authorized to prescribe, medication issue with clients dispense, or A review of case law indicates that administer any this could not be construed as medication practicing medicine without a license

(NASW, 2005;Norfleet, 2002; Wiggins & Wedding, 2004) 7 (Cohen, 2007; Ingersoll, Bauer, & Burns, 2004; Littrell, 2003; Litrell & Ashford,8 1995)

Psychologists have gained Psychologists ’ efforts limited authority to prescribe continue … in 2 states and 1 U.S. territory In 2005 -2006, 14 states voted New Mexico (2002) Specially -trained on laws to allow psychologists Louisiana (2004) Department of to prescribe, but none passed Defense Guam (1998) psychologists also may prescribe

9 (Goode, 2002; Long, 2005; McGrath et al., 2004; Norfleet, 2002) 10

Issue is debated … Are counselors next?

• Who needs psychologists to prescribe? Among members of the American Mental • What special training is needed? Health Counselors Association, • Is it simply about more money? – 41% would like to pursue independent • Is psychology selling its soul for a mess prescription privileges of (pharmaceutical) pottage? – 64% would like to obtain dependent but the discussion has shifted privileges from “Should psychologists prescribe? ” – > 90% want psychopharmacology training in to “When will they prescribe and how their curriculum should they prepare? ”

(Scovel, Christensen, & England, 2002) (Heiby, 2002; Kenkel, 2006; Sanua, 2003) 11 12

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How about social workers? Professional associations ’ stances American Psychological Association Survey of a national sample of 176 supports psychologists ’ efforts to gain practitioners in late 1990s prescriptive authority National Association of Social Workers – 52% opposed to obtaining prescription views prescription as beyond the scope privileges of the profession – 19% in favor American Psychiatric Association actively – the rest said “maybe ” or did not respond opposes all such initiatives from non MDs

(Piotrowski & Doelker, 2001) 13 14

Part B Professional competence is a Ethical and Legal Issues: core principle in the codes Competence and Training of ethics and standards for Informed Consent practice of various helping Confidentiality professions

15 (ACA, AMHCA, APA, NASW) 16

To maintain competence, Competence requires professional codes recommend knowledge of valid information relevant to practice Education and training regular critical review of Consultation literature and emerging information Supervision participation in relevant and Continuing education unbiased CE

(ACA, AMHCA, APA, NASW) (ACA, AMHCA, APA, NASW) 17 18

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Knowledge = Competence No specific standards address working with clients and others Training = Knowledge around medication -related issues Without knowledge about drugs, In the absence of standards, Codes counselors, psychologists and social advise exercising careful workers are ill -prepared to meet their judgment and taking responsible clients ’ needs steps to ensure competence and Psychopharmacology should be part of protect clients from harm training for non -medical practitioners

(Barnett & Neel, 2000; Bauer, Ingersoll & Burns, 2004; Bentley, 2005; Carlson, Thaler & Hirsch, 2005; Dziegielewski & Leon, 1998; (ACA, AMHCA, APA, NASW) 19 Farmer, Walsh & Dziegielewski, 1998; Ingersoll, 2000) 20

Education vs. indoctrination Knowledge increases Students & practitioners must be confidence and empowers educated rather than non -medical professionals indoctrinated , and should be exposed to controversies, to participate fully in uncertainties in knowledge, and multidisciplinary well -argued alternatives to environments popular views

(Farmer, Walsh & Bentley, 2006; Dziegelewski, 1998; Littrell, 2003) (Dziegelewski, 1998; Gomory & Lacasse, 2001; Litrell, 2003) 22

Special guidelines needed Use of polypharmacy Integrating psychosocial and biological therapies Informed Consent Specific groups, such as children, older persons, pregnant women More than just signing a form Ethical and critical thinking skills in the age of “Big Pharma ”

(Buelow & Chafetz, 1996; Chafetz & Buelow, 1994; Dunivin & Southwell, 2000; Freimuth, 1996; Levant & Shapiro, 2002; Smyer et al., 1993) 23 24

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Why obtain informed What is informed consent? consent? A systematic process intended Informed consent is the bedrock to guarantee the client ’s right of professional practice in a free to choose, to privacy and to society safety – It promotes the right to self determination , prevents harm and provides for the client ’s best interest (Dell et al 2008; Littrell & Ashford, 1995; Litrell, 2003; Strom-Gottfried, 1998) (Cohen & Jacobs, 2000; Strom-Gottfried, 1998; Littrell & Ashford, 1995; Littrell,25 2003)

What is not informed Validity of consent forms consent? Blanket consent forms lack Having a client sign - specificity and have off on services been challenged in court without a clear understanding of the Signing a blank consent information, including form to be completed uncertainties about later is not valid consent the treatment

(Cohen & Jacobs, 2000; Littrell & Ashford, 1995; Reamer, 2003) 27 (Littrell & Ashford, 1995; Reamer, 2003; Strom-Gottfried, 1998) 28

Standards for valid consent Coercion or undue influence 1. Avoid coercion and undue influence 2. Assess client competence to consent Practitioners who want clients 3. Specify procedures or actions in the to agree to treatments or form procedures may be exercising 4. Inform clients of the right to refuse procedures may be exercising or withdraw consent undue influence and will 5. Provide adequate information on jeopardize validity of their risks, benefits and alternatives to consent treatment

(Dell et al 2008; Littrell & Ashford, 1995; Reamer, 2003; Strom-Gottfried, 1998) (Reamer, 2003) 29 30

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“Adequate ” information Knowledge of alternatives

Critical findings on usefulness, Lack of knowledge about the alternatives to proposed ineffectiveness and reported treatment invalidates information on harm informed consent Description of the hoped -for benefits and how success will be evaluated Competence by providers in a and how success will be evaluated variety of treatment methods Alternatives to treatment being is essential to informed proposed consent Costs of treatment (Littrell, 2003; Littrell & Ashford, 1995; Strom-Gottfried, 1998) 31 (Littrell, 2003; Littrell & Ashford, 1995; Strom-Gottfried, 1998) 32

Competence to consent Encourage questions Informed consent should serve to “The capacity to act on one ’s empower clients to make intelligent decisions about their own behalf, to understand and care, not protect practitioners weigh potential outcomes, to from liability anticipate future consequences Practitioners must ensure the of a decision. ” persons receiving the information understand it,it and should encourage questions (Tan et al., 2007) (Littrell, 2003; Cohen & Jacobs, 2000; Strom-Gottfried, 1998; Tan et al., 2007)33 34

Assessing competence Cognitive capacity of children to consent By about age 9 , children reach In youths, assessment considers the same conclusions as adults, intelligence and cognitive but by different strategies functioning, maturity, impact of any By about age 14 , minors show the distress, seriousness and urgency of same risk -benefit reasoning as situation, and impact of youth’s adults and can participate in relationships the consent process Refusing to consent does not mean incompetence (Dell et al 2008; Spetie & Arnold, 2007) (Dell et al 2008; Tan et al 2007) 36

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Respect for autonomy Third -party representation

Older children and adolescents should Those who cannot participate in the consent process in give consent require order to protect them from being a third party to act subjected to treatment procedures subjected to treatment procedures “in their best against their will, and to respect their “in their best developing autonomy and personhood interests ”

There are many views on just what this means …

(Spetie & Arnold, 2007) 37 38 (Dell et al 2008; Spetie & Arnold, 2007)

What about preschoolers? “The clinician must be watchful for Are parents fully able to carry out caregivers who may have ulterior motives their advocacy role? and want a child to be medicated for their Their capacity to act in their young own convenience, or because pharmacotherapy may simply be ‘easier ’ child ’s best interest warrants pharmacotherapy may simply be ‘easier ’ than behavioral therapy, or as is more careful evaluation often the case , caregivers who have unrealistic expectations about what benefits a treatment may potentially hold for the child. ”

(Dell et al 2008; Spetie & Arnold, 2007) 39 (Dell et al., 2008, p. 105)

Constitutional right to refuse Forced treatment remains or withdraw consent a most controversial issue

Clients have the right to refuse or Although a fixture of mental health withdraw consent at any time and interventions, involuntary treatment must be informed of this right must be literally “option of last resort ” State and federal courts have Opponents of forced treatment assert that it violates one ’s fundamental human consistently ruled that it is unfair it violates one ’s fundamental human rights, creates distrust of helpers, and to allow forced medication without undermines the foundation for recovery “adequate ” procedural guidelines

(Bentley, 1993) 41 (Bassman, 2005) 42

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Taking psychotropic medications, having a psychiatric diagnosis, or experiencing major distress, does not by Confidentiality itself provide grounds for being denied the right to refuse or withdraw consent

(Bentley, 1993) 43 44

Confidentiality vs. privacy “Duty to protect ” U.S. Constitution guarantees However, the state can breach privacy rights, not confidentiality, confidentiality if it has a to the individual rationale for seeing the information, such as the “duty Confidentiality is essential to to protect ” client or others develop trust between client and from harm professional

45 46 (Corcoran, Gorin & Moniz, 2005; Hanson & Sheridan, 1997; Millstein, 2000) (Corcoran, Gorin & Moniz, 2005; Millstein, 2000)

Relinquishing confidentiality Ethical mandates Managed care organizations Clients must be informed of, and publicly -funded payers require information from and authorize , all disclosures providers about clients ’ made to insurers and advised – psychiatric diagnoses of the potential risks of such – treatment procedures disclosure before disclosure is – progress and outcomes made

(Bilynsky & Vernaglia, 1998; Corcoran, Gorin & Moniz, 2005; Millstein, 2000) 47 (Reamer, 2001; Millstein, 2000) 48

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Part C States respond to concerns In 2004, several states passed Emerging Legislative Issues laws limiting recommendations Concerns over medicating from school personnel about children lead to new laws medications, and requiring their training where administration of drugs was allowed

49 50

Florida limits school ’s roles 2005: U.S. House of Representatives passes Child F.S. 1006.0625 Medication Safety Act (H.R. 1790) Public schools cannot require students – Bill seeks to protect children from to receive psychotropic medication as being forced to take psychotropic a condition for attending school drugs as a pre -condition for “Any medical decision made to address attending public school, and a student ’s need is a matter between intends to restore parental the student, the student ’s parent, authority over decisions about their and a competent health care children ’s health professional chosen by the parent. ”

51 52

F.S. 39.407 places limits on Mental health medicating children in state custody screening debate Children under state care can be medicated Joining the list of issues only after obtaining express and informed hotly debated is a 2003 consent from the parent, or, if parental Presidential task force rights have been terminated, receiving authorization from a judge recommendation to Florida and other states now require state screen all school -aged agencies to keep list of foster care children children for mental on meds —but no register in U.S. tracks health problems health effects of prescriptions on kids

53 (President’s New Freedom Commission Report on Mental Health, 2003) 54

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Early detection or Part D pharmaceutical ploy? Pros : early Cons : invalid Psychotropic Medications detection and diagnoses and and Children: treatment of screening disorders instruments; drug companies “First Do No Harm ” attempt to increase market share for psychiatric drugs

55 56

“Children and adolescents are Medications have deemed vulnerable populations, socio -cultural at risk of being harmed by unethical or suboptimal practice implications and and research and are in need of impact children ’s protection. ” identities

(Spetie & Arnold, 2007, p. 15) 57 (Dell et al, 2008; Floersch, 2003) 58

How do children interpret Medication “messages ” their taking drugs? “Better living through To make sense of everyday chemistry ”: medication treatment, children Children learn to use drugs to deal develop “illness narratives ” Children learn to use drugs to deal with behavioral, emotional, They may learn to see themselves as academic and social difficulties “defective ” and unable to control academic and social difficulties their actions (Dell et al 2008; Floersch, 2003)

59 (Dell et al 2008; Floersch, 2003; Jacobs, 2006) 60

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Competent practice involves In child and adolescent listening and responding to psychiatry, medication how youths make sense of their decisions are infrequently medication experience guided by scientific knowledge, as data on safety This requires therapeutic and and efficacy for most personal interpretation psychotropics in youths remains limited

(Jensen et al., 1999: Matsui et al. 2003; Spetie & Arnold, 2007; (Dell et al 2008; Floersch, 2003; Rappaport & Chubinsky, 2000) 61 Vitiello, 2003) 62

“Whether one subscribes to “The bottom line is that the use of the Hippocratic dictum ‘first, psychiatric medications far exceeds do no harm ’ or takes a risk - the evidence of safety and benefit approach to effectiveness ” treatment, it is impossible to discount possible unwanted Ronald Brown, Chair, 2006 American Psychological Association (APA) treatment effects. ” Working Group on Psychoactive Medications for Children and Adolescents

(2007) 63 (APA Working Group on Psychoactive Medications for Children and Adolescents, 2006, 64p. 27)

Non -medical professionals may Part E neither prescribe, dispense, or administer drugs, but they may Conclusions and discuss any medication -related issue with their clients, Recommendations including how their clients can attain their goals with the use or non -use of medications

65 66

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Legal implications Training for competence Even professionals who do not To remain competent in this prescribe are being called to To remain competent in this testify in court about matters emerging field requires that directly concern basic education and treatment of clients with training, including critical psychotropic medications perspectives on drug use and marketing

67 68

Ethical standards

A practitioner ’s involvement in referring children for Professionals working with children referring children for receiving psychotropic drugs must take medication, encouraging responsibility for their education, and medication compliance, and be accountable to clients and society monitoring effects, must rest on for their own decisions about the highest ethical standards medication -related issues

69 70

Balancing risks and benefits Can anyone ethically reassure When considering treatments, clients about the practitioners have an ethical safety of responsibility to balance psychiatric drugs potential benefits with for children when potential risks and to discuss information is not both with parents as well as yet available? older children to obtain informed consent from both

(Littrell, 2003) 71 72

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“The potential for benefit from these Given all the known risks medications must be balanced associated with psychotropic against the risks of not only the physical side effects, but also the drugs, attempting social stigma , cost , inconvenience , psychosocial therapies to and even family disapproval that can treat problems in children accompany even the most seemingly prior to considering clear -cut, evidence -based treatment medication is an ethical recommendation. ” priority (Dell et al., 2008, p. 99) 74

“First do no harm ” Avoid psychotropic drug use

Use of psychotropic in young children until medications that have been evidence -based psychosocial reported to have serious adverse effects in children — interventions have been exhausted including death —should be rationally -anticipated benefits halted until research outweigh the likelihood of risks demonstrates that both parents/guardians are fully short - and long -term benefits outweigh the already known informed risks close monitoring is in place

75 (Vitiello, 2001) 76

A Critical Curriculum on Psychotropic Medications

Module 6 The End

www.CriticalThinkRx.org

Module 6 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 13 June 2008

A Critical Curriculum on Psychotropic Medications

• Principal Investigator: • Research Coordinator: – David Cohen, Ph.D. – Inge Sengelmann, M.S.W.

Module 7 CriticalThinkRx was made possible by a grant from the Attorneys General Consumer and Medication Management: Prescriber Grant Program, Professional Roles and funded by the multi-state Best Practices settlement of consumer fraud claims regarding the marketing of the prescription drug Neurontin ®

Historical roles of Part A non -medical helpers To serve as resources for Non -medical roles and physicians and allied professionals: – First , giving clients information medication management about their medications; – Then , identifying obstacles to compliance; – Later , advocating for clients

(Bentley, Walsh, & Farmer, 2005) 6

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Survey found some tasks A 2001 national survey of “frequently ” performed with clients clinical and mental health Discussing clients ’ feelings social workers identified 31 about taking medications possible tasks and activities Making referrals to physicians related to medication Discussing how medications may work with other interventions

(Bentley, Walsh, & Farmer, 2005) 7 (Bentley, Walsh, & Farmer, 2005) 8

Tasks “often ” performed Tasks “rarely ” performed with clients Assessing and documenting Helping weigh pros and cons of adverse effects taking medication Educating about medications Monitoring clients ’ compliance Suggesting changes in with medication medications to physicians Discussing medication problems (Bentley, Walsh, & Farmer, 2005) (Bentley, Walsh, & Farmer, 2005) 9 10

Assuming roles is complicated by: Increasing demands to priority of some professional values and regulate medicated clients ethics, such as client ’s right to self - determination clash with professional questions about validity of medical model values, creating a for explaining human distress gaps and uncertainties in evidence about “professional dissonance ” medications influence of pharmaceutical companies on the entire mental health system

(Walsh, Farmer, Taylor & Bentley, 2003) 11 (Taylor & Bentley, 2005) 12

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Overall, the public does not embrace psychiatric medications as a solution to children ’s problems

– 70% of adult Americans refuse to use medication for children labeled Public and “oppositional ” or “hyperactive ” – Only 10% see medication as the most professional attitudes effective component of treatment, and 66% professional attitudes believe it is used as a substitute for other interventions

(McLeod, et al. 2004) 14

Practitioners divided Helping parents find solutions Some find drug treatment of youth helpful or essential When faced with a distressed Others find drugs used as a form child, parents may perceive few of social control, misused as a options in a world where insurers, remedy for frustrated parents or medical providers and schools overtaxed system, or ineffective pressure them to medicate their children

(Moses & Kirk, 2006) (McLeod et al., 2004) 15 16

Unbiased sources of “Vigilant and critically information minded ” Non -medical professionals should Non -medical professionals are serve as “unbiased sources of urged to maintain an “informed information ” to help parents find the but critical ” stance by developing right solutions for their children and adequate knowledge about the to promote alternatives based on benefits and adverse effects of critically -evaluated evidence psychotropic drugs, and remain “vigilant, and critically minded ”

(Bradley, 2003; Buccino, 2006; McLeod et al., 2004) (Moses & Kirk, 2006, pp. 220-221) 17 18

Module 7 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 3 June 2008

Yet be familiar with basic Part B psychopharmacology

including uses, side effects, Evolving roles in dosages, and drug medication management interactions in order to be effective in this complex environment

(Bradley, 2003; Buccino, 2006) 19

In today ’s collaborative, Physician ’s Assistant multi -disciplinary Traditionally the most common environment , non -medical role for professionals legally practitioners are called limited in their scope of work with medications, they upon to play many roles on – Help clients follow doctor ’s behalf of clients taking recommendations medication – Not expected to give advice about decisions involving the prescription

21 (Bentley & Walsh, 2006) 22

Consultant Counselor Evaluates client to assess for referral to physicians Coaches and teaches by providing Prepares clients to talk with the information and advice about prescribing physician medications Monitors client ’s subjective Teaches problem solving, helps experience of medication identify alternatives, assists in Assesses client ’s ability to pay for making decisions expensive drugs

23 24 (Bentley & Walsh, 2006) (Bentley & Walsh, 2006)

Module 7 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 4 June 2008

Monitor Advocate Helps client observe positive and Presents client ’s expressed wishes negative effects of medication to those in the medical or mental Evaluates client ’s medication health system responses, in psychological, Ideally, has a peer relationship interpersonal, and social realms, with the physician and and effects on self -image and participates in all phases of identity medication decision -making Discusses the monitoring process Possesses knowledge of with clients, families and psychopathology, medications, physicians and related laws and regulations (Bentley & Walsh, 2006) 25 (Bentley & Walsh, 2006) 26

Teacher Researcher Provides educational materials and other information to clients about: Conducts and publishes – The purposes, actions and effects of research in medical and medications non -medical literature – Problem -solving regarding medication about the full range of issues and adverse effects psychotropic medication – Practical suggestions to help clients issues take medication appropriately

27 28 (Bentley & Walsh, 2006) (Bentley & Walsh, 2006)

An emerging clinical role: easing clients off meds Effective collaboration with Helping clients withdraw from psychiatric drugs or helping simplify medication clients, physicians and regimen other providers of care Contingent on practitioner competence and a “rational, person -centered ” approach Guidelines exist for non -medical practitioners to recognize and address discontinuation effects

(Cohen, 2007; Meyers, 2007; Rivas-Vasquez et al., 1999) 29

Module 7 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 5 June 2008

Traditional Interdisciplinary Reflects dominance of medical Improves services to the client profession and work satisfaction for Characterized by limited, professionals unclear or subservient roles of – May not translate in all non -medical professionals environments and training in effective models is needed

(Bentley & Walsh, 2006, Bronstein, 2003) (Bentley & Walsh, 2006; Bronstein, 2003) 31 32

Components of an Transformational Interdisciplinary Model Enhances the contributions of all members of a team Interdependence Newly Created Assumes non -hierarchical relationships Professional Activities INTERDISCIPLINARY where physicians integrate Flexibility COLLABORATION psychosocial aspects of care and Collective Ownership of Goals involve non -medical professionals in decision -making Reflection on Process

(Bentley & Walsh, 2006; Bronstein, 2003) 33 (Bronstein, 2003) 34

Elusive qualities of successful Collaboration to enhance collaboration? client ’s self -determination • A favorable political and economic climate Collaboration between clients, families and • Shared vision, attainable goals professionals as partners in the helping • Open and frequent communication process is key to respecting the client ’s • Trust, adaptability, respect right to self -determination • Clear roles but flexibility in assuming them When partnership with other • Competent, well -trained practitioners professionals is difficult, focus should • A leader with strong interpersonal skills be on empowering clients with information so that they make choices Unfortunately, these qualities may be in collaboration with prescribers absent in interdisciplinary settings

35 (Bentley & Walsh, 2006; Cohen, 2007; Slavin, 2004; Weene, 2002) 36 (Bentley & Walsh, 2006; Bronstein, 2003)

Module 7 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 6 June 2008

Needed —but difficult to accomplish: A balance between … the rights of individuals, families and society the costs and benefits of using Integrating drugs and psychotropic medication psychosocial treatment the non -medical practitioner ’s role in medication management and the introduces complex legitimacy and uniqueness of other dynamics that require helping professions attention and management (Bentley & Walsh, 2006) 37

Dimensions of partnership in Managing parallel treatment medication management requires navigating Dimension Traditional model Partnership model Goals of Reduce symptoms Improve quality of life; emphasis medication on client priorities the relationships among client, Who selects Physician provider Client collaboration to help medication define options prescriber and therapist Education focus Increas ing compliance Improv ing client ’s ability to manage recovery Monitoring and Physician evaluates clinical Client and providers evaluate competing ideologies held by evaluating status and compliance range of outcomes and options Self -care by client Largely ignored in mental Integrated into consultations providers health with client and family Control and status Providers control processes Emphasis on client control, and and hold status positions client ’s experiences valued Refusal and Seen as related to denial and Seen as a right to be respected in reluctance paranoia all but emergency situations 39 40 (Bentley & Walsh, 2006; Bradley, 2003) (Bentley & Walsh, 2006, p. 223)

Part C

Tools for Competence Comprehensive assessments Assessments, Referrals, Understanding the person in Court Affidavits and the context of their Medication Monitoring experiences

Module 7 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 7 June 2008

Working Definition An individualized process

An ongoing , systematic data collection views the whole person in context , about a client ’s functioning including all factors contributing to A process of problem selection and their distress and strengths, and specification guided by a person -in - changes required to improve coping environment, systems orientation and mastery – the person ’s own perspective is key to understand their situation

(Austrian, 2005; Jordan & Franklin, 2003) (Jordan & Franklin, 2003) 43 44

Elements of assessment Mental status examination

1. Exploration of client ’s unique story and facts Appearance, speech, attitude, motor 2. Inferential thinking to evaluate meaning of behavior the facts of their story Mood, range and appropriateness of affect 3. Evaluation to assess client functioning, Hallucinations, depersonalization, strengths and weaknesses in context derealization 4. Problem definition based on the first three steps and in collaboration with client Remote, recent, and immediate memory 5. Intervention planning based on preceding Level of consciousness, orientation four steps and in context of environment Impulse control Judgment and insight (Austrian, 2005; Jordan & Franklin, 2003) 45 (Austrian, 2005; Jordan & Franklin, 2003) 46

“Integral ” assessment approach requires knowledge of • the client's experience (the individual viewed subjectively/from within) • the client’s behavior (the client viewed Referrals objectively/from without) • the client’s culture (the client’s system Best practices in viewed subjectively/from within) referring clients for • the client’s social system (the client’s psychiatric evaluation system viewed objectively/from without) psychiatric evaluation

(Marquis, 2008; Ingersoll, 2002) 47

Module 7 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 8 June 2008

Few empirical evaluations Quality referrals 1. Establish and maintain collaborative Few researchers have relationships with prescribers investigated effective 2. Share up -to -date information about medications with clients and families referral practices, 3. Help clients and families articulate and despite frequency of manage the meaning of medication this activity 4. Prepare clients and families for the medication evaluation Tentative guidelines are 5. Follow up on the referral offered 6. Manage legal and ethical concerns (Bentley, Walsh & Farmer, 2005) 49 (Bentley, Walsh & Farmer, 2005) 50

• Prescription • Reason for the prescription A medication evaluation should • Expectations of benefit be requested only if the child's • Probability of benefits symptoms do not improve or • Alternative treatments available worsen significantly after good • Risks of the medication psychosocial interventions have • Expenses involved (direct/indirect) been attempted • Decision

(Chewning & Sleath, 1996, in Bentley & Walsh, 2006) 51 52

If drugs are considered, all Affidavits to judges practitioners should evaluate Affidavits to judges if there is clear evidence of regarding medication favorable benefit -to -risk ratio suggestions for children in Drugs unapproved for that age state care group cannot be recommended A recommended without special consideration checklist

Module 7 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 9 June 2008

Psychosocial situation Psychosocial assessment and stressors 3. Summarize the results of your own 1. Describe the observed behaviors of assessment of this child ’s situation: concern & who has observed them, what, in your judgment, could explain when and where how this child is now acting? 2. Describe past, recent, or chronic stressors in the child ’s life that may be 4. If the child has been on medication, contributing to any of the observed could the symptoms be adverse effects of the medication? List sources to justify behaviors your conclusion

55 56

Assessment of interventions Medication history

5. Describe any previous interventions to 8. List medications (names, dosages, times address the problems identified in your per day) the child takes now and over assessment the past 2 years 6. Describe how these interventions have been evaluated, and their results 9. Have you participated in evaluating the 7. What other interventions might address child ’s progress on medication? What this child ’s problems? To what extent specific goals have been expected, how are they available for this child? Why or has their attainment been evaluated? why not?

57 58

Medication monitoring, Informed consent evaluation 10. Have you evaluated for adverse 11. Do you have any information on this effects, behavioral or other? Have child ’s attitude to the medication? you used any rating scales? How 12. How have the risks and benefits of well, in your own careful, overall the medication, as well as those of judgment , is this child tolerating alternate interventions, been his or her medication? assessed and discussed with parents or caregivers?

59 60

Module 7 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 10 June 2008

Future monitoring Medication monitoring 13. If the child is placed on medication, describe your specific role in monitoring its effects. 14. What reasons do you have to expect that the proposed Attending to anticipated medication will be beneficial to this and unanticipated child? effects

Monitoring helps Clients may not know clients and families Clients typically fail to link behavioral drug – Keep track of medication effects effects to their drug, and may incorrectly – Cope with bothersome effects believe they are suffering from additional unrelated physiological or psychological – Solve medication -related issues – Solve medication -related issues symptoms – Make decisions about treatment using critically -evaluated Do not dismiss unusual effects, watch out information for amplified usual effects, and educate – Prevent medication errors clients about risk of “prescribing cascade ”

(Shojania, 2006) 63 (Otis & King, 2006) 64

Formal monitoring essential Tools for monitoring

Without formal monitoring, only a Drug effect checklists — fraction of drug problems are existing or individualized recognized for client ’s situation (see Structured medication reviews have checklist handout in website) been shown to be more valid and – Use before starting the medication improve client ’s quality of life – Use after starting the medication (Otis & King, 2006; Greenhill et al, 2004; Jordan et al., 2004; Kalachnik, 1999) 65 (Jordan et al., 2004) 66

Module 7 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 11 June 2008

Systematic monitoring must be carried out to evaluate the wide -ranging effects of medications on behavior, mood, as well as physical and emotional development

67 68

Children should be Medication guidelines for evaluated for child welfare Emotional development (to examine Medication should only be used as part of whether the drug induces or worsens a comprehensive treatment plan certain problems) integrating behavioral interventions Cognitive development – not used in lieu of other treatments or supports Physical growth (i.e., weight and height) – based on adequate information, including Pubertal development (to examine drug full biopsychosocial and medical assessment effects on course of puberty) – resting on informed consent

(Greenhill et al., 2003) 69 (Bellonci & Henwood, 2006) 70

With children ( after rock -solid justification for medication has Medical monitoring schedule been provided ) Children on psychotropic medications adjust doses to a minimum to should be seen no less than every minimize side effects three months at a bare minimum periodically attempt to take child off medication FDA guidelines for antidepressants require more frequent monitoring avoid polypharmacy due to risks continually reassess risk -to -benefit ratio (Bellonci & Henwood, 2006) 71 (Bellonci & Henwood, 2006) 72

Module 7 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 12 June 2008

Red flags : “Psychotropic medications for young children Additional should be used only when anticipated benefits monitoring concerns outweigh risks. Parents should be fully informed and decisions made only after carefully weighing these factors. Children and Children under five years of age adolescents must be carefully monitored and frequently evaluated as the side effects Children on 2 or more medications common to some medications are particularly Children in state custody difficult for children .”

National Alliance for Mental Illness (NAMI) Policy Research Institute , 2004

(Bellonci & Henwood, 2006) 73

Beyond biology … Part D …medications affect the psychological and social concerns of clients, leading non -medical providers to be Conclusions and increasingly involved in Recommendations medication issues

What is needed? Training on Education and training about psychiatric the impact of meanings of medication - medications for non -medical professionals taking Guidelines regarding responsibilities with respect monitoring clients for adverse effects to medication, including dealing with ethical skills in educating clients about risks and and legal issues such as obligations to report benefits of psychotropic medications adverse effects finding and critically evaluating research on Improved collaboration with clients as partners and with medical providers as part of specific medications interdisciplinary teams —though key concern understanding the strong ideological, remains empowering clients to make their own economic and political influences on decisions prescription writing in the U.S.

77 78

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A Critical Curriculum Research on on Psychotropic Medications how medications and psychosocial interventions interact Module 7 how medications affect child ’s self - control, self -image, and personal responsibility (autonomy) The End how medications affect therapeutic relationships

www.CriticalThinkRx.org

79 80

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A Critical Curriculum on Psychotropic Medications

Principal Investigator: Research Coordinator: – David Cohen, – Inge Sengelmann, M.S.W. Ph.D. Flash production and design: Professional Consultants: – Sane Development, Inc., and Cooper A Critical Curriculum on – David O. Antonuccio, Ph.D. Design, Inc. (psychology) Psychotropic Medications – Kia J. Bentley, Ph.D. (social Voice narration and Flash editing: work) – Saul McClintock – R. Elliott Ingersoll, Ph.D. (counseling & psychology) – Stefan P. Kruszewski, M.D (psychiatry) – Robert E. Rosen, J.D., www.CriticalThinkRx.org Ph.D. (law)

Module 8 CriticalThinkRx was made possible by a grant from the Attorneys General Consumer and Alternatives to Medication: Prescriber Grant Program, Evidence -Based funded by the multi-state Psychosocial Interventions settlement of consumer fraud claims regarding the marketing of the prescription drug Neurontin ®

The integration of best Part A research evidence with clinical judgment and client values

What is Clinical Judgment Evidence -Based Practice?

Client Preferences Research Evidence and Actions

6 (Gambrill, 2006)

Module 8 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 1 June 2008

A philosophy and a process Deeply participatory designed to unite research Deeply participatory and practice in order to EBP is “anti -authoritarian ”— it urges all involved to maximize chances to help clients question claims about what minimize harm to clients (in the is known and unknown about name of helping) treatments

7 8 (Gambrill, 2006) (Gambrill, 2006)

EBP difficulties An intervention should

Threats to business -as -usual have at least some Limited training and supervision unbiased observations or Concerns about cultural sensitivity tests supporting its Worries that “cook book ” methods usefulness with particular mask real -world complexity problems and clients

(Barratt, 2003; Chorpita et al. 2007; Duncan & Miller, 2006) 9 10

Some criteria for Available “evidence ” no judging an intervention guarantee of usefulness Sound theoretical basis Published evidence is influenced by funding sources, researcher biases, and Low risk for harm conventional wisdom Statistically significant differences between Unbiased research exists treatment groups means simply that more Therapist and client concur clients in one group had some type of Therapist and client concur response (partial to complete)

11 (Hoagwood et al. 2001; Ingersoll & Rak, 2006) 12

Module 8 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 2 June 2008

Most improvement has little to However, on average, all do with therapy or technique major therapies produce % equivalent results . Factor improvement equivalent results . explained Clients ’ improvement may Client + outside therapy factors 87 Client -therapist alliance 8 result from factors common to Therapist allegiance to model 4 every therapy Therapist technique 1

(Elkins, 2007; Hubble, Duncan, & Miller, 1999) 13 (Hubble, Duncan, & Miller, 1999; Wampold, 2001) 14

Healthy skepticism A clinician's “rubric ” “We would do well … to remain for EBP optimistically humble on the “Adhere when possible, matter of evidence -based practices in mental health ” by adapt when necessary, accepting that all assumptions are assess along the way ” “provisional and reversible ”

(Amaya-Jackson & DeRosa, 2007, p. 388) (Norcross, Beutler & Levant, 2006, p. 11) 15 16

Choosing proper Part B interventions rests on a clear understanding of the Deconstructing the problem from a person -in -situation perspective Diagnosis: addressing the complexity of the problem a policy of “First, do no harm ” What is this child ’s problem in behavioral terms? 17

Module 8 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 3 June 2008

Bio -psycho -social We often ignore environmental or bio -bio -bio? influences on behavior

Complex problems in living reduced Poor parenting, neglect, abuse to “brain disorders ” to “brain disorders ” Schools ’ failure to motivate children Complex life events reduced to Poverty, lack of access to resources “triggers ” Violence in media, society, neighborhood Medicalization of distress and Culture ’s emphasis on instant gratification disability leading to false hopes of Drug culture ( “take, ” not “talk ”) “quick fix ” via pills Lack of tolerance for differences

(Read, 2005) 19 (Bentley & Collins, 2006) 20

Children ’s distress: “Understanding ” rather “Disorders ” or complex adaptations than “diagnosing ” to distressing life experiences? A developmental -contextual approach views actions as “communicative ”: attempts By seeing children as real persons By seeing children as real persons by individuals to cope, adapt, with their own view of their struggle with their life situation, one ascribes a different experiences meaning to their behavior (Donovan & McIntyre, 1990) (Donovan & McIntyre, 1990) 21 22

“Attention -Deficit/ Here ’s a list of feelings and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) ”

behaviors from DSM -IV -TR Feels : Acts : criteria of “disorders ” • Angry, irritable, • Fidgets, squirms frustrated • Easily distracted, commonly diagnosed in forgetful (difficulty children thinking, concentrating) • Interrupts others (acts impulsively) Note the similarities … • Acts aggressively

Module 8 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 4 June 2008

“Major Depressive Disorder ” “Anxiety Disorder ” Acts : Feels : Feels : Acts : • Eats, sleeps too little • Sad, empty • Eats, sleeps too little • Cries, throws (or too much) • Afraid, anxious • Afraid, anxious tantrums • Moves, speaks slowly • Angry, irritable, • Angry, irritable, • Acts impulsively frustrated • Freezes, clings frustrated • Acts aggressively • Fidgets • Easily distracted (psychomotor (difficulty thinking, agitation) concentrating)

25 26

“Conduct Disorder ” “Oppositional Defiant Disorder ”

Feels : Acts : Feels : Acts : • Angry, irritable, • Bullies and • Angry, irritable, • Disobedient frustrated, hostile threatens frustrated, hostile • Loses temper • Fights • Argues with adults • Steals, lies • Annoys people • Runs away • Refuses to follow rules • Destroys property

27 28

“Bipolar Disorder ” “Psychotic Disorder ”

Acts : Feels : Feels : Acts : • Alternating sad and • Easily distracted (difficulty thinking, • Sad, empty • Apathetic euphoric concentrating) • Blunted feelings, • Refuses to speak • Alternating fearful expressionless • Moves, speaks fast expressionless • Dresses and reckless (agitation) • Angry, irritable, inappropriately • Angry, irritable, • Acts impulsively frustrated • Cries frequently frustrated • Acts aggressively • Afraid, anxious • Cries frequently • Does not sleep well • Sees or hears things

29 30

Module 8 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 5 June 2008

“Post -Traumatic Stress Disorder ” “Reactive Attachment Disorder ”

Feels : Acts : Feels : Acts : • Sad • Agitated, impulsive, re -enacts trauma • Afraid, anxious • Watchful, frozen • Afraid, anxious • Hypervigilant : • Angry, irritable, • Avoids attachments • Angry, irritable, distrustful, withdraws frustrated • Seeks approval or frustrated • Dissociated: forgets can ’t be comforted and can ’t focus • Disregards danger • Helpless, guilty, cues shameful

31 32

The common elements What are we medicating? Experiencing negative emotions (sadness, fear, anger, irritability) Negative emotions leading (sadness, fear, anger, irritability) to disruptive actions — Difficulty controlling oneself especially under stressful (impulsivity, aggression, inattention) conditions that tax the Seeing self and world negatively child ’s adaptive capacities (hopelessness, helplessness, shame, withdrawal)

33 (Schore, 1994, 2003) 34

Most commonly DSM ’s scientific value seriously challenged in all disciplines medicated internal inconsistency in the manual (rejects categorical approach in intro but then lists 300+ Impulsive aggression categories) “a key therapeutic target overlap between categories leads to “co - across multiple disorders ” morbidity ”—with no increase in understanding persistent problems of unreliability, especially with children ’s diagnoses lack of fit between categories and empirically observed symptom clusters

(Caplan, 1995; Duncan et al. 2007; Maj, 2005; Kirk & Kutchins, 1992, 1994; (Jensen et al. 2007, p. 309) 35 Jacobs & Cohen, 2004; Mirowsky & Ross, 1990) 36

Module 8 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 6 June 2008

More recent DSM critiques … Critical list of DSM “accomplishments ”

more behaviors now seen as “mental disorders ” increases people ’s interest to classify psychosocial (from 106 in 1952 to 365 in 1994) problems as medical disorders political lobbying determines inclusion or Helps justify more studies to see how many people can fit exclusion of diagnoses how many DSM categories (which often change) all DSM task force members on mood and led to modest increase in diagnostic reliability since 1980 psychotic disorders tied to drug industry now used by most practitioners in main schools of practitioners focus on diagnosis rather than thought —mostly to obtain third -party reimbursement? client, losing client ’s actual story brings financial revenues to the American Psychiatric still no “gold standard ” validity —no specific Association from sales of DSMs and training materials bio -marker linked to any disorder strengthened psychiatry ’s leadership in mental health system (as official definer of mental distress) (Andreasen, 2006; Tucker 1998; Charney et al. 2005; Kutchins & Kirk, 1998)

37 38

Part C Empirically -supported Focus : psychosocial interventions psychosocial interventions Trauma, Resilience and for children and adolescents Child Welfare

Additional, Trauma and early loss placement -related traumas For thousands of children Emotional disruption of out -of - every year, loss and trauma home placement due to disrupted attachments Adjusting to a foster care setting to biological parents result in Relative instability of foster care foster care placements High turnover of workers

(Jones Harden, 2004; Racussin et al. 2005) 41 (Jones Harden, 2004; Racussin et al. 2005) 42

Module 8 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 7 June 2008

Neurobiology of attachment Child ’s Adolescent ’s Brains develop in a “job ”: to “job ”: to socially dependent form close, expand manner , through secure trusting attachments attachments and attachments using secure consistent , competent with base with adults attuned to the caregivers caregivers needs of the child needs of the child (Gunnar et al. 2006; Mash & Barkeley, 2006; Moran, 2007; Wolfe & Mash, 2006)

(Schore, 1994, 2001, 2003; van der Kolk, 2003) 43 44

Trauma, abuse, and neglect Resilience disrupt a child ’s ability to form The ability to function well secure attachments despite living or having lived in impair brain development and adversity rests mainly on regulation normal cognitive development make self -control difficult and involvement from a caring, alter identity and sense of self competent adult

(Bowlby, 1988; Cook et al. 2005; Courtois, 2004; Creeden, 2004; (Agaibi & Wilson, 2005, Masten et al. 1990; Schofield & Beek, 2005) 45 46 Jones Harden, 2004; van der Kolk, 1994)

Risk and protective factors in Three key elements the foster child, foster - families, agencies, and birth 1. Secure base : is child strengthening family interact to produce sense of security and able to use upward or downward spirals foster -parents as a secure base? 2. Sense of permanence : is Understanding resilience placement stable and foster -parents helps create interventions offering family membership? that produce positive turning 3. Social functioning : is child points in children ’s lives functioning well in school, with peers?

(Schofield & Beek, 2005) 47 (Schofield & Beek, 2005) 48

Module 8 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 8 June 2008

Treatment goals What could help? Activating child ’s internal Enhance sense of personal control Activating child ’s internal and self -efficacy reparative mechanisms through dyadic interventions and creating Maintain adequate level of secure attachments functioning – dyadic therapy mobilizes the Increase ability to master, rather completion of interrupted than avoid, experiences that biological and emotional trigger intrusive re -experiencing, developmental processes numbing, and hyper -arousal (Amaya-Jackson & DeRosa, 2007; Courtois, 2004; Ford et al. 2005; (Ford et al. 2005; Kinniburgh et al. 2005) 49 50 Pearlman & Courtois, 2005)

A sensorimotor approach Why would this help?

Children ’s internal stimuli, can Child develops the ability to take trigger dysregulated arousal, in, sort out, process, and causing emotions to escalate interrelate information from the – Integration of cognitive, emotional environment — leading to self - and sensorimotor levels is crucial for organization of internal states and recovery self -control of behavior

(DeGangi, 2000; Kinniburgh et al. 2005; Schore, 2003; van der Kolk, 2006)

(Ogden, 2006) 51 52

How would this help? Alternatives to medication

By enhancing children ’s: Consistent, structured, supportive adult supervision social skills Opportunities for self -expression ability to understand and express feelings and physical activity, to give ability to cope with anger and distress ability to cope with anger and distress children a sense of mastery over ability to problem -solve and think helpful their minds and bodies thoughts skills to self -direct and create goals

(DeGangi, 200; Faust & Katchen, 2004) (Bloomquist, 1996; Kinniburgh et al. 2005) 53 54

Module 8 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 9 June 2008

Helpful activities Helpful interactions

Teaching problem -solving Desensitizing hyper -reactivity and pro -social skills Promoting self -calming and Modeling appropriate modulation of arousal states behaviors Organizing sustained attention Teaching self - Facilitating organized, management purposeful activity Helping children learn to comply and follow rules

(DeGangi, 2000; Faust & Katchen, 2004) 55 (DeGangi, 2000) 56

Expected outcomes Many treatment alternatives Children learn to develop Symptom -focused : Behavioral , cognitive - appropriate responses, self - behavioral, and interpersonal organization and control, which therapies, attachment -based therapies, in turns leads to trauma -focused therapies System -focused : Treatment foster care (TFC), Multi -dimensional treatment foster care (MTFC) MASTERY AND SELF -ESTEEM (Farmer et al. 2004; Racussin et al. 2005) (Kinniburgh et al. 2005) 57 58

“Depression ” Focus : and “Anxiety ” Dysregulated “moods ”

Module 8 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 10 June 2008

Link to child maltreatment

Abuse leads to “hypervigilance ” to threat, resulting in anxiety and hopelessness Neglect results in dysregulated “moods ”

61 (Greenwald, 2000; Lee & Hoaken, 2007) 62

Therapy or no therapy? “Traumatized children tend to Therapy or no therapy? communicate what has happened Some 30 -40% recover without to them … by responding to the intervention world as a dangerous place by activating neurobiologic systems Approximately 50% of treated patients improve within 8 weeks geared for survival, even when objectively they are safe ” A friendly sympathetic attitude and

(van der Kolk, 2003, p. 309) encouragement are key (Roth & Fonagy, 1996) 64

Other effective interventions Consensus strongly favors 1. Interpersonal psychotherapy cognitive -behavioral 2. Psychodynamic psychotherapy therapy (CBT) as first -line 3. Exposure -based contingency treatment above management medications 4. Problem -solving and coping - skills training

(APA Working Group, 2006; March, 1995; Roth & Fonagy, 1996; Velting et al. 2004) 65 (APA Working Group, 2006; Roth & Fonagy, 1996) 66

Module 8 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 11 June 2008

Patient preference When given a choice , patients express a “Bipolar Disorder ” preference for and “Schizophrenia ” psychosocial interventions over medications

(APA Working Group, 2006) 67 68

Very rare in children (~1%) High risk of over -diagnosis

Diagnosis controversial : NIMH Review: 95% of 1500 children – no laboratory “test ” referred for high clinical suspicion of childhood -onset schizophrenia did not meet – “symptoms ” may be DSM criteria after careful inpatient manifestations of ordinary observation off all medications developmental differences No evidence that they would have developed psychosis if left untreated (Birmaher, 2003; Birmaher & Axelson, 2006; Cepeda, 2007; Correll et al. 2005; Danielson et al. 2004; Irwin, 2004; Findling, Boorady & Sporn, 2007; Roth & Fonagy, 1996) 69 (Shaw & Rapoport, 2006) 70

Link to child maltreatment Many children improve when Child abuse and neglect considered treated with family -based a causal factor for psychosis and psychosocial interventions, “schizophrenia ” even without medications – Content and severity of psychotic – High rates of “relapse ” symptoms related to severity of past observed on medication abuse

(Cepeda, 2007; Morrison et al. 2005; Read & (Birmaher, 2003; Birmaher & Axelson, 2006; Cepeda, 2007; Correll Ross, 2003; Read et al. 2004, 2005) et al. 2005; Danielson et al. 2004; Findling et al. 2007; Irwin, 2004; 71 Roth & Fonagy, 1996) 72

Module 8 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 12 June 2008

Effective psychosocial treatments Who recovers and why? Child - and Family -Focused CBT Psychiatric literature is mostly combined with interpersonal and silent about the characteristics “social rhythm ” therapy to stabilize of people who fully recover mood, activities and sleep from psychosis and how and why Community support and social they do so acceptance through day programs and sports/cultural activities

(Findling et al. 2007) 73 (Siebert, 2000) 74

Disruptive behaviors : Focus : the most frequent Disruptive behaviors reason for referral of children to mental health services

(Brestan & Eyberg, 1998; Butler & Eyberg, 2006)

For disruptive behaviors (2006, December 22) and conduct “disorders ”

Family -based behavioral interventions

(APA Working Group, 2006; Brestan & Eyberg, 1998; Diamond & Josephson, 2005; Kazdin, 2005, 2000, 2000b; Kazdin & Weisz, 2003; Thomas, 2006) 77 78

Module 8 www.CriticalThinkRx.org 13 June 2008

Effective parenting : the most Strongest evidence base powerful way to reduce child and adolescent problem 1. Parent management training (PMT) 2. Problem -solving skills training behaviors (PSST) 3. Brief strategic family therapy (BSFT) 4. Functional family therapy (FFT)

(Brestan & Eyberg, 1998; Butler & Eyberg, 2006; Farley et al. 2005; Kazdin, 2003; Kazdin & Whitley, 2003; Springer 2006; Thomas, 2006) (Caspe & Lopez, 2006; Johnson et al. 2005; Kumpfer et al. 2003) 79 80

Goals of parent training “Problem ” children or “problem ” adults? Promote parent competencies & strengthen parent -child bonds Coercive parenting Increase consistency, was the only factor predictability & fairness of linked to children ’s failure parents to improve their conduct Produce behavior change in children after family treatment

(Kazdin, 2003; McCart et al. 2006; Webster-Stratton & Reid, 2003) 81 82 (Webster-Stratton, Reid & Hammond, 2001)

Children in foster care Maltreatment consistently linked to aggressive behaviors have socio -emotional problems 3 to 10 times more often than other kids History of trauma virtually Coercive interactions only universal in youth with result in escalation of conduct “disorders ” aggressive behaviors

(Greenwald, 2000; Lee & Hoaken, 2007) 83 (Nilsen, 2007) 84

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Parent -training in “ADHD ” child welfare Large evidence base exists for behavioral interventions, incl. Promising programs exist to parent training, social skills train biological and foster training, and school -based parents services Goal is to break the cycle of – Results equivalent to stimulant medications without the health coercive parenting and child medications risks oppositional behavior

(APA Working Group; Chronis et al. 2004, 2006) (Barth et al. 2005; Nilsen, 2007) 85 86

Children ’s development Focus: depends upon reciprocal activity with others with Mentoring whom they have a strong and lasting bond

(Jones Harden, 2004; Rhodes et al. 2006)

Mentorship Mentorship Significant effects A relatively long -term, non -expert relationship between a child and Meta -analysis of 55 studies non -parental adult, based on found significant effects of acceptance and support, aiming to mentoring programs foster the child ’s potential, where – Community -based programs more change is a desired but not effective than school -based predetermined goal programs

(Dallos & Comley-Ross, 2005; Rhodes et al. 2006) (DuBois & Silverthorn, 2005) 90

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Mentoring in foster care Common factors for success Frequent contacts Survey of 29 programs found mentoring provides a bridge to Emotional closeness (attunement) employment and higher Longer duration education, helps with Structured activities transitional problem -solving Ongoing training for mentors

(Mech, Pryde & Rycraft, 1995) 91 (DuBois & Silverthorn, 2005; Gilligan, 1999; Rhodes et al. 2006) 92

Mentors enhance resilience Reduces violence Sensitive mentoring increased “Having someone to count self -esteem and well -being, reduced aggression and opened on when needed ” softened new relationships beyond care the impact of trauma and system reduced likelihood of youth – prevents negative outcomes as engaging in violent offenses youth leave foster care (DuBois & Silverthorn, 2005; Gilligan, 1999; Lemon et al. 2006; Legault 93 94 et al. 2005; Rhodes et al. 1999, 2006; Schofield & Beek, 2005) (Maschi, 2006)

Medicalized approach to Part D distress and disability pathologizes children ’s Conclusions and behaviors and ignores the Recommendations context of their experiences – “Understanding ” rather than “diagnosing ” changes the meaning of those behaviors and can lead to more helpful interventions

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Abuse, neglect and trauma disrupt secure attachment Irritability, impulsivity and and impair the child ’s aggression appear in criteria ability to self -regulate for most DSM diagnostic – “Repair ” occurs through the labels used on children formation of secure – We are medicating children ’s attachments, rather than negative emotions and by medication by medication immature self -control

97 98

Growing consensus Attempt psychosocial interventions before initiating medication Ample evidence supports their use as effective first -line options for children ’s behavioral problems, with no apparent risk of medical harm (Duncan, Sparks, Murphy, & Miller, 2007) 99 100

A Critical Curriculum Fundamental issues of on Psychotropic Medications efficacy and safety of psychotropic psychotropic Module 8 medications in children remain unresolved The End Therefore, medicating children should be avoided www.CriticalThinkRx.org 101 102

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