Fighting Extinction

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Vol 13 2012 Fighting Extinction

The red wolf (Canis rufus) was extirpated in the wild and only survived in human care; its threat status was subsequently reduced from Extinct in the Wild thanks to the reintroduction of captive-bred animals. | © John Froschauer/Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

Contents Editorial The Fall and Rise of the Markus Gusset & Gerald Dick...... 1 Scimitar-horned Oryx Tania Gilbert, Tim Woodfine, Przewalski’s Horse William Houston, John Newby Reintroduction to Mongolia: & Khaled Zahzah...... 25 Status and Outlook Chris Walzer, Petra Kaczensky, The Père David’s Deer: Waltraut Zimmermann & Clinging on by a Cloven Hoof Christian Stauffer...... 3 Neil R. Maddison, Jiang Zhigang Founding Member & Maria Boyd...... 29 The Black-footed Ferret: Into the Night The Wyoming Toad: Paul E. Marinari...... 7 Partnerships for Recovery Val Hornyak...... 33 Efforts to Restore the Imprint California Condor to the Wild The Fall and Rise of the Michael Wallace...... 10 Yarqon Bleak Editors: Menachem Goren...... 36 Markus Gusset & Gerald Dick The Arabian Oryx: Saved, yet… WAZA Executive Office Mark R. Stanley Price...... 15 Controlled Propagation IUCN Conservation Centre of the Socorro Isopod Rue Mauverney 28 The European Bison: Brian K. Lang, CH-1196 Gland A Species Saved Stephen M. Shuster & Switzerland from Extirpation Rebecca Houtman...... 39 phone: +41 22 999 07 90 Wanda Olech...... 19 fax: +41 22 999 07 91 Extirpated in the Wild: Layout and typesetting: Recovering the Red Wolf [email protected] William Waddell & Print: David Rabon Jr...... 22 Agentura NP, Staré Město, Czech Republic

Edition: 700 copies This edition of WAZA Magazine © WAZA 2012 is also available on www.waza.org. Printed on FSC paper.

Markus Gusset1 & Gerald Dick2 Extinct (EX) Editorial Extinct in the Wild (EW) »

Critically Endangered (CR) The Red List of Threatened Species, Adequate data compiled by the International Union Endangered (EN)

for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), categories Evaluated Vulnerable (VU) Threatened is widely recognised as the most Extinction risk comprehensive, objective global approach for evaluating the conservation status of animal and plant Near Threatened (NT) species. Each species assessed is All assigned to one of eight different cat- Least Concern (LC) species egories (see figure), based on a series of quantitative criteria. Species classified as Vulnerable, Endangered and Data Deficient (DD) Critically Endangered are regarded as threatened; Extinct in the Wild means that these species are known only to Not Evaluated (NE) survive in human care.

There were 68 species that under- Fig. 1 went an improvement in conserva- Structure of the IUCN Red List categories. tion status according to a recent © IUCN assessment of the status of the world’s vertebrates on the IUCN Red These figures were subsequently con- ures (Butchart et al. 2006; Oryx 40: List (Hoffmann et al. 2010; Science tested (Balmford et al. 2011; Science 266–278). For mammals, conserva- 330: 1503–1509), all but four due to 332: 1149–1150) and updated (Conde tion breeding and reintroduction conservation measures. For these et al. 2011; Science 332: 1150–1151): were more successful in improv- 64 species, conservation breed- there were 13 instead of 16 species ing conservation status than other ing was implemented as a major or identified for which conservation conservation actions (Hayward 2011; minor conservation action that led to breeding was implemented as a ma- Biodivers. Conserv. 20: 2563–2573) and an improvement during the period jor conservation action. According to contributed to the genuine improve- of change in 16 and three species, Conde et al. (2011), for at least nine of ment in IUCN Red List status of nine respectively. Therefore, according these 13 species, zoos and aquariums species (Hoffmann et al. 2011; Phil. to Hoffmann et al. (2010), 19 of the also provided substantial logistical, Trans. R. Soc. B 366: 2598–2610). 64 species showing genuine improve- technical and/or financial support. ment in IUCN Red List status due to Overall, it seems that conservation According to the above-mentioned conservation measures benefitted breeding in zoos and aquariums has evaluation (Hoffmann et al. 2010, from conservation breeding. played a role in the recovery of one- 2011; Conde et al. 2011), species quarter of those vertebrate species previously classified as Extinct in the whose threat status was reduced Wild that have improved in IUCN according to the IUCN Red List. Red List status thanks to the reintroduction of captive-bred animals Breeding animals in human care include the Przewalski’s horse (Equus followed by reintroducing them back ferus przewalskii), black-footed fer- into the wild was one of the most ret (Mustela nigripes) and California frequently cited conservation actions condor (Gymnogyps californianus). that led to improvements in IUCN Thanks to the same conservation ac- Red List status (Hoffmann et al. 2010). tions, the threat status of the Arabian For birds, conservation breeding and oryx (Oryx leucoryx), European bison reintroduction helped prevent the (Bison bonasus) and red wolf (Canis extinction of six out of 16 species that rufus) was reduced from Extinct in the would probably have gone extinct in Wild already before the time period 1 WAZA Conservation Officer & the absence of conservation meas- considered. International Studbook Coordinator 2 WAZA Executive Director 2 WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

There are 33 animal species currently Animal species classified as Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN Red List classified as Extinct in the Wild on (version 2011.2), with an indication of whether the species is actively bred the IUCN Red List (see table). Ex- in human care, is managed in a studbook-based breeding programme amples include the scimitar-horned and is being reintroduced. oryx (Oryx dammah), Père David’s Scientific name Common name Breeding Manage- Reintro- deer (Elaphurus davidianus), Wyo- ment duction Acanthobrama telavivensis Yarqon bleak Yes No Yes ming toad (Anaxyrus baxteri), Yarqon Ameca splendens Butterfly goodeid Yes No No bleak (Acanthobrama telavivensis) Anaxyrus baxteri Wyoming toad Yes Yes Yes and Socorro isopod (Thermospha- Aylacostoma chloroticum (Tropical freshwater snail) Yes No No eroma thermophilum). Thirty-one Aylacostoma guaraniticum (Tropical freshwater snail) Yes No No of these species are actively bred in Aylacostoma stigmaticum (Tropical freshwater snail) Yes No No Corvus hawaiiensis Hawaiian crow Yes No No zoos, aquariums and other animal Cyprinodon alvarezi Potosi pupfish Yes No No propagation facilities, which prevent Cyprinodon longidorsalis La Palma pupfish Yes No No their outright extinction; 17 species Elaphurus davidianus Père David’s deer Yes Yes Yes are managed in a studbook-based Gallirallus owstoni Guam rail Yes Yes Yes breeding programme. Zoological Leptogryllus deceptor Oahu deceptor bush cricket No No No Megupsilon aporus Catarina pupfish Yes No No institutions are uniquely placed to Mitu mitu Alagoas curassow Yes No No contribute to the conservation of spe- Nectophrynoides asperginis Kihansi spray toad Yes Yes No cies that are no longer found in the Nilssonia nigricans Black softshell turtle No No No wild, with reintroduction efforts using Oryx dammah Scimitar-horned oryx Yes Yes Yes Partula dentifera (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No captive-bred animals already being Partula faba (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No implemented for six species classified Partula hebe (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No as Extinct in the Wild. Partula mirabilis (Moorean viviparous tree snail) Yes Yes No Partula mooreana (Moorean viviparous tree snail) Yes Yes No In this edition of the WAZA Magazine, Partula nodosa (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No Partula rosea (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No we have compiled cases where zoos Partula suturalis (Moorean viviparous tree snail) Yes Yes No and aquariums have made unique Partula tohiveana (Moorean viviparous tree snail) Yes Yes No contributions to fighting extinction Partula tristis (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No of those species most urgently in Partula varia (Polynesian tree snail) Yes Yes No need of conservation action; that Skiffia francesae Golden skiffia Yes No No Stenodus leucichthys Beloribitsa Yes No No is, species classified as Extinct in the Thermosphaeroma thermophilum Socorro isopod Yes No Yes Wild on the IUCN Red List. Examples Yssichromis sp. nov. ‘argens’ (Cichlid fish) Yes No No of such interactive ex situ and in situ Zenaida graysoni Socorro dove Yes Yes No population management include the Information compiled from the IUCN Red List, International Species Information System (ISIS), 11 species mentioned in this Edito- IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG), systematic Internet searches rial; they were either reclassified and personal communications recently (Hoffmann et al. 2010, 2011; Conde et al. 2011) or before the time period considered in that evaluation, Aichi Biodiversity Target 12 of the that this edition of the WAZA Maga- or reintroduction efforts driven by United Nations Strategic Plan for zine will substantially strengthen the zoological institutions have been im- Biodiversity 2011–2020 states that “by case for the world zoo and aquarium plemented that hopefully will qualify 2020 the extinction of known threat- community to play an increasingly them for reclassification soon. ened species has been prevented and recognised role in the conservation their conservation status, particularly policies of governments, non-govern- of those most in decline, has been mental organisations and multilateral improved and sustained”. We hope environmental agreements.

The establishment of select, targeted captive populations with the goal of reintroducing species in the wild may offer valuable opportunities once impacts in their native habitat are brought under control. | Hoffmannet al. 2010 WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Przewalski’s Horse 3

Chris Walzer1,2 *, Petra Kaczensky1,2, Waltraut Zimmermann3 & Christian Stauffer4 Przewalski’s Horse Reintroduction » to Mongolia: Status and Outlook

Summary

The last record of the Przewalski’s horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) in the wild occurred in the late 1960s in south-western Mongolia. Thereafter no more wild horses were observed and in 1996 the species was classified as Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The reasons for the extinction were seen in the combined effects of pasture competition with livestock and overhunting. At this point in time the species survived solely in captivity due to breeding based on 13 founder animals. Today the Mongolian population again consists of some 350 Fig. 1 wild individuals, and the species was A small harem group of Przewalski’s horses subsequently down-listed to Critically near Takhiin Tal in the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area. Endangered in 2008 and Endangered © Chris Walzer/International Takhi Group in 2011. A self-sustaining financial Introduction base in conjunction with dedicated training and empowerment of local The first documentation of Przew- Colonel Nikolai Mikailovich Przewal- scientists and residents constitute es- alski’s-type wild horses date from ski (1839–1888), a renowned explorer, sential prerequisites for the project’s more than 20,000 years ago. Rock obtained the skull and hide of a horse future. engravings, paintings and decorated shot some 80 km north of Gutschen tools dating from 20,000–9,000 BC on the Chinese–Russian border. These were discovered in European caves. were examined at the Zoological Historically, wild horses ranged from Museum of the Academy of Science Western Europe over the Russian in Saint Petersburg by I. S. Poliakov, steppes east to Kazakhstan, Mon- who concluded that they were a wild golia and northern China. The first horse, which he gave the official written accounts of the Przewal- name Equus przewalskii (Poliakov ski’s horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) 1881). Present-day taxonomy places were recorded by the Tibetan monk the Przewalski’s horse as a subspecies Bodowa around 900 AD. In the of Equus ferus (Fig. 1). Secret History of the Mongols, there is a reference to wild horses that caused Genghis Khan’s horse to rear up and 1 Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, throw him to the ground in 1226. The Department of Integrative Biology Przewalski’s horse is still absent from and Evolution, University of Veterinary Linnaeus’ Systema Naturae (1758) Medicine, Vienna, Austria and remained essentially unknown 2 International Takhi Group – Mongolia, in the West until John Bell, a Scottish Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia doctor in the service of Tsar Peter 3 Cologne Zoo, Cologne, Germany the Great, in 1719–1722 observed the 4 International Takhi Group – Switzerland, species within the area of 85–97° E c/o Zurich Wilderness Park Foundation, and 43–50° N (present-day Chinese– Sihlwald, Switzerland Mongolian border). Subsequently, * E-mail for correspondence: [email protected] 4 Przewalski’s Horse WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

The last wild population of Przew- The Takhiin Tal the wild from the adaptation enclo- alski’s horses – called takhi in Mon- Reintroduction Project sures, and in 1999 the first foals were golian – survived until recently in successfully raised in the wild. In the south-western Mongolia and adja- With Mongolian independence in following years several further airlifts cent China in the provinces of Gansu, 1990, the Takhiin Tal project was occurred and a total of 88 takhi from Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia. The last initiated with the support of vari- various European zoos were brought recorded sightings of the takhi in the ous international sponsors. By the to the Gobi (Slotta-Bachmayr et al. wild occurred in the late 1960s north late 1990s project leadership and 2004). In the summer of 2009 some of the Tachiin Shaar Nuruu in the management was overhauled with 150 takhi roamed over 3,000 km2 Dzungarian Gobi in south-western research and scientific data firmly in the SPA (Fig. 2). Initially largely Mongolia. Thereafter no more wild integrated into the decision-making confined to the north-eastern corner takhi were observed and the species process. In 1999 the International of the SPA, range use of the reintro- was subsequently (1996) classified Takhi Group (www.savethewildhorse. duced takhi population increased as Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN org) was established as a non-gov- gradually. In 2005 one harem group Red List of Threatened Species. The ernmental organisation to continue was successfully translocated to the reasons for the extinction of the takhi and extend this project in accordance Takhiin Us water point, about 120 km were seen in the combined effects of with the IUCN Reintroduction Guide- west of the original release site, to pasture competition with livestock lines. The vision of the International speed up the expansion of the distri- and overhunting. Takhi Group is the integral protection bution range within the area. of the Gobi habitat and to conserve At this point in time the species sur- the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected The Gobi is prone to large inter-an- vived solely in captivity due to breed- Area (SPA) as a biosphere reserve in nual environmental fluctuations, but ing based on 13 founder animals. the sense of IUCN. the winter 2009/2010 was particularly Subsequent to the establishment of severe. Millions of livestock died the International Przewalski’s Horse This SPA chosen as the reintroduction and the takhi population in the Gobi Studbook at Prague Zoo in the Czech site was established in 1975 and en- crashed. Herders in and around the Republic in 1959, the North American compasses some 9,000 km2 of desert SPA lost on average 67% of their Breeders Group in the 1970s (which steppes and semi-deserts. Plains in livestock. Snow depth varied locally, became the Species Survival Plan the east and rolling hills to the west resulting in livestock losses follow- for the Przewalski’s Horse) and the dominate the landscape, with the ing an east–west gradient. Herders initiation of a European Endangered mighty Altai Mountains flanking the had few possibilities for evasion, as Species Programme in 1986 under park in the north. The Takhin Shar competition for available winter the auspices of Cologne Zoo in Ger- Naruu mountain range in the south camps was high. Takhi used three dif- many, the captive population grew to forms the international border with ferent winter ranges, two in the east over 1,000 individuals by the mid- China. Elevations range from 1,000 and one in the west. Losses averaged 1980s. In the early 1990s, reintroduc- to 2,840 m. The climate is continental 60%, but differed hugely between tion efforts started simultaneously with long cold winters and short hot east and west. Space use of takhi was in Mongolia, China, Kazakhstan and summers. Average annual tem- extremely conservative, as groups Ukraine. However, today Mongolia perature is a frigid 1 °C and average did not attempt to venture beyond is the only country where true wild annual rainfall a mere 96 mm. Snow their known home ranges. In contrast, populations exist within their histori- cover lasts an average of 97 days. De- Asiatic wild asses seemed to have cal range. Reintroductions in Mongo- fining factor for this landscape is that suffered few losses by shifting their lia began in the Gobi Desert around rain and snowfall are highly variable range westwards. The catastrophic Takhiin Tal in the Great Gobi B Strictly in space and time. Open water (rivers winter 2009/2010 provided a text- Protected Area (9,000 km²) and in the and springs) is unevenly distributed, book example for how vulnerable mountain steppe of Hustai National with almost no water in the central small and spatially confined popula- Park (570 km²) in 1992. A third po- and western part of the SPA. tions are in an environment prone to tential reintroduction site, Khomiin environmental fluctuations and ca- Tal (2,500 km²) in the Great Lakes In 1992 the first group of captive- tastrophes. This highlights the need Depression, was established in 2004, born takhi were selected from various for multiple reintroduction sites with as a buffer zone to the Khar Us Nuur European zoos and then airlifted to spatially dispersed populations for National Park. Takhiin Tal at the edge of the SPA. reintroduced takhi, and a landscape- The logistics were a nightmare at the level approach beyond protected area time and the journey for the takhi boundaries (Kaczensky et al. 2011a). was long and exhausting. Five years later a harem group was released into WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Przewalski’s Horse 5

Fig. 2 Two Przewalski’s horse bachelor males sparing in the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area. © Petra Kaczensky/International Takhi Group

Public, media and zoological institu- For reintroduction programmes to the shared habitat (Kaczensky et al. tions’ interest focused heavily on be successful in the long run, they 2008). Satellite-based technologies the international transports from necessarily must be embedded in provide the backbone for all habitat- Europe to Mongolia. However, the a broader context of ecosystem related project issues. At the onset establishment of a permanent and conservation. Over the years the data collection was restricted to the self-sustaining field station with the Takhiin Tal project greatly expanded eastern part of the SPA, but today the necessary infrastructure (solar power, on various fronts. Early scientific spatial scale encompasses the entire laboratory, office, vehicles and petrol) input was focused on the takhi and Gobi region in Mongolia and northern and communication abilities (VHF concentrated on determining causes Xingjian in China. communication, satellite-based e- of death and low reproductive rates mail and telephone) proved equally (Robert et al. 2005). The elucidation Research has also focused on socio- important. In 2004 the Takhiin Tal of the effects of an endemic para- economic aspects of local herders, camp hosted the second internation- site disease (piroplasmosis) on the their impact on the SPA and its sur- al workshop on the reintroduction population and subsequent manage- roundings, and their attitude towards of the takhi. In 2005 facilities at the ment changes led to remediation wildlife and management issues. Takhiin Tal camp were further upgrad- of this deadly problem. Takhi were In 2005 training workshops on the ed with the construction of the SPA fitted with satellite tracking collars construction and application of fuel- headquarters funded by the Austrian in order to determine their position, efficient stoves were conducted in Ministry of the Environment and the home range and habitat preferences. order to reduce illegal saxaul and juni- International Takhi Group. Facili- Home range sizes based on telem- per collection. In 2006 a concept for ties now allow year-round living and etry showed that individual takhi environmental education for children research. The camp provides training groups cover non-exclusive areas of in Takhiin Tal was developed, yet still possibilities for young Mongolian and 152 to 826 km2. Simultaneously, the needs to be implemented. In 2007, international scientists, has created Asiatic wild ass and grey wolf have with support from the Italian region local employment options and is run been studied with these methods in by well-trained and motivated local staff. 6 Przewalski’s Horse WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

of Lombardia and under the lead of Starting out initially as a single-spe- the Instituto Oikos, a trans-boundary cies reintroduction project, the mag- References project in collaboration with the nitude of the conservation activities Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and has greatly expanded in recent years. • Kaczensky, P., Ganbaatar, O., Geography of the Chinese Academy Seen from a species perspective, von Wehrden, H. & Walzer, C. of Sciences was initiated. This project integrated research projects dealing (2008) Resource selection by aims to support rural communities with the Asiatic wild ass, grey wolf, sympatric wild equids in the of nomadic pastoralists living in the wild Bactrian camel, various rodent Mongolian Gobi. Journal of Ap- trans-boundary area of the Dzun- species and the vegetation have been plied Ecology 45: 1762–1769. garian Gobi in China and Mongolia implemented. Whereas the initial • Kaczensky, P., Ganbataar, O., and investigates the possibilities of reintroduction efforts were driven Altansukh, N., Enkhsaikhan, N., expanding the ranges of the takhi mostly by health concerns for the Stauffer, C. & Walzer, C. (2011a) and Asiatic wild ass across the inter- takhi, the disciplinary scope has sig- The danger of having all your national border. Local livelihoods will nificantly broadened with zoologists, eggs in one basket – Winter crash be improved through the strength- biologists, botanists and remote of the re-introduced Przewalski’s ening of international collaboration sensing experts performing habitat horses in the Mongolian Gobi. on sustainable development issues mapping and assessment, and with PLoS ONE 6: e28057. and the integration of an environ- community development experts • Kaczensky, P., Walzer, C., mental component in the respective establishing a socio-economic frame- Ganbataar, O., Enkhsaikhan, development processes. The project work for future project development. N., Altansukh, N. & Stauffer, C. currently seeks additional funds to Away from the field, an important (2011b) Reintroduction of the further strengthen local involvement aspect for project advancement “extinct in the wild” Przewalski’s and community development in the has proven to be lobbying activities horse to the Mongolian Gobi. In: project area. both in Ulaanbaatar and among the Global Re-introduction Perspec- international community. Lobbying tives: 2011 (ed. by Soorae, P. S.), activities not only enhance informa- pp. 199–204. Abu Dhabi: IUCN/ Conclusions tion flow and political support for the SSC Re-introduction Specialist project, but also create collaborative Group. Mongolia, often called the “land opportunities and necessary alliances • Robert, N., Walzer, C., Rüegg, S. without fences”, provides the last (Kaczensky et al. 2011b). R., Kaczensky, P., Ganbaatar, O. remaining refuge for a number of & Stauffer, C. (2005) Pathologic migratory species that require large With the free-ranging takhi popula- findings in reintroduced Prze- areas of habitat. This region also sup- tion at the three sites growing – the walski’s horses (Equus caballus ports a growing human population, population is currently estimated to przewalskii) in southwestern including a large number of livestock consist of some 350 individuals – the Mongolia. Journal of Zoo and herders, who maintain a fragile grip species was initially re-assessed in Wildlife Medicine 36: 273–285. on survival after enduring the political 2008. Using IUCN’s categories and cri- • Slotta-Bachmayr, L., Boegel, and economic upheaval wrought by teria, the takhi has been down-listed R., Kaczensky, P., Stauffer, C. & the collapse of the socialist command in the IUCN Red List from Extinct in Walzer, C. (2004) Use of popula- economy. With Mongolia’s transi- the Wild at the onset of the project tion viability analysis to identify tion to a privatised market economy, to Critically Endangered (2008) and management priorities and suc- more people and exploitative most recently to Endangered (2011). cess in reintroducing Przewalski’s economic activities – notably mining Comprehensive trans-disciplinary horses to southwestern Mongo- and road construction – will further monitoring and research are the lia. Journal of Wildlife Manage- impact environmental security and foundation for management deci- ment 68: 790–798. habitat needs of the wildlife in the sions at the present, but a sustainable Gobi region. financial base, capacity building and empowerment of local scientists and residents constitute the future of this programme. WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Black-footed Ferret 7

Paul E. Marinari1* The Black-footed Ferret: Into » the Night

Summary

The black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) has come precariously close to extinction several times within the past 50 years and was classified as Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 1996. The last known wild population of black-footed ferrets was discovered on a prairie dog complex in central Wyoming during the early 1980s, providing one last hope for the species’ survival. A successful captive breeding programme spearheaded by the Wyoming Game and Fish Depart- ment, US Fish and Wildlife Service and members of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums increased our scientific knowledge of black-footed ferrets and provided enough captive- born kits for reintroduction to begin in 1991. Since then, more than 2,900 black-footed ferrets have been re- Fig. 1 leased and more than 700 individuals A black-footed ferret emerges from a prairie dog burrow. now exist in nature. The species was © USFWS reclassified as Endangered in 2008 and, due to the continued support Earth (Fig. 1). The black-footed ferret Against All Odds and expertise of zoos, has a fighting is a specialist carnivore, with prairie chance to be down-listed from the US dogs making up over 90% of its diet. Despite the loss of habitat and the Endangered Species List by 2020. Black-footed ferrets also use prairie spread of plague, a population of dog burrows to raise their young black-footed ferrets was discovered and escape from predators, such as in Mellette County, South Dakota, Introduction coyotes, owls and badgers. in 1964. This discovery provided an opportunity for biologists to increase The black-footed ferret (Mustela Throughout its history, the black- their knowledge of the species nigripes) is one of three ferret spe- footed ferret has always been an (Linder & Hillman 1973). In 1971 a few cies found in the world and the only elusive and secretive animal. It was individuals were trapped to initiate ferret native to North America. This officially described in 1851 by John a captive breeding programme. Al- charismatic, yet feisty, solitary, noc- James Audubon and Reverend John though kits were produced, no young turnal member of the weasel family Bachmann, but had long been used were successfully reared. By 1979 the has long been considered one of by Native Americans during ceremo- last captive animal had died and no the most endangered mammals on nial activities. Large-scale poisoning black-footed ferrets were being seen campaigns increased in frequency in the wild. Had this unique animal during the early 1900s, reducing vanished forever? prairie dog numbers and fragmenting 1 Center for Species Survival, Smithso- colonies. Additionally, sylvatic plague, nian Conservation Biology Institute, an exotic disease, was spreading National Zoological Park, Front Royal, east, devastating both prairie dogs VA, USA and black-footed ferrets. The black- * E-mail for correspondence: footed ferret was being “attacked” [email protected] from the east and the west. Was the species doomed for extinction? 8 Black-footed Ferret WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

On 26 September 1981, a ranch dog Ex Situ Meets In Situ named Shep was able to do what countless biologists could not – The 1988 US Fish and Wildlife Ser- provide conclusive evidence that vice’s Black-footed Ferret Recovery black-footed ferrets still roamed the Plan had four main goals: (1) produce prairie night. Shep’s owners, John and as many kits as possible (Fig. 2), (2) Lucille Hogg, brought Shep’s find to initiate a multi-institutional propa- a local taxidermist who identified it as gation programme, (3) investigate a rare black-footed ferret! The events assisted reproductive techniques, and of that night and those that followed (4) reintroduce black-footed ferrets over subsequent months would set at multiple locations within their the stage for more than 30 years of historical range. The Association of intensive conservation management Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) has been that has included diverse stakehold- a valuable partner in black-footed Fig. 2 ers, including zoos. ferret recovery for decades, bringing A 40-day old kit born at the US Fish and Wildlife Service’s expertise in animal care and propaga- National Black-footed Ferret Conservation Center. This discovery of a black-footed ferret tion of endangered species, financial © USFWS population on a prairie dog complex and political support and a huge outside of Meeteetse, Wyoming, visitor base. These components have In 1996, due to budget constraints gave the conservation world hope been instrumental in assisting the and expansion of reintroduction ef- that the black-footed ferret was not US Fish and Wildlife Service to meet forts to additional states within the destined for extinction. From 1981 overall recovery goals. The Black- historical range of the black-footed to 1984 biologists conducted routine footed Ferret Species Survival Plan ferret, the US Fish and Wildlife Ser- spotlight surveys and used radio te- (SSP) is one of many subcommittees vice assumed operational responsibil- lemetry to increase their knowledge that make up the Black-footed Ferret ity of the colony formerly managed about black-footed ferret life history Recovery Implementation Team. This by the Wyoming Game and Fish De- and behaviour (Forrest et al. 1988). In collection of federal, state and tribal partment. The National Black-footed 1985 sylvatic plague was confirmed governments, zoos, private landown- Ferret Conservation Center was born. throughout the prairie dog complex ers and non-profit organisations work Utilising an adaptive management and field biologists reported an cooperatively to reproduce, release approach, the SSP began addressing alarming decrease in the number of and recover black-footed ferrets various research and management black-footed ferrets being detected. to the prairies of the United States, questions pertaining to vaccine de- Mexico and Canada. velopment, disease, genetics, animal It was once again decided that cap- husbandry, nutrition, enrichment and tive breeding would be necessary to The two primary objectives of the reproductive biology (Howard et al. prevent extinction. From 1985 to 1987 Black-footed Ferret SSP are to: (1) 2006; Marinari & Kreeger 2006). a total of 24 individual black-footed manage the captive population to ferrets were trapped and brought minimise loss of genetic diversity, In 1991 enough black-footed ferrets into captivity; the species was sub- and (2) produce as many kits as were being produced in captivity that sequently (1996) classified as Extinct possible for reintroduction purposes. reintroduction of the species could be- in the Wild on the IUCN Red List of Additionally, partner zoos provide gin. The Black-footed Ferret SSP along Threatened Species. Unfortunately, education and outreach opportunities with other AZA groups have assisted six of those animals died of canine pertaining to the prairie ecosystem reintroduction efforts by producing distemper. The Wyoming Game and for thousands of visitors. As the cap- animals as well as supporting various Fish Department and the US Fish and tive population continued to increase field survey efforts. In 2001 a biomedi- Wildlife Service began the captive during the late 1980s, additional SSP cal survey was initiated to investigate breeding programme with only 18 facilities began housing the managed the health of wild populations in surviving black-footed ferrets; seven population of breeding stock. The several states. Information collected males and 11 females. A total of eight Wyoming Game and Fish Depart- during this survey has led to more kits from two litters was produced ment’s captive breeding effort was efficient management of the captive in 1987. Seven of these kits survived. joined by that of the Smithsonian population and increased collabora- Finally, the black-footed ferret was on National Zoological Park (and its Con- tion among programme partners. To the road to recovery. servation Biology Institute), Omaha’s date, the SSP has produced almost Henry Doorly Zoo, Louisville Zoo, 8,000 kits, with nearly 3,000 individu- Cheyenne Mountain Zoo, Phoenix als being reintroduced at 19 locations Zoo and Toronto Zoo. in eight US states, Mexico and Canada. WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Black-footed Ferret 9

The Black-footed Ferret SSP has been disease. The SSP played a pivotal role developing and implementing assisted working with the Merial Corporation References reproductive techniques for decades. in development of a safe and effective The continued banking of semen in canine distemper vaccine for black- • Forrest, S. C., Biggins, D. E., the Genome Resource Bank and devel- footed ferrets. Other Black-footed Richardson, L., Clark, T. W., opment of laparoscopic intrauterine Ferret Recovery Implementation Team Campbell III, T. M., Fagerstone, artificial insemination has captured partners have developed a safe and K. A. & Thorne, E. T. (1988) the genetic material of animals that effective sylvatic plague vaccine for Population attributes for the would have otherwise been lost. More black-footed ferrets and innovative black-footed ferret (Mustela than 150 kits have been produced by research involving development of an nigripes) at Meeteetse, Wyoming, artificial insemination using both fresh oral sylvatic plague vaccine for prairie 1981–1985. Journal of Mammal- as well as frozen/thawed spermatozoa. dogs is underway. Hopefully, this will ogy 69: 261–273. Incorporation of the Genome Re- be the missing management tool • Garelle, D., Marinari, P. & source Bank into active captive breed- needed to recover black-footed ferrets Lynch, C. (2011) Black-footed ing management has further mini- on large tracts of federal and tribal Ferret (Mustela nigripes) Popula- mised the loss of genetic diversity over lands as well as areas of private land tion Analysis and Breeding and time. Because the black-footed ferret suitable for recovery of the species. Transfer Plan. Silver Spring: AZA. has low levels of heterozygosity, it has • Howard, J. G., Santymire, R. M., been essential that the SSP utilises all Will the black-footed ferret ever be Marinari, P. E., Kreeger, J. S., Wil- of the resources and expertise within recovered? I think if there is one liamson, L. & Wildt, D. E. (2006) AZA and the Population Management species that has a chance, it is the Use of reproductive technology Center (Garelle et al. 2011). black-footed ferret. Today there for black-footed ferret recovery. are approximately 700 to 750 black- In: Recovery of the Black-footed Thanks to a grant from AZA’s Con- footed ferrets in at least seven states Ferret: Progress and Continuing servation Endowment Fund, Chi- within the historical range, including Challenges (ed. by Roelle, J. E., cago’s Lincoln Park Zoo has initi- populations in Canada and Mexico. As Miller, B. J., Godbey, J. L. & Big- ated a unique partnership with the further evidence of progress, the spe- gins, D. E.), pp. 28–36. Reston: Northern Cheyenne Reservation in cies was down-listed to Endangered US Geological Survey. Montana. Some of the areas of focus status in 2008. • Linder, R. L. & Hillman, C. N. include sharing scientific expertise (1973) Proceedings of the Black- and resources, as well as the critical footed Ferret and Prairie Dog need for enhanced community em- We Can All Do More Workshop. Brookings: South powerment in close proximity to the Dakota State University. reintroduction site. New professional As the sun sets on North America’s • Marinari, P. E. & Kreeger, J. S. development programmes for educa- western prairie and a purple and (2006) An adaptive management tors and summer scientist youth orange sky gives way to the dark of approach for black-footed ferrets programmes are being designed to night, a small yet resilient animal in captivity. In: Recovery of the develop the next generation of wild- emerges from its underground world. Black-footed Ferret: Progress and life biologists. Other AZA institutions For this is the time of the black- Continuing Challenges (ed. by have developed their own black-foot- footed ferret. Persistence is not futile. Roelle, J. E., Miller, B. J., Godbey, ed ferret-based curricula. And, although no one individual can J. L. & Biggins, D. E.), pp. 23–27. recover a species from the brink of Reston: US Geological Survey. The road to recovery has been long, extinction, biologists like the late slow and often times bumpy. The last JoGayle Howard, Elizabeth Williams act of this drama has not yet been and Tom Thorne have left an indelible written. Undoubtedly, AZA members mark on the conservation world. They, and institutions have provided valu- together with dedicated members of able knowledge, resources and inspira- AZA, have shown that endangered tion to partners within the black-foot- does not have to result in extinction, ed ferret recovery programme and that the importance of the individual those who support our efforts. The is surpassed by the survival of the primary obstacles to black-footed fer- species. The zoo community and all ret recovery are the same issues that members of the Black-footed Ferret forced biologist to make the tough Recovery Implementation Team will decision to bring animals into captiv- ensure that these wonders of Wyo- ity in the early 1970s and again in the ming, these mustelids from Meeteet- mid-1980s: lack of suitable habitat and se, will forever go into the night. 10 California Condor WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

Michael Wallace1* Efforts to Restore the California Condor to the Wild

Summary Introduction

By the early 1980s new studies using The California condor (Gymnogyps to extinction by the early 1980s due radio telemetry and moult patterns californianus) is one of the most to excessive human-caused mortality to identify individuals indicated that impressive American birds, mostly as opposed to a lack of reproduc- only 21 California condors (Gymno- because of their enormous size and tion. At that time the drastic and gyps californianus) existed, with five their beauty in flight. Its scavenger hotly debated action of capturing all pairs sporadically breeding. With lifestyle, sociality and intelligence remaining 21 birds for captive breed- continuous and poorly understood make it one of the more interesting was thought to be the only way of mortality, the decision was made to ing species to study. Weighing 9 to saving the species (Snyder & Snyder capture the remaining animals and 12 kg and standing nearly a meter 2000); by 1987 the California condor in 1987 all 27 birds were placed in the tall, they dwarf other “large” avian was considered Extinct in the Wild. protective custody of the San Diego species like golden eagles and turkey The gamble paid off. Their population and Los Angeles zoos, at which time vultures that often compete for the has increased in numbers from the the species was considered Extinct large animal carcasses on which they original captive group of 27 California in the Wild. Enough offspring were specialise, such as deer, sea lions, condors in 1987 to just under 400 produced in this small, genetically large domestic animals, cetaceans animals today (Fig. 1). managed group to begin releases to and pinnipeds. the wild in 1992. Using techniques developed with other cathartid vultures Casting a 3.2 m shadow, the sight and Breeding Strategy as surrogates, California condors sound (if close enough) of a soaring have been reintroduced into their for- California condor leaves an indelible Caught by canon net and pit traps mer range at five release sites in the memory on any high altitude hiker as through 1986 and1987, they were USA and Mexico. Currently classified they did for eons with Native Ameri- placed in Los Angeles Zoo and San as Critically Endangered on the IUCN cans who revered them in folklore Diego Zoo according to sex and fam- Red List of Threatened Species, this and traditional use of their feathers ily line that was determined by the brings the overall population close and images in ceremony. The species genetics department at San Diego to the recovery goal of a total of 450 survived the Pleistocene when a large Zoo. They were arranged in pairs birds in three disjunct populations, mega-fauna food supply supported based on family line to maximise out- one in captivity and two in the wild. a guild of other large avian scaven- breeding and placed in large aviary gers that did not survive the massive breeding facilities similar to success- extinctions of the epoch. Probably ful captive breeding programmes numbering in the hundreds and with Andean condors. We are fortu- possibly thousands before the 1800s, nate that the species is behaviourally they were reduced drastically over plastic and adjusted rapidly to the the last two centuries, likely because captive environment, beginning to of the decline of their marine-based breed within a couple of years and food supply along the coast and an sometimes within only months of increase of human-caused mortality being placed in appropriate housing factors such as shooting and lead and conditions. Eventually, members of other poisoning. It was nearly driven all of the family lines were successfully bred in captivity.

1 San Diego Zoo Institute for Conserva- tion Research, San Diego Zoo Global, Escondido, CA, USA * E-mail for correspondence: [email protected] WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 California Condor 11

Fig. 1 Ventral view of mature California condor showing tag and transmitter. © Mike Wallace/San Diego Zoo Global

In the wild, both Andean and Califor- To maintain adequate chick behav- valuable eggs or hatchlings was also nia condors lay one egg, on aver- iour during the ontogeny of the extra reduced by allowing many of the age, every two years due to the long chicks, life-like puppets were em- new pairs to first practice the hatch- parental dependency period. If the ployed to mimic the behaviour and ing process with less endangered single clutch egg is lost through pre- movements of parents in this highly and available Andean condor eggs in dation or accident early in the 57-day social species. This artificial parental their first reproductive efforts. Over incubation period, the pair will often substitution effectively bridged the several seasons competent pairs “recycle” and lay a replacement egg gap until, at about six months of age, were eventually allowed to raise their in about 30 days. Capitalising on this the fledgling could be introduced to own offspring. Also, early on in the trait, we removed the first, and some- a more socially natural group of older programme, the eggs of genetically times the second, egg laid to artificial birds that included an adult mentor valuable pairs were often reared arti- incubators for hatching and were to help maintain social order. Another ficially or given to more reliable pairs. able to get the captive pairs to lay tool employed to increase success in The goal was to maximise production more eggs than they normally would. new, inexperienced pairs was the use while concurrently training pairs to Called double or triple clutching, we of fake eggs to allow them risk-free be reliable enough to raise their own were able to increase the reproduc- time to learn the temporal rhythm young without undue risk to the eggs tive rate four to six times; a sig- of swapping incubation duties in or chicks. nificant breakthrough in saving this unproven mates. When incubation normally slow reproducing bird. With behaviour improved to an adequate the genetic status of each individual level, the real egg was surrepti- known, we were able to maximise tiously replaced. Risk to genetically out-breeding when forming pairs that normally mate for life in the wild. 12 California Condor WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

To ensure the best possible pairings, tags attached to the patagial on the meetings of the Species Survival smaller vultures proved efficient and Plan by the Association of Zoos and safe, allowing individual identification Aquariums continue annually to while flying or perched. Lightweight guide the arranging of new pairs and radio transmitters were later incorpo- maintain as near a genetic balance as rated into the wing tag and the tag/ possible between the four California transmitter combination was suc- condor breeding facilities: The Per- cessfully tested on free-flying Andean egrine Fund’s World Center for Birds condors during research to develop of Prey in Boise, Idaho, San Diego release techniques for them in Peru. Zoo Safari Park, Los Angeles Zoo All served as surrogate species to and Oregon Zoo. Chipultapec Zoo in work out trapping, transport and Mexico will soon have two pairs and husbandry techniques for California will be producing young to support condors long before efforts were the reintroduction programme in that directly applied to North America’s country. The effort to bring family largest flying land bird (Fig. 2). lines to parity continues to this day at the release sites and captive breeding centres, with an annual meeting Release Strategies to line up which birds and eggs need and Techniques to be transferred to specific release sites in light of continual changes in Before releases could begin, seven each metapopulation due to varying offspring (96% heterozygosity) were survivorship and new recruitment needed as genetic back-up from each from wild nests. pair. This basically ensured a duplica- tion of genetic material was retained in the relative safety of captivity Research on Surrogates before any members of that family line could be released to the higher The effort to recover this highly risk conditions in the wild. endangered species really began with research on other cathartid vultures. In 1979 successful release experi- The key to the success of the Peruvian The first Andean condors were bred ments on 33 black and turkey vultures Andean condor release experiments in captivity at San Diego Zoo in in Florida led to an appreciation of relied on the existence of a healthy the 1940s and 1950s. Then, with an the differences in the two species and wild population for which the young importation of 11 Andean condors the need for further tests with An- birds to socially integrate with and from Argentina, the Patuxent Wildlife dean condors; a species much more learn from (Wallace & Temple 1987). Research Center at Patuxent, Mary- similar to California condors in size, In California all of the knowledgeable land, created a breeding colony to anatomy, physiology, behaviour and members of the population had been further refine breeding techniques. ecology. Eleven Andean condors were removed from the wild and were too Research to develop release tech- produced in North American zoos valuable genetically to be placed niques for condors began in 1979 with and released into the low mountains again at the risk of lead poisoning and black vultures and turkey vultures in of the Cerro Illescas in Peru. Between other dangers. Also, their tradition Florida. Because new world or cathar- 1980 and 1984 the one-year old birds of feeding on hunter-killed carcasses tid vultures “urohydrate” on their legs were taught to forage on their own was too dangerous for a new popu- and feet to cool themselves through using the techniques developed with lation of inexperienced California evaporation, traditional leg bands for the Florida vultures, in which typical condors to emulate. Without an exist- identification cannot be used since carrion of the area was placed out un- ing wild population of condors in the they allow dangerous faecal build-up der the cover of darkness at varying California environment, naive young that can damage their legs to the distances and directions to stimulate animals would need to be taught point of foot loss. Numbered wing natural foraging. The proffered food gave sufficient time and support for the juvenile birds to successfully integrate with the wild population. WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 California Condor 13

Although a small sample size, the test with Andean condors in California gave us confidence to move ahead with the California programme and in 1992 the remaining birds were trapped and joined other Andean condors being released in Colombia (Wallace 1989). With sufficient young California condors being produced at the two breeding centres, by 1992 we were able to release 13 California condors between 1992 and 1994. Over those two years four California condors were killed by power line collisions; a mortality rate much higher than what we experienced with the Andean condors or what could be sustained in the long term. On analysis it appeared that the newly released California condors developed a habit of using power pole wood cross arms, commonly found throughout the release area, as day perches and night time roosts. These convenient perches were found in condor habitats all over southern California.

Fig. 2 The decision was made to trap the Pair of California condors remaining eight free California con- perched in territory cliffs showing dors and experiment with aversion tag and transmitter. training on the pre-released fledgling © Mike Wallace/San Diego Zoo Global Mortality Factors birds in the controlled zoo environment. Mock power poles were set up To further test more specific release in the large pre-release pens, with basic foraging techniques by their hu- techniques, Andean condors were the perching surfaces fitted with bare man handlers. Similar in concept to again used as a test subject when wire that connected to a standard the techniques used to maintain Cali- 13 were released between 1988 and livestock shocker that produced fornia condors isolated from human 1990 within the Los Padres National a mild, but noticeable, electric charge contact early on in the process with Forest; an area previously inhabited when contact was made. Time-laps puppets, one-way glass and video by California condors and likely to be cameras recorded the identification cameras, released California condors our first release site when there were tags and behaviour of the pre-release were monitored at night time and sufficient birds. Only young females birds as they chose between the with telescopes from blinds in the day. were released because of their simi- electrified and more natural perches One important goal in the reintroduc- larity in weight and aerodynamics placed within the pens. They quickly tion of this highly social species is to and to ensure that the exotic species learned to stay off the simulated develop an initial group of California could not successfully breed in the power pole perches and, fortunately, condors in the release area with good California habitat should re-trapping retained that behaviour after release natural-like behaviours that subse- prove difficult. This effort was most to the wild. With a 95% reduction in quently released California condors helpful for better understanding the time spent around power poles in can emulate (Clark et al. 2007). specifics of condor releases such as the wild, the mortality rate caused by tracking with radio telemetry in the wire collisions dropped to under 5% chaparral habitat, training a team of and we were able to continue the re- biologists and working out the coor- introduction programme. Power pole dination of participating parties. Of aversion training continues to be an the 13 Andean condors released over important component in the rearing the three-year period, there was one process of California condor release death due to a power line collision. candidates. 14 California Condor WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

Recognised in the early 1980s as an Recovery Plan important mortality factor for Califor- References nia condors, lead poisoning remains California condors have been re- a significant hindrance to the full leased at five sites in California, • Clark, M., Wallace, M. P. & David, recovery of the species throughout Arizona and Mexico. The US Fish and C. (2007) Rearing California con- its range. Legislation against the use Wildlife Service sponsored California dors for release using a modified of lead bullets for big game hunting, Condor Recovery Plan, written by the puppet-rearing technique. In: the availability of reasonably priced Condor Recovery Team, states that California Condors in the 21st Cen- lead alternatives for lead bullets and before reclassification to threat- tury (ed. by Mee, A. & Hall, L. S.), intense education in other parts of ened status can occur, three disjunct pp. 213–226. Cambridge: Nuttall their range are recent developments populations of California condors are Ornithological Club. slowly reducing this issue. Change needed, numbering at least 150 birds • Kiff, L. F., Mesta, R. I. & Wallace, in hunter attitudes and behaviour each; two in the wild and one in cap- M. P. (1996) Recovery Plan for the has been gradual and not without tivity. Each population should have California Condor. Portland: US tremendous effort on the part of approximately 15 breeding pairs and Fish and Wildlife Service. programme participants from gather- have a positive rate of increase (Kiff • Snyder, N. & Snyder, H. (2000) ing blood lead level data in the birds, et al. 1996). At the moment there are The California Condor: A Saga of lobbying government and legislative nearly 400 California condors in exist- Natural History and Conservation. representatives to educate hunters ence, with about 200 in captivity and San Diego: Academic Press. directly. Hopefully, the issue will be 200 in the wild at five release sites. • Wallace, M. (1989) Andean sufficiently regulated to make self- Roughly ten chicks are produced in condor experimental releases to sustaining California condor popula- the wild and 40 chicks in captivity at enhance California condor recov- tions feasible within a decade or so. four facilities annually. The species ery. Endangered Species Update is currently classified as Critically 6: 1–4. Emerging as a significant disease in Endangered on the IUCN Red List of • Wallace, M. P. & Temple, S. A. the USA in the last decade, West Nile Threatened Species. The programme (1987) Releasing captive-reared virus is lethal for many birds including is not without obstacles and challeng- Andean condors to the wild. California condors. Before it arrived in es but seems to be on track overall for Journal of Wildlife Management California, the Condor Recovery Team recovery of the species, as outlined 51: 541–550. approached the Center for Disease in the Recovery Plan, within the next Control in Washington, DC, for help. two decades. Within a year they were able to produce a genetic-based vaccine specific for California condors. Administered over a three-month period beginning at one month of age, the vaccine protects the birds nearly 100%. We have lost several California condors to the virus both in captivity and in the wild that were not vaccinated. Im- munity titres are checked on a yearly basis and natural immunity seems to be building in the population with repeated exposure in the wild. WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Arabian Oryx 15

Mark R. Stanley Price1* The Arabian Oryx: Saved, yet… »

Summary

In 2011 the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), once Extinct in the Wild, was re-assessed under IUCN Red List of Threatened Species criteria to be Vulnerable rather than Endangered, an unprecedented improvement in a species’ fortunes. The key criterion was at least 250 mature individuals in the wild for five years. This article looks at the numbers and locations of the populations contributing to this criterion, and the conditions under which they are kept. This leads to consideration of what constitutes “the wild” and the likely forthcoming dilemmas, as conservation solutions increasingly involve management interventions, with a general loss of “wildness”. This has implications for populations kept indefinitely under confined or supported conditions. Fig. 1 Irrespective of the Red Listing, the Male Arabian oryx grazing current “wild” Arabian oryx are still in Uruq Bani Ma’Arid, Saudi Arabia. far short of the 5,000 individuals com- Introduction © Tim Wacher monly accepted as a viable number for the long term. Is this, therefore, In mid-2011 the Arabian oryx (Oryx The early story of the oryx is well a realistic target number for any rein- leucoryx) achieved an unprecedented known: how three individuals were troduction of a large mammal? conservation feat. Although known captured in Operation Oryx in the to be Extinct in the Wild since 1972, Eastern Aden Protectorate (now various reintroduction efforts allowed within Yemen) in 1962, in anticipation the species to be assessed from 1986 of the species’ predicted extirpation as Endangered on the IUCN Red List in the wild. Unfortunately, this be- of Threatened Species. By 2006 the came a reality in 1972 when in central total population in the wild exceeded Oman a hunting party killed the last 1,000 individuals (Fig. 1), and was known herd. However, the three cap- deemed to comprise at least 250 tives were joined by a female from mature animals, the threshold – if London Zoo (originally from Oman), maintained for five years – for down- two pairs from the private collection listing to Vulnerable. This new status of the King of Saudi Arabia and one of Vulnerable was duly accorded in female gifted by the Ruler of Kuwait. 2011. This success story is great cause All nine were eventually united at for celebration, and hopefully it will Maytag Zoo in Phoenix to constitute be emulated by other species that are the World Herd. After a few years the receiving intense conservation atten- bulk of the growing population was tion. But it is worth looking at some transferred to the care of the San detail behind the new assessment, for Diego Zoological Society. 1 Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, it raises some fundamental questions. Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK & Al Ain Zoo, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates * E-mail for correspondence: mark.stanleyprice@zoo.ox.ac.uk 16 Arabian Oryx WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

By the time Oman requested some Saudi Arabia has the largest share facility, a 100 ha enclosure. About 50 oryx from the World Herd to release of the population that was consid- animals may remain at large, but the back into its deserts in 1979, the ered for the Red List assessment. Its bulk of the population remains con- known captive population, princi- reserve of Mahazat as-Sayd has been fined within extended enclosures, in pally in the USA, totalled some 1,100 a fenced area of 2,200 km2 since anticipation of completion of a 2,824 individuals. There was no effective 1988. Its oryx population has varied km2 fenced area into which most of estimate then of numbers in the widely, reaching a high of 614 in 2006, the current 380 oryx will be released species’ range states of the Arabian but in 2008 there were 378 living (Jahdhami, personal communication, Peninsula, but there were evidently oryx while 159 died in that year. The 2012). Through the early years, at good populations in various royal and periodic build-ups and crashes due least, the fenced reserve should pro- private collections. Since those days, to extremely dry conditions, despite vide adequate grazing, and shade is the species has thrived in zoo collec- management interventions, are well plentiful; it will be interesting to see if tions, managed under collaborative documented (Islam et al. 2010). Start- containment within this large fenced agreements, with 94 in seven institu- ing in 1995, 174 oryx were released in area will permit or prevent the true tions in the USA (Fischer, personal batches into the escarpment, gravel independence attained by the earlier communication, 2012), less than 100 plain and sand dune area of Uruq Bani population. in European zoos (Gilbert, personal Ma’Arid, in southern Saudi Arabia: communication, 2012) and about well-monitored over the years, this In Abu Dhabi, the 7,900 km2 fenced 100 in two collections in Israel (Saltz, population was estimated in 2008 reserve of Umm al Zumoul hosts personal communication, 2012), with to be 100–200 strong (Cunningham approximately 400 oryx. While this further small numbers around the 2010), living virtually independently appears a very low density, the en- world. Within the former range states of any support, moving between closed habitat is almost entirely sand of the oryx, the General Secretariat habitats according to season and dunes, which are only suitable habitat for Conservation of the Arabian Oryx, climate in a totally unfenced situation. for the species in winter when shade based in Abu Dhabi, affirms that This population is truly in the wild, is not necessary. Consequently, this there are currently at least 4,800 in in the sense of being unfenced and population is supported with food, zoos, private collections and nature unsupported, but its demographic water and shade (Chuven, personal reserves in the United Arab Emirates, performance is far from the level that communication, 2012). with significant numbers also in Saudi the species could have achieved. Arabia (1,166), Oman (644), Qatar The Environment Agency Abu Dhabi (1,150), Bahrain (146), Jordan (71) and The situation in Oman is rather is currently providing oryx to Jordan Syria (153). different. Releases of relatively for re-establishment in the Wadi Rum. small numbers of oryx through the Currently, there are 30 oryx with a fur- So, the species is demographically 1980s resulted in an unconfined and ther 20 due to follow in mid-2012. For more secure from extinction than it unsupported population of at least the time being all are in an enclosure has been for many years – probably 350 animals by 1996. These animals of 20 km2, and supported, before the since unsustainable hunting of it in were closely monitored and they major commitment to release them the wild escalated after 1945. These rapidly adapted to the waterless into the unenclosed Wadi Rum is populations are kept under a variety Jiddat-al-Harasis that has good shade taken (Chuven, personal communica- of conditions, but all are confined and adequate grazing maintained, tion, 2012). by fencing, while the numbers kept even in the absence of rain, through together, the extent of space per fog moisture sweeping in from the Israel released 111 oryx between 1997 animal and the degree of manage- Arabian Sea (Stanley Price 1989). and 2007 in three areas, with the aim ment support, mostly in the form of However, in 1996 the population of creating a metapopulation; in mid- provision of shade, food and water, is came under intense pressure of illegal 2012 there were approximately 100 variable. However, it is fair to say that offtake, mostly through efforts at live living freely in the wild, without any these populations span the range of capture, focussed on females; but the food support and using natural water being intensively managed, lightly method used of chasing to exhaus- sources (Saltz, personal communica- managed or conservation dependent tion led to heavy mortalities. Faced tion, 2012). (Redford et al. 2011). But only a frac- with this situation, the authorities tion of these animals are contributing decided to round up as many remain- to the Red List assessment of Vulner- ing oryx as possible and confine them able. Where are these oryx and under again in the existing pre-release what conditions are they living? WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Arabian Oryx 17

Implications of Containment

The second area is the implications of containing populations of large mammals. On the presumption that the animals within any limited area are to function as a population, then sex ratios will be near natural and breeding will take place. This sows the seeds of a future management problem, for ultimately carrying capacity will be reached. Desert antelopes are probably subject to low levels of predation, whether confined or not. Their main Fig. 2 challenges are food and water. As Mortality must be expected in any release into the unconfined wild: numbers build up, management may dead Arabian oryx in Uruq Bani Ma’Arid, Saudi Arabia. well have to provide these to prevent © Tim Wacher stress and ultimately distressingly high mortality rates (Fig. 2). Ignor- ing these, on the basis that “this is The Red List assessment was based human activities that modify the natural in desert populations”, is on the free-living or least confined landscape might be both beneficial liable to criticism on welfare grounds. populations of Oman, Saudi Arabia, and disadvantageous to species; if If intensive and costly management Abu Dhabi, Jordan and Israel. Today there is an unintended, collateral support and large-scale mortality are these populations total about 1,200, benefit, does this count as an indirect to be avoided, then physical destock- comfortably exceeding the threshold management support to the species? ing is necessary, and this will beg level of 250 mature individuals. Yet the questions of how can it be done of this total, only the populations in This broader context is concordant effectively and where will the surplus Uruq Bani Ma’Arid of Saudi Arabia with increasing awareness and ac- animals go? and in Israel are truly unconfined ceptance that, in the modern world, and unsupported: these are 300 oryx, there is rarely anything that is truly If an antelope population is at un- only 25% of the 1,200. So, it appears “wild” or “wilderness”. This is because naturally high density, with little that an animal maintained under humans and our impacts are more scope for animals to move off and conditions that would certainly not and more omnipresent and, indeed, retreat into secure isolation, then accord with the general view of “the there is ever-increasing historical what is usually natural intra-specific wild” can contribute to being “in the and archaeological evidence of early, aggression can become prevalent and wild” for the purposes of Red Listing widespread human activity: pre- escalate into being extremely damag- assessment. This raises to me at least sumed primary forest in Ghana is now ing both to animals and infrastruc- three fundamental questions. known to be even-aged re-growth ture. We can only postulate the selec- many centuries old, and the “pris- tive pressures on populations kept tine” Amazon forest is providing new under such conditions, and presume Level of Support evidence of early cities and civilisa- that after several generations, the in the Wild tions that collapsed with almost all genotypes best adapted to contained physical evidence absorbed back into conditions may diverge from those What level of support will be permit- the forest and earth. Conservation best suited to survival in the open ted “in the wild”? While we perceive is perforce tracking this change: we desert. Does this matter? Will late animals to be “in the wild” when see interventionist approaches to 21st century oryx be mere facsimiles unconfined physically, this does not saving rare species increasing, and an of their self-sufficient ancestors? mean that they are not benefiting in eruption of secure, fenced sanctuar- some way from human support either ies for rhinos in Africa, as well as for directly or indirectly. The garden birds endangered species such as the hirola being fed on a bird table are being antelope. We can only assume that supported through the winter, yet containment of vulnerable species they are subject without qualification will increase. to Red Listing assessments. Further, 18 Arabian Oryx WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

Fencing in the desert creates further Is the oryx continuing conservation Acknowledgements inherent problems. As desert surfaces story a model for other species? In- can be either very hard or very soft, deed, it has many lessons, but the ex- It is a pleasure to thank the follow- there are often costly engineering treme conditions of its natural habitat ing for their willing contributions of issues to resolve and fence lines can of the Arabian deserts and its adap- information for this article: Justin be swamped by drifting sand. Further, tive biology require it to roam over Chuven, Stephen Bell, Martha Fischer, fences are designed to prevent move- vast distances in patterns that may Tania Gilbert, Mansoor al Jahdhami, ment, and desert species survive be both predictable through seasonal Yassir al Kharusi, David Mallon and precisely by moving in response to climate change and adventitious in David Saltz. scattered and unpredictably sited response to rain. Is it not a paradox rainstorms. A fenced area will be that its vast natural range supports pressured by domestic and wild one of the world’s lowest densities of species trying to enter if it alone has human occupation, yet oryx must be References received rain, while the more com- confined either through lack of space mon situation will be of contained to meet all its habitat requirements or • Cunningham, P. (2010) Arabian animals desperately trying to escape because its safety outside fences can- oryx monitoring in Saudi Arabia: the fence to follow their natural re- not be guaranteed? The oryx’s new Uruq Bani Ma’arid and Mahazat sponses to seek sites of recent rainfall. assessment of Vulnerable raises an as-Sayd protected areas – up- The massive die-offs of wild species issue for the critically important task date. Gnusletter 28(2): 17–19. against veterinary control fences in of assessing species status and trend. • Islam, M. Z., Ismail, K. & Boug, Botswana are lesson enough of the This challenge will undoubtedly be A. (2010) Catastrophic die-off of prospects in the desert, and the same explored and the system refined as globally threatened Arabian oryx consequences have already been necessary. and sand gazelle in the fenced evident at Mahazat as-Sayd. protected area of the arid central Could the oryx be the focus of a sec- Saudi Arabia. Journal of Threat- ond challenge? The current fenced ened Taxa 2: 677–684. Viability in the Wild populations will inevitably face • Redford, K. H., Amato, G., Baillie, and Implications the problems that the pioneering J., Beldomenico, P., Bennett, E. L. for Reintroductions Mahazat as-Sayd has experienced. As et al. (2011) What does it mean the species is demographically secure to successfully conserve a (ver- Is the oryx anywhere close to attaining in the Arabian Peninsula, could effec- tebrate) species? BioScience 61: viability in the wild? Are there implica- tive progress towards a metapopula- 39–48. tions for reintroductions in general? tion of free-living and unsupported • Stanley Price, M. R. (1989) Ani- Irrespective of the Vulnerable listing oryx be promoted by understanding mal Re-introductions: the Arabian of the oryx, the species is undoubtedly and accepting risk, and taking more Oryx in Oman. Cambridge: Cam- so much better off now than, say, 20 adventurous decisions – to let more bridge University Press. years ago. But leaving this aside, are oryx out onto unconfined lands, mak- the current populations viable? The ing best effort to ensure their security, conventional conservation target of while acknowledging that a low level 5,000 individuals remains far off for of loss through illegal activity will the oryx population to be considered not significantly impact the species’ truly viable. Even if each current survival prospects? Could this ap- population is potentially a component proach lead to an oryx total herd of of a metapopulation, the distance to more than 1,200, living unsupported 5,000 suggests we need more oryx and not even Vulnerable? This would at more sites, linked through fully indeed be a grand challenge and inclusive, collaborative management. achieving it a genuinely superb and This is a major challenge, for has any unique conservation success. reintroduced large mammal reached the level of 5,000 individuals that are unconfined and unsupported? If the answer is “no”, and it seems an unlikely prospect in any current reintroduction, then perhaps we have to reconsider the roles and limitations of reintroduction as a conservation tool at least for large mammals. WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 European Bison 19

Wanda Olech1* The European Bison: » A Species Saved from Extirpation

Summary

The European bison (Bison bonasus), or wisent, is a special mammal of the European continent. Around 90 years ago the species had almost vanished because we lost all natural populations; by 1919 the European bison was considered Extinct in the Wild and only 54 animals remained in captivity. At that time international efforts helped to save this charismatic mammal. Currently, there are more than 4,000 individuals spread in more than 200 herds all over the continent. The current challenges are to still increase population size, but the most important one is to manage the small gene pool of the species trough Fig. 1 coordinated breeding in captivity and Group of European bison. proper reintroductions. The European © Mieczysław Hlawiczka bison is currently classified as Vulner- Introduction able on the IUCN Red List of Threat- ened Species. International coopera- The genus Bison is represented by The European bison is a ruminating tion is assured and organised trough two species, the European bison (Bi- herbivore well adapted to feeding on the European Bison Friends Society. son bonasus) and the American bison grass and fibrous fodder, consuming (Bison bison). The histories of both large amounts (up to 60 kg) and with species are dramatic because both of little selectivity. This species uses pas- them were saved from extinction at tures and needs forest ecosystems the very last moment. The European with a lot of open spaces for feeding. bison is Europe’s largest terrestrial European bison are social, forming mammal, with a reddish-brown coat two types of herds: mixed groups of that blends well with the animals’ sur- females and their calves led by an old roundings. It is relatively easy to mis- cow, and groups of bulls (Fig. 1). Usu- take a European bison for the trunk of ally mixed groups do not exceed 20 a fallen tree. Also remarkable is their animals and consequently the density sexual size dimorphism, with males of the species is rather low (Krasińska being markedly larger and heavier & Krasiński 2007). than females; a greater proportion between the hind- and forequarters of the body equipped with a hump gives the impressive appearance of males. The head is large and set low, with small ears and curved horns in both sexes. The muzzle of the European bison is black and its up- 1 Department of Genetics and Animal per part is surrounded by white hair. Breeding, Warsaw University of Life European bison never roar and the Sciences, Warsaw, Poland term used for the noise they make is * E-mail for correspondence: “grunt”, which most frequently is used [email protected] between mother and calf and during the rutting season. 20 European Bison WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

History of The inventory done in 1924 showed Species Recovery only 54 (29 males and 25 females) living European bison with proven pu- The European bison is special from rity. Those individuals, as well as their a genetic point of view. Its gene pool known ancestors, were listed in the is very small, which causes serious first edition of the European Bison concerns regarding genetic man- Pedigree Book where every animal agement. The reason for such low was assigned a name and number. genetic variability is that the species The last animals living by the end of has passed through population bot- 1924 were mostly kept in estates of tlenecks more than once. In the 19th the European aristocracy – including century only two populations of the seven at Pszczyna (Prince von Pless), species remained – one in Białowieża ten at Woburn (Duke of Bedford), two Primeval Forest (B. b. bonasus) and at Boitzenburg (Count Arnim) and another in the Caucasus Mountains (B. four at Scharbow (von Beyme). There b. caucasicus). Both populations were were 28 animals in zoos (in Vienna, rather small, respectively numbering Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Berlin, Stock- about 700 and 2,000 animals. A major holm, London, Saint Petersburg and bottleneck occurred during and after the reserve Askania Nova). A detailed World War I. Both wild populations pedigree analysis was first done by disappeared and only a few animals Slatis (1960). He found that all Euro- survived in captivity; by 1919 the Eu- pean bison (the whole population in Fig. 2 ropean bison was considered Extinct 1954) were descendants of a small European bison with calves. in the Wild. group of ancestors. He identified 12 © Janusz Sochacki unique genotypes as founders of the In 1923, at the International Congress current population. Since then, in all for Nature Protection in Paris, the subsequent analyses, this set of 12 only at the beginning of the recovery Polish representative Jan Sztolcman founders has been used (Olech 1999; programme. A comparison of the ge- delivered an “appeal on the neces- Pucek et al. 2004). Up to now genes netic structure of the European bison sity of saving the European bison”. It of all of these 12 animals are repre- populations in 1924 and 1954 showed was agreed to create, as quickly as sented in the present population of that these 11 potential founders had possible, an international society with the species. a considerable representation in the goal of saving the European bison. 1924, equalling to 26.9% of the total The Society for the Protection of the gene pool (Olech 2009). Some of the European Bison was established and Small Gene Pool potential founders died one or two Kurt Priemel, director of Frankfurt of the Species years after the first inventory, but Zoo, was elected as its chairman. there were four founders represented The Society’s first goal was to create The facts that the lowest number of by their progeny up to 1951. All those a register of all living animals. Such European bison was 54 individuals animals were kept in Woburn by the a register, the European Bison Pedi- and that the gene pool of contempo- Duke of Bedford, who was very much gree Book, was the first studbook for rary European bison originates from involved in endangered species con- any wild species. After World War II only 12 founders are often mixed servation. Among others he succeed- the editorial office of the European up, and seem to have confused even ed in breeding Père David’s deer, but Bison Pedigree Book was moved to people working in genetics. A thor- probably did not hold the European Poland and the editorial work was ough analysis of the pedigree of the bison in high regard. This was un- conducted by Jan Żabiński, director of 54 animals alive in 1924 revealed fortunate because for a species with Warsaw Zoo. Since 1993 the editorial that 28 animals at that time could such a small gene pool, the survival of office of the European Bison Pedigree be recognised as ancestors of the this group could have been important Book has been situated at Białowieza contemporary population. Seven- for improving genetic variability. National Park. teen of them were identified and their contribution explained 30 years Presently, the species is divided into later by Slatis (1960), but genes of two genetic lines: a pure lowland the remaining 11 founders existed subspecies named Lowland line, and a second Lowland-Caucasian line with inclusion of genes from male no. 100, the only one representing the Caucasian subspecies. The Lowland WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 European Bison 21

line is derived from seven founders, Current Situation The number of animals kept in captiv- whereas the Lowland-Caucasian and Plan for the Future ity has steadily increased from 562 line stems from all 12 – seven com- in 1960 to 1,497 by the end of 2011, mon to both lines and five unique to After more than 80 years of efforts for including 440 Lowland line animals the Lowland-Caucasian line. When the recovery of the species, its total and 1,057 belonging to the Lowland- comparing the contribution of the number exceeds 4,000 individuals Caucasian line. The two genetic lines 12 founders, it is interesting to note (4,431 at the end of 2010) both in the are separated in captivity and only considerable changes over time. In wild and in captivity (Fig. 2). Since 12 breeding stations keep animals 1924 animals no. 42 and 45 together there were no European bison living belonging to both lines (76 animals al- contributed only 5.6% to the total in the wild after 1919, the present together; 32 Lowland and 44 Lowland- gene pool, but later (because of distribution of the species is a result of Caucasian). Currently, there are 33 a large number of descendants) their efforts to restore animals in a num- free-living herds; the formation of so representation increased to 45.2% ber of European countries. By the many free-ranging populations should in 1954, and to almost 84% in the end of 2011, there were 220 captive be regarded as a big success of the contemporary Lowland line (Pucek herds of European bison maintained recovery programme. The European et al. 2004). The opposite happened in 29 European countries (breeding bison is currently listed as Vulnerable to the contribution of no. 100, whose centres, reserves, zoos, etc.). Most on the IUCN Red List of Threatened initial contribution of more than 25% breeders (83) are in Germany where Species. Such a wide dispersion of the decreased to just 6% in the current more than 500 animals live. Herd sizes species may ensure its survival in case Lowland-Caucasian line. are variable and very small herds with of unpredictable events at the local two or three animals predominate. In scale. Demographic and genetic defi- It is important for species conserva- this situation, a coordinated breeding ciencies are dealt with by coordinated tion that the long period of breeding programme is critically important for exchanges of animals. in captivity and the establishment of maintaining the gene pool of the spe- the European Bison Pedigree Book cies. The coordination for the whole allow using pedigree data for large- of Europe is the main task of the scale analyses of the species’ genet- European Bison Conservation Centre, ics. In the case of free-ranging herds, established within the structure of References the pedigree data allow for determin- the European Bison Friends Society. ing the structure of the reintroduced A part of the captive population in • Krasińska, M. & Krasiński, Z. A. population. It is also possible to calcu- zoos is also included in the European (2007) European Bison: The late various coefficients like inbreed- Endangered Species Programme run Nature Monograph. Białowieża: ing. The average level of inbreeding by the European Association of Zoos Mammal Research Institute, for animals born recently equals to and Aquaria. Polish Academy of Sciences. 48% for the Lowland line and 28.9% • Olech, W. (1999) The number of for the Lowland-Caucasian line. How- ancestors and their contribution ever, there are no serious signs of to European bison (Bison bonasus inbreeding depression in this species, L.) population. Annals of Warsaw although concerns about its negative Agricultural University, Animal influence remain. In fact, the only Science 35: 111–117. significant negative influence of in- • Olech, W. (2009) The changes breeding found up to now is lowered of founders number and their viability of young animals. What is contribution to the European interesting, although animals belong- bison population during 80 years ing to the Lowland line have a much of species restitution. European higher level of inbreeding, no relation Bison Conservation Newsletter 2: between inbreeding and mortality 54–60. has been found for them. Current • Pucek, Z., Belousova, I. P., studies using genetic markers proved Krasińska, M., Krasiński, Z. A. & low levels of genetic variability in Olech, W. (eds) (2004) European European bison populations; only half Bison: Status Survey and Conser- of the genetic variability observed in vation Action Plan. Gland: IUCN/ the closely related American bison. SSC Bison Specialist Group. • Slatis, H. M. (1960) An analysis of inbreeding in the European bison. Genetics 45: 275–287. 22 Red Wolf WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

William Waddell1 * & David Rabon Jr2 Extirpated in the Wild: Recovering the Red Wolf

Summary

The Red Wolf Recovery Programme represents one of the longest-standing partnerships involving an Associa- tion of Zoos and Aquariums animal conservation programme and US Fish and Wildlife Service recovery programme. Extinct in the Wild by 1980, the red wolf (Canis rufus) is currently classified as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. This year highlights several prominent anniversaries in red wolf conservation. It was 45 years ago when the red wolf was first listed as Endangered under provisions of the Endangered Species Preserva- tion Act of 1967, a precursor to the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (as amended). Ten years later, after establishing a managed breeding programme, the first litter of captive red wolf pups was born. This year also marks 25 years since restoration efforts began, when red wolves Fig. 1 were released at the Alligator River Red wolf. National Wildlife Refuge in north- © Seth Bynum/Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium eastern North Carolina in the autumn Extirpation in the Wild of 1987. These milestones provide perspective in that species recovery Red wolves (Canis rufus) occupied Preservation in the wild was given programmes are often measured by a diversity of habitat types through- the highest priority, but the small slow, incremental accomplishments out their historical range in the east- and tenuous red wolf population also requiring persistence and flexibility ern and south-central United States was hybridising with an eastwards as new information and obstacles (Fig. 1). As with many endangered expanding coyote population. The emerge. species, altered and diminishing resulting mixture of canids was habitats would leave little room for difficult to distinguish and further sanctuary and press the red wolf into threatened the remaining red wolves less than suitable environs. Wide- with the loss of their genetic identity. spread predator control programmes The survival of the remnant red wolf and relentless, indiscriminate killing population was uncertain, prompting devastated red wolf numbers, creat- programme officials to redirect their ing a problem that would be difficult objective for the red wolf population for the species to overcome. By the from one of local preservation to time the US Fish and Wildlife Service planned extirpation in the wild. While 1 Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium, intervened, the range of the species the decision to remove the last red Tacoma, WA, USA was confined to the coastal prairies wolves appeared inevitable, it was 2 US Fish and Wildlife Service, and marshes of extreme south-east- done so within the framework of Manteo, NC, USA ern Texas and south-western Louisi- developing a long-range objective to * E-mail for correspondence: ana (USFWS 1990). ultimately return the species to select [email protected] areas of its former range. By 1980 the red wolf was considered biologically Extinct in the Wild. WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Red Wolf 23

Concurrent with the passage of the Return to the Wild of the red wolves began making landmark Endangered Species Act the transition to the wild, a litter of and the US Fish and Wildlife Service The US Fish and Wildlife Service wild-born pups was produced – the initiating the red wolf recovery pro- identified the Alligator River National first breeding season following the gramme in 1973, a managed breeding Wildlife Refuge, an area within the initial releases, marking more than programme was established at Point Albemarle Peninsula of north-eastern a decade since the last red wolf pups Defiance Zoo & Aquarium in Tacoma, North Carolina, as the site to initiate were born in the wild. Early successes Washington. With US Fish and Wild- this pioneering restoration project in the restoration effort motivated life Service funding support, a remote (Fig. 2). Because this would be the the exploration of a second mainland offsite facility was constructed near first attempt to re-establish a wild release site. Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium carnivore population from captive to house the canids that would be stock, procedures for red wolf rein- Straddling the border of eastern Ten- brought in from the wild and de- troductions were lacking (Phillips et nessee and western North Carolina, velop husbandry protocols needed al. 2003). Thus, intensively monitor- the Great Smoky Mountains National to safeguard the fragile population. ing released red wolves and averting Park was selected as the site to con- The breeding project was formalised public relations problems were the duct a second reintroduction attempt through Species Survival Plan (SSP) main focus. Consequently, public in the early 1990s. Once again adult designation by the Association of meetings were conducted one year red wolves from the SSP were ac- Zoos and Aquariums in 1984, with prior to red wolves being released to climated and released, and while their the recognition that zoos would play inform state and local government transition to the wild was promising, a key role in the recovery effort by officials and community groups about low pup survival and the inability of conserving the red wolf within ap- the project. A “nonessential experi- red wolves to consistently establish proved SSP institutions. mental” designation was given to the territories within the Great Smoky newly reintroduced population of red Mountains National Park led the US The primary objective would be to wolves to provide greater flexibility Fish and Wildlife Service to end this increase the population to a level in management and protection under restoration project in 1998. Although wherein restoring a wild red wolf pop- the Endangered Species Act, and to this effort was terminated, the pro- ulation could commence in the future. gain acceptance from the public and ject provided essential information This led to the first US Fish and Wild- encourage cooperation from local on the interactions among red wolves, life Service Recovery/Species Survival landowners. people, livestock and coyotes. Plan to combine captive breeding and management with reintroduction as Field biologists were realistic in In the years following the initial re- a strategy for species conservation their expectations about the chal- leases in north-eastern North Carolina, (USFWS 1990). However, the Red lenges red wolves from the captive as wild litters were born of wild-born Wolf SSP would depart from conven- programme would encounter once red wolves, additional approaches to tional zoo-based husbandry by adopt- released. Management would have to supplement the wild population have ing a more “hands-off” approach to be developed and modified accord- been employed. With the reliance minimise to the extent possible the ingly. Mortalities would occur, as on captive-born, adult red wolves for red wolves developing a tolerance would the need for multiple release release diminished, island propagation towards people; a trait that would be attempts and the need to return sites were developed whereby animals fundamental to moderate red wolf– some red wolves to the captive from the Red Wolf SSP are paired and human conflict when reintroductions population due to persistent associa- released for breeding at select unde- were initiated. As captive husbandry tion with human activity (Phillips et veloped islands in the south-eastern procedures became standardised and al. 2003). In a short time, as a few United States. Island-born offspring the population considered secure through increased reproduction, the US Fish and Wildlife Service began exploring the feasibility of initiating a reintroduction project and to consider the attributes a potential release site would need to support a successful restoration effort in the species’ former range. Fig. 2 Release of a red wolf in north-eastern North Carolina. © Jeffrey Mittelstadt 24 Red Wolf WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

are then translocated for integration deliberate, has increased in recent into the north-eastern North Carolina years, and is once again the leading References population when they reach their cause of death for wild red wolves. natural dispersal age at approximately And although introgression of coyote • McLellan, S. R. & Rabon Jr, D. R. 18 months old. Portable acclimation genes is being effectively controlled (2006) Translocating red wolves pens for soft release are being used to through an adaptive management using a modified soft-release promote release-site fidelity and assist approach, this familiar threat to the technique. Canid News 9.1: in the formation of pair bonds be- red wolf population remains a con- [online]. tween potential breeding red wolves cern (Stoskopf et al. 2005). The spe- • Phillips, M. K, Henry, V. G. & Kelly, (McLellan & Rabon 2006). cies is currently classified as Critically B. T. (2003) Restoration of the Endangered on the IUCN Red List red wolf. In: Wolves: Behavior, Because there was limited opportu- of Threatened Species. These issues Ecology, and Conservation (ed. nity for extensive field studies prior underscore that the Red Wolf SSP by Mech, L. D. & Boitani, L.), pp. to the widespread eradication of red population is as much a part of the re- 272–288. Chicago: University of wolves and the planned removal from covery equation today as it was when Chicago Press. their final range, it was recognised red wolves were rescued from their • Pritchard, D. J., Fa, J. E., Oldfield, from the outset that baseline biologi- final range nearly four decades ago. S. & Harrop, S. R. (2012) Bring cal information would be opportun- the captive closer to the wild: istically collected as the restoration Institutional dynamics between in redefining the role of ex situ con- programme progressed. The informa- situ and ex situ disciplines can impede servation. Oryx 46: 18–23. tion gathered over the last 25 years of needed conservation action, resulting • Stoskopf, M. K., Beck, K., Fazio, red wolf restoration has been vital in in species recovery efforts that are of- B. B., Fuller, T. K., Gese, E. M., the sustained effort to manage and ten more difficult and costly to attain Kelly, B. T., Knowlton, F. F., Mur- expand the world’s only wild red wolf (Pritchard et al. 2012). In our experi- ray, D. L., Waddell, W. & Waits, L. population. ence, the US Fish and Wildlife Service (2005) Implementing recovery and Red Wolf SSP have worked to of the red wolf – integrating transcend organisational differences research scientists and manag- Future of the Species by understanding the respective ers. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33: roles both population components 1145–1152. As the programme progressed and play to advance red wolf conserva- • US Fish and Wildlife Service (US- the wild population grew, the north- tion. Importantly, the US Fish and FWS) (1990) Red Wolf Recovery/ eastern North Carolina recovery area Wildlife Service and the Red Wolf SSP Species Survival Plan. Atlanta: was expanded, and now encompass- recognise that a balanced approach is USFWS. es more than 6,000 km2 of public and necessary to ensure one segment of private land and supports a free-rang- the population is not impacted at the ing population that numbers near 100 expense of the other (e.g. Red Wolf red wolves. While this encouraging SSP population sustainability versus trend has reduced the need to utilise the needs of wild populations). adult animals from the Red Wolf SSP for direct release into the north- A critical step in the red wolf’s journey eastern North Carolina recovery area, from near extinction to re-establish- the innovative technique of fostering ing the current north-eastern North pups from the captive population to Carolina wild population was initiat- wild litters has become an effective ing a zoo-based breeding programme. way for the Red Wolf SSP to continue Without this effort, securing the supporting interactive management red wolf’s future would have been between the two populations. uncertain. Clearly the programme has changed since official recovery efforts However, the programme’s notable began in the early 1970s, but the goal achievements are tempered by the has remained constant. Now, as then, modern-day reality of recurrent flexibility is required but always with historical problems. Anthropogenic- an eye towards recovery for the red related mortality accounts for more wolf and the role this unique preda- than 50% of deaths of all wild red tor plays in the ecosystems of the wolves today. Gunshot mortality, diverse south-eastern United States specifically, whether inadvertent or landscape. WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Scimitar-horned Oryx 25

Tania Gilbert1 *, Tim Woodfine1, William Houston2, John Newby3 & Khaled Zahzah4 The Fall and Rise of the » Scimitar-horned Oryx

Summary Introduction The Captive Population

The scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dam- The scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx The demise of the oryx in the wild mah) has been classified as Extinct dammah) is a nomadic arid-adapted coincided with its rise in captivity, in the Wild on the IUCN Red List antelope that was once abundant and and by the end of 2011 the interna- of Threatened Species since 2000, widespread, inhabiting the vast arid- tional studbook listed over 1,745 oryx but concerted conservation action land steppes that border the Sahara in 222 zoological institutions around over the last 50 years has resulted (Dixon & Jones 1988). Over a million the world, with an estimated 14,800 in a large stable captive popula- oryx existed across its historical range additional animals held in private col- tion. More recent efforts to address between the Atlantic and the Nile, lections in the Middle East and Texas. the causes of extirpation in the wild forming aggregations of thousands of Approximately 675 of the individuals have led to the re-establishment of animals during their annual migra- listed in the international studbook scimitar-horned oryx populations tions. Overhunting, compounded by are managed through three regional- in eight protected areas in Tunisia, drought, desertification, overgrazing ly coordinated breeding programmes Senegal and Morocco. The return of and competition with domestic live- covering the North American (SSP), scimitar-horned oryx to their natu- stock drove the oryx to extirpation European (EEP) and Australasian ral habitat in their historical range in the wild in the late 20th century; (ASMP) regions. Additionally, Japan, has only been possible because of the species was subsequently (2000) China and South Korea maintain international collaborations be- classified as Extinct in the Wild on the separate national studbooks. The tween coordinated captive breeding IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. large populations in the Middle East programmes in Europe and North The species now only exists in captive and Texas are largely uncatalogued, America, government departments in and semi-wild conditions (Gilbert & and are not part of coordinated popu- the range states, individual zoological Woodfine 2004), and its future is de- lation management. institutions and implementing agen- pendent on a strategy of intrinsically cies. Whilst free-ranging populations linked captive breeding and reintro- Recent molecular genetic analysis of scimitar-horned oryx have not yet duction to its former range (Fig. 1). has begun to examine the genetic di- been re-established in their histori- versity of the global oryx population cal range, considerable progress on in order to determine the relationship the conservation of the species has between uncatalogued populations been made. There is now more hope and those recorded in the interna- for the scimitar-horned oryx than tional studbook. The result of this there has been at any point since its will inform captive breeding efforts extirpation in the wild. and assist the selection of genetically diverse animals for future reintroductions. Whilst the global population of oryx is very large, only some of these animals may be available for reintroductions due to legislative, disease and transport restrictions.

1 Marwell Wildlife, Winchester, UK 2 Saint Louis Zoo, St. Louis, MO, USA 3 Sahara Conservation Fund, L’Isle, Switzerland 4 Direction Générales des Forêts, Tunis, Tunisia * E-mail for correspondence: [email protected] 26 Scimitar-horned Oryx WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

Fig. 1 Reintroduced scimitar-horned oryx in Dghoumes National Park, Tunisia. © Tim Woodfine/Marwell Wildlife Reintroductions

The large stable captive population Since that first experimental re- In total, approximately 480 oryx are in and the designation of effective pro- lease, populations of oryx have been semi-wild populations in their histori- tected areas in former range states established in Sidi Toui National Park, cal range. The land surrounding all of have led to the re-establishment of Dghoumes National Park and Oued the parks and reserves is degraded, oryx populations in Tunisia, Morocco Dekouk Nature Reserve in Tunisia, and there are currently no plans to and Senegal. The efforts to reintro- M’Sissi and Souss Massa National release oryx from the fenced areas duce oryx began over 30 years ago Park in Morocco, and Guembeul into the surrounding environment. As when the Tunisian Direction Géné- Reserve and Ferlo North Reserve a result, the oryx cannot exhibit some rales des Forêts initiated discussions in Senegal. The EEP provided the of their natural behaviours, such as with the Zoological Society of Lon- founders for all of these reintroduced migration and dispersal, in response don and La Fondation Internationale populations, along with Israeli oryx to changing climatic conditions. To pour la Sauvegarde du Gibier in Paris for the Senegalese projects and SSP compensate, they are managed to en- on the feasibility of reintroducing animals for the most recent release sure that they have adequate food and a group of oryx from the UK to Bou in 2007 in Dghoumes National Park, water resources throughout the year. Hedma National Park in central Tunisia. All of the reintroduction Tunisia. In 1985 this plan was put into sites are relatively small and partially All of the reintroduction projects action when ten oryx donated by or completely fenced. The largest have followed an established process Marwell Wildlife and Edinburgh Zoo population of semi-wild oryx consists whereby captive or translocated were released into a Total Protection of 230 individuals and is located in the animals undergo a period of acclima- Zone at the centre of the park. The 2,400 ha Arrouais Reserve in Souss tisation before being released into oryx adapted well to local conditions Massa National Park, Morocco. a fenced protected area. The most and the population steadily grew to recent project in 2007 in Dghoumes a maximum of 130 in 2005, although National Park, Tunisia, is a good ex- it has since declined to approximately ample of oryx reintroduction efforts 50 individuals. in northern Africa. WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Scimitar-horned Oryx 27

Fig. 2 Male scimitar-horned oryx being released from his crate into an acclimatisation pen in Dghoumes National Park, Tunisia. © Tim Woodfine/Marwell Wildlife

The reintroduction of oryx to Dg- houmes National Park was the culmi- nation of five years of collaboration between the EEP, SSP, Tunisian Direc- tion Générales des Forêts, Conven- tion on Migratory Species and Sahara Conservation Fund. The project took place under the Direction Générales des Forêts National Strategy for the Conservation of Sahelo-Saharan Antelope in Tunisia, the National Metapopulation Management Plan for the species and the Convention on Case Study: Migratory Species’ Concerted Action Dghoumes National Plan for Sahelo-Saharan mega-fauna Park, Tunisia (Beudels et al. 2005).

Dghoumes National Park is an 8,000 The EEP and SSP oryx quickly Whilst there is an undoubted eco- ha partially fenced protected area adapted to the local conditions, locat- nomic, cultural and intrinsic value to on the edge of a large salt pan, the ing water, shade and food resources, reintroducing the oryx to its former Chott el Jerid. The park contains and soon joined the Bou Hedma oryx, range, such reintroductions also three main habitat types: steppe forming one large herd. The optimal have an impact on local biodiversity. grassland, mountains and part of the habitat conditions combined with Historically, the land covering all Chott itself. Nine oryx from the EEP effective protection have resulted four parks and reserves in Tunisia and SSP populations were selected in a high birth rate and low mortal- that hold oryx had been intensively to create a demographically stable re- ity rate, and the oryx population has overgrazed by domestic livestock. lease group and to maximise genetic grown to 68 within five years of being A programme of fencing and habitat diversity in both Dghoumes National released. The oryx have formed flex- restoration by the Direction Géné- Park and the Tunisian metapopula- ible social groups and utilise a large rales des Forêts in preparation for the tion (Woodfine et al. 2009). These part of the park, including the moun- reintroduction of Sahelo-Saharan oryx were released into the park in tain range. Post-release monitoring antelopes and gazelles has seen the December 2007 where they joined and management continue, and re-establishment of native flora and a group of seven oryx that had been future plans include enhanced moni- with it insect, bird, reptile, amphibian transferred from Bou Hedma Na- toring, development of resources and small mammal diversity. tional Park earlier in the year, making within an existing eco-museum in the a total founding population of 16 park, training for the park rangers animals (Fig. 2). and wider community engagement and education. 28 Scimitar-horned Oryx WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

Global Strategy In May 2012 a third workshop was for Conservation and held in Chad to test the criteria for site References Reintroduction selection for reintroductions in relation to re-establishing a free-ranging • Beudels, R. C., Devillers, P., The interest in re-establishing oryx population in the Ouadi Rimé- Lafontaine, R.-M., Devillers-Ter- populations of oryx in former range Ouadi Achim Game Reserve, Chad. schuren, J. & Beudels, M.-O. (eds) states has continued to grow, and 14 Sufficient intact habitat remains in (2005) Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes. countries have made a commitment the reserve to support a sustainable Status and Perspectives. Report through the Convention on Migratory free-ranging population of oryx, but on the Conservation Status of the Species’ Sahelo-Saharan Concerted hunting, competition with domes- Six Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes. Action Plan to conserve Sahelo-Saha- tic livestock and habitat loss from CMS Technical Series Publica- ran mega-fauna, including the oryx. desertification and climate change are tion No. 11. Bonn: UNEP/CMS The increased interest, availability of concerns. Oryx have demonstrated Secretariat. animals for release and enthusiastic considerable potential for rapid popu- • Dixon, A. & Jones, D. (eds) (1988) but uncoordinated approach to rein- lation growth in the past and appear Conservation and Biology of De- troduction led Marwell Wildlife to call to readily adapt to novel environ- sert Antelopes. London: Christo- for a global strategy for the species ments. A reintroduction of oryx into pher Helm. during the annual Sahelo-Saharan the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Game • Gilbert, T. & Woodfine, T. (eds) Interest Group meeting in 2008 in Reserve may be the best chance of re- (2004) The Biology, Husbandry Al Ain, UAE. As a result, the Sahara establishing a free-ranging population and Conservation of Scimitar- Conservation Fund and Al Ain Zoo of the species south of the Sahara. horned Oryx (Oryx dammah). initiated a stakeholder-driven process Winchester: Marwell Preserva- designed to catalyse the restoration tion Trust. and conservation of the oryx across Conclusion • IUCN/SSC Conservation Breed- its historical range. A series of working Specialist Group (CBSG) shops has taken place in order to de- Like so many species, the scimitar- (2010) Scimitar-horned Oryx velop the strategy, the first of which horned oryx suffered rapid range con- Conservation Planning Workshop was hosted by Al Ain Zoo and facili- traction and plummeting population II Report. Apple Valley: CBSG. tated by the IUCN/SSC Conservation numbers until it became extirpated • Woodfine, T., Zahzah, K., Chetoui, Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) in in the wild. However, unlike other A., Gilbert, T. & d’Alterio, G. L. November 2009. This first workshop species, the scimitar’s story has con- (2009) Reintroduction of Scim- was convened to establish the skills tinued through extraordinary interna- itar-horned Oryx to Dghoumes and resources available within the ex tional collaboration, careful captive National Park, Tunisia. Report situ oryx community and to develop propagation and reintroduction back prepared for Direction Générale a suite of criteria by which alternative into its historical range. Whilst past des Forêts, Tunis. Winchester: reintroduction sites may be assessed reintroduction attempts have suc- Marwell Wildlife. in the future. ceeded in re-establishing small semi- wild populations, the potential now A second workshop, also facilitated exists for large-scale releases into by CBSG, was held in Algeria in Octo- unfenced areas of the Sahel under ber 2010 and continued the strategic the auspices of a global strategy for planning process (CBSG 2010). This the species. If the proposed releases second workshop was hosted by the go ahead, and if they are successful, Algerian Ministère de l’Aménagement then a sustainable free-ranging popu- du Territoire et de l’Environnement lation of scimitar-horned oryx will be and the World Deserts Foundation. re-established in the wild. The workshop, with participants from 13 organisations and ten countries, was cosponsored by Al Ain Zoo and the Sahara Conservation Fund thanks to a donation from the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund. WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Père David’s Deer 29

Neil R. Maddison1 *, Jiang Zhigang2 & Maria Boyd3 The Père David’s Deer: » Clinging on by a Cloven Hoof

Summary

The story of Père David’s deer (Ela- phurus davidianus), or milu as it is known in its native China, has often been related, but is nevertheless a lasting testimony to the commitment of several key people and zoos to saving a species from extinction, including its discovery by Père Ar- mand David at the Imperial Hunting Park at Nan Haizi, Beijing, in 1865. Once limited to only 18 individual animals left in the world, successful captive breeding and management has meant that the species has come through a genetic bottleneck. Initially concentrating on returning the milu to its native country; latterly efforts Fig. 1 have focussed on reintroduction to its Père David’s deer at Shishou. known former range of central China, © Emma Alesworth where it lived in swampy marshland areas. Whilst the milu is still classified Introduction A Brief History of Milu as Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, there What does it require to achieve The historical range of the milu is is now good argument for changing conservation success? Effective plan- uncertain; unearthed fossil records this to reflect the highly successful ning? Certainly. Enough resources? show that milu were widely distrib- conservation efforts. Absolutely. Huge commitment? No uted along the eastern seaboard of doubt. And luck. For even the most China and in the alluvial plains of the well organised, intensive conserva- Yangtze River (Beck & Wemmer 1983). tion action plan will probably need This uncertainty has also partially Lady Luck at some point to smile resulted from the word milu (“su-bu- favourably on the efforts. The story xiang” meaning “four un-alikes”, i.e. of the Père David’s deer (Elaphurus with the tail of a donkey, hooves of davidianus – or the Chinese name a cow, neck of a camel and antlers of of milu) is one that encompasses all a deer). Unfortunately, the term “su- of these factors. It is a staggering bu-xiang” is given to any bizarre look- success story; a testimony to several ing animal, be they camel, reindeer or individuals’ vision and commitment others – as we can see in the writings to safeguarding a species and how, of a Chinese traveller returning from without the support of zoological western China and seeing a herd of collections, the world could have lost “su-bu-xiang” at Kokonor. These were one of its most spectacular animals obviously camel and not milu. The (Fig. 1). It is an oft told story, but species was probably extirpated from 1 Bristol Zoo Gardens, Bristol, UK nevertheless one that we should take its natural habitat many centuries 2 Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy lessons from. ago. It is certainly well adapted to liv- of Sciences, Beijing, China ing in the boggy wetlands of central 3 Bauquis & Boyd International, China, and the current accepted Beijing, China thinking is that the Yangtze River val- * E-mail for correspondence: ley is the most likely area where the [email protected] species evolved, although there are reported fossils of the milu elsewhere, including Japan. 30 Père David’s Deer WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

Hunting, urbanisation, land change In 1896 there were 18 animals in Nevertheless, the heavily inbred and conflict issues were all almost Europe. Herbrand, the 11th Duke of milu safely passed though the ge- certainly ultimately responsible for Bedford – understanding the rarity of netic bottleneck of inbreeding and the demise of the milu, which is cur- the breed but also the threat posed adopted the vast open parkland of rently (updated in 2008) classified as by the breeched wall surrounding the mid-England estate. Normally, Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN Red the Imperial Hunting Park – decided inbreeding would cause deleterious List of Threatened Species. It is not to collect all remaining animals in traits in offspring, such as stillborns, known what highest population levels Europe and bring them to his family high calf death rate, fluctuating facial ever were, but a reasonable guess estate, Woburn Abbey. As milu were asymmetry, slower growth rate, etc. would be several million animals, faring poorly in European zoos at that In heavily inbred populations, these roaming freely through eastern China. time, the Duke instructed his animal genes are eliminated, as individu- Ancient Chinese literature cites thou- dealer, Mr Hagenbeck, to gather als carrying them will not live up the sands of milu swimming in the waters them into a single group of animals age of reproduction. Such a process off the coast of Shandong Province. (Boyd & Wang Zongyi 1989). That this is called genetic purging. During the herd thrived and multiplied, surviving early days in Woburn Abbey, most By the time Father Armand David first two world wars, is a testimony to the deleterious genes in milu were elimi- saw the species – inside the Imperial commitment of Herbrand and his son nated through genetic purging. How- Hunting Park (now the Beijing Biodi- Hastings, the 12th Duke of Bedford. ever, some deleterious genes may versity Conservation Research Centre, still exist, as calves with a short lower at Nan Haizi, south of Beijing) – there It was a good job they were as com- jaw have been born in Beijing Milu were no other known herds roaming mitted as they were. In 1895 the wall Park, but could not survive because freely in China. He recognised that of the Imperial Hunting Park had the animals with this trait cannot this was a species that did not fit collapsed and was never repaired. graze (Zeng et al. 2007). any descriptions of other deer, and Over the following few years the milu postulated that this was a “new spe- inside the park left or were poached The Woburn population continued cies to western science” (Fox 1949). (this was also the time of the collapse to grow despite the two world wars. That Père David spotted this (one of the imperial dynasties of China and At the end of World War II, the size anecdote has him riding a horse and there were a great many changes tak- of the Woburn Abbey herd reached peering over the wall of the hunting ing place), with the result that the last 250. To avoid “putting all the eggs park), and its significance, is without herd of milu in China was gone. in one basket”, the Duke of Bedford doubt one of the most important decided to relocate some of the milu. events in the survival of the milu Subsequently animals were shipped today, although several key individu- Early Conservation to other zoological gardens, first to als did later play their part, showing Efforts other sites in the UK, then to other great commitment to the species. parts of the world. Eighteen animals left in the world Through the offices of the French Le- is not many. In fact, with such a low gation in China, Père David succeed- number, the chances of a single virus ed in shipping some hides, fragments wiping out the entire herd are pretty of antlers and bones to the Museum high. It has been calculated that the of Natural History in Paris, where world population derives from only 11 they were identified as a new species individuals. Of the animals in Woburn and, in the honour of Père David, Abbey, there were two fawns, seven given the name Elaphurus davidi- males and nine females. We know, anus. Later, once again through the from the diaries of Mary, Duchess of help of the French Legation, some Bedford, that the two fawns never live animals were shipped to Jardin grew to breeding age; two females d’Acclimatation in Paris, from where from Berlin Zoo were barren and con- other individuals were subsequently sequently the global breeding stock distributed to Berlin and Antwerp comprised of seven males and seven zoos. females. Unfortunately, we do not have photographs of the males, so we cannot see who bred and who did not (through antler growth each year). WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Père David’s Deer 31

Back to the Present

But it was not until the 1980s that serious planning took place to return the milu to their native homeland, and ultimately the area where they had most likely evolved. Lord Robin Tavistock (who later became the 14th Duke of Bedford and great-grandson of Herbrand) was instrumental in returning the species to China – fulfill- ing his dream by organising 22 milu to be sent to China in 1985, from the herd at Woburn Abbey. A second herd of 18 females was sent in 1986. In 1986, after nearly a century’s absence, the first fawns were born in China at Nan Haizi – the same place where Fig. 2 they were last seen alive at the turn Père David’s deer at Shishou. of the 19th century. © Neil Maddison

The newly established centre at Nan The desire to return milu to their Putting a large ungulate back into Haizi was the most obvious candidate known former range, however, meant the wild, however, is not a straight- for the first release of the milu into that conservation efforts did not stop forward thing. Although the milu is a park situation, being the site of the with the introduction of the animals a highly protected species in China former Imperial Hunting Park. The at Nan Haizi and Dafeng (and Yuey- (Class 1, the highest level of protec- choice of Nan Haizi was important ang, a third reserve). Maja Boyd, one tion there is), the species’ ability to also from another point: the close of the original team involved with breed in large numbers, and to forage proximity to academic institution and the repatriation of the milu, together widely, meant that it was not long government office that proved vital with Chinese scientists Wang Zongyi, before they came into conflict with to the survival of the milu (Boyd & Yang Rongsheng and Wang Song, the farmers growing crops in the Wang Zongyi 1989). However, efforts carried out extensive research to region. In an effort to address some to find new and larger areas did not identify a suitable site in the Yangtze of the concerns of the local people, stop there. A site at Dafeng – a salt River valley for “wild release”. They the Hubei Environmental Protection water marsh north of Shanghai – was concluded that an area on the north Bureau (which has responsibility for selected as a site for a reintroduction shore of the Yangtze River, with the species within Hubei) gave per- of milu, mainly through the efforts of natural boundaries, in Hubei Province mission for a deer fence to be erected WWF and Cao Keqing of the Shang- close to Shishou City, would be the around the release site. hai Natural History Museum. It was most appropriate for reintroduction, thought that milu were once present and work proceeded. The river valley This certainly helped alleviate some in the area, as there are some sub- and surrounding lakes are home to of the tensions with the local people, fossil records to support this, but in magnificent reed beds, which make but it gave rise to another chal- any event it was deemed eminently perfect hiding places for milu fawns lenge – that of managing what was suitable for the species, and animals and foraging adults; milu have a fairly now effectively a captive population, were reintroduced there from UK wide-ranging diet, preferring water albeit one living in an area that could zoos, including both Chester and plants, but will feed on many spe- sustain a large number of deer. In Whipsnade, in 1986; there they still cies and hence the site was emi- addition, the flooding of the Yang- thrive, with a current population of nently suitable for establishing a wild tze River in 1998 resulted in several around 1,000 animals. population. In 1993, 30 animals were cohorts of milu leaving the initial translocated from Nan Haizi to the release area and forming permanent area, with further translocations in herds in other parts of the province, 1995 and 2003 (Fig. 2). as well as around Dongting Lake in Hunan Province. 32 Père David’s Deer WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

In 2010 the Environmental Protec- Future Plans tion Bureau appointed a partnership References comprising of Maja Boyd (who had What now for the milu in China? stayed closely involved with the spe- Although still classified as Extinct in • Beck, B. B. & Wemmer, C. M. cies), Woburn Deer Park (recognised the Wild, this is clearly incorrect, as (1983) The Biology and Manage- experts in milu management and the authors have seen and photo- ment of an Extinct Species: Père historically one of the main reasons graphed individual animals outside of David’s Deer. Park Ridge: Noyes why the species has survived), the any contained herd. Students of the Publications. Wetlands and Wildfowl Trust (for Central South University of Forestry • Boyd, M. M. & Zongyi, Wang their skills in designing an optimis- and Technology at Changsha have (1989) The reintroduction of Père ing habitat conditions for the milu) also followed three wild-living popu- David’s deer (Elaphurus davdi- and Bristol Zoo Gardens (for their lations in Hubei and Hunan. As well as anus) to Nan Haizi Milu Reserve, expertise in working with local com- these wild herds, there are now many Beijing, China. Proceedings of munities living around protected zoos in China that hold at least a few the Fifth International Theriologi- areas in situations of human–wildlife individuals. What is clearly needed cal Congress, Rome. conflict) to develop a 15-year master now is an agreed Conservation Action • Fox, H. M. (1949) Abbé David’s plan for the area – now entitled the and Management Plan (CAMP), so Diary. Cambridge: Harvard Hubei Shishou Milu National Na- that the species can be managed University Press. ture Reserve (Hubei Environmental on a country-wide scale, benefiting • Hubei Environmental Protection Protection Bureau 2011). The plan from the lessons learned over the last Bureau (2011) Hubei Shishou Milu was presented in November 2011 to 120 years. Zhang Linyuan, director National Nature Reserve: Master a panel of Chinese experts, headed of the Beijing Biodiversity Research Plan for Development 2011–2026. by academician Jin Jianming who rati- Centre at Nan Haizi, believes that the Wuhan: Hubei Environmental fied the strategy and implementation species would benefit from a com- Protection Bureau. plan. There are currently around 450 ing together of recognised experts in • Zeng, Y., Jiang, Z. & Li, C. (2007) milu living inside the Reserve, with milu conservation, from within China Genetic variability in relocated an estimated 350 more living freely as well as internationally, and as such Père David’s deer (Elaphurus in Hubei and Hunan. The species has is looking at the potential of hosting davidianus) populations – Impli- most certainly been re-established in a CAMP workshop sometime in 2013, cations to reintroduction pro- its former range. so that such a national plan can be gram. Conservation Genetics 8: agreed and implemented. 1051–1059.

It is an exciting prospect and will give the opportunity for individuals and organisations to celebrate one of the few major success stories in wildlife conservation, whilst recognising that there is still work to be done, especially as wild populations increase and come into conflict with human activities. With so many species under the threat of imminent extinction, the milu workshop will indeed be a rare event – management planning of an animal that was so very nearly lost to the world and is now on the increase. The role of zoos and private collections in safeguarding this species from extinction is something that all zoo professionals should be proud of. WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Wyoming Toad 33

Val Hornyak1* The Wyoming Toad: » Partnerships for Recovery

Fig. 1 Summary Male Wyoming toad burrowing in a bank at Mortenson Lake. The Wyoming toad (Anaxyrus (Bufo) © Wyoming Toad SSP baxteri) is one of the most endangered amphibians in North America and probably in the world; the species has been classified as Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species since 2004. It was thought to be extinct by the mid-1980s, until a single population was discovered in 1987 and recovery efforts began, making this one of the most long-term conservation programmes for any North American amphibian species. The captive man- History of the Wild Toad agement of this species has proven to be challenging, creating an impedi- The Wyoming toad was once abun- In 1987 a small population of ment to the production of large num- dant in the Laramie Basin, in Al- Wyoming toads was discovered bers for release. Since 1995, 14 zoos bany County, within a limited range at Mortenson Lake (Fig. 1), a lo- and two US Fish and Wildlife Service of 2,330 km2. Discovered in 1946 cal fishing club 23 km southwest of facilities in Wyoming have success- by George Baxter, initially it was Laramie. This property was acquired fully reproduced Wyoming toads for considered a relict of the Canadian by the US Fish and Wildlife Service reintroduction, with a total of 147,598 toad (Bufo hemiophrys). Eventually, it to become what is now the Morten- tadpoles, toadlets and toads released was described as a subspecies of the son Lake National Wildlife Refuge, as of 2011. The Wyoming toad is Canadian toad (B. h. baxteri) and later a closed refuge established for the currently known to exist in the wild was elevated to full species status. protection of the Wyoming toad. At at only two sites, Mortenson Lake More recently the Wyoming toad was the time of its discovery, the toad National Wildlife Refuge and one assigned to the genus Anaxyrus (Frost population at this site seemed to be federally designated Safe Harbour et al. 2006). thriving, with numbers estimated site within its historical range. Both at 100 to 150 individuals from 1987 populations exist only as a result of Population declines were detected through 1989 (Withers 1992; Corn reintroductions from captive breed- in the 1970s, and by the early 1980s 1993; Parker 2000). Unfortunately, ing efforts. the toad had essentially disappeared this was not to last. Reproduction at from its riparian haunts along the the site steadily decreased until in Big and Little Laramie rivers and 1994 what was believed to be the last associated wetlands. By the time it remaining wild-hatched Wyoming was listed as a federally Endangered toad was brought into captivity from Species in 1984, it was already feared Mortenson Lake. By 1995 the species to be extinct. Reasons for the toad’s once again appeared to be extirpated decline remain uncertain, but prob- in the wild (Odum & Corn 2005) and ably include the synergistic effects of was subsequently (2004) classified as aerial pesticides, habitat alteration, Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN Red predation, disease and the continu- List of Threatened Species. ing loss of genetic diversity as their numbers decreased.

1 Toledo Zoo, Toledo, OH, USA * E-mail for correspondence: [email protected] 34 Wyoming Toad WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

History of the Captive at Mortenson Lake was restored. In Breeding Programme the spring of 1998, four egg masses were discovered at Mortenson Lake – It was clear by the late 1980s that the first observed wild reproduction intervention was required to prevent since 1991. Through the efforts of the the extinction of this species, and captive breeding facilities and other thus a captive breeding programme recovery partners, the Wyoming toad was initiated by the Wyoming Game had been pulled back from the very and Fish Department. The first toads, brink of extinction. four young-of-the-year and six year- lings, were collected from Morten- son Lake on 1 September 1989 and Status of housed at the Sybille Wildlife Re- Wild Populations search Center, near Wheatland, Wyo- ming. For the next few years various High on the list of threats to the Fig. 2 strategies were pursued, including survival of the Wyoming toad is Release of captive-bred breeding wild toads in protected out- Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the Wyoming toad tadpoles. door enclosures, but none of these infamous amphibian chytrid fun- © Wyoming Toad SSP efforts were ultimately successful. gus. Its presence at Mortenson Lake was detected in 2000, with levels of A breakthrough for the programme infection documented to be increas- since 2005 has received the majority occurred in 1994, when the first ing over time. In 2003 a decision was of the captive-bred releases. Chytrid captive breeding was accomplished made to discontinue reintroductions is also present at this site, but the at Sybille. Also in 1994 zoos of the at Mortenson Lake. Monitoring toads are persevering. As a result Association of Zoos and Aquari- was continued to see what could be of the concentrated release efforts, ums (AZA) were formally invited to learned about the species’ ability to this population now appears to have participate in the captive breeding coexist with chytrid. Surprisingly, the become established, with possible programme. Several zoos responded, toads persevered. Of 125 samples reproduction in 2012. This brings received toads and began efforts to taken for PCR testing during the the number of known wild toad reproduce them. The Wyoming toad course of the 2009 summer surveys at populations to two and is a significant was designated as a Species Survival Mortenson Lake, 93 were positive for achievement for the captive breed- Plan (SSP) programme by AZA in chytrid (Pessier, personal communi- ing facilities and the Wyoming Toad 1996. Additional AZA facilities then cation). Encouraging recapture data Recovery Team. came on board, assisting the recov- have revealed that infected individu- ery effort with valuable resources of als can survive hibernation (Palmer, holding space and staff with amphib- personal communication). Managing the Captive ian husbandry experience. In 1997 Population the Saratoga National Fish Hatchery As of 2010 the Mortenson Lake toad located in Saratoga, Wyoming, joined population once again appeared to Since the inception of the Wyoming the programme, completing the part- be declining, but the decline might Toad SSP programme, the captive nership of AZA and the US Fish and not have been brought about by population has been managed with Wildlife Service facilities that exists disease alone. Habitat degradation two primary goals: (1) to produce as today. The total captive population or a combination of factors may be many offspring as possible to support hovers between 400 and 500 toads, playing a larger role. Plans to address reintroduction efforts in Wyoming, currently held at ten facilities. these issues and to resume reintro- and (2) to maintain as much genetic ductions at Mortenson Lake are now diversity as possible within the cap- From 1995 through 2003 the captive under discussion. tive assurance population. breeding facilities produced 46,246 tadpoles and toadlets, which were As an incentive to private landown- To meet these goals, priority is given released at Mortenson Lake National ers, the US Fish and Wildlife Service to demographic management for Wildlife Refuge, Lake George (part initiated a Safe Harbour programme the production of offspring. Each of Hutton Lake National Wildlife for this species in 2005. This agree- year pairings are selected based Refuge), one research site and two ment protects land owners’ rights in upon mean kinship, calculated using Safe Harbour sites (Fig. 2). While no exchange for the use of their prop- studbook data of all the animals in new populations were successfully erty as a reintroduction site for an captivity. However, as few as one established at the other sites during endangered species. Currently, there third of the designated pairings have that time, the breeding population is just one Safe Harbour site, which resulted in the production of viable WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Wyoming Toad 35

offspring. To support the reintroduc- important and considered potential Acknowledgements tion effort, additional (“gratuitous”) breeders, all must be maintained pairings are made, based on the in biosecurity. For this reason, no I thank Andrew Odum, Jan McKee, overall health and age of the animals, exhibit or research populations exist David Paddock and Louis Porras for but still with considerations to mini- at this time. All facilities participating their valuable assistance with this mise the relatedness of the parents. in the SSP must meet the criteria for article. Although founded with a minimum captive breeding and hold a US Fish amount of gene diversity, the captive and Wildlife Service Endangered Spe- population still persists without any cies permit. obvious genetic load from inbreeding. References Having a very fecund species might Husbandry has proven to be chal- be the reason why this has not been lenging, because of the limited • Corn, P. S. (2003) Endangered a significant issue. amount of available natural history toads in the Rockies. In: Eco- information upon which to base diets, logical and Earth Sciences in The biology of a very fecund anu- supplements, housing or hiberna- Mountain Areas (ed. by Taylor, L., ran with a short lifespan has both tion. Institutions are asked to keep Martin, K., Hik, D. & Ryall, A.), pp. significant benefits and correspond- written records of husbandry prac- 43–51. Banff: The Banff Centre. ingly creates numerous management tices, and to follow protocols that • Frost, D. R., Grant, T., Faivovich, problems in captivity. The current are slowly being developed based J., Bain, R. H., Haas, A. et al. software available for population on the most consistently successful (2006) The amphibian tree of life. management does not easily per- practices. Communication is essential Bulletin of the American Museum mit the entry of great numbers of in this fast-moving programme. Toad of Natural History 297: 1–370. offspring (clutches of the Wyoming keepers are expected to participate • Odum, R. A. & Corn, P. S. (2005) toad can exceed 2,000). Hundreds in prescheduled conference calls and Bufo baxteri Porter, 1968: of animals are hatched and retained to attend the annual SSP meetings Wyoming toad. In: Amphibian in captivity, thousands of animals held in Wyoming. There, they are also Declines: The Conservation Status released and hundreds of deaths able to assist the US Fish and Wildlife of United States Species (ed. by occur every year. Both hardware and Service and other partners in the Lannoo, M.), pp. 390–392. Berke- software are challenged, and a great monitoring of wild toad populations. ley: University of California Press. deal of time is dedicated to collecting This field experience is invaluable for • Parker, J. M. (2000) Habitat use and entering pedigree data into the toad keepers trying to understand and movements of the Wyoming studbook. With this highly dynamic the needs of the species in captivity. toad, Bufo baxteri: a study of captive propagation for reintroduc- wild juvenile, adult, and released tion programme, identification of captive-raised toads. MSc thesis, breeding pairs, transfers and ap- Conclusion: University of Wyoming, Lara- propriate animals for release is an Hope for the Toad mie, WY. ongoing task that requires almost • Withers, D. I. (1992) The Wyo- real-time data for its administration. Dedication and resourcefulness of ming toad (Bufo hemiophrys toad keepers, support from partici- baxteri): an analysis of habitat pating institutions and commitment use and life history. MSc thesis, Captive Breeding for of the US Fish and Wildlife Service University of Wyoming, Lara- Reintroduction and other recovery partners have mie, WY. been remarkable. Teamwork and per- Breeding for release requires the sistence have been the programme’s production of tadpoles to corre- greatest assets. Without this cooper- spond with their appearance in the ative effort, the Wyoming toad would wild when food supply and weather almost certainly not be with us today. are optimal for survival. Therefore, Its status is still precarious, but there windows for producing and shipping is reason for optimism as progress tadpoles are narrow and require ad- continues to be made. Although still herence to hibernation and breeding classified as Extinct in the Wild, the schedules and protocols. Biosecurity game is not over for Anaxyrus (Bufo) at its highest level (permanent isola- baxteri. Go toads! tion from all other amphibians in both quarantine and holding areas) is also required by this SSP programme. As all individual toads are genetically 36 Yarqon Bleak WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

Menachem Goren1* The Fall and Rise of the Yarqon Bleak

Summary

The Yarqon bleak (Acanthobrama telavivensis) is a cyprinid fish endemic to the coastal river system in Israel. By 1999 only three small isolated populations survived following severe drought. In order to save the species from extinction, a breeding facility was established in the ichthyological Fig. 1 laboratory at Tel Aviv University and Yarqon bleak from the Yarqon River. approximately 150 fish were captured © Menachem Goren prior to the complete drying of the rivers. Following successful breeding, Demise an initial reintroduction of the fish in 2002/2003 failed. Surveys in 2004 The Yarqon bleak (Acanthobrama tela- in nature would improve and then revealed its failure to reproduce in vivensis; Goren et al. 1973), endemic returning them to the wild. Since the nature. The species has been classi- to the coastal river system in Israel, is catastrophe was expected to con- fied as Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN the most notable representative of tinue (this area experiences frequent Red List of Threatened Species since the family Cyprinidae in this system droughts), we had to reach a quick 2006. Additional research provided (Fig. 1). It lives in Mediterranean- decision and no feasibility study was knowledge enabling proper engi- type rivers. Until the 1950s it was made. Fortunately, cooperation be- neering of natural and semi-natural distributed throughout the coastal tween the Yarqon River Authority, the sites. In 2006/2007 approximately river network, except for the Qishon Nature and Park Authority, the Min- 9,000 laboratory-born fish were River (Goren & Ortal 1999). During istry for Environmental Protection reintroduced into 12 sites, most of the second half of the 20th century all and my own laboratory was achieved. them engineered. Surveys from 2007 coastal rivers in Israel were severely Within three months we managed to onwards revealed fish of all sizes and polluted and much of their water raise the needed funds and to build ages, including juveniles, at most re- was used for irrigation and domestic a facility for maintaining the fish in lease sites. The Yarqon bleak has been consumption. The consequence was the ichthyological laboratory at Tel successfully returned to nature. the extinction of the Yarqon bleak Aviv University. from most of its distribution range. Following the species’ demise (see below), the Yarqon bleak was con- Breeding sidered Critically Endangered in the Israeli Red Book (Goren 2004) and Unfortunately, by the time the facility was subsequently (2006) classified as was built, not much was left of the Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN Red habitats: the rivers were continuing List of Threatened Species. to dry out and most of the fish were already dead. We managed to collect In July 1999 we realised that the last only approximately 100 fish from the existing habitats of the fish were Yarqon River and approximately 50 going to become dry as a result of fish from the Tut River several days a severe drought during the previous before both rivers dried out. The fish, winter that followed several years of in a very bad state of health, were low precipitation. Only three small brought to the ichthyological labora- isolated populations survived and the tory and carefully treated and housed species was on the brink of extinc- in the facility (Fig. 2). Since only 120 tion. At this point I approached the survived, while for reintroduction of authorities and suggested hosting the fish thousands were likely to be 1 Department of Zoology, several thousand fish in my labora- needed, we altered our strategy and Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel tory for a year or two, until conditions set out to breed them. The fish of * E-mail for correspondence: both populations were kept as sepa- [email protected] rate breeding stocks. WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Yarqon Bleak 37

Maintenance of the breeding centre the laboratory, continuous research Considering the knowledge acquired was complicated and included feed- of various biological and ecologi- in the laboratory, we assumed that ing the fish with a combination of cal aspects was carried out and the the reason for the failure was a short- manufactured and natural food, daily subsequent implementation of the age of suitable spawning substrate monitoring of the spawning substrate, findings proved to be crucial for the and insufficient shelter sites for the transferring the spawn and their sub- success of the reintroduction. We juveniles. To test this hypothesis, in strate to special tanks, and providing developed a protocol for daily pro- 2004 we constructed a pond fed with each stage of the larvae and post-lar- cedures in handling the fish, spawns water from the Yarqon River, approxi- vae with different conditions and diet. and water quality, and developed mately 400 m2 in size and 1 m deep, The lack of sufficient financial support a special menu for each stage of the of which the bottom was covered was a major difficulty, as the budget larvae and post-larval development. with gravel and piles of stones. In acquired was far less than the mini- addition, various plants were planted mum required for the project. Much in and around the pond (Nymphaea of the maintenance and research was Reintroduction coerulea, Potamogeton nodosus, performed by volunteers. Cyperus longus, Cyperus corymbosus, Parallel to our work, the Nature and Lythrum salicaria, Lythrum junceum, Within a period of five years, we man- Parks Authority reached an agree- Lycopus europaeus, Juncus fontane- aged to produce more than 14,000 ment with the government to ensure sii, Polygonum salicifolium, Trifolium fish (of both populations), soon a permanent, minimum discharge of sp., Cynodon dactylon and Phyla exceeding the capacity of the facility. high quality water into the upper part nodiflora). Within a few months after The almost complete lack of relevant of the Yarqon River in order to pre- stocking the pond with Yarqon bleak, scientific knowledge regarding the vent future drying of the river, even thousands of juveniles were observed. biology of the species was a major during a drought. This enabled us in difficulty. Because the Yarqon bleak 2002/2003 to return approximately is a wild fish and at that time we had 5,000 adult fish to the Yarqon River. very little knowledge of its biology, This was accompanied by a public we faced dilemmas regarding its relations campaign and educational diet, preferred spawning substrate, activities. Surveys carried out in 2004 temperatures, velocity of the water, revealed that the reintroduced fish photoperiod, etc. Therefore, from survived in nature and were in good the first day of arrival of the fish in body condition, but did not reproduce. 38 Yarqon Bleak WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

Following the success of the experi- We learned two major lessons during mental pond and the government’s this project: (1) There are no short- References assurance regarding water, 12 sites cuts in saving endangered species. along the Israeli coastal river system These kinds of projects are long-term • Goren, M. (2004) Freshwater were assigned for reintroduction and consume a lot of time, money, fishes in Israel. In: The Red Book: of the Yarqon bleak, most of them goodwill and broad consensus of the Vertebrates in Israel (ed. by Dolev, engineered to contain the species’ es- neighbouring community. A devoted A. & Perevolotsky, A.), pp. 39–54. sential habitat. In 2006/2007 approxi- leader for such a project is the key to Jerusalem: Keter Printing. mately 9,000 laboratory-born fish success. (2) The efforts to save an en- • Goren, M. (2009) Saving critically were returned to nature. Offspring of dangered species should be directed endangered fish species – utopia fish originally captured in the Yarqon simultaneously to several channels: or practical idea? The story of the River were stocked in southern Israel, Yarqon bleak – Acanthobrama in or close to the Yarqon River basin, • Establishment of an efficient breed- telavivensis (Cyprinidae) as a test while offspring of fish originally cap- ing facility for the fish and develop- case. Aqua, International Journal tured in the Tut River were stocked ing a professional maintenance of Ichthyology 15: 1–12. in various rivers in the central and protocol. • Goren, M. (2010) Re-introduction northern coastal system, in basins • Research conducted by professional of the “Extinct in the Wild” Yar- where this species had existed in the scientists on the relevant aspects of qon bleak, Israel. In: Global Re- 1950s. In surveys carried out from fish biology (diet, spawning habits, introduction Perspectives: 2010 2007 onwards, fish of all sizes and water quality and velocity, shelters, (ed. by Soorae, P. S.), pp. 45–48. ages, including juveniles, were found preferred temperatures for various Abu Dhabi: IUCN/SSC Re-intro- at most release sites. The various stages of reproduction, preferred duction Specialist Group. stages of the project are described in habitats, etc.). • Goren, M. & Ortal, R. (1999) detail in Goren (2009). • Rehabilitation (water supply and Biogeography, diversity and con- quality) and engineering (spawning servation of the inland water fish sites for adults and shelter for juve- communities in Israel. Biological Outcome niles) of the habitat that is planned Conservation 89: 1–9. to accommodate the fish. • Goren, M., Fishelson, L. & Trewa- Our multiple-year effort to prevent • Experimental stocking of the fish in vas, E. (1973) The cyprinid fishes the extinction of the Yarqon bleak the rehabilitated habitat, followed of Acanthobrama Heckel and clearly demonstrates that an im- by releasing the fish in sites that related genera. Bulletin of the perilled fish species can be saved. have been found to be suitable in British Museum of Natural History The combination of experience and the experimental stage. (Zoology) 24: 291–315. scientific research enabled us to keep • Continued monitoring of the habitat the “refugee fish” alive, although and of the reintroduced fish popula- initially they were sick and in very bad tion. condition; to produce a large number • Public relations to raise awareness, of fish in the laboratory; to identify achieve the funds needed for the the reasons for the failure of the first project, secure a long-term supply reintroduced fish to breed; and to of water in arid countries, and gain suggest effective solutions to these the support and goodwill of the problems. The project can be regard- public and decision-makers. ed as highly successful (Goren 2010). The fish reproduced in nature over consecutive years and the popula- Acknowledgements tion has increased significantly in size since the reintroduction. A permanent I am grateful to the students in my supply of good quality water to the laboratory, especially E. Elron, B. rivers was promised by the govern- Libes, Y. Krotman and Y. Gueta, for ment as part of a new approach called the endless time they spent on and “The right of nature to water”. With their devotion to the project of saving breeding of released individuals and the Yarqon bleak. persistence over three generations as success indicators (Goren 2010), the Yarqon bleak, although still classified as Extinct in the Wild, has been successfully returned to nature. WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Socorro Isopod 39

Brian K. Lang1 *, Stephen M. Shuster2 & Rebecca Houtman3 Controlled Propagation » of the Socorro Isopod

Summary

The Socorro isopod (Thermospha- eroma thermophilum), classified as Extinct in the Wild on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species since 1996, is an endemic crustacean restricted to a single thermal spring. This species was used to implement a novel conservation strategy when extirpation in the wild (1988) prompted regulatory authorities to construct the Socorro Isopod Propagation Facility in Socorro, New Mexico, USA. Reintroduction of individuals from captive populations at the University of New Mexico and Albuquerque BioPark to the native spring and the Socorro Isopod Propagation Facility has successfully prevented extinction of the species to date. However, significant differences in population structure have arisen between the native spring and captive populations, and selection on body size, possibly due to cannibalism, appears to have generated unexpected genetic and morphological diversity within this endangered population.

Introduction

Captive rearing often focuses on cilitate assessment of propagation ef- genetic aspects of long-lived, globally fects on genetics, demography, habi- rare vertebrate taxa. Many of these tat and behaviour of invertebrates 1 Conservation Services Division, charismatic vertebrates are poorly under controlled environments. We New Mexico Department of Game suited for manipulative experiments present here a brief 22-year summary and Fish, Santa Fe, NM, USA designed to evaluate even the most of recovery efforts to conserve the 2 Department of Biological Sciences, parsimonious management regimes Socorro isopod (Thermosphaeroma Northern Arizona University, (i.e. limited gene pools often prevent thermophilum) (Crustacea: Flabel- Flagstaff, AZ, USA experimental replication). Inverte- lifera). 3 City of Albuquerque, Albuquerque brate species, however, lend them- BioPark, Albuquerque, NM, USA selves to experimental designs due to * E-mail for correspondence: rapid turnover rates and smaller body [email protected] sizes. Accordingly, these factors fa- 40 Socorro Isopod WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

Control Valve » South 1 North 1 Based on a globally restricted range and threats to its habitat, the Socorro Control Control isopod (Fig. 1) was listed as Endan- gered in 1982 by the State of New Flow Mexico and the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS 1982). Ironically, the South 2 North 2 Socorro isopod appears to have been extirpated in the wild (1988) when Plants Plants discharge of the native spring resulted in desiccation of flow (Lang et al. 2006). The species was subsequently classified as Extinct in the Wild on the South 3 North 3 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Flow in the native spring was Rocks Rocks quickly re-established and the native population was augmented from a captive population (500 individuals) housed at the University of New South 4 North 4 Mexico. This near-extinction event prompted continuance of ex situ Plants & Rocks Plants & Rocks propagation at the University of New Mexico and Albuquerque BioPark, including construction of the Socorro Fig. 2 Isopod Propagation Facility in 1990. Schematic design of the Socorro Isopod Propagation Facility.

This species is cannibalistic with larg- by polyvinyl chloride pipes to create Results er individuals preying more intensely a through-flowing system that drains on younger age classes. Vertical habi- to a leach field. To assess the ef- Genetics (Shuster et al. 2005). Vari- tat structure plays a significant role in fects of habitat structure on Socorro ation in 57 genetic markers showed native and captive-held populations isopod propagation, we replicated that in six years (1990–1996), captive by providing protective cover for four habitat treatments in each of the subpopulations diverged signifi- younger age classes to avoid larger- north and south series pools: pool 1 cantly from the natural population, sized cannibals (Jormalainen & Shus- (no structure, experimental control), and diverged in body length nearly ter 1997; Shuster et al. 2005; Lang pool 2 (plants only), pool 3 (rocks twofold from the natural population, et al. 2006). We briefly summarise only) and pool 4 (rocks and plants). evidently because of cannibalism and here empirical results of a 100-month Pool 4 treatment most closely emu- possibly sexual selection favouring monitoring period that compared the lated native habitat conditions (Shus- large size. We found minimal detecta- effects of captive propagation on an ter et al. 2005; Lang et al. 2006). ble genetic divergence within captive endangered invertebrate relative to subpopulations. monitoring of the native population Over time 1,000 Socorro isopods during the same period of record have been introduced in equivalent Body size (Shuster et al. 2005). (Shuster et al. 2005; Lang et al. 2006). numbers to each pool. Efficacy of Cannibalistic-based selection ap- introductions relative to controlled peared to favour significantly environments was assessed by two increased body size in both sexes Methods separate, 50-monthly census periods among native (smaller-bodied) versus using benthic and sweep samples captive (larger-bodied) populations. The Socorro Isopod Propagation in the Socorro Isopod Propagation As expected, if cannibalism was the Facility (Fig. 2) consists of two series Facility and compared to concurrent source of selection for large body size, (north and south) of four rectangular sampling from the native population. within 15 months (i.e. seven to eight pools (0.53 × 1.63 × 0.75 m). These A genetic study was performed to generations) the rate at which body pools were designed to approximate compare among- and within-popu- size increased became inversely pro- dimensions of the native habitat and lation effects. Body sizes of native portional to the amount of physical are supplied with groundwater from and captive populations were also structure introduced to pools. the natural spring at a rate of 0.02 m3/ compared (Shuster et al. 2005; Lang min. Each series of pools is connected et al. 2006). WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012 Socorro Isopod 41

Demography (Lang et al. 2006). ity of vertical habitat structure, espe- Abundance of isopods in the native cially plants, was evidently necessary References habitat remained significantly higher to maintain age structure heteroge- than densities observed in captive neity among captive isopods, thereby • Bleakley, B. H., Welter, S. M., populations. Habitat treatments of maximising long-term population McCauley-Cole, K., Shuster, the Socorro Isopod Propagation Facil- viability. S. M. & Moore, A. J. (In review) ity that most closely emulated native Pre-cannibalistic aggression is habitat supported significantly higher Small, isolated populations of inver- influenced by social partners in densities of isopods. tebrates that have remained viable the endangered Socorro isopod for long durations after separation (Thermosphaeroma thermophi- Behaviour (Lang et al. 2006; Bleakley from formerly wide-ranging parent lum). Behavioral Ecology. et al. in review). In captivity, Socorro species, such as this one, can provide • Jormalainen, V. & Shuster, S. M. isopods formed “brooding huddles” information useful for identification (1997) Microhabitat segregation where cannibalistic individuals did of genetic changes produced by bot- and cannibalism in an endan- not normally congregate in the wild tlenecks, as well as lend insight for gered freshwater isopod, Ther- population. Relative body size and the management of endemic species mosphaeroma thermophilum. sex influenced the probability of and that are globally rare. Controlled Oecologia 111: 271–279. latency to initiate a cannibalistic propagation of the Socorro isopod • Lang, B. K., Kelt, D. A. & Shus- attack, with larger males tending to has proven to be an effective conser- ter, S. M. (2006) The role of attack more than smaller females. vation management practice that not controlled propagation on an These results corroborate other only has increased total population endangered species: demo- research showing males to be more size, but also has ameliorated threats graphic effects of habitat het- cannibalistic than females, suggest- to the native population by establish- erogeneity among captive and ing that sexual selection and selection ing accessory populations at the So- native populations of the Socorro on body size could be more intense in corro Isopod Propagation Facility and isopod (Crustacea: Flabellifera). captive populations. Albuquerque BioPark. Perhaps most Biodiversity and Conservation 15: importantly, such recovery-oriented 3909–3935. research actually prevented global • Shuster, S. M., Miller, M. P., Lang, Conclusions extinction of this species. B. K., Zorich, N., Huynh, L. & Keim, P. (2005) The effects of Our studies (Shuster et al. 2005; Lang While current research trends urge controlled propagation on an et al. 2006) show that physical sepa- resource managers to adopt eco- endangered species: genetic ration of captive subpopulations from system-based management strate- differentiation and divergence in the natural population, combined gies, our results emphasise the need body size among native and cap- with selection on the captive subpop- to continue research focused on tive populations of the Socorro ulations due to age- and sex-specific species-specific management prac- isopod (Crustacea: Flabellifera). cannibalism, resulted in significant tices, which is particularly germane Conservation Genetics 6: 355–368. genetic divergence between natural to conserve geographically restricted • US Fish and Wildlife Service and captive subpopulations, including populations of non-charismatic inver- (USFWS) (1982). Socorro Isopod significant divergence in body size tebrates such as the Socorro isopod. (Thermosphaeroma thermophi- of captive subpopulations from the lum) Recovery Plan. Albuquerque: natural population and among the USFWS. captive subpopulations themselves. Acknowledgements

Moreover, we note that controlled We acknowledge and thank the many propagation may affect the dynam- individuals who assisted with field ics of social interactions as well as monitoring during our studies. Fund- the species’ mating system. These ing for this research was provided influences may induce a behavioural by the US Fish and Wildlife Service response to selection on body size to and the New Mexico Department of avoid cannibalism, or adjustments to Game and Fish. spatially altered sex ratios in artificial environments. Additionally, complex- WAZA magazine Vol 13/2012

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