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Home , Astronaut, Astronaut training, Dick Scobee, Ellison Onizuka, George Abbey (NASA), Guion Bluford

NASA’s First Shuttle Selection Redefining David J. Shayler and

NASA's First Astronaut Selection

Redefining the Right Stuff David J. Shayler Colin Burgess Astronautical Historian Historian Astro Info Service Ltd Bangor, New South Wales, Australia Halesowen, West Midlands, UK

SPRINGER-PRAXIS BOOKS IN

Springer Praxis Books Space Exploration ISBN 978-3-030-45741-9 ISBN 978-3-030-45742-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45742-6

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Project Editor: Michael D. Shayler Cover design: Jim Wilkie

CAPTIONS FOR COVER IMAGES:

Front: A stunning bird’s-eye view of the , with its External Tank and twin Solid Boosters, during its rollout to Pad 39A at the , , as STS-79 on August 20, 1996. During this mission, John Blaha traded places with TFNG at the end of her six-month tour on the Russian .

Back, top left: The crew of STS-7 on the flight deck ofChallenger , June 1983. Under the command of ‘Crip’ Crippen [rear left], the first four members of the TFNG to fly on the Space Shuttle were [l to r] , the first American woman to fly in space, Pilot Rick Hauck, and Mission Specialists and John Fabian.

Back, top right: Sixteen years later, in July 1999, Mission Specialist Steve Hawley − seen here on the middeck of Columbia during his fifth mission, STS-93 – became the last member of the Class of 1978 to fly in space, ending an era of over 100 missions in orbit.

Back, lower right: The official emblem for the Class of 1978, designed by Robert McCall.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Contents

Authors’ Preface ...... x Acknowledgements ...... xv Foreword ...... xviii Dedication ...... xxii List of Abbreviations and acronyms ...... xxiii Prologue ...... xxviii

1 Expanding on ‘The Right Stuff’ ...... 1 Pioneering the selection of Shuttle ...... 2 Meeting the astronaut criteria ...... 6 Preparing to test the applicants ...... 12 An applicant reflects ...... 16 Other candidate voices ...... 19 The Thirty-Five New Guys (TFNG) ...... 31

2 Who should fly? ...... 39 The evolution of a Shuttle crew ...... 40 Pioneering Space Shuttle astronaut assignments (1969−1980s) ...... 73

3 The new Pilot astronauts ...... 81 Daniel C. Brandenstein ...... 81 Michael L. Coats ...... 82 Richard O. Covey ...... 84 John O. Creighton ...... 85 Robert L. Gibson ...... 85 Frederick D. Gregory ...... 86 S. David Griggs ...... 88 Frederick H. Hauck ...... 89 Jon A. McBride ...... 90

v vi Contents

Steven R. Nagel ...... 91 Francis R. Scobee ...... 92 Brewster H. Shaw ...... 94 Loren J. Shriver ...... 95 David M. Walker ...... 95 Donald E. Williams ...... 96 Some notable but unsuccessful Pilot applicants ...... 97

4 The first Mission Specialists ...... 101 Guion S. Bluford, Jr...... 101 James F. Buchli ...... 102 John M. Fabian ...... 104 Anna L. Fisher ...... 105 Dale A. Gardner ...... 106 Terry J. Hart ...... 107 Steven A. Hawley ...... 108 Jeffrey A. Hoffman ...... 108 Shannon M. W. Lucid ...... 109 Ronald E. McNair ...... 111 Richard M. Mullane ...... 112 George D. Nelson ...... 113 Ellison S. Onizuka ...... 114 Judith A. Resnik ...... 115 Sally K. Ride ...... 116 M. ...... 117 Robert L. Stewart ...... 118 Kathryn D. Sullivan ...... 119 Norman E. Thagard ...... 120 James D. A. van Hoften ...... 121 Some who narrowly missed selection ...... 122

5 All Change in the Astronaut Office ...... 127 Introducing the Thirty-Five New Guys ...... 128 Walking in hallowed halls ...... 140 The Astronaut Office evolves ...... 145 Broadening the opportunities ...... 156 The other ‘odd critters’ ...... 157 Space Shuttle taxi drivers ...... 159 Office regeneration - again ...... 160

6 Ascan pioneers ...... 162 Why an Ascan? ...... 162 Schooling the Ascans ...... 166 Now for the real work ...... 189 The long wait ...... 190 Contents vii

7 Silver Pin astronauts ...... 194 Technical and support assignments ...... 195 Astronaut support roles explained ...... 200 Launch support roles (KSC Florida) ...... 201 Mission support roles (JSC ) ...... 210 Management support roles ...... 227 Ready to earn their Astronaut Wings ...... 228

8 Preparing to fly ...... 229 A new training protocol ...... 230 Space Shuttle crewing nomenclature ...... 232 The astronaut roles on a Shuttle crew ...... 234 Training the Shuttle astronauts ...... 243 November 1980 training status ...... 243 Flight crew tasks circa 1980 ...... 248 Flight Data File ...... 250 Crew responsibilities ...... 250 The Training Division (1986) ...... 251 Planning a training cycle (circa 1986) ...... 254 Shuttle crew training cycle ...... 258 Space Shuttle flight crew training facilities ...... 260 Other NASA locations ...... 271 Department Of Defense (DOD) ...... 273 Foreign lands ...... 275 Putting theory into practice ...... 277 T-minus and counting ...... 278

9 NASA’s All-Electric Flying Machine ...... 280 Supporting the Flight Tests ...... 283 The first flight-suitable TFNG candidates ...... 290 An operational Shuttle ...... 297

10 The TFNG take wings ...... 307 Astronauts at last ...... 308 , spacewalks and schedules ...... 324 A busy year: 1985 ...... 334 Mission impossible ...... 346 Summary ...... 347

11 “Go at throttle up” ...... 349 Challenger ...... 351 The Space Shuttle returns to flight ...... 363 Astronaut departures ...... 365 Announcing a Return-to-Flight crew ...... 369 A decade on ...... 377 viii Contents

A frightening close call ...... 384 Schedules, science commanders and the Soviets ...... 395 Leaking Orbiters ...... 403 A new decade dawns ...... 407

12 The Final Countdowns ...... 411 Into the twilight of an era ...... 412 Co-operating with the Soviets ...... 416 International Spacelabs ...... 419 Freedom to become International ...... 430 A three-phase program ...... 434 The first TFNG visit a (Russian) space station ...... 440 The longest mission ...... 447 of a new era ...... 454 The last flight ...... 455 The final years in the Office ...... 457 Summary ...... 462

13 Flying a desk ...... 465 Hanging up the ...... 465 Where are they now? ...... 472 Moving on ...... 503

14 Reflections ...... 505 A matter of time ...... 505 2018: A ruby year ...... 507 Reflections from the Class of ’78 ...... 511 Summary ...... 522

15 The legacy ...... 523 A close-knit group ...... 525 The legacy of the TFNG ...... 525 NASA After the TFNG ...... 527

Afterword ...... 531

Appendices ...... 534 1: NASA Class of 1978 Astronaut Applicants ...... 534 2: The Class of 1978 ...... 548 3: Group 8 Space Shuttle experience ...... 555 4: Group 8 EVA experience ...... 559 5: NASA Astronaut Group 8: A selected chronology ...... 562 Contents ix

Bibliography ...... 568 About the authors ...... 575 Other works by the authors ...... 578

Index ...... 581 Authors’ Preface

At first, this book was never going to happen. Previously, either individually or working as co-authors, we had researched and put together four books covering the early NASA astronaut selections involving Groups 1 through to 7 between , 1959 and August 14, 1969. During that time, 73 men were chosen to crew and support America’s pioneering manned space missions under the Mercury, Gemini and programs. As mentioned in our previous work, The Last of NASA’s Original Pilot Astronauts, several of these astronauts remained active long enough to crew missions in the first decade of Shuttle flight operations between 1981 and 1990. We knew that 2018 would mark the 40th anniversary of the first astronaut selec- tion of the new Space Shuttle era, and even though we had intended that our previ- ous book on the Group 5 and 7 astronauts would end our collaboration on the subject of astronaut selections, we decided this anniversary should not go unmarked. We therefore determined to research and write the history of NASA’s Group 8 astronauts, unofficially known as The Thirty-Five New Guys, or by the acronym TFNG (which is further explained later in this book). Although there have been biographies and memoirs published on several of the 29 men and six women selected in this 1978 group, in addition to countless maga- zine and newspaper articles, there has never been a book published which fully details the lives, accomplishments and sometimes tragedies associated with each member of this group. That is all presented here, along with the chronology of the selection process begun in 1976, and the personal recollections of some who were successful in their application – and others who were not. Unlike previous astronaut intakes, NASA opened the way for women and minorities with this selection process, not only to apply for the position of Pilot astronaut and the new category of Mission Specialist, but actually to be selected. History records that the civilian space agency announced the names of the 35

x Authors’ Preface xi newly-selected astronaut candidates in January 1978, including four minority selectees and six women. The names of those six women became instantly renowned across the world. This will be the final group selection book we will tackle jointly, but it is a tale which history has dictated should be recorded. We are proud to have compiled and presented this fascinating and truly involving story.

Colin Burgess This new collaborative effort between Dave Shayler and I never started out as part of a series on the selection of NASA’s astronauts leading up to the era of the . In fact, it had its origins in a friendship going back many years, as well as a shared interest in the history of human space exploration – and in record- ing that history. I cannot recall who first came up with the idea all those years ago (most likely Dave) of combining our talents, enthusiasm and research in putting together a book on NASA’s fourth and sixth astronaut groups, known collectively as the -Astronauts, but we found we worked well together, even though we happened to live on opposite sides of the globe. The result, published in 2007, was our first co-authored book for Springer-Praxis, NASA’s Scientist-Astronauts. That book may have ended our cooperative work on the subject of astronaut groups, were it not for one occasion when I was visiting England and the two of us were sharing a meal in a restaurant. During our conversation, we were discuss- ing the selection of the space agency’s very first astronauts for the Mercury pro- gram. We agreed that we shared a mutual frustration, in that the names of five candidates for that role had eluded both of us for many years. Then, in a stroke of remarkably good fortune, I was contacted by former mili- tary man, Walter (“Sully”) Sullivan, who had acted as the liaison officer for the 32 Mercury astronaut finalists back in 1959 at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, . He had read a post on the subject I placed in the collectSPACE.com forum, and kindly offered to assist me if I wanted to write a book about this selection group. Most importantly, he had a complete list of the 32 Mercury finalists. I quickly agreed, and he subsequently sent me the names of the missing five candi- dates. Sadly he is no longer with us, but with Sully working as a contact liaison and guarantor for me, I managed to locate all of the Mercury candidates or their surviving family members, and the result was the 2011 book, Selecting the : The Search for America’s First Astronauts. Following the publication of this book, I had no plans to put together a follow- ­on title delving into the selection of the second NASA astronaut group. That is until one propitious day when Dave contacted me in excitement. He said that in his latest search of NASA’s treasure trove of historical records he had unearthed documents giving the names of all the finalists for not only the second, but also the third astronaut groups. With his own research for a number of books meaning he xii Authors’ Preface could not even look at this new project, he kindly offered those lists to me, and a whole new (and successful) hunt for these men or their family members began, culminating in a 2013 book on both groups for Springer-Praxis called Bound: Choosing and Preparing NASA’s Lunar Astronauts. That same year, with the selection of NASA groups 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 now covered in books, Dave and I began serious discussions on the possibility of combining resources once again to produce a new book detailing the process of choosing astronauts who became part of the two remaining pre-Shuttle classes: NASA Groups 5 and 7 (the latter also known as the MOL group). A contract was signed and work began, albeit slowly at first as we were both engaged in putting together other contracted books for Springer-Praxis over the next couple of years. Initially, our research and writing on the two groups was sporadic, but it began to pick up steam once those other obligations had been cleared. In 2017 this new book was published, and we felt we had finally recorded, separately and in partnership, the selection of seven groups of amazingly talented and bold men who pioneered America’s dynamic space program before the advent of the reusable Space Shuttle. The lure of writing about the 1978 Group 8 selection inexorably led to an email correspondence on the subject, and once we had agreed to tackle this new book the work began. I know that we are both proud to have been to record the stories of these very remarkable men and women, some of whom are no longer with us, and we are grateful to everyone who assisted in putting together this wonderful book, which we hope will be read and enjoyed by many generations to come.

David J. Shayler From the late 1960s, the arrival of a familiar brown envelope – emblazoned with the NASA logo – was eagerly anticipated, answering my latest request and filled with documents or photos from the public affairs departments of the different NASA field centers. In the summer of 1978, I awaited the envelope containing background information and images of the recently selected 35 individuals of the eighth NASA astronaut class. When I finally received the package and looked at the images, I recall thinking how youthful they looked compared to the seasoned veterans chosen in the 1960s. This first intake of NASA astronauts for a decade was certainly a dif- ferent composition, featuring the first female and minority astronaut candidates chosen by the space agency. Even the phrase ‘astronaut candidate’ was different. No longer were these new astronauts considered to be fully-­fledged ‘astronauts’ from their first day at NASA. They were going to have to earn that title by complet- ing a training and evaluation program first. For me that did not matter, as they had been named as the next astronaut class by NASA and, in my system, qualified for individual archive folders that expanded over the coming years as their biographi- cal details were researched, assignments recorded and space flights logged. Authors’ Preface xiii

I had been collecting information about each NASA astronaut group and their members since the 1960s, subsequently expanded to include details on the Soviet cosmonauts and other international space explorers. From the late 1970s, this had led to articles in the publications of the British Interplanetary Society – most nota- bly Spaceflight – assisting other authors in their research, and self-publishing a range of titles on the early NASA astronaut groups and the Shuttle program through my company Astro Info Service. Over the years, I had established contacts at NASA’s Johnson Space Flight Center in Houston, and at the NASA History Office in Washington D.C., who had kindly replied to my numerous queries and questions. By the 1980s, I had in my collection a growing number of letters from former and current astronauts which gradually filled the gaps in my research into the structure and workings of the NASA Astronaut Office, the experiences of those lucky few who had flown in space, and the assignments that the astronauts held in between their missions. Aided by a growing network of co-researchers across the globe, including a cer- tain Colin Burgess in Australia, my archive of information on the world’s space explorers has continued to expand to this day. One area in which I was especially interested was researching the extensive support roles the astronauts fulfilled in between missions, and with it the story about what astronauts really do when not flying in space. Starting with the first crewed flights of Apollo, and in addition to detailing the astronauts’ roles and accomplishments on each space flight, I became intrigued by the roles fulfilled by those who supported the missions, securing that little snippet of detail, obscure piece of information, or item of little-known fact. Simply reporting that an astro- naut had ‘supported’ a mission was not enough for me. I wanted to know what they had supported and what that role involved. By the 1980s, that became more convoluted when trying to piece together the careers of the astronauts during the far more complex Shuttle program. To my mind, understanding the evolution of the astronauts’ roles and their assignments is as important as the missions they fly. While compiling this current title, we were able to access a number of official documents pertaining to the various support assignments across the 135 Shuttle missions. These have been used to track the support roles of both the TFNG and other members of the Astronaut Office. However, there are gaps in the records and I would appreciate any additional information (via the contact details on my web- site, www.astroinfoservice.co.uk) from readers who may be able to fill in these gaps to document the complete picture of astronaut support roles during the Shuttle program. For me, a significant change to the system of NASA astronaut selection, train- ing and assignments occurred with the naming of the Class of 1978. These “Thirty-­ Five New Guys” represented a different era from those chosen a decade earlier. Even the selection process had matured to reflect the changes in the program, the experiences from past selections, and the hopes for the future. With the selection xiv Authors’ Preface of the eighth group of astronauts, there were new elements to this process: pilots with a broader range of flying experiences and the introduction of multi-skilled Mission Specialists instead of Scientist-Astronauts. Unlike their scientific prede- cessors, the Mission Specialists were not required to qualify from an intensive military jet pilot course before continuing with their astronaut career. Even in the late 1970s, the prospect of flying regular, more complex missions in the Shuttle program hinted at a team of astronauts who would almost be earning ‘frequent-­ flyer’ status. By the early 1980s, many of the legendary pioneering NASA astronauts – those who had the so-called ‘Right Stuff” qualities born in the 1950s test-pilot fraternity, as coined by author in his 1979 book – had long since retired. They had blazed the trail into space and on to the Moon, and had put the untried Shuttle system through its paces. From now on, a new era of astronauts would take up the mantle and define a new, different era of ‘Right Stuff’, as team players in a more bureaucratic NASA and a far more complex program than it had been just decade or so before. When Colin first suggested a third collaborative venture on the Class of 1978, I was as intrigued by their story as I had been with those from the earlier selections. The TFNG were indeed pioneers in their own right, creating an era that would last longer than that of the original astronauts they had followed. They, in turn, unwit- tingly molded a new image of a multi-talented crewmember, which would morph again in the new millennium and yet another generation of post-Shuttle NASA astronauts. For me, these 35 individuals of the eighth selection represented the next step, after the Moon, in American space flight history. Almost immediately, the youthful-looking 35 took up the mantle of the ‘original 73’ astronauts chosen between 1959 and 1969, remolded it to fit a new program and a new NASA, and fulfilled their remit of active participation in the Shuttle program, either in support roles, as crewmembers, or latterly as managers across the 30-year program. This, then, is their story, one which ranks alongside that of their pioneering colleagues, who together earned the right to be known as an American astronaut. Acknowledgements

Dave Shayler A project such as this requires a significant amount of research, and by the very nature of such research, the assistance of a number of key individuals to guide and aid you in that task. Prominent for me in this ‘support team’ over the past four decades have been the various members of the NASA History and Public Affairs Offices at NASA HQ and JSC. Without their help and support, access to the information presented in this and many of my past and upcoming publications would not have been pos- sible. The oral histories of the TFNG within the NASA JSC Oral History Project have been especially useful in writing this book. In addition, the archived docu- ments of former NASA Flight Director Cliff Charlesworth, originally located at JSC when researched by the authors, have also proven to be a valuable asset in detailing the Astronaut Office assignments for each Shuttle mission quoted. Thanks also to Ed Gibson, Group 4 Scientist-Astronaut and Group 8 selection board member, for his generous Foreword. Considerable assistance for this project has been provided by Group 8 astro- nauts Hoot Gibson, Steve Hawley and Rhea Seddon. Special mention must also be made of fellow TFNG Mike Coats, Dick Covey, Jeff Hoffman, George “Pinky” Nelson, Norman Thagard and Kathy Sullivan, who were all interviewed over the years − primarily for other writing projects − but whose answers and information provided have also proven valuable for this book. Special thanks are extended to Michael Cassutt, esteemed author of the trilogy of Who’s Who in Space compendiums and authoritative biographies on , Tom Stafford and George Abbey, for his guidance through the challeng- ing and changing history of the NASA Astronaut Office and its various branches. Thanks also go to Bert Vis for his support and suggestions. Special thanks are due to Mario and Susan Runco for sharing with us their of their own appli- cations to Group 8.

xv xvi Acknowledgements

A special thank you also to Tim Gagnon for permission to replicate his design for the official TFNG 40th anniversary emblem. Thanks also to the staff and Council of the British Interplanetary Society for access to their library and archive, which has been of immense value in compiling this book. Once again, the extensive resources of our co-author and friend, the late Rex Hall MBE, former President of the BIS, have proven invaluable during our research. We also express our continued thanks to Clive Horwood of Praxis Publishers for his support and encouragement of our numerous book proposals over the past two decades and to the team at Springer Nature, including Maury Solomon and Hannah Kaufman in . Appreciation also goes to Jim Wilkie for his skills in turning our cover ideas into the final design. Finally, on the produc- tion side, many thanks to my brother Mike Shayler who, during very difficult times, once again applied his professional and dedicated editing and wordsmith skills to turn our original draft into the finished product you see here. Thanks also to my mother, Jean Shayler, who at 91 continues to be involved in reading each draft page of my latest book project, and to my wife Bel for her con- tinued love, support and understanding in that I will always wish to write just one more book… and maybe another after that… and then another. Also, to our beloved German Shepherd Shado, our wolf in dog’s clothing, who still cannot quite work out why I spend so much time away from more serious pursuits such as throwing a ball or running around a field.

To all a very large and appreciative thank you. Dave Shayler

Colin Burgess I can really only echo Dave Shayler’s thanks to and comments on so many people who participated to varying degrees in the research and compilation of this book, which we regard as an important into the selection of the first group of astronauts specifically chosen to operate on NASA’s fleet of Shuttle Orbiters. From the outset, we have received a great deal of support, not only from those astronauts named by Dave, but from a whole range of people connected in so many ways to the selection of the TFNG group, their training, missions and myr- iad achievements. There are so many helpers to whom Dave and I owe our sincere thanks. The mere listing of names can in no way suggest our tremendous feelings of gratitude towards these individuals. Without their interest and cooperation it would have been literally impossible to collect, transcribe, organize or publish the information and stories gathered together in this book. Dave, as chief motivator for this proj- ect, has covered much of this territory in listing his acknowledgements, but I have Acknowledgements xvii a few more names to add. Each has added immeasurably to this publication, and both of us are extremely grateful. For their kind assistance, I would like to thank these good folks who were involved in the selection of the TFNG group, and responded to our queries. Special personal thanks go to , the first American woman to serve as a Director of the (JSC) in Houston, and a member of the Group 8 selection panel. Collective thanks also to a representative few of the unsuccessful candidates for relating their experiences while undergoing the selec- tion process, namely: Frank R. Harnden, Jr., William D. Heacox, Major Gary W. Matthes (USAF, Ret.), Dr. Joseph K. (Ken) Ortega, Dr. Lawrence (Larry) Pinsky, and Wilton T. Sanders. III. Additional information was provided by retired NASA astronaut Jerry Ross and former Specialist Charlie Walker. I would also like to thank a long-time supporter of our projects, namely Ed Hengeveld, for his assistance in tracking down some lesser-known photographs for use in this book, and for the same reason our appreciation goes to Joachim Becker of Spacefacts.de. The definitive source for many answers to our questions is space forum Collectspace.com, and its founder and chief motivator, Robert Pearlman. Other helpers include and David Shomper. I thank them for their wisdom and guidance. As Dave has expressed his love and thanks to his family, so I also shower my wife of more than five decades, Pat, with love and gratitude for putting up with me and my countless hours spent hunched over my laptop, surrounded on our study floor by piles of books, magazines, photographs, scrap books, folders and old, yel- lowing newspapers. If I have forgotten anyone, my sincere apologies. You are all champions.

Colin Burgess Foreword

On January 16, 1978, NASA announced the selection of 35 new astronauts, the eighth group selected, who chose to call themselves the Thirty-Five New Guys (TFNG). There had been no additions to the Corps since August of 1969. This delay resulted from the long gap between the end of the Apollo-type missions in 1975 and the first Shuttle flight in 1981. But in the late 1970s, the need for highly qualified and motivated professionals became immediate as well as long term. The capabilities of the 35 new guys greatly exceeded requirements and expectations. I was given the to be a member of their selection board and thereby got to know them on paper and in person rather quickly. Coming into the Astronaut Office with little previous experience in this type of high-powered, informal opera- tion required some time to adjust. However, every one of the TFNG were hard char- gers and there to contribute to the advancement of America in space to the best of their abilities. Any intimidation was quickly replaced with their drive to perform. It was a diverse group: 15 military pilots and 20 composed of 29 males and NASA’s first six females. Other firsts included three African-Americans and one Asian-American. Despite their pride in their diversity, they quickly put their team identity and its contributions above all considerations. In addition, just like the pilots and scientists since the fourth group of astronauts, pilots also con- tributed to the onboard science and scientists also performed many space opera- tional duties. Unlike previous groups, except for the Apollo- mission with , the TFNG would soon encounter working relationships with many international astro- nauts and experimenters from Europe, , , , the Middle East and Russia. Once the International Space Station was in operation, working in an international environment became routine for all astronauts, especially the TFNG.

xviii Foreword xix

Over the next two decades, the TFNG contributed a total of 103 individual flights for an average of three flights per member. They performed: • Retrieval and repair of satellites and other facilities and equipment in orbit • The first untethered spacewalks ‘flying’ the MMU • operations • Shuttle-Russian Mir station dockings • Russian Mir station operations using Soyuz and Shuttle transportation systems

Skylab 4 Science Pilot Ed Gibson

A brief mention of a few of the TFNG illustrate the capabilities, drive and accomplishments of this group. xx Foreword

During STS-61 commanded by Richard Covey, Jeff Hoffman, partnered by veteran astronaut , performed three of the five very difficult space walks to restore the designed-in level of visual acuity to the Hubble , which then revolutionized the field of . After earning BSc and MSc degrees in , Norm Thagard flew 163 combat missions in as a U.S. Marine Corps aviator, then earned his MD before flying four Shuttle missions as a NASA Mission Specialist. Lastly, he was the first American to fly a mission on the Russian Mir space station and paved the way for six of his fellow countrymen. On his 115-day mission, he also broke the American record for time in space that had lasted for 21 years. Another member of the group, Shannon Lucid, later broke this record with a flight of slightly over six months, also on the Mir space station. Regrettably, five members of the group paid the ultimate price for their partici- pation. On the morning of , 1986, STS-51L lifted off with hanging from the launch gantry. It had been approximately 20 degrees below the stated SRB-lower-temperature limit overnight. Thus, at 73 seconds into the mission, the booster exploded, killing all seven crew members including four members of the TFNG: (Commander), Judy Resnik, and Ron McNair. In the selection process, I became quite familiar with Ron McNair’s back- ground. As he grew up in poverty, he became skilled in football and interested in science. While earning a degree in a small college, he was given the opportunity to work at MIT in the summers and later was accepted there for graduate school where he earned a PhD. Along the way, he had also become a black belt in karate, which he used to help other children growing up in the same situation that he had. Each time he moved into a new environment, he found a church that had a base- ment that he could use to gather local youth and teach them the discipline of the sport. He got many young men moving in a constructive direction. He was an admirable black youth from poverty who made all the right decisions. Additionally, Dave Griggs, who flew on Discovery in April 1985, when he made first unrehearsed spacewalk to rescue a stranded , died in an accident on June 17, 1989. The many significant contributions of the TFNG did not end when their flying days concluded. Many went on to perform exceptionally well in management. For example, Mike Coats became the Director of the Johnson Space Center and Kathy Sullivan went on to become the head of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Many others stepped into leadership positions in industry or other government organizations. Also, although not quantifiable but certainly important and real, the perfor- mance and diversity of the TFNG inspired many students in science, technology, engineering and math and many women and minorities to pursue their dreams where they might not have been so inclined without the leadership examples in the TFNG. Foreword xxi

The strength and diversity of the numerous ways in which the TFNG have dis- played their own unique ‘Right Stuff’ has significantly enhanced America’s perfor- mance in space and science. It flowed directly from the group’s 35 individual skill sets, drives and . The TFNG are a tough act to follow!

Edward G. Gibson (PhD) Former NASA Astronaut (Group 4, 1965) Science Pilot 4 (November 1973 – February 1974) Member, Group 8 Selection Board

NASA Astronaut Gold Pin

This book is dedicated with gratitude to the lives and many accomplishments of the Group 8 astronauts who no longer share our days, but will live on in our memories.

Dale A. Gardner S. David Griggs Ronald E. McNair Steven R. Nagel Ellison S. Onizuka Judith A. Resnik Sally K. Ride Francis R. Scobee David M. Walker Donald E. Williams

A blade of grass is commonplace on Earth; it would be a miracle on . Our descendants on Mars will know the value of a patch of green. And if a blade of grass is priceless, what is the value of a human being?

Carl Sagan (1934−1996) Abbreviations and Acronyms

Informal Military Designations USAF “FS” stands for Fighter Squadron; “RS” for Reconnaissance Squadron; “BS” for Bomber Squadron U.S. Navy “V” stands for fixed wing; “F” for fighter wing; “A” for attack; “Q” for electronic; “R” stands for Reserve but can also stand for Reconnaissance; “W” for early Warning; “T” for training; “X” for test and evaluation (as in eXperimental) USMC Marine air units use the suffix “M” within the U.S. Naval designation coding, such as VMFA for fixed, with AW added for “All Weather” squadrons

AB Air Base AFB Air Force Base AFTPS Air Force School (Edwards AFB, ) AFIT Air Force Institute of Technology (Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio) AFSC Air Force Systems Command ATO Abort To Orbit (abort mode) ALT Approach and Landing Tests (Space Shuttle) AOA Abort Once Around (abort mode) ARPS Aerospace Research Pilot School (Edwards AFB, California) ASCAN Astronaut Candidate BIS British Interplanetary Society (London, England) BSc degree BUp Back Up (crewmember)

xxiii xxiv Abbreviations and Acronyms

CapCom Capsule Communicator (Mission Control) C2 Cape Crusader (KSC astronaut support team) CB Astronaut Office, LBJ Space Center (JSC) mail code CDR Commander CEIT Crew Equipment Interface Test CERN/EP European Organization for Nuclear Research/Experimental Division CfA Center for Astrophysics (Cambridge, ) CO Commanding Officer (DOD) CU Boulder University of Colorado (Boulder, Colorado) DOD Department of Defense DOTF Deployments and Operations Task Force DSO Detailed Supplementary Objectives DTO Detailed Test Objectives DVM Doctor of Veterinary Medicine EAFB (California) EDT Eastern Daylight Time EMU Extravehicular Mobility Unit (Shuttle spacesuit) EOM End Of Mission ER Emergency Room ESA EST Eastern Standard Time ET External (fuel) Tank (Space Shuttle) EV EVA astronaut 1, 2, 3 or 4 EVA Extra-Vehicular Activity (spacewalk) FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation FBIS Fellow of the British Interplanetary Society FDF Flight Data File FCOD Flight Crew Operations Directorate FPO Fleet Post Office FRF Flight Readiness Firing g force GAS Get Away Special GET Ground (Mission) Elapsed Time GSFC (Dr. Robert H.) Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland HF/DF High Definition/Direction Finding (also known as Huff Duff) HQ Headquarters HST Abbreviations and Acronyms xxv

ISS International Space Station IUS Interim Upper Stage IV IVA astronaut (EVA support crewmember) IVA Intra-Vehicular Activity JSC (Lyndon B.) Johnson Space Center (from 1973), Houston, (formerly MSC) KSC (John F.) Kennedy Space Center (Florida) LANTIRN Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night LC Launch Complex LCDR Lieutenant Commander LST Large Space Telescope (renamed Hubble Space Telescope) MAW Marine Air Wing MCAS Marine Corps Air Station MCC (MSC/JSC, Houston, Texas) MD MECO Main Engine Cut-Off MET Mission (Ground) Elapsed Time MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Cambridge, Massachusetts) MLP MMU (Space Shuttle) MOCR Mission Operations Control Room (MSC/JSC) MOL Manned Orbiting Laboratory MPS Main Propulsion System (SSME/SRB/ET) MS Mission Specialist (Space Shuttle) MSc Master of Science degree MSC Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston (Texas); renamed Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) in 1973 MSE Manned Spaceflight (military Payload Specialists) MSFC (George C.) Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville (Alabama) NAS Naval Air Station NAS/NRC National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council NASA National and Space Administration NATC Naval Air Training Command NAVELEX Naval Electronics System Command NBL Laboratory ( Facility, Houston) NBS Neutral Buoyancy Simulator (Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville) NORAD North American Aerospace Defense Command (Colorado Springs, Colorado) xxvi Abbreviations and Acronyms

NRC National Research Council (Washington D.C.) OFT Orbital Flight Tests OMS Orbital Maneuvering System (Space Shuttle) OPF Orbiter Processing Facility OV Orbital Vehicle (Space Shuttle) PAM (upper stage) PAO Public Affairs Office/Officer PC Payload Commander PDRS Payload Deployment and Retrieval System PhD Doctorate degree PLT Pilot PS RADM Rear Admiral RAF Royal Air Force RCA Radio Corporation of America RMS Remote Manipulator System (Space Shuttle) ROTC Reserve Officer Training Corps RSLS Redundant Set Launch Sequence (abort mode) RTLS Return To Launch Site (abort mode) SAIL Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory SAMSO Space And Military Systems Organization SCA (modified ) SL Spacelab SLS Spacelab Life Sciences SMM Shuttle Mir (docking) Mission SMS Shuttle Mission Simulator SRB Solid Rocket Booster (Space Shuttle) SRM Solid Rocket Motor (Space Shuttle) SSME Space Shuttle Main Engine STA Shuttle Training Aircraft STS Space Transportation System (Space Shuttle) TACT Transonic Aircraft Technology TAL Transoceanic Abort Landing (abort mode) TDRS(S) Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (System) TFNG Thirty-Five New Guys (Group 8 astronaut candidates) TPS Test Pilot School UCLA University of California, (California) USA United Space Alliance or Army Abbreviations and Acronyms xxvii

USAF USAFA United States Air Force Academy (Colorado Springs, Colorado) USC University of Southern California (California) USGS United States Geological Survey USMA United States Military Academy (West Point, New York State) USMC United States Marine Corps USMCR United States Marine Corps Reserve USN USNA United States Naval Academy (Annapolis. Maryland) USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1917–1991) now Russia VAB Vehicle Assembly Building (KSC, Florida) VAFB Vandenberg Air Force Base (California) WETF Weightless Environment Training Facility (JSC) Prologue

Some 40 years ago, in the intermediate days of the post-Apollo and pre-Space Shuttle era, the roads south east of Houston, Texas were a lot less congested than one would expect to find today. For 29-year-old Barbara Anne (Tracey) Sauerland MD, this made for an easy 19-mile (31-km) drive to the Johnson Space Center (JSC) from her home in Galveston. Born in New England, Connecticut, Dr. Sauerland had attended the nearby St. Thomas Aquinas High School, later earning a degree in and then a doctorate in Neurochemistry and general practitioner’s degree from the University of Texas Medical Branch. By January 1978, she was working in JSC’s Space and Life Sciences Directorate, and was a regular, familiar sight to the cen- ter’s guard, who would promptly smile and wave her through. Like her then husband, prominent psychiatrist Professor Eberhardt Sauerland MD, Tracey was keen on taking her profession and experience into space, com- pleting an application for the 1978 astronaut selection program by the due date of June 30, 1977. In the previous decade, her husband had applied to become an Apollo-era astronaut, but had not made it through to the final selection. Tracey was determined to go further, and even held out hopes – however remote – of one day becoming the first American woman to venture into space. As she told one reporter, there was an odd childhood pointer that could work in her favor, namely that she did not get sick in machines – handy enough when being whirled around at 30 rpm by a dizzying device designed to measure . “I was the only one of our gang that used to go to the fairground and try everything without a murmur,” she said1.

1 Sydney newspaper, unaccredited article, “Going Up – A Real Bionic Woman,” December 9, 1977

xxviii Prologue xxix

By midnight on the due date, a total of 8,079 applications had been received by NASA for consideration, which included 1,544 from women. There were 1,261 pilot applications and 6,818 for the position of Mission Specialist. Eventually, the number of suitably qualified applications was processed down to just 208. To her delight, Tracey Sauerland’s name was still on this reduced list. Beginning with the first 20 in August 1977, the 208 remaining astronaut appli- cants began arriving at JSC to undertake a week-long series of personal interviews, coupled with physical and psychiatric examinations. The final selection procedure was expected to be completed by November. The following month, the selection board would meet to determine which of the applicants best suited the require- ments for future Shuttle pilots as well as the new category of Mission Specialist, with up to 20 to be chosen in each category. Those selected would report for duty at JSC in July 1978. After two years of training and evaluation – and assuming there were no unforeseen problems with any candidate – they would officially be named as NASA astronauts and become eligible for flights on future Space Shuttle missions. The training/evaluation time was later decreased to just one year.

Dr. Tracy Sauerland and (right) trying on an Apollo spacesuit.

Dr. Sauerland was notified that she would be assessed in the third group of applicants, reporting to JSC on Monday, August 29 for her week of individual interviews and physical examinations. All 20 of the applicants in her group held doctorates or medical degrees, or both, and one (Michael Kastello) even had a degree in veterinary science. Eight of their number were women. xxx Prologue

On January 16, 1978, NASA Administrator Dr. Robert A. Frosch announced the selection of the 35 candidates who would begin with America’s space corps later in the year. Included in that number were six women, plus the first three African-Americans, and the first Asian-American (who later became the first person of Japanese ancestry to fly into space). Collectively, they were introduced to the world in February 1978 as NASA’s Group 8 astronauts. However, they also came to be known by the less formal acro- nym TFNG, which (in polite usage) stood for ‘the Thirty-Five New Guys’. Two decades earlier, America’s first astronauts had been selected for the series of human space flights, and NASA was now preparing for the upcoming test flights of the spacecraft known as the Shuttle Transportation System (STS), or more simply, the Space Shuttle. While pilots would still be required to fly the innovative winged vehicle, this group marked a time of operational and cultural changes within the nation’s space program, which came with the emergence of a new breed of astronaut known as the Mission Specialist. Among their intended tasks was the operation of critical systems aboard the Shuttle, conducting intricate tests and experiments, and assist- ing in the deployment of satellites from the Orbiter’s capacious payload bay through the manual manipulation of a multi-jointed robotic arm. In the previous seven all-male astronaut selections, the task of crewing Mercury, Gemini and Apollo spacecraft had fallen to men with previous test-piloting expe- rience, or scientists willing to be trained as jet pilots. Now, for the first time, six of the 35 newly-appointed Astronaut Candidates (Ascans) were women. Minorities were also included. A breakdown of the Group 8 list demonstrates an end to the archaic and contro- versial gender and racial barriers that had existed since the space agency named its Group 1 Mercury astronauts back in 1959. Looking at statistics, 15 of those named fell into the Pilot category and 20 were potential Mission Specialists. Furthermore, the group consisted of 14 civilians and 21 military officers. Pressed as to why there had been no ethnic minorities or women in the astro- naut corps until that time, JSC Director Christopher Columbus Kraft boldly stated at a press conference in Washington that there had been few qualified minorities and women when the last group of astronauts had been chosen in . “The most rewarding thing [about this astronaut group] is that there were large numbers of qualified women and minorities this time around,” a diplomatic Kraft said. “We had no problem finding women and minorities who were qualified and highly motivated as to what they wanted to do2.”

2 Washington Post newspaper, article, “NASA announces selection of 35 Shuttle astronauts”, January 17, 1978 Prologue xxxi

With her own qualifications and experience, Tracey Sauerland had been hoping to make the final cut, but she would be disappointed. Her name was not one of those chosen by NASA for their Group 8 astronaut cadre, and she received the dreaded phone call from a NASA aide, who said that her application had been unsuccessful on this occasion. Shaken but undeterred, she would try again for the May 1980 selection, but once again missed out. That particular dream was now at an end and she went into a lifetime career in radiology. The six women chosen were identified by Dr. Frosch as Anna Fisher of Rancho Palos Verdes, California; Shannon Lucid of Oklahoma City; of Redondo Beach, California; Sally Ride of Stanford, California; Margaret Rhea Seddon of Memphis, Tennessee; and Kathryn Sullivan of Halifax, Nova Scotia. All would serve as Mission Specialists – a combination flight engineer and scien- tist – on Space Shuttle crews. The African-Americans (referred to as “blacks” in the 1978 announcement) were Air Force Maj. of Dayton, Ohio, picked as a Mission Specialist; Air Force Maj. Frederick Gregory of Hampton, Virginia, chosen as a full-fledged Shuttle pilot; and Ronald McNair of Marina Del Rey, California, a Mission Specialist. Named as the “oriental” candidate, from , was Air Force Capt. Ellison Onizuka of Edwards Air Force Base, California, also a Mission Specialist. The announcement further stated that the astronaut candidates would report to JSC in Houston on July 1, joining the 27 existing astronauts on active duty, for an anticipated two years of training to fly the Space Shuttle in the 1980s. With as many as 60 flights a year then being proposed for the Shuttle program, it was reasonably expected that the 35 candidates would quickly become seasoned space travelers, given far more flight opportunities than the pioneering pilot astro- nauts of the preceding two decades. “We really did look for people who had an open view of what was expected of them,” said Dr. Stuart A. Bergman, Jr., then chief of the medical operations branch at JSC. “Some of the people who came in for interviews voluntarily dropped out after they learned what they would have to do.” Still, he and others did expect there would be some teething problems as the non-pilot candidates moved through their training and evaluation period. “Scientists are not the most cooperative boy scouts you will find,” Bergmann added. “They tend to be individualists who want to know why they are being asked to perform a certain task. The Space Shuttle program is designed to give the scientist-astronauts a broad role in managing the scientific to be carried into space in the Shuttle’s cargo hold3.”

3 Lane, Earl, Los Angeles Times article, “The Space Shuttlers – A New Generation of ‘Career’ Astronauts,” November 12, 1978, pg. F1 xxxii Prologue

Dr. Stuart Alonzo (Lon) Bergman Jr.

Although they missed out on selection in the Group 8 intake, 13 of the unsuc- cessful Pilot/Mission Specialist candidates would become NASA astronauts over the next two intakes. Twelve of these were selected in the Group 9 cadre in May 1980 (James Bagian, John Blaha, Roy Bridges, Bonnie Dunbar, William Fisher, , Ronald Grabe, John Lounge, Bryan O’Connor, Richard Richards, Jerry Ross and Robert Springer). The 13th candidate, , was eventually selected in the Group 11 cadre in May 1984. Another unsuccessful candidate was Millie Hughes-Wiley (later Hughes-­ Fulford), who would never join the astronaut ranks, but flew aboard Shuttle Columbia as a non-NASA Payload Specialist on the STS-40/SLS-1 mission, launched on June 5, 1991. The TFNG faced many obstacles along the way during their training and evalu- ation period prior to the completion of the Shuttle’s test program, but everyone saw it through. Then, with the Space Shuttle becoming fully operational, the ini- tial crews were selected. The first of the Group 8 astronauts to fly were listed as crewmembers on the seventh shuttle mission, STS-7. In fact, the only member of that crew who was not one of the TFNG was mission Commander Bob Crippen, flying his second Shuttle mission after successfully serving as Pilot alongside Commander on the first Shuttle orbital mission, STS-1, launched on , 1981. The other four members of Crippen’s STS-7 crew were Pilot Fred Hauck and Mission Specialists John Fabian, Sally Ride (making her the first female U.S. astronaut to fly into space) and Norm Thagard. Prologue xxxiii

The crew of the STS-7 Challenger mission are: [first row l-r] MS Sally Ride, CDR , PLT Frederick H. Hauck [rear row l-r] MS John Fabian and MS Norman Thagard. STS-7 launched the first five-member crew and the first American female astro- naut into space on , 1983. All but Crippen were members of Group 8, the TFNG astronauts.

As a whole, the Group 8 astronauts performed magnificently, although several of their number were sadly lost as the years went by. In his memoir Riding , TFNG Mission Specialist explained the statistics relating to the group. “TFNGs logged nearly a thousand man-days in space and sixteen spacewalks,” he wrote. “Five became veterans of five space missions (Gibson, Hawley, Hoffman, Lucid and Thagard). The first TFNGs entered space in 1983 aboard STS-7. Steve Hawley became the last TFNG in space sixteen years later, when he launched on his fifth mission, STS-93, in 1999. TFNGs were ultimately represented on the crews of fifty different Shuttle missions and commanded twenty-eight of those. It is not an exaggeration to say TFNGs were the astronauts most responsible for tak- ing NASA out of its post-Apollo hiatus and to the threshold of the International Space Station (ISS)4.” This, then, is their remarkable story.

4 Mullane, Mike, Riding Rockets: The Outrageous Tales of a Space Shuttle Astronaut, Scribner Books, New York, NY, 2006