The Journal of the International Society for Frontier Missiology

Int’l Journal of Frontier Missiology

Muhammad

167 From the Editor’s Desk Brad Gill The Shifting Significance of Muhammad 169 Articles

169 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? Harley Talman Venturing where angels fear to tread.

191 Towards a Theology of Islam: A Response to Harley Talman Martin Accad A clear and present mandate for evangelicals.

195 From Prophethood to the Gospel: Talking to Folk Muslims about Jesus Perry Pennington Prayer can tell us a lot about the role of the Prophet.

204 Middle East Consultation 2014: The Challenges of Following Jesus in the Middle East and North Africa A candid report from the cradle of monotheisms.

209 Religious Syncretism as a Syncretistic Concept: The Inadequacy of the “World Religions” Paradigm in Cross-Cultural Encounter H. L. Richard Is syncretism in the eye of the beholder?

216 Book Reviews 216 Song of the Heart

218 In Others’ Words 218 Different Views of the Prophet Muhammad The Connection Between Islam and Violence The Middle East is Not Just Muslim Prophetological Worldviews Make the Front Page Middle Eastern Missiologists Respond to Atlantic Article The Witness of the Egyptian Martyrs 31:4October–December 2014 WilliamWilliam CareyCarey LibraryLibrary

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ISBN:ISBN: 978-0-87808-479-1 978-0-87808-479-1 Alan Alan Tippett Tippett (Author), (Author), ISBN:ISBN: 978-0-87808-477-7 978-0-87808-477-7 Alan Alan Tippett Tippett (Author), (Author), ISBN:ISBN: 978-0-87808-478-4 978-0-87808-478-4 Alan Alan Tippett Tippett (Author), (Author), DougDoug Priest Priest (Editor) (Editor) DougDoug Priest Priest (Editor) (Editor) DougDoug Priest Priest (Editor), (Editor), Charles Charles Kraft Kraft (Editor) (Editor) WCLWCL | Pages | Pages 234 234 | Paperback | Paperback 2014 2014 WCLWCL | Pages | Pages 416 416 | Paperback | Paperback 2014 2014 WCLWCL | Pages | Pages 580 580 | Paperback | Paperback 2013 2013

MISSIONBOOKS.ORGMISSIONBOOKS.ORG | | 1-800-MISSION 1-800-MISSION The Shifting Significance of Muhammad October–December 2014 Volume 31:4

t can be quite a shock for Christians to realize what the Prophet Editor Brad Gill Muhammad really means to a Muslim. I can recall the first time I heard Editor-at-Large about the “toothpick of Muhammad.” How strange, I thought, that the Rory Clark purity of fasting during Ramadan could be reduced to how Muhammad had Consulting Editors I Rick Brown, Gavriel Gefen, Herbert Hoefer, dealt with the food between his teeth. Rebecca Lewis, H. L. Richard, Steve Saint That Muslims everywhere cherish his role as the bearer of Qur’anic revelation Layout is not hard for us to understand; it’s grasping the particularities of Muhammad Marjorie Clark as a “lived reality” that can be mind-boggling for most Christians—especially Secretary when we know so little about our own Old Testament prophets by comparison. Lois Carey And while we’re familiar with the call to follow Jesus as found in the biblical Publisher Bradley Gill, representing the student-level narratives, the way in which the Islamic tradition (hadith and sunnah) transmits meeting at Edinburgh 1980. a labyrinth of episodes and anecdotes about Muhammad’s character and action 2014 ISFM Executive Committee is a “prophetology” of a whole other type. Indeed, Muhammad’s biography is Greg Parsons, Brad Gill, Rory Clark, perceived as the very substance of God’s activity, a living presence. Listen to Darrell Dorr al-Ghazali: Web Site Know that the key to happiness is to follow the sunna and to imitate the Messenger www.ijfm.org of God in all his coming and going, his movements and rest, in his way of eating, his attitude, his sleep and his talk . . . “What the messenger has brought–accept it, and Editorial Correspondence what he has prohibited–refrain from it” (Sura 59:7). That means, you have to sit while 1605 E. Elizabeth Street putting on trousers, to stand when winding a turban, and to begin with the right foot Pasadena, CA 91104 when putting on shoes . . .1 (734) 765-0368, [email protected]

This emphasis on the embodied presence of Muhammad’s life has created a type Subscriptions of prophetic consciousness quite distinct from the more abstract theological bias One year (four issues) $18.00 of Western Christianity. Two years (eight issues) $34.00 Three years (twelve issues) $48.00 I have found over the years that the finest communicators of the gospel to Single copies $5.00, multiple copies $4.00 Muslims, though not explicit about Muhammad, usually have a good fix on what Payment must be enclosed with orders. he might mean to a Muslim. They’re sensitive to his psychological, cultural and Please supply us with current address and change of address when necessary. ideological grip on a mind and heart. What does Muhammad mean to them? Send all subscription correspondence to: What is his significance? Muslims may respond to Muhammad in myriad ways, IJFM yet at the base is a common prophetological mindset that prioritizes him as uswa 1605 E. Elizabeth Street Pasadena, CA 91104 hasana, “the beautiful model” (Surah 33:21). Tel: (330) 626-3361 In his article, Harley Talman has resisted our typical categorical treatment of Fax: (626) 398-2263 Email: [email protected] Muhammad by exploring recent scholarship that re-examines the traditional Islamic understanding of the Prophet (his bibliography is an incredible starting IJFM (ISSN #2161-3354) was established in 1984 by the International Student Editorial continued on p. 168 Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions. It is published quarterly. The views expressed in IJFM are those of the various authors and not necessarily those COPYRIGHT ©2014 International Student of the journal’s editors, the International Society for Frontier Missiology or the society’s Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions. executive committee. PRINTED in the USA 168 From the Editor’s Desk, Who We Are place for the budding scholar). But in a Islamic fundamentalism arose as a the Apostle Paul who perceived the self-reflective exercise, he also helps us modern rejection of this folk Islamic weight of prophetic awareness when examine the assumptions behind our stream, so today we witness a more he said “at the reading of Moses a veil own Christian prophetology (p. 169). ideological use of Muhammad by lies over their heart” (II Cor. 3:15). As Talman is courageously trying to open jihadists. The brutal territorial grab of with Moses, so with Muhammad, for a new conversation on the prophet the Islamic State presently demands any prophetology can cover a mind Muhammad, and Martin Accad the world’s attention (p. 218), but one and prevent it from turning to the believes it warrants a new mandate for journalist notes a clear prophetological Lord. Such has been the case with evangelical mission (p. 191). refrain in their propaganda. ISIS mili- Muslims for fourteen centuries. But tants smash antiquities as “a chance then maybe you’ve heard of the perva- Perry Pennington broadens the way to re-enact the life of the Prophet,” sive dreams of Jesus that are penetrat- we interpret the prophetology of and they remind the world that the ing Muslim consciousness today, or of a Muslim with his study of South Prophet Muhammad “removed and the open hearts of those refugees flee- Asian folk Islam (p. 195). The river of destroyed idols with his own exalted ing the crisis of a brutal Islam. Indeed, Islam has flowed over many a cultural and noble hands when he conquered the significance of Muhammad is landscape throughout history, and the Mecca.”2 This radical emulation of shifting, and the veil is lifting. primal spirituality of indigenous peo- Muhammad assaults our modern sen- In Him, ples has often blended into the rituals sibilities, but it also distracts us from of Islamic faith. Over the centuries, seeing the manifold ways in which this syncretistic consciousness has our own Westernization is reviving flourished in a greater veneration of Muhammad in the lives of individual Brad Gill the Prophet, in the seeking of blessing Muslims. H. L. Richard would sug- Senior Editor, IJFM from his relics, and in the emergence gest we moderns can’t see this variety Endnotes of large unorthodox brotherhoods that of religiosities because of our own 1 From chapter 20 of al-Ghazali’s lhya have claimed a unique baraka (power) “enlightened” view of religion (p. 209). ‘Ulum al-Din, cited in Lamin Sanneh’s from his lineage. (When it comes to The articles in this issue of the IJFM excellent article, “Muhammad’s Significance for Christians,” in Stackhouse, et al, The Local sorting through this level of religious make a case for a more perceptive Church in a Global Era (Eerdmans, 2000). syncretism, don’t miss the new release prophetology, one that discerns the 2 David Pinault, “The Allure of the Islamic State Vandals,” Wall Street Journal, of Alan Tippett’s Slippery Paths in the place of Muhammad in our commu- March 7–8 2015, p. A9. 3 Darkness, p. 166.) nication of the gospel. It was actually 3 An example is found at http://jaq.org.

The IJFM is published in the name of the International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions, a fellowship of younger leaders committed to the purposes of the twin consultations of Edinburgh 1980: The World Consultation on Frontier Missions and the International Student Consultation on Frontier Missions. As an expression of the ongoing concerns of Edinburgh 1980, the IJFM seeks to:

promote intergenerational dialogue between senior and junior mission leaders;  cultivate an international fraternity of thought in the development of frontier missiology;  highlight the need to maintain, renew, and create mission agencies as vehicles for frontier missions;  encourage multidimensional and interdisciplinary studies;  foster spiritual devotion as well as intellectual growth; and  advocate “A Church for Every People.”  Mission frontiers, like other frontiers, represent boundaries or barriers beyond which we must go yet beyond which we may not be able to see clearly and boundaries which may even be disputed or denied. Their study involves the discovery and evaluation of the unknown or even the reevaluation of the known. But unlike other frontiers, mission frontiers is a subject specifically concerned to explore and exposit areas and ideas and insights related to the glorification of God in all the nations (peoples) of the world, “to open their eyes, to turn them from darkness to light and from the power of Satan to God.” (Acts 26:18)

Subscribers and other readers of the IJFM (due to ongoing promotion) come from a wide variety of backgrounds. Mission professors, field mission- aries, young adult mission mobilizers, college librarians, mission executives, and mission researchers all look to the IJFM for the latest thinking in frontier missiology.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets?

by Harley Talman

he prophet Samuel had anointed Saul as king and predicted that the Spirit of the Lord would come upon him with power so that he would prophesy and be changed into a different person (1 Sam 10:6).T And thus it happened that “God changed Saul’s heart, and all these signs were fulfilled that day” and he prophesied (10:9,11). This was the last thing that people expected to happen to the “son of Kish.” As a result, “Is Saul also among the prophets?” became a proverb in Israel.1 The same Spirit later empowered him to defeat the Ammonites in battle (11:6).

Yet this same Saul disobeyed God’s word and failed in his kingly office. It seems incredible that one endowed with the Spirit of God could act so con- trary to his will. God eventually rejected him as king, and withdrew his Spirit from him (16:1, 14). Saul persecuted David and repeatedly sought to kill him. The way that Saul’s life finished is so tragic that it dominates our memory of him; we forget that he had once been “among the prophets.”

However, in recent years some biblical scholars have sought to restore bal- ance to our corporate memory of Saul. Seeking to rehabilitate his image, Ron Youngblood finds that despite his failings, Saul could also be “kind, thought- ful, generous, courageous, very much in control, and willing to obey God.”2

Is it advisable that Christians consider undertaking a similar project with the prophet of Islam? Can the malevolent image of Muhammad in our minds possibly be “rehabilitated”? As surprising as the idea may be, it is worth con- Harley Talman has worked with templating, since one of the most delicate issues we face in seeking construc- Muslims for 30 years, including two decades in the Arab world and Africa, tive dialogue with Muslims is our response to the question: “Is Muhammad during which he was involved in also among the prophets?” church planting, theological education, and humanitarian aid. Talman holds This question has also become a very controversial issue within the body of a ThM from Dallas Seminary and a Christ. Disciples of Jesus have strong feelings and hold diverse and contrary PhD from Fuller. He presently teaches Islamic studies. convictions about their answer. While the majority of Christians would answer

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 31:4 Winter 2014•169 170 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets?

“absolutely not,” some are more tenta- may seem to be a rather ridiculous explain the meaning of some baffling tive or affirming. Many Muslim follow- question: “Which ‘Muhammad’ are Qur’anic phrases. (In contrast, these ers of Christ would answer in the nega- we talking about?” This is actually an Qur’anic phrases make much better tive, but others may continue to affirm important issue. It emerges from the sense if they are read in light of the both halves of the Islamic shahadah: difficulty of ascertaining the actual biblical accounts). Second, there was “There is no god but God and Muham- details of Muhammad’s life due to the the need for guidance in matters not mad is the rasul (messenger) of God”— extreme lack of personal information addressed in the Qur’an which was albeit with a wide range of meanings.3 about him in the Qur’an. Consequent- supplied through the example (sunnah) Many Christians are strongly opposed ly, among scholars Muhammad has at of Muhammad’s life. Furthermore, to any such practice. Perhaps it would least four different identities. being disadvantaged in their debates be beneficial to reconsider this topic. a. Muhammad according to Islamic with Christians, Muslims felt duty The complexity of this matter requires tradition bound to magnify Muhammad’s per- a lengthy treatment. This article will sonage in order to compete with the The Qur’an and the diverse collections biblical prophets and Jesus.5 Andrew focus on a reconsideration of four of the Hadith provide the basis for the issues: our understanding of Muham- Rippin adds that this creative story- Muhammad of Islamic tradition. This is telling happened at a time when “the mad and Islam, our theology of revela- the Muhammad that is most popularly tion, the criteria for prophethood, and manifestation of the raconteur’s ability known. However, the foundation for the possibilities for a positive prophetic to elaborate, entertain and enhance popular Muhammad is questionable. 6 role for Muhammad. were highly praised merits.” b. Muhammad of the Qur’an as I. Muhammad and Islam interpreted by Muslim tradition Reconsidered The Muhammad of the Qur’an is Several years ago, I had a conversation Some Muslim somewhat obscure. This is because with an Islamics professor. I told her scholars admit that a many verses in the Qur’an lack suf- of my difficult journey in seeking to ficient context to clarify their mean- understand and assess Muhammad, portion of the words ing. Due to this, there are those who accurately, fairly, and biblically. She and actions attributed interpret the Qur’anic data through a confessed that none of the great Islam- lens shaped by the highly questionable icists knew quite “where to land” with to Muhammad were Islamic traditions. These traditions por- respect to Muhammad. Thus, I was not tray the prophet of Islam as condemn- alone in this journey. I hope that after fabricated. ing of and hostile to Jews, Christians, reading this article others will appreci- the Bible, and Christian doctrine.7 ate the reasons why this challenge has been so perplexing for so many. Some Muslim scholars admit that a c. Muhammad of the Qur’anists Part of the problem lies in the binary portion of the purported words and Scholars, Muslim and Christian, who categories of prophethood that have actions attributed to Muhammad in rely primarily on the internal evidence various hadith were fabricated, e.g., his of the text of the Qur’an are cautious been used in relation to Muhammad. 8 I hope that this article will serve to doing miracles identical to those per- in their acceptance of other sources. broaden our base of theological, his- formed by Jesus—especially since the They view the Qur’an as a much more torical and missiological understand- Qur’an indicates that Muhammad did reliable historical source than Islamic ings of prophethood in general and of not perform miracles (cf. 2:118, 30:58). tradition, but it is difficult to ascertain the person of Muhammad in particu- In addition, many of his biographical therein much personal information lar. While I do not expect immediate accounts (sira) were created long after about Muhammad apart from his his death and are of dubious reli- message. With this limitation, it is acceptance of my proposals, this study 4 may enable readers to identify and ability. Critical scholars believe that argued that the Qur’an affirms and question assumptions that underlie a significant portion of the sira were authenticates the Jewish and Chris- their convictions, stimulating renewed fabricated to serve several purposes. tian Scriptures. Thus, many Qur’anists reflection and discussion. The first was the need to provide maintain that Muhammad’s message context to aid in the interpretation should be interpreted in harmony Recognition of the Right Muhammad of the Qur’anic revelations. Muslims with the previous Scriptures which it Before beginning our quest to as- far removed from the original context claimed to confirm, rather than rely on sess Muhammad we must ask what generated these stories in order to later traditions that contradict them.9

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 171 d. Muhammad of the revisionist historians Applying higher critical methods to uch a fundamental “fact” in Islamic history as the study of Islam, revisionist scholars the location of “Mecca” could have been created may reject almost anything attributed to or about Muhammad, including Sby Muslim revisionist historians. the Qur’an, unless it is corroborated What one finds is that when this is from personal faith in Christ. Second, 10 by non-Islamic sources. While many done, our view of Muhammad and Is- the Islamic traditions have not func- theories of the most radical revisionists lam is significantly altered, along with tioned, either historically or widely, are not widely accepted, their research our view of Muhammad in relation to as a preparation for the gospel for the does discredit the traditional and popu- redemptive history. Muslim community.14 However, the lar narrative at a number of points. Qur’an’s testimony about Jesus has The sub-sections which follow reflect In the old TV show, “To Tell the more recently facilitated a number of on various Christian views of Islam, a Muslims in embarking on a journey Truth,” after panel members tried to revised history of Muhammad and the identify the described contestant from that led them to encountering him movement he founded, and a theologi- as savior.15 Nonetheless, historically among imposters, the actual person cal reassessment of the prophet of Islam, was asked to stand up. Similarly, it seems that military, political, and all based on a potentially more objective theological Christian-Muslim conflicts we would like to ask: “Will the real portrayal of his character and actions. Muhammad please stand up?” Unfor- rendered Islam more of an obstruction tunately, the real Muhammad is not Disparate Perceptions of Islam to the gospel than a preparation for it. It could be that the theological conflict among us to reveal himself. But the Muhammad is regarded as the founder has largely been the result of cultural identity which one selects from the of the religion of Islam. Since our conflict—similar to the dynamics above Muhammads will also greatly judgment of his possible prophethood in the culturally-rooted theological influence one’s view of Islam. will be in large measure determined conflict between Jewish and Gentile by our assessment of Islam, we need Revelation of the Original Islam Christianity in the book of Acts. The to consider the origins, history, and late Ralph D. Winter saw early Islam Much of what is considered today as nature of Islam and his relationship to as a contextualization of the biblical representing “orthodox” Islam likely it. Kate Zebiri notes the varied ways faith for those Arabs who rejected the represents an understanding that that Christians have looked at Islam.12 developed two or three centuries after alien and unbiblical character of Ara- These include: 16 bian Judaism and Christianity. Muhammad. The most widely accept- as a Christian heresy; as a harbinger of ed version of Muhammad, based upon the end of the world; as diabolical; as Many Eastern Christians gave thanks Islamic tradition, is dubious. a natural or man-made religion; as a to God for the ascendancy of the Arabs, For example, Dan Gibson presents punishment of Christian infidelity . . . ; hailing their armies as liberators from as a praeparatio evangelica (prepara- massive and multiple streams of evi- their Byzantine oppressors. Other con- tion for the gospel); or as an indepen- dence for the astonishing yet compel- quered Christians saw Islam primarily dent way of salvation. On the other as a punishment on Christianity for ling proposal that the first holy city of hand, many Christians, particularly in Islam was Petra, not Mecca.11 If such a their sins and disunity. They expected the modern period, have been hesi- that after they repented, God would fundamental historical “fact” in Islamic tant to categorize Islam in such ways, remove the Muslims, but this never ma- history as the location of “Mecca” could either because this would be specula- terialized. Other Christians (particularly have been created by Muslim revision- tion on matters which can be known 17 ist historians, then how much can we only to God, or because they do not Byzantines) who lost opportunity, sta- trust their accounts of other matters? see Islam as a reified or monolithic en- tus, political power, or territory spoke of Muhammad and Muslims in very pejo- Therefore, there is good reason to be tity but rather in more fluid and un- rative terms.18 As Islam evolved into a skeptical about many aspects of Mu- defined terms which would preclude 13 distinct religion, and became a competi- hammad’s life as well as the emergence making such generalizations. tor to Christianity, Muslim-Christian and expansion of Islam as set forth in An in-depth evaluation of each of relations further degenerated. During Islamic traditions (their authority with these perceptions of Islam is not pos- the Crusades animosity increased on Muslims notwithstanding). Thus, we sible here. However, a few comments both sides and Islamic theology turned are compelled to evaluate the histori- are in order. ever more hostile toward Christianity.19 cal narrative these traditions present in light of non-Muslim historical docu- First, I do not view any kind of Islam Norman Daniel’s extensive study ments and archaeological evidence. as an alternative way of salvation apart of Islam in the 12th–14th centuries

31:4 Winter 2014 172 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? portrays the nearly universal negative after him forever…. But now you are do not seem to have been repugnant to the sons of Abraham and God is ac- picture of Islam in the West.20 Europe- many Christians of that period—un- complishing his promise to Abraham ans often viewed Islam as the work of like the situation that developed a 21 and his seed for you. Love sincerely 29 the devil or Antichrist. This diabolic only the God of Abraham, and go century later. It appears that many view of Islam still prevails in the West, and seize the land which God gave to local Christian communities did not as well as among national Christians in your father Abraham.”25 oppose the movement—in contrast to the Middle East. I, too, held this view the Byzantine Christians. in the past. Sebeos also has Muhammad in alli- ance with the Jews and notes that the Significant external evidence from However, there are good reasons to Muslim movement’s first governor of archeology supports the ecumeni- challenge this pejorative view, as some Jerusalem was a Jew.26 cal character of the Believers move- reputable Christian scholars have been ment. For example, a coin found in doing. The critical question is: Does In addition, some reject the historical Palestine dated in the 640s or 650s is our present perception of Islam accurately narrative proposed by Islamic tradi- inscribed with “Muhammad” and a represent what Islam was in the time of tion based on internal evidence of the person holding a cross.30 Similar coins Muhammad and what he intended his Qur’an. They argue that Muhammad were minted by Muslim caliphs for up movement to be? began his mission as an ecumenical to a century. However, the Christian movement of monotheist “Believers” symbols were removed during the Divergent Histories of Muhammad and that included numbers of Jews and Umayyad era.31 All inscriptions, coins Muslims Christians. Its focus was on devotion and papyri with the shahāda until Abdul-Haqq puts Muhammad in the 685 contain only the phrase “There tradition of the ḥunafā’ (plural of ḥanīf ): is no god, but God” with no mention Pre-Islamic “Hunafa” God-fearers were of Muhammad. This would not have pagan Arabs who had been exposed Inscriptions hindered Jews, Christians or other to Jewish and Christian monotheism. monotheists from joining the ranks They claimed that their monotheistic contain only the phrase of the Believers.32 The absence of tradition dated back to the Friend of “There is no god, archaeological evidence of widespread God, Abraham. It was handed down violence and destruction of churches by those spiritually alive during the but God” with no and towns in Syria-Palestine further pre-Islamic history of Arabia. Accord- supports the ecumenical character of ing to the Koran, the prophet Muham- mention of 33 Muhammad’s movement. mad came only as a reformer and a warner to pagan Arabs,22 calling them Muhammad. Non-Muslim historical documents in back to Abrahamic monotheism.23 the formative period also point toward this ecumenism. In Egypt during Support for Abdul-Haqq’s view is (esp. prayer and almsgiving) and the the early period of Islam, the Arabic found in the Armenian “Chronicle practice of righteousness and good papyri make no mention of “Muslims,” of Sebeos,” a very early (7th century) deeds in preparation for the Day of but instead we only find the terms record of how non-Muslims perceived 27 Judgment. Immeasurably more suc- “believers” (mu’minûn) and “emigrants” Muhammad and his mission among 34 cessful than Jerry Falwell’s ambitions (muhajirûn). Syrian Christians saw the sons of Ishmael:24 for the Moral Majority, Muhammad the movement as linked to descen- [Muhammad] as if by God’s com- mobilized what we might call the dants of Abraham and Hagar through mand appeared to them as a preach- Monotheistic Moral Majority, a move- Ishmael who confessed one God. er [and] the path of truth. He taught ment that respected and incorporated them to recognize the God of Abra- Little more than a decade after the Jews and Christians for two to three ham, especially because he was learnt death of Muhammad, a document and informed in the history of Moses. generations after his death. Fred Don- (dated 644 ad) written by Syrian Now because the command was ner concludes that this “confessionally Christians describes a religious discus- from on high, at a single order they open” ecumenical movement was “in sion between the emir of the “im- all came together in unity of religion. no way antithetical to the beliefs and migrants” (the Arab conquerors) and Abandoning their vain cults, they practices of some Christians and Jews.” the Syrian Patriarch, John of Sedreh. turned to the living God who had They could belong not only because of It noted that the immigrants accepted appeared to their father Abraham.… their religious identities but because the Torah, like Jews and Samaritans, 28 He said: “With an oath God promised they were “inclined to righteousness.” and described how Jewish scholars this land to Abraham and his seed The movement’s theological teachings with the emir examined the Christians’

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 173 quotations from the Scriptures. Much of their discussion was about the vidence indicates that Christians who first Scriptures; yet, there was no reference encountered Islam regarded it as an alternative to the Qur’an (perhaps indicating that it was not yet circulating) and there EChristology, and only later as a Christian heresy. was no mention of a new religion. The 40 was transmitted until Muhammad 35 movement, began to be redefined term “Islam” was never used. to exclude Jews and Christians and encountered and embraced it. The Syriac Christian sources viewed the morph into a distinct religion—one cultural compatibility and appeal of conquest as an ethnic (Arab) ascen- that over the centuries grew increas- this type of Christology would seem 41 dency more than a sectarian religious ingly negative toward Christianity. to have allowed this to happen quite 47 36 naturally. Such a Christology would one. John of Phenek (d. 690s), a During the Crusades and reconquest Nestorian Christian observed, “Among not have compromised the Abrahamic of Spain, mutual hostility increased monotheism of the ḥunafā’, as did the them [the Arabs] there are many markedly (as seen in the change from Christians, some of whom are from aberrant Christologies of the Christians a Muslim understanding of tāhrīf as the heretics, others from us.” that Muhammad refuted in the Qur’an. the Jewish/Christian distortion of the Syriac writers referred to their leaders in meaning of Scripture to the corruption W. Cantwell Smith also questions secular and political terms, not by reli- of the actual text of the Scriptures).42 the notion that Islam was originally 48 gious titles. Muhammad was called “the a separate religion. The early con- Reassessment of Muhammad’s sideration of Islam as a Christian first king of the immigrants,” and oc- Theology casionally called “the Guide,” “Teacher,” heresy, along with the many theo- “Leader” or “Great Ruler.”37 A letter (c. In light of the above considerations, logical divisions in the Middle Ages, 647) from Isho’yahb III, the Nestorian many Christian scholars are reassess- and the Muslim veneration of Jesus, patriarch in Iraq, states that they ing their position on Muhammad, compel Smith to believe that conver- not only do not fight Christianity, they acknowledging him as an important sion from Christianity to Islam may even commend our religion, show religious leader whose prophetic mes- then have been regarded as merely a honor to the priests and monasteries sage contains much that the Bible change to another theological posi- and saints of our Lord, and make gifts affirms—even if Islam eventually tion.49 This harmonizes with the view to the monasteries and churches.38 became more hostile to Christianity.43 of scholars who contend that Qur’anic verses allegedly critical of Christianity It appears that two civil wars over It is significant that during the first are best understood as challenging or political leadership created and inten- century Christians did not seem to correcting unorthodox Christianities sified divisions between the Believ- think of Muhammad as a false prophet. or disputed Christologies.50 Reliable ers. The companions of the prophet The evidence indicates that Christians historical and textual evidence sup- disappeared from the scene and with who first encountered Islam regarded it ports this understanding. them the last vestiges of the prophet’s as an alternative Christology, and only charisma and eschatological motiva- later as a Christian heresy. Therefore, It is also significant that for more than tion. Donner observes, it likely had more commonality with a century orthodox churchmen re- The conquests by now apparently had Christianity than is recognized today. ferred to Muhammad’s followers using become less a matter of the personal Recent studies demonstrate that the the same terminology as they did of zeal of individual Believers driven by Meccan surahs can fit into a context of other branches of ancient Christianity. vision of an impending Last Judgment conflicting Christianities, not the pur- This indicates that they viewed Islam and more a lucrative form of state ported pagan context of Muslim tradi- as an alternative Christology, not as policy intended to keep revenues and 44 a different religion. C. Jonn Block plunder flowing into the treasury.39 tion. There is also much to be said in favor of considering the original Islam concludes that they even recognized a distinction between the After the Second Civil War (680- as a Jewish heresy because of its many parallels. Even more fruitful may be teachings of Muhammad and the be- 692), ‘Abd al-Malik sought to restore haviors of his followers to the degree Umayyid political rule by appealing the suggestion of its links with Jewish 45 that Muhammad himself may have to religious authority and designated Christianity. Joseph Azzi, a Lebanese been considered a prophet from a himself as Muhammad’s successor. Christian, argues from Islamic sources Christian perspective (Hence, the first attested documentary that Muhammad’s mentor, Waraqa use of khalifa/caliph occurs in this pe- ibn Nawful, was an Ebionite Christian (as we shall see in the testimony of riod). For reasons that are not entirely priest.46 Several German scholars think Timothy I).51 Block asserts: (1) Surahs clear, “Islam,” the inclusive Believers that a Jewish Christian Christology 4:171 and 5:173 are not a rejection of

31:4 Winter 2014 174 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? the Trinity but a tri-theism as promot- utterances in the older revelations To explore the possibility of ascribing make . . . the cogent imperatives . . . ed by John Philoponus (pp. 44-52); (2) a legitimate prophetic role for Mu- the self-denunciation . . . along with Surah 19:35 corrects the adoptionism hammad requires a theological discus- the fact that he unselfishly endured sion about revelation, types of proph- of the Nestorians; (3) Surah 5:116 con- years of hostility and humiliation in demns Mariolatry; (4) the rejection of Mecca in the unshakable conviction ecy, and the impartation process of the Jesus as “son of God” in Surah 2:116- of his lofty task. It is more difficult Qur’an. This I will proceed to do. I will 117 pertains to Christian corruption with the later Madinese revelations, subsequently propose a set of criteria, of an apocryphal 4 Ezra text; and (5) in which it is often only too easy to both invalid and proper, for evaluating Muhammad defended the Christianity detect the human associations, to a prophet. Finally, I will reconsider the 52 of his in-law, Waraqa ibn Nawful. avoid the supposition that his par- possibility of viewing Muhammad as oxysms . . . could sometimes be artifi- a prophet. This more positive attitude toward Mu- cially brought on, and there is even hammad, his message and his mission a tradition which makes ‘A’isha say II. Theology of Revelation is not a new innovation, but rather a re- to the Prophet: “Thy Lord seems to Reconsidered turn to the trend of the earliest period have been very quick in fulfilling thy of Christian-Muslim encounter. After prayers.” It must not be forgotten In this section I look at the possibility a millennium of spiteful scholarship, however that natures like this, with- of special revelation in the present (or most Christians unfortunately assume out actually being conscious of it, are church) age, the nature, kinds and recip- that their forebears always regarded able to provoke the same states of ients of post-canonical and present-day Muhammad as a false prophet.53 prophecy, the power of general revela- Rehabilitation of Muhammad tion as an impetus to prophecy, and finally the source, character, manner, and Biblical scholars have sought to make process by which the Qur’an was given. a more accurate and balanced as- sessment of Saul’s life and character. Most Christians Special Revelation in the Present Should a similar effort be conducted unfortunately assume I fully affirm the traditional theologi- with the prophet of Islam? cal distinction between general and that their forebears special revelation; yet, I suggest that To begin with, available information we reassess some of our assumptions. from Islamic sources on Muham- always regarded­ mad’s early life portrays him as a Muhammad as a false Christopher Little defines special sincere seeker of truth and of honor- revelation as able character, a picture that has not prophet. God’s communication of himself at been appreciated by Christians and specific times in specific ways with spe- Western societies. These tend to have cific truths in order to reconcile specific individuals and communities to himself. belabored his moral failures. Recog- excitation which earlier arose with- nizing this, Montgomery Watt states, out their assistance; and so probably It is also redemptive (aimed at rec- “Of all the world’s great men none not only were his followers in Ma- onciling humanity to God), personal, has been so maligned as Muhammad.” dina . . . but he himself was convinced, progressive, and propositional (com- He mitigates most of Muhammad’s that the spirit was continually hover- municating knowledge essential for alleged moral failures by pointing out ing about him to communicate the belief and adherence in order to have a that they were largely for the sake revelations to him. By this we do not 56 of strengthening Islam’s position or of course mean that in his ecstatic right relationship with God. Scrip- departing from tribal tradition and condition he received the divine com- tural modalities (or means) of special were not serious departures from the munications in extenso, as we now revelation include the casting of lots, standards of his time.54 have them in the Kur’an; only the the urim and thummin, dreams, vi- foundations were given him, which he sions, theophanies, angels, the proph- 57 F. Buhl views Muhammad’s character afterwards developed into discourse ets, Jesus Christ and the Bible. After in a positive manner in light of his of greater lengths. Since in doing this a study of pertinent biblical figures in early reception of divine communica- he used the external forms of the old salvation history, Little asserts, tions (but not his infallibility). He says: Arab soothsayers it is natural that the The response of faith to the truths The scientific student therefore does Meccans took him for one, but it does revealed by way of the modalities of not see in Muhammad a deceiver but not follow that he was spiritually akin special revelation is the sole means by fully agrees with the impression of from the first to those soothsayers which God redeems people through- sincerity and truthfulness which his who were inspired by djinns [spirits].55 out human history.58

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 175

However, some currently question whether God continues to use among his type of prophecy, exercised as a gift of the the unevangelized other modalities of Spirit in the early church, was not infal­lible, but special revelation besides Jesus Christ was carefully examined, evaluated, or weighed. and the Bible (yet never in contradic- T tion to the Bible). Three of the stron- a denial of present manifestations of prophets whose utterances do not ger reasons to support that he does are: these other modalities cannot satisfac- supersede biblical authority. 1. Throughout church history prom- torily explain their abundant appear- Special Revelation Beyond the inent theologians have held that ance in mission history. For example, Jewish-Christian Border dreams are a source of divine rev- Woodberry’s research showed over half While acknowledging such a possibil- elation. Morton Kelsey declares: of Muslim background believers sur- Everyone of the apologists veyed experienced one or more dreams ity for those in the Judeo-Christian . . . believed in healing and or visions before or after conversion.63 heritage, some may question the dreams, in supernaturally given possible existence of such prophets information and visions. Post-Canonical and Present-day outside of this stream. However, they Prophecy should remember that Balaam was the Kelsey lists subsequent church Having examined evidence for the recipient of divine revelation from the leaders who continued to hold to theological possibility of post-canoni- true God whom he claimed as “the 59 this view of the supernatural. cal special revelation, we can now look Lord my God” (Num. 22:18). 2. The situation of many unevange- specifically at the possibility of valid Don Richardson offers a possible exam- lized today parallels that of many present-day prophecy. This requires ple of revelation to a pagan seer/prophet individuals in the OT (such as that we first understand the nature of 64 and philosopher-poet. Epimenides Eve, Noah, Abraham, Melchize- prophecy in the Bible. dek, and Job) who, though not provides the backdrop for Paul’s quot- Conservative evangelicals recognize possessing God’s written word, ing him (Acts 17:28) in his sermon two kinds of prophets. The ma- received a message from him about the “unknown god.” This pagan jor prophets of the canonical OT through other modalities of spe- poet/prophet was consulted as to the 60 were mediums of the authoritative cial revelation. cause of an unrelenting plague in Ath- revelation that became the inerrant ens. He concluded their offense was not 3. Even after God’s word was or infallible Word of God—in their against any of the Athenian gods, but an enscriptured, he continued to use original autographs. The second kind unknown god. He advised them to let other revelatory modalities. For was in the schools of the prophets, a loose hungry sheep on the lush pastures example, even though the magi distinction evidenced by passages such of Mars Hill. On each place where a and Cornelius were acquainted as Numbers 12:6-8 and 11:29. Their hungry sheep lay down without grazing, with Jewish Scripture, God used “charismatic and enigmatic” mes- that sheep was sacrificed, and the plague a star and an angel to lead them 66 61 sages are the type envisioned by Joel’s subsided. The Herman Bavinck quote to salvation. prophecy that Peter said was fulfilled above listed this passage as proof of Although I had been taught that God on Pentecost (Ac. 1:16). This type of God’s revelation among the pagans.67 no longer used revelatory modalities prophecy, exercised as a gift of the General Revelation is Special apart from the Scriptures, this posi- Spirit in the NT church, was not infal- tion lacks clear biblical support. On lible, but had to be carefully examined, For those who cannot accept the pos- the contrary, Scriptures like Joel 2:28ff. evaluated, or weighed as 1 Corinthians sibility of present day special revela- indicate that prophecy, dreams and 14:29 and 1 Thessalonians 5:19-21 tion, Johan H. Bavinck, the Dutch visions will characterize the pouring instruct. The word used here is diakrino missionary theologian, expands the out of God’s Spirit in the last days.62 and implies a mixed quality that had traditional boundaries of general Moreover, there is no theological to be sifted like chaff from wheat. We revelation. Bavinck does this by chal- reason to prohibit God from employ- must also recognize that it was Christ’s lenging a theological understanding of ing them. On the contrary, to so assert apostles (and not these prophets) who general revelation that is often associ- would seem to limit His sovereignty. were the heirs of the OT canonical ated with “infantile natural theology” Scripture itself testifies that God did prophets, with regard to authorship of or “philosophical conclusions of the not restrict Himself to Hebrew proph- infallible revelation in the NT.65 Ac- human mind.”68 Though available to ets to communicate His message, for cepting the validity of this distinction all, God is actively engaged in it—in a He not only used Balaam but even between these two types of prophecy, way that others would associate with used Balaam’s donkey. Furthermore, we can allow for a continuance of special revelation. Bavinck explains:

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When the Bible speaks of general We meet figures in the history of the impress the eye but which deceive revelation, it means something quite non-Christian religions of whom we none save the unwary? Does prophet- different. There it has a much more feel that God wrestled with them in hood have no part but that of a mere personal nature. It is divine concern a very particular way. We still notice channel otherwise uninvolved? The un- for men collectively and individually. traces of that process of suppression doubted fact that the original source God’s deity and eternal power are and substitution in the way they re- is beyond prophethood itself need not evident; they overwhelm man; they sponded, but occasionally we observe reduce the prophet to a pair of lips.72 strike him suddenly in moments when a far greater influence of God there he thought they were far away. They than in many other human religions.71 Fazlur Rahman relies on the earliest creep up on him; they do not let go account of Ibn Hisham that states that of him, even though man does his Thus Bavinck can acknowledge that Muhammad “awoke” as inferring his best to escape them. Escaping from Muhammad (at least at some point and revelation came while he was in a state them and repressing them is the hu- in some way) encountered the true and of a vision or quasi-dream. Rahman man answer to God’s revelation, an living God in his revelatory experiences. presents a reasoned rejection of theo- answer that becomes evident in the Contradictory differences from biblical history of the religion of man. . . . ries that attribute Muhammad’s reve- revelation could be attributed to imper- latory experiences to epilepsy, but he 69 In the “night of power” of which fect responses by him, by the community also rejects the traditional Islamic idea the ninety-seventh sura of the Koran that succeeded him, and by the People of of an angel speaking to Muhammad in speaks, the night when “the angels the Book whom they encountered. Let us a normal state of consciousness, attrib- descended” and the Koran descended look closer at what may have transpired. from Allah’s throne, God dealt with uting that to the creative theological Muhammad and touched him. God labors of later orthodoxy—a formula- wrestled with him in that night, and tion that is actually anti-Qur’anic. God’s hand is still noticeable in the an- This was supposed to guarantee the swer of the prophet, but it is also the externality of the Angel or the Voice result of human oppression. “The great in the interests of safeguarding the moments in the history of religion are Human religion is “objectivity” of the Revelation. The the moments when God wrestled with the result of varied attempt may seem to us intellectu- man in a very particular way. . . .” ally immature, but at the time when God can at times, as it were, stop responses of repression the dogma was in the making, there the noiseless engines of repression were compelling reasons for taking and exchange and overwhelm man and substitution to this step, particularly the controver- to such an extent that he is power- divine encounter. sies against the rationalists. A great less for the moment. There is, also, deal of Ḥadīth . . . commonly accept- always the silent activity of the Holy ed later, came into existence portray- Spirit inside man, even if he resists ing the Prophet talking to the Angel Him constantly. The way in which in public and graphically describing Isaiah speaks of Cyrus, the anointed The Impartation Process of the appearance of the latter. Despite one, who was called by His name and Qur’anic Revelation the fact that it is contradicted by the girded by God (Is. 45:4, 5), indicates Qur’an which says “. . . We sent him that the Bible certainly leaves the pos- Kenneth Cragg declares that we can- (the Angel) down upon your heart sibility open for God to anoint those not honestly appraise the Prophet of that you may be a warner” (XXVI, who do not know Him with His Spirit Islam apart from a true understanding 194, cf. II, 97) this idea of the exter- and to gird them for certain tasks to of the manner in which the Qur’anic nality of the Angel and the Revela- which He calls them.70 revelation was imparted to him, for tion has become so ingrained in the “His words are not his own devising. general Muslim mind that the real 73 Bavinck asserts that it was truly God The Qur’an is revelation imparted” picture is anathema to it. (not an evil angel) whom Muhammad (Surah 53:3,4). Cragg understands Rahman supports his view that the encountered in his revelatory experi- and appreciates the traditional Islamic Prophet’s revelations were inner spiri- ences. He holds that human religion view of waḥy (revelation) as “celestial tual experiences with Surah 53:11-12 is the result of varied responses in dictation,” but he rejects any view of “The heart has not falsified what it degrees of repression and substitution Muhammad’s inspiration that expung- has seen,” and Surah 17:1 and 81:23. (as in Rom. 1:18-28) to these divine es human involvement. encounters. Religions are not all the Hence, he rejects the doctrine of a Is apostolate really to be understood same, and we can infer that he recog- by the analogy of stone figures devised physical mi`rāj (ascension of Muham- nizes in Islam a high degree of divine by cunning plumbers and sculptors to mad) and charges it with being “no influence, when he says: more than a historical fiction” that was

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 177 developed by “orthodoxy” with fabri- cated hadith, being patterned after the ur problem in handling Muhammad’s ascension of Christ.74 prophethood is that we are unfamiliar with Cragg also challenges the “celestial prophetic figures like him in mission history. dictation” view of Qur’anic revelation O dimension, but of vivid personal com- victims of a costly war, Harris was in from a number of angles. Like Rah- mission known only through vision, prison when in a trance he was called man, he focuses on the fact that the by travail and in intensity of soul.78 Qur’an states that the revelation came to be a prophet of the end times by the via Muhammad’s “heart” (26:194; Such a view not only handles the angel Gabriel. David Shank chronicles 2:97), not just by way of his lips. He Qur’anic and historic data more his little known story: notes that tanzīl, God’s sending down soundly, but it is also compatible with Convinced through Russellite influ- the revelation, is also applied to the the common biblical portrayal of pro- ences that Christ was soon to bring in the kingdom of peace, Harris pre- giving of iron to mankind in Surah phetic experience (whether it be either dicted World War I as a judgment 57:25: “We have sent down iron which the canonical or the common type of prophecy). As Christians, we do not on the civilized world, and then an- has such great strength and diverse nounced a difficult period of seven regard the Qur’an to be utterly infal- uses for mankind.” This parallel sug- years, before everything was to be gests that a looser manner of bestowal lible and authoritative, but need not transformed by the reign of Christ. of divine revelation than the “ortho- rule out the possibility of God’s calling Seeing himself as the Elijah of Mala- dox” view may be what the Qur’an and using Muhammad as a prophet chi 4, he felt he had appeared before intends.75 Moreover, Cragg gives (like Saul in the OT or a charismatic the great and dreadful day of the strong reasons why the orthodox belief prophet in the present era). Lord in order to prepare the people for the coming kingdom of peace, in Muhammad’s illiteracy is quite A second reason for our problem in during which he was to be the judge unlikely. More probably, the disputed handling the issue of Muhammad’s responsible for West Africa.81 meaning of the phrase in Surah 7 al- prophethood is that we are unfamiliar rasūl al-nabī al-ummī (the “unlettered” with the existence of prophetic figures Western missionaries reported that prophet-apostle) means that he was like him who have arisen in mission the number of his converts in a matter the “unscriptured” prophet-apostle; history. Gottfried Oosterwal in his of months exceeded the combined in contrast to the People of the Book, Modern Messianic Movements reflects efforts of all their missions over Muhammad and his people to whom on the existence of the multitude of decades—100,000 tribal Africans he was sent did not have the Scripture modern religious movements around baptized in 18 months, many of them in their own language.76 This explains the world that have derived their ready to be taught by the “white man why the plural form of ummī often ap- 79 central themes from Christianity. with the Book” ten years after the pears in contradistinction to al-Yahūd In spite of the diverse cultural, social, event.82 Shank typifies his profound (the Jews) who had the Scriptures. economic, political, ideological and impact through the testimony of the If this is the meaning, then the i‘jāz religious conditions in which they politician, Casely Hayford: (miraculous or wondrous nature) of arise, there are significant similarities You come to him with a heart full of the Qur’an does not refer to its being between them: bitterness, and when he is finished a linguistic miracle, but rather to the ‘prophets’ and charismatic leaders, a with you all the bitterness is gone wonder of the message of monotheism crisis situation, ecstatic tendencies, a out of your soul . . . Why, he calls coming in the language of the Arabs, special revelation and a movement upon the living God. He calms, under akin in significance to Moses’ receiving that suddenly arises and totally ab- God, the troubled soul. He casts out 77 the law for the Jews. sorbs its adherents, giving them a strife . . . He brings joy and lightness whole new life-style, a new ethos, a of soul to the despairing. This thing In essence, a more realistic and ac- new morality, and often leading to must be of God.83 curate understanding of the process of great reforms.80 Qur’anic revelation would be on the We are compelled to acknowledge him But that which is at their heart is order of what Cragg has advocated: as the greatest evangelist in the history their eschatology as proclaimed by a “as proceeding within a full engage- of West Africa and his legacy to the prophet or charismatic leader. ment of mental and spiritual capacity, church was unprecedented. But, his responsive to living situations” and An amazing example of this phe- calling was not as an evangelist, but recognizing in the great original nomenon is William Wadé Harris. In as a prophet. Fellow African, Lamen an experience, not merely of loyal the context of his people having been Sanneh, refers to him and others like spokesmanship that had no other plundered, fined, resettled and the him as “charismatic prophets.”84 Yet

31:4 Winter 2014 178 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? others may be troubled by his having Does not the Bible itself mention Many heretics, whose opinions the even false prophets who were in- Church had to condemn, were men been called to prophethood by an angel 85 spired by God to reveal truth, and of saintly character, actuated only by (reminiscent of Joseph Smith), and ‘pagans,’ whom God used as His in- the sincerest desire to promote the certainly by his self-identity as Elijah struments to instruct, to guide and to true religion of the Lord Jesus. . . . On and judge, and by his erroneous predic- direct His people? 89 the whole the greatest heretics–“the tion about the advent of the Kingdom. heresiarchs”–were honest Christians, A parallel principle is found in An- zealous for the promotion of a true Oosterwal depicts the theological and thony Hoekema. He declared the cults and reverent Christian theology.92 missiological challenge created by such to be the “unpaid bills of the church,” movements: having observed how they each pick Consequently, our assessment of reli- All this points to a causative factor up important truths neglected by the gious movements and leaders cannot that transcends all human factors and church. Although they have built their be based solely upon whether they are suggests that, ultimately, the prophet- in or out of the fold of Christian or- ic revelations and messianic move- entire movement around these teach- thodoxy (as defined by one particular ments are a problem of theology, ings, the church can and must learn from them.90 Does only that which is creed of the church). How then might not the problem of the social and entirely orthodox manifest the work- we go about this? What then should scientific disciplines. He asks: ings of God? Does the existence of be our assessment criteria? That is our Why do these millions of people, error of any kind render someone de- next subject. Christians and Muslims, Buddhists monically inspired? Hence, a prophetic and “secularists,” people of ethnic III. Criteria for Prophethood religions . . . suddenly expect the soon Reconsidered coming of a messiah, or of a “new heaven and a new earth”? . . . Do they In this section, I will demonstrate the have the same source as the original inadequacy of the most commonly Christian teaching of the coming used criteria for validating or rejecting Kingdom of Christ, or are they per- Does only that which prophets (their moral blamelessness, haps human, even diabolic, distor- is entirely orthodox their absence of hostility with Christi- tions of or reactions against the Chris- anity or their performance of mira- tian expectation of the messiah? . . . manifest the cles). Instead I will propose that the What is the relationship between most important issue is their attitude (the message of) salvation in these workings of God? toward Christ and the Scriptures. messianic movements and the salva- tion in Christ witnessed in the Holy Not Moral Blamelessness Scriptures, and in the extension of the First, let it be said that the basis of 86 Christian churches and missions? our assessing a prophet’s gifting or calling cannot be moral blamelessness In light of abundant anthropological leader under the overall influence of or abstinence from use of force. The evidence throughout all parts of the the Holy Spirit could be in error on a Corinthian prophets, like most of the world, Oostewal holds as untenable particular issue91 while the leader of a other gifted believers in the church the view that the messianic move- cult could hold a position on a particu- seemed to have been quite carnal. And ments are strictly due to contact with lar issue that is more biblical. 87 even prophets of the canonical type Christianity. He challenges the Many Christians need to rethink their committed grave sin: David commit- standard missionary assessment: attitude toward those whose doctrines ted adultery and shed innocent blood the prophets are called liars, the mes- differ from their own. We should also in order to cover up his sin. Solomon, siahs, false, and the movements an antichristian threat to the Truth. For consider the possibility that many who authored three books in the OT any prophet, any religion that comes non-Chalcedonian Christians (whom canon, makes Muhammad’s weak- after Christ, can only be antichrist.88 the Western church has regarded as ness for women pale in comparison to unorthodox or heretical) may be in his passions; he “loved many foreign Oosterwal asserts that the matter is heaven because of their genuine trust women” and had “seven hundred not so simple, for a good number of in the Lord Jesus Christ; whereas wives, princesses, and three hundred the prophets and charismatic leaders some theologically orthodox (in the concubines.” Moreover, Solomon of these movements were trained in Chalcedonian sense) may not really participated in their idolatry in his Christian schools and served in the know Him (cf. Mat. 7:21-23). Alan old age (1 Kg. 11:1–6), as did Gideon churches. On the other hand he adds, Richardson concludes: ( Jud. 8:27), whereas Muhammad was

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 179 faithful to worship only the Creator. Furthermore, Muhammad’s view and oodberry highlights the OT-like context of use of force and political means for Muhammad, referring to him as a BC-like the sake of religion is not strange to prophet during an AD time frame. the Semitic mentality. Gideon and W David combined military, political Returning to the issue of our assessing As I argued in the section on post- and spiritual leadership. Nehemiah a prophet and his message, Oosterwal canonical and present day revelation, used violence to enforce God’s law also asserts that it cannot in fairness be we need only reject the parts that are and preserve communal purity, beating the excesses or immoral behavior of a in error—not the entire revelation. and pulling out the hair of those who minority of the movements’ adherents, Unfortunately, Western thought pat- had married or given sons in mar- neither can we compare our high moral terns do not naturally facilitate such riage to foreign women (Neh. 13:25). ideals with their low actual behavior; moderation. We think in terms of Are we also to condemn Joshua, who because the same can be done with black and white, or in what Hiebert was divinely directed to undertake a Christianity. Rather we must evaluate calls “bounded sets.”95 Thus we regard campaign of total annihilation of the these movements with a holistic un- a prophetic message or movement Canaanites (including their children)? derstanding of them as well as by valid as either true or false. If it is totally In his lectures, Woodberry highlights theological criteria—which for Ooster- true, we reason, it may be inspired by the predominantly OT-like context of wal is the same as it is for Christian God; but if it contains error, it is false, Muhammad, referring to him as a bc- churches—it is simply “the person, the heretical, and inspired by the devil. life and the mission of Jesus Christ.”93 like prophet during an ad time frame. A more sensitive, balanced approach Examples of similar phenomena may Confirming Christ to prophetic evaluation would incor- be seen in Acts 18–19 (albeit not exact Granting the possibility of legitimacy porate Hiebert’s thinking in terms parallels). Apollos preached powerfully of a post-biblical prophet, the issue of “centered sets,” in contrast to and boldly about Jesus (an evidence of becomes: by what criteria are we to “bounded sets.”96 To use centered sets the Holy Spirit’s anointing in Luke’s evaluate his revelation? Christopher in viewing conversion we would look theology), yet knew (and apparently Little, following Barth, states that at a person’s direction and movement taught) the baptism of John. Unac- information from God must: toward or away from Christ—as op- quainted with the theology of the new (1) conform to and agree with Jesus posed to “bounded set” categories of dispensation, he preached an important, Christ; (2) attest to Jesus Christ without saved and unsaved. The former regards but somewhat incomplete, message subtraction, addition, or alteration; a person as a Christian if he is follow- belonging to the prior era—until (3) confirm that Jesus Christ has in ing Christ; whereas, the latter wants to instructed by Aquila and Priscilla. In some way been encountered by those know whether a person has accepted Acts 19, Paul encounters a group of dis- who speak and relate to it; (4) agree Christ, by making a decision or pray- with the witness of Scripture; (5) be ciples who were still following John the ing a prayer that will clearly mark his affirmed by the dogmas and confes- Baptist, having not even heard of the transfer into the set of the saved. Holy Spirit. It may be that Muham- sions of the church; and (6) manifest mad was living faithfully according to good fruit….Therefore, any revelation It seems to me that both approaches the theology of a previous dispensation. that is not substantiated and support- have validity and can be found in the ed by either Jesus Christ as presented We need also to remember that OT Scripture. But bounded set thinking in Scripture or by Scripture itself, must tends to look much more at the infor- prophets who addressed non-Jews (like be rejected and renounced. In other Jonah, Nahum and possibly Obadiah) words, the Bible is our complete, final mational dimension—does a person be- did not preach obedience to the Mosaic and ultimate authority when it comes lieve (know and accept) the right facts law, the prophetic message to the Jews. to all matters pertaining to Christian (the message of salvation, the correct Rather, they emphasized fundamental faith and practice.94 doctrines) or not. In contrast, centered theological and ethical truths such as set thinking focuses on the relational we find in the Qur’an. Furthermore, we Unquestionably, Christ and the Scrip- aspect: Is the person seeking Christ and cannot judge the level of Muhammad’s tures must be our ultimate authority for obeying him—regardless of the degree gospel knowledge based simply on what assessment. However, we must be careful of his knowledge of the truth about is present in the Qur’an. The many and clarify the implications of declaring Jesus? A centered set approach would Qur’anic references to biblical narra- any revelation that is not substantiated have little difficulty in accepting that tives indicate that the audience was and supported by either Jesus Christ as the twelve apostles (except Judas) were well acquainted with these stories that presented in Scripture or by Scripture saved even as novice disciples of Jesus. Muhammad alluded to and affirmed. itself, must be rejected and renounced. In contrast, bounded set thinkers may

31:4 Winter 2014 180 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? struggle in determining when these of Qur’anic verses that appear Not Absence of Conflict with apostles understood enough of Jesus’ critical of Christianity. However, Christians nature and identity and the gospel to be as previously mentioned, I am The hostility that emerged much later 97 considered “saved.” persuaded that these verses attack between Islam and Christianity does aberrant, not biblical, Christian- not necessarily preclude a positive I would suggest that we also appropriate 100 ity. Thus, we may be able to Kraft’s thinking on three-dimensional prophetic role for Muhammad, for a more readily support his being a contextualization (1999).98 parallel situation exists with many of the We would prophet of the common kind— then evaluate a prophet or a proph- “cargo-cults” of the Pacific. Mircea Eli- not the canonical kind (like the ade explains the irony of their eventually ecy in terms of the three dimensions prophetic and apostolic writers of allegiance/relationship (attitude becoming hostile to Christianity. If we of the Holy Bible). Muhammad’s substitute the words “Muslims” for “na- toward and distance from Christ), teaching was neither compre- truth/knowledge (accuracy and com- tives” and “Christians” for “missionar- hensive nor complete regard- ies”, he could well have been describing pleteness with regard to the Scriptures), ing Christ, but in his context of and power/freedom (the spiritual fruit Islam’s relationship with Christianity: conflicting Christianities these If the natives came to feel disappoint- of his message in his life and in the lives would have been widely known, of his followers). ed in the missionaries, if the major- and he adamantly proclaimed the ity of the “cargo-cults”103 ultimately Evaluation of a prophet and his message value of those biblical Scriptures turned anti-Christian, it was not on using these criteria would consider the and the necessity of believing in account of anything in Christianity it- direction and distance with regard to self, but because the missionaries and Christ in terms of allegiance, truth, and their converts did not appear to con- power dimensions. Using these criteria, duct themselves as true Christians. we can view Muhammad’s message in a The disillusionments that the natives positive prophetic sense, though not one suffered in their encounter with of- ficial Christianity were many and that is sufficient by itself. We would tragic. For what attracted the natives 1. Regarding allegiance/relation- evaluate a prophet to Christianity the most powerfully ship (with Christ) it was very in terms of was their preaching of the coming positive, though more distant renewal of the World, the imminent than in the NT. Jesus is pre- allegiance, truth and arrival of Christ and the resurrection sented as unique—bearing titles of the dead; it was the prophetic and power. eschatological aspects of the Chris- and ascriptions that exalt him far tian religion that awakened in them above all other prophets and the the most profound echo. But it was Qur’an strongly affirms the bibli- precisely these aspects of Christianity cal Scriptures that bear witness that the missionaries seemed in prac- 101 to him. While we do not find in them. His message brought tice to ignore or not take seriously.104 the Qur’an the detailed accounts nothing significantly new; rather of Jesus’ life and teaching that it was a confirmation of the mes- Similarly, it seems likely, that Mu- the Gospels provide, the Qur’an sage of the biblical Scriptures in hammad recognized that Jews had does warn that those who do not an Arabic language. the Word of God, but were guilty of ḥ accept the previous Scriptures 3. Regarding the power dimen- ta rīf (corrupting it) by their living and 105 are unbelievers who have an sion, the Prophet of Islam led the teaching. Christians, were “nearest in 99 appointment with hellfire. Arabs in turning from idolatry, affection” (Surah 5:82) to the Muslim 2. With respect to truth, the Qur’an injustice, and iniquity toward believers, but were divided and vari- was largely accurate regarding OT the worship of the God of their ous heresies were promulgated among themes like God’s unity, idolatry, ancestor Abraham.102 An objec- them. Consequently, Muhammad sin, judgment, the need for righ- tive appraisal of his mission preached the eschatological themes, teous living, and even a high view must consider that Muhammad such as the resurrection, the return of Christ, even if there were some eliminated the infanticide of baby of Christ, and the reward and judg- errors in details. Muhammad’s girls, was an advocate for the ment that were so neglected by the message may be viewed as a con- poor, cleansed Mecca of its many Christians who were embroiled in textually driven presentation of idols, and united the Arab tribes Christological controversies. Although biblical themes. The chief concern around the worship of the God of the portrayal of Christ was not nearly of the Christian is the presence Abraham—all in one generation. as complete as found in the NT, it was

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 181 uniquely positive, and the injunction incumbent upon him and his fol- primary factor in the strife was the lowers was to ask the People of the repression of divine revelation—both sides Book regarding the absent, unclear or suppressed the truth by their unrighteousness. debatable issues of special revelation A (10:94), thereby affirming the message should point out to them that failure witness that he confirmed the prior of biblical Scripture. Part of Islam’s of the early Muslim apologists to cite revelations in the Tawrat and Injīl. eventual turning anti-Christian, was any miracles of Muhammad in reply We should also clarify for Muslims not necessarily due to anything in the to challenges of the early Christian the biblical position that Jesus did not gospel itself, but because Christians did apologists’ is strong evidence that his actually abrogate the law of Moses, but not appear to conduct themselves as alleged miracles were a later invention. fulfilled it (Mt. 5:17ff).107 Even though true Christians (the Byzantines in their abrogation or supercession was argued veneration of relics, Western Christians Nevertheless, Christians should rec- by some of the early Arab Christian in their Crusades and the resentful ognize that performance of miracles is apologists, this position needs to be Eastern Christians in their withdrawal not a necessary proof of prophethood nuanced. In the case of Moses and from witness). However, as noted earli- per se. Except for Moses, Elijah, and Jesus, miracles served as divine attesta- er by Bavinck, a primary factor involved Elisha, most OT prophets were not tion to the authority of their teaching in the subsequent strife with Christian- characterized by performance of mira- (He. 1:2–4) that was essential in mark- ity was due to the repression of divine cles. In the same way, NT prophets did ing a new phase in salvation history, not frequently perform miracles (in revelation—both sides “suppress[ed] 106 but not an abrogation. Jesus did not the truth by their unrighteousness.” contradistinction to the Apostles). abrogate the law, although he did (Rom. 1:18, NET Bible) Nevertheless, we can affirm that the introduce a major change in salvation performance of numerous miracles is Not Miracles and Signs history by inaugurating the prophesied an indication of the elevated rank of kingdom of God. His miracles, done Early Christian refutations of Mu- those prophets of God who perform in such incomparable abundance and hammad’s claim to prophethood were them. We can support this by not- power, demonstrated that the power based on his not having performed ing the higher regard given to Moses, and signs of the eschatological king- any miracles. Most orthodox Muslim Elijah and Elisha by the Jews. Moses dom reign of God were inaugurated scholars reject the miracles attributed is revered above the latter two, because by his earthly ministry. His authority to Muhammad in later traditions, but of his role as mediator of the divine is mediated in the present through His appeal to the Qur’an as Muhammad’s revelation. Elijah was more esteemed followers, and will culminate when he miracle (i‘jāz). However, if Cragg’s than Elisha, due to his role as the establishes the kingdom in its fullness view above is correct, then the i‘jāz of eschatological forerunner of the com- at his second coming.108 the Qur’an does not refer to a miracle, ing kingdom (Mal. 4:5). However, but rather to the marvel that God’s Jesus declared one who performed To summarize, a more biblically sound message was now in Arabic. no miracles, John the Baptist, to be position would not assert the necessity the greatest of all the prophets and of performance of miracles to establish We are led to ask what was the more than a prophet. This was due to prophethood. But bountiful perfor- motivation behind the invention of his role in preparing the way for and mance of miracles is a major evidence Muhammad’s miracles? Perhaps some pointing people to the Messiah (Mt. of increased rank among prophets (as were the result of devoted Muslims 11:9–11). Recall that this is the same well as apostles). Regular and direct who would go to any measure to theological gauge for measuring the (unmediated by angels) revelation and preserve the honor of their religion contribution of any prophet that we communication with God is another as a consequence of the debates with presented earlier in this discussion: the mark of distinction. But, as I will argue their opponents (Christians). Based on prophets’ ultimate significance is in in the next section, ultimate great- the presupposition of pious Muslims their pointing to Christ. ness in a prophet is a function of his that Muhammad was the last and pointing people to Christ. Therefore, greatest prophet, he by definition must Muhammad’s unique role was as bear- we could allow the possibility that have done miracles that were at least er of God’s message in Arabic. How- Muhammad is a prophet in the bibli- equal to those of Jesus. When speak- ever, this contradicts the traditional cal sense explained in the preceding ing to the many Muslims who believe Islamic view that Muhammad insti- section, and in the Qur’anic mode of in the miracles of Muhammad, we tuted a new religion that abrogated the being a warner to his people, without can remind them that the Qur’anic previous revelation. We must chal- requiring his performance of miracles. testimony denies this; moreover, we lenge this by appealing to the Qur’an’s However, while we appreciate, respect

31:4 Winter 2014 182 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? and affirm Muhammad’s greatness, witness to Christ. Similarly, during but Isa will be at the Last Judgment Day. Muhammad is dead, but Isa is and the possibility of prophethood, we certain periods medieval Christian- alive. Only four times does the Qur’an ity in the West degenerated into a cannot honor him with a greater status speak of Muhammad, and yet 97 times than Jesus (or even Moses). religious shell devoid of the gospel it talks about Isa. Muhammad is not a of Christ; yet, we do not impugn the It may help (non-fanatical) Muslims savior, according to the Qur’an, but Bible for this tragedy. to see that there is Qur’anic support Isa’s very name means ‘Savior.’ Mu- hammad is only a messenger, but Isa for this status. Research into gospel movements is called Ruhallah, the Spirit of Allah.109 Of those messengers, We have among Muslims reveals the potential caused some to excel others, some to efficacy of Muhammad’s testimony to Amid concluded that either the Qur’an whom God spoke, and some of them Christ. David Garrison was surprised is correct and Isa is the savior, or else He exalted in degree (above others); to learn that it was the witness of the mawlanas are right and Muslims and We gave Jesus, son of Mary, the Qur’an which had brought many should follow Muhammad. He chal- clear proofs (miraculous signs) and Muslims in South Asia to “initial” lenged the Islamic teachers to obey the supported him with the Holy Spirit. faith in Christ who then led them to (Surah 2:253) Qur’an and follow Jesus. Some scorned the Bible for a clearer understanding. him, but others admitted he was right For instance, someone named Amid Here the Qur’an notes that prophets and counseled him to find out more had been challenged to stop reciting hold different ranks. To whom did about Jesus from the Christian com- the Qur’an in Arabic (which he did God speak? It implies that Moses is munity. Amid obtained a Bible, learned not understand) and to begin reading the one who was greater than oth- more of Christ, and was eventually ers, because he spoke directly with baptized. Those in his movement God (apart from angelic mediation). demonstrate to other Muslims from Who are those whom God exalted the Qur’an that Jesus is the savior and in degree? The arch-example is Jesus, baptize them. Afterwards, they disciple 110 who alone is named in context im- It entails them from the Bible. Though Islam- mediately afterwards. We can logically interpreting the ic dogma has misled untold millions of infer that he was exalted in degree, Muslims, when the Quranic testimony because he not only spoke directly Qur’an exeget­ically to Christ is allowed to speak for itself, with God like Moses, but also per- with regard to its many Muslims have come to trust him formed the most miraculous signs as savior. Furthermore, the Qur’an and wonders. Muhammad, despite his biblical subtext. repeatedly directs them to follow the noble accomplishments and greatness, guidance of the previous Scriptures. did neither, and thus by implication, holds a lesser rank than those who did. IV. Muhammadan Muhammad did no miracles, so he is a translation in his mother tongue. He Prophethood Reconsidered not to be regarded as equal to those was astonished: Like a number of Christian scholars like Moses, and certainly not to Jesus. The first thing I noticed was that of Islam, I believe there is biblical Muhammad presented a powerful and there [were] many stories in the warrant for considering the possibil- positive witness to Christ among the Qur’an that were at variance with ity of some kind of positive prophetic Arabs, and other peoples of the world. what I had heard from the maw- status for Muhammad. I have shown In this sense we can regard him as the lanas, the Islamic teachers in the that biblical and mission theology can greatest prophet to the Arabs, because mosque. I searched the Qur’an to allow for this. However, it does entail for most Arabs, it is his noble witness understand more about Muhammad, seeking to interpret the Qur’an exeget- to Christ that they have heard. but instead, I found Isa, and this dis- turbed me. . . . ically and with regard to its biblical Admittedly, most Christians would subtext, rather than primarily through In the Qur’an . . . I found no titles of view this perspective with skepticism honor for Muhammad, but 23 hon- the lens of later Islamic tradition. or disfavor, given the fact that the orable titles that Allah gave to Isa. I While contemplation of this possibil- Islamic teaching about Christ is but saw that Muhammad is not with Allah ity of prophethood runs counter to the a faint shadow of what is offered in now, but Isa is in heaven with Allah position embraced by most contempo- the Bible. But that does not invalidate now. Muhammad is not coming again, rary Christians, it is not a new mis- Muhammad’s testimony to Christ. but Isa is coming again. Muhammad siological invention—such voices were In a similar manner, Jewish religious will not be at the Last Judgment Day, heard among Christians at the outset teachers and systems missed Moses’ and continue to the present.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 183

The most famous is the patriarch Timothy I who declared, he label­ “directive prophecy” was for those Muhammad is worthy of all praise, by instances­ where God sovereignly enlists persons all reasonable people. He walked in the path of the prophets and trod in T outside the covenant to ac­complish his purposes. the track of the lovers of God If “truth” as conveyed by the Bible is Timothy Tennent, Asbury Seminary primarily about relationship between president and professor of world and that “all believers rejoice in the God and humanity, rather than a Christianity, is another prominent good that he did,” teaching the unity collection of propositions to be ac- of God, driving people away from knowledged, then surely all state- evangelical who accedes a positive pro- idolatry, polytheism, and bad works ments from Muhammad that reflect phetic role to Muhammad. Tennent and toward good works. the reality of God’s self-revelation are embraces Charles Ledit’s designation Muhammad taught about God, His prophetic. I do not want to under- of two kinds of prophecy: “theological” Word and His Spirit, and since all mine the importance of propositional and “directive.” The former pointed to, prophets had prophesied about God, statements derived from biblical text. and ceased at, the coming of Christ. His Word and His Spirit, Muhammad But I do want to suggest that those Taking a cue from Aquinas, Ledit la- walked, therefore, in the path of all are secondary. After all . . . the Bible is beled as “directive prophecy” those in- the prophets.111 not an end in itself; it bears witness stances where God sovereignly enlists to Another. Nor did God simply bel- persons outside the covenant to ac- Timothy even praised Muhammad for low into humans’ ears a handful of complish his purposes, such as giving his zeal for God with the sword and propositions. “Truth”, in its Christian guidance to people or even correcting his preaching monotheism to other sense, is more subtle, more nuanced, the covenant people. In this vein, Mu- than that. It finds its essence in a Per- peoples; and that this is why God hammad united the Arabs and turned exalted him and gave him sover- son. Where the Prophet Muhammad gained insight into who that Person them from paganism and idolatry to eignty over the kingdoms of Persia and monotheism and an ordered society, Rome. It can be argued that Timothy is–for example in his conviction, against a polytheistic background, of also preparing a potential bridge to the cautiously affirmed Muhammad as a gospel of Christ.115 Despite the hos- prophet—if the Qur’an is interpreted the oneness of God–his utterances to that effect are truly in the lineage of tilities that later transpired with Jews as not contravening a trinitarian un- the biblical prophets. Whether and and Christians, Tennent avers, derstanding of God (Block: 129-132). to what extent Muhammad himself we should not let the whole history The spirit of Timothy can be seen lived by such insights will be evalu- of Islam cloud our assessment of Mu- again in a contemporary Arab evan- ated by the One who will evaluate all hammad. If it can be said that God gelical scholar of Islam. Martin Accad of us.113 spoke ‘directive prophecy’ through advocates authentic engagement with Cyrus, who announced the end of Islam that mediates between tradi- An opinion which cannot be easily exile (2 Chron. 36:22; Ezra 1:8), then tional apologetic/polemic and liberal dismissed is that of the renowned Re- why could God not have spoken a di- rective word through Muhammad?116 syncretistic/existential positions. He formed theologian, Herman Bavinck: In the past the study of religions was calls for a kerygmatic approach to A very recent and extensively argued Islam that emphasizes the proclama- pursued in the interest of dogmat- ics and apologetics. The founders case for Muhammad as a prophet is tion of God’s full and final revelation made by Anton Wessels, Presbyterian in Christ apart from institutional of (non-Christian) religions, like Mo- hammed, were simply considered minister and professor emeritus at religion. Accad also states: imposters, enemies of God, and ac- Amsterdam’s Free University. Defining But this needs not prevent us from complices of the devil. But ever since the term, he says: admitting the greatness of Muham- those religions have become more A prophet is not someone who pre- mad, and perceiving him, if not as a precisely known, this interpretation dicts the future, who looks into a crys- prophet, nonetheless as a messenger, has proved untenable; it clashed both tal ball. Rather, a prophet is a seer, a ras l, who carried an important ū with history and psychology. Also divine message to his people, lead- someone who points out what an among pagans, says Scripture, there ing them away from polytheism and event means, someone who provides is a revelation of God, an illumination drawing them to the worship of the insight into what is going on both of the Logos, a working of God’s Spir- one God.112 spiritually and politically. A prophet it (Gen. 6:17; 7:15; Ps. 33:6; 104:30; is an agitator, someone who walks Another evangelical scholar of Islam, Job 32:8; Eccles. 3:19; Prov. 8:22ff.; around temple and palace stating his Bill Musk, likewise seeks to affirm a Mal. 1:11, 14; John 1:9; Rom. 2:14; criticism, who rages against the injus- 114 prophetic role for Muhammad: Gal. 4:1-3; Acts 14:16, 17; 17:22-30). tices political leaders are committing.

31:4 Winter 2014 184 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets?

A true prophet does not adopt the Many Christians maintain that However, in contrast to the imperi- drab and colorless language of his Muhammad shifted from a positive alistic arrogance and cult of the cross society, does not speak the jargon of diplomats, the language of theo- attitude toward Christians in Mecca of the Byzantines, the Qur’an viewed logians or a priestly caste, or the rigid (when it was expedient) to a hostile, Christians in Arabia (primarily Mono- prose of the business world. He is militant one in Medina (where after physite, Syrian Orthodox, Nestorian, and remains faithful to the language acquiring political power he showed and Assyrian) as those “closest in of the parable. He does not predict his true colors). However, recent re- affection” to Muslims, for their priests history but studies and analyzes it, search points to a different scenario. and monks were not proud (Surah uncovers and unmasks it.117 5:82). Thus, the Qur’an does not view Muhammad was supportive of Chris- Christians with hostility as a matter of tians, including the Byzantines. While Wessels presents various lines of principle, but only when they practice preaching in Mecca, he predicted that evidence for Muhammad as prophet. polytheism.124 And even when violence First, he points out significant parallels the Byzantines would lose the nearest part of the land (Palestine/Jerusalem) is justified in the cause of God, the between biblical prophets (especially Qur’an infers a measure of culpability Moses and Elijah) and Muhammad in to the Persians, but in a few years 125 and the need to seek forgiveness. their commission. Isaiah is instructed would have victory over them. And 121 to “Cry out.” He asks, “What shall I cry when they did, the Muslims would The above examples are sufficient to out” (Isa. 40:6); Muhammad is called rejoice with them (Surah 30:1–5). show that some prominent Christians by God to “Recite” (Surah 96:1). Like However, some 15 years later, after the scholars have recognized or affirmed Isaiah, he asks, “What shall I recite?” Byzantine victory over the Persians Muhammad as a prophet, albeit with (Surah 96:1-5). Commanded to warn various meanings of the term. The others, he dons a cloak, and covers scholars cited above have no dog in his face with it, like Elijah (1 Kgs. the fight over contextualization and 19:11–13). As with Jeremiah (20:7), insider movements. Many complex Muhammad cannot resist God who issues are causing them to reassess is stronger than he; he is compelled to Archeological­ their stance on Muhammad. Cer- 118 speak (Surah 53:5). evidence does not tainly widespread belief in an inherent Wessels also notes Muhammad’s claim to incompatibility between the Bible and be a prophet to the “unlettered” (an-nabi support the traditional the Qur’an has centuries of support in al-ummi) meant his bringing to those Islamic narrative. Muslim-Christian encounter, in reli- who were without the Scriptures a mes- gious polemics and apologetics, and in sage that confirmed the previous biblical political, military and cultural conflict. revelation. In the sense of a “confirmer” But as was discussed above, this was he is the “seal of the prophets.” Thus, not the case at the outset. Muhammad “brings the same ‘Book,’ not (629/630), Muslim sympathy with the Many factors are calling for a reas- the same text but the same message from Byzantine cause suddenly turned into sessment of Muhammad, such as God, the same guidance for human- 122 119 sharp hostility. What accounts for the critical scrutiny of Islamic his- ity.” The umma (community) relates this change? torical sources. Study of non-Muslim to all three communities who claim historical documents and archeo- Pursuing political objectives, Emperor descent from Abraham and are “People logical evidence do not support the Heraclius had appealed to religious of the Book,” each having its unique traditional Islamic narrative. Theories sentiments to rally his army—to rite, religion or way of living. Some Jews about the origins of the Qur’an and wrest the true cross from the Persians and Christians accepted Muhammad’s Islam, as well as the Islamic doctrine and bring it back to Jerusalem. After message (Surah 28:53–53; 2:121; 29:47; of abrogation, are being challenged. defeating the Persians, he ceremoni- 3:199; 6:114); but now as then, most do Textual criticism of the Qur’an, long a not. Wessels maintains that Christians ously brought the true cross up the Via taboo—even in academia—is opening who accept Muhammad as a prophet are Dolorosa. Interpreting this act of the possibilities for harmonizing verses not obliged to become “Muslim” in the Byzantines as idolatry, the Muslims that had previously been considered narrow sense; they are to be “muslim” like immediately responded by attacking irreconcilable within the Qur’an and Abraham (Surah 3:67), the exemplar for them at Mu’ta. This veneration of the with the Bible. This comprehensive all three communities. cross provoked the well-documented Muslim antagonism over the sym- project is still in its infancy, and it will Wessels also seeks to remove some bol of the cross in Syria/Palestine.123 likely take many years before these stones of stumbling for Christians.120 questions are adequately answered. The

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Harley Talman 185 results of this scholarly activity will eventually substantiate or weaken the esus claimed that he himself was the Way. All of case for consideration of Muhammad God’s prophets (before and after Christ) pointed as prophet in some capacity. to him. If Christians were to accept Muham- J or sūras of the Qur’ān are named af- that is tantamount to holding that mad as a prophet in one of the ways ter references to Jesus (3, 5 and 19); he is in some sense a prophet. Such a posited above, then could we affirm this he is mentioned in fifteen ūs ras and view does not contradict any central to Muslims without obliging ourselves ninety-three verses. Jesus is always Christian belief. It has, however, to be (in their thinking) to become Muslims? spoken of in the Qur’ān with rever- made clear to Muslims that Christians I think that Christ followers could do ence; there is no breath of criticism, do not believe that all Muhammad’s so and be faithful to biblical authority. for he is the Christ of God.126 revelations from God were infallible, even though they allow that much of First of all, we acknowledge that Christ’s being “near stationed to God” divine truth was revealed to him.128 prophets were sent both before and (Surah 3:45) has been understood by after Jesus Christ (as supported by some Muslims scholars to refer to Conclusion NT passages such as 1 Cor. 14 and 1 his supremacy in intercession. Also, Th. 5:19–21). We also establish that Muhammad did in fact testify to the Is Muhammad also among the every prophet of God, pointed his virgin birth (Surahs 3, 19, and 66), prophets? This paper has provided followers to the way toward God. but the emphasis of his eschatological theological, missiological, and histori- That being agreed, we would point proclamation was Christ’s Second Ad- cal sanction for expanding constricted out that Jesus Christ not only directed vent. And as mentioned before, since categories of prophethood to allow people to the way, but claimed that Muhammad himself was instructed Christians to entertain the possibil- he himself was the way ( Jn. 14:6). All to ask the People of the Book (Surah ity of Muhammad being other than of God’s prophets (before and after 10:94), then so should his follow- a false prophet. He may be seen as Christ) pointed to him. We can quote ers (Surah 5:68).127 Those who obey fulfilling a prophetic role, whether in response to general revelation or spe- Acts 10:43: by searching these Scriptures will be cial, whether as a preacher or religious All the prophets testify about him pointed to Christ ( Jn. 5:39), and this leader, whether as an ecstatic or char- that everyone who believes in him is the primary purpose of prophethood ismatic prophet, or something more. receives forgiveness of sins through (Ac. 10:43). his name, Nevertheless, for those who cannot Although such consultation may accept this, perhaps this study will at as well as Jn. 5:39 and Lk. 24:44–47. surface theological differences, we least reduce their level of indignation Although exegetically this reference should appeal to what the Bible says as toward those who differ with them. is to those prophets who preceded our final arbiter, based on the Qur’an’s I do not expect a Christian consensus Christ, theologically it is true of those injunction to “let the People of the to be reached on this issue—not until who came after him (from NT era Gospel judge by that which He has he who sits on the throne returns and prophets until the Elijah of Malachi 4 revealed therein” (Surah 5:47). Admit- announces his ultimate and unerring precedes the Second Advent). We can tedly, this position conflicts with the judgment. Sincere and faithful Chris- affirm that Muhammad testified to mistaken Islamic belief in the infal- tians through the centuries have held Christ’s uniqueness and greatness, as libility of their prophet, but we can vastly disparate viewpoints regarding Parrinder observes: show how the Injīl commands us to the prophet of Islam—that may not The Qur’ n gives a greater number apply this same standard to Christian ā change greatly. A major obstacle is our of honourable titles to Jesus than to prophets as well (1 Co. 14:29). We uncertainty about the actual details of any other figure of the past. He is a need not denigrate Muhammad’s Muhammad’s life due to the great lack ‘sign’, a ‘mercy’, a ‘witness’ and an character (for even biblical prophets of personal information about him in ‘example’. He is called by his proper had serious faults). At the same time, name Jesus, by the titles Messiah the Qur’an and the complexities of allowing for Muhammadan prophet- (Christ) and Son of Mary, and by the the historical sources. Future historical hood does not oblige us to embrace names Messenger, Prophet, Servant, studies may strengthen or weaken the Islamic views on it. In this vein, Word and Spirit of God. The Qur’ān case for Muhammad being regarded as gives two accounts of the annuncia- Montgomery Watt advises Christians a prophet. The outcome of critical schol- tion and birth of Jesus, and refers to to acknowledge arship as to the Qur’an’s relationship to his teachings and healings, and his Muhammad as a religious leader the Bible (positive or negative) will also death and exaltation. Three chapters through whom God has worked, and affect thinking. We must also recognize

31:4 Winter 2014 186 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? that our attitudes, opinions, and convic- Religious Communities, ed. Harley Talman 13 Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians tions are influenced by our personal and John Jay Travis (Pasadena, CA: William Face to Face (Oxford, UK: One World), 188. Carey Library, forthcoming 2015). 14 David Garrison, A Wind in the experiences with Muslims, the prejudice 4 of our church, community and culture, The first biographer, Ibn Ishaq (d. 767), House of Islam (Monument, CO: WIGTake wrote over a century after Muhammad’s as well as the impact of geo-political Resources, 2014), 112–118. death and comes to us only in an abbreviated 15 events on our lives. Differing theologi- For examples, see Fouad Elias Ac- form edited by Ibn Hisham (d. 833) more cad, Building Bridges: Christianity and Islam cal assumptions and understandings will than a century after that. Despite his many (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1997), also shape our perspectives. defenders, some classical Muslim authorities 27, and David Garrison, 118. disputed his reliability. Cf. Robert Spencer, 16 Personal conversation in Pasadena, If nothing else has been achieved, my Did Muhammad Exist? An Inquiry into Islam’s CA, 2004. hope is that this study will engender a Obscure Origins (Wilmington, DE: Intercol- 17 degree of humility that recognizes the legiate Studies Institute, 2012), 87–100; Fred Byzantines were Greek Christians whose name came from Byzantium, a limits of our knowledge on this issue. M. Donner, Muhammad and the Believ- ers: the Origins of Islam (Cambridge, MA: Greek city on the European side of the I would hope that my presenting posi- Bosporus Strait. It became the capital of the tive prophetic possibilities might en- Belnap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010), 50–56; and Gabriel Said Reynolds, Eastern part of the Roman empire under able Christians to show Muslims more The Emergence of Islam: Classical Traditions in Constantine I who renamed it Constanti- respect in regard to Muhammad. I also Contemporary Perspective (Minneapolis, MN: nople. The Greek Christian Empire eventu- desire to see a lowering of the level of Fortress Press, 2012), chapter 6. ally lost much of its territorial control to the 5 Arab Believers movement (which eventually consternation against disciples of Jesus Gabriel Said Reynolds, The Qur’an morphed into Islamic rule). who think positively about Muham- and Its Biblical Subtext (New York: Rout- 18 mad. Their opinions or convictions ledge, 2010); cf. also Part 2 (esp. chapter John of Damascus reacted scath- 6) in his Emergence of Islam; also Guilio ingly to the Islamization of the civil service should not greatly concern us as long in Syria. After the Byzantines lost political as they render ultimate allegiance and Basetti-Sani, The Koran in the Light of Christ (Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1977). dominion to Muslim armies, the polemicist obedience to Jesus Christ and biblical 6 Nicetas of Byzantium (c. 842–912) vented Andrew Rippin, Muslims: Their Reli- the most vitriolic slurs against them and authority. May we do the same. gious Beliefs and Practices, Vol. 1 (New York: Routledge, 1990), 34. their prophet that he could concoct. In essentials unity, in non-essentials liberty, 19 7 Likely in reaction to the persecution in all things charity. IJFM These accounts evidence an attempt at legitimizing Muslim rule of their day by of Muslims during the Reconquest of Spain, presenting Muhammad’s movement as the Ibn Hazm charged Christians with corrupt- Endnotes “Islam” of their time, a religion distinct from ing the text of Scripture, not just corruption of its meaning. 1 1 Samuel 10:11–12 and 19:24. “Is Judaism and Christianity, and the earlier 20 Norman Daniel, Islam and the West, Saul also among the [ecstatic] prophets?” is expansions as a series of divinely aided revised edition (Oxford, UK: Oneworld the meaning according to Ron Youngblood, religious “Muslim” conquests over “non- Publications, 1983). “1–2 Samuel,” in Deuteronomy–2 Samuel. Muslims” (Donner, 119–120). 8 21 Expositor’s Bible Commentary, vol. 3, Reynolds and Donner are examples. Kimball, 40. 22 ed. Frank Gaebelein (Grand Rapids, MI: 9 C. Jonn Block, Expanding the Qur’anic For example, Surah 92:12-16 Zondervan, 1984), 627. Bridge: Historical and Modern Interpretations strongly warns polytheists. 23 2 Youngblood, 618. of the Qur’an in Christian-Muslim Dialogue Abdiyah Akbar Abdul-Haqq, Shar- 3 Christians have observed varied practices with Special Attention Paid to Ecumenical ing Your Faith with a Muslim (Minneapolis, among Muslim followers of Christ, including: Trends (Minneapolis: Routledge, 2013) MN: Bethany House, 1980), 15. 24 a. They do not say the shahadah. seems to be a representative of this. Cf. Jonathan Culver, “The Ish- 10 b. They say “there is no god but Spencer summarizes the findings of maelite Promise and Contextualization God,” but stop without saying the revisionists. Their theories and find- among Muslims.” International Journal of “Muhammad is God’s messenger.” ings are worthy of careful consideration, Frontier Missiology 17(1):62-69, 2000, “The c. They say the full shahadah, but add but carte blanche dismissal of all Islamic Ishmaelite Promises in the Light of God’s “and Jesus the Messiah is the Word sources that lack outside corroboration is an Mission: Christian and Muslim Reflec- of God and the Spirit of God.” excessively radical approach. Spencer will tions.” Ph.D. dissertation, Fuller Theological d. They say the shahadah and mean only grant that Muhammad “as a prophet Seminary, 2001; chapter 12 in Mark Harlan, only that Muhammad was a of the Arabs who taught a vaguely defined A Model for Theologizing in Arab Muslim simple messenger and warner. monotheism... may have existed,” 214. Contexts, Evangelical Missiological Society e. They say the shahadah and assert 11 Dan Gibson, Qur’anic Geography Dissertation Series (Pasadena, CA: WCIU that Muhammad was a messenger (Surrey, BC: Canada, Independent Scholars Press, 2012); and Tony Maalouf, Arabs in the and a prophet for he points to Jesus. Press, 2011). See the summary by Jeremy Shadow of Israel: the Unfolding of God’s Pro- I address this question in detail in “Muslim Smyth, “The Mecca Question” at http:// phetic Plan for Ishmael’s Line (Grand Rapids, Followers of Jesus and the Muslim Confes- searchformecca.com/. MI: Kregel, 2003). sion of Faith,” in Understanding Insider 12 Cf. also Charles Kimball, Striving To- 25 Robert William Thomson, James Movements: Disciples of Jesus in Diverse gether (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991). Howard-Johnson & Tim Greenwood,

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The Armenian History Attributed To Sebeos, erroneous and anachronistic to suppose an Matthew, others one of several non-canon- Translated Texts For Historians, Vol. 31 Arab nationalistic political identity existed. ical Jewish-Christian gospels. Ebionites (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, Donner states, “There is almost no evidence seem to have denied Christ’s pre-existence, 1999), 95–96. for the existence of a collective ‘Arab’ po- but some still accepted the Virgin Birth. By 26 Donner cautions us regarding the litical identity before the Believers created the 4th century, Constantine’s persecution complete historicity of the account since their empire” (218). drove them to Arabia and beyond. Christian polemicists of the time loved to 37 Abdul-Masih Saadi, “Nascent Islam 46 The Priest and the Prophet: The Chris- discredit opponents with guilt by association in the seventh century Syriac sources,” in The tian Priest, Waraqa Ibn Nawfal’s Profound with the Jews, 114. Spencer rejects the his- Qur’an in Its Historical Context, ed. Gabriel Said Influence Upon Muhammad, The Prophet of torical accuracy due to outside corroboration, Reynolds (NY: Routledge, 2008), 217–218. Islam (Los Angeles: Pen Publishers, 2005). but notes the lack of hostility to Jews, 33. 38 Donner, 114. Azzi’s demonstration of Waraqa’s ties to 27 Donner, chapter 2. Donner argues 39 Donner, 190. Jewish Christianity is quite strong. That he that Muhammad started a reform move- 40 All believers were “muslims.” Those was an Ebionite is much less certain, in my ment of monotheism that focused on the who were Jews or Christians could still be so opinion. Robert Hoyland is likewise skepti- practice of morality. Much later it became identified, but polytheists who forsook idola- cal (Seeing Islam as Others Saw it: A Survey what we recognize today as “Islam.” See also try to follow Qur’anic law could only then and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Donner’s “The Qur’an in Recent Scholar- be called “muslims.” Over time, the term Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam, Studies ship,” in The Qur’an in Its Historical Context, “Muslims” began to be applied exclusively to in Late Antiquity and Early Islam, vol. 13 ed. Gabriel Said Reynolds (New York: the “new monotheists” (Donner, 72). [Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1997], 28, as Routledge, 2008), 33. 41 cited in Block, 51). 28 Block provides historical evidence 47 Donner, 69–70, cites Qur’anic that for a century, Christians viewed Mu- Wilfred Cantwell Smith, “Muslim- support from Surah 46:9, 48:29, 3:199, hammad’s doctrines in similar terms as they Christian Relations: Questions of a Com- 3:113–116 and the like. parative Religionist” Journal of the Institute 29 did other branches of Christianity (such Donner thinks the Christians who as Monophysites and Nestorians) that had of Muslim Minority Affairs 8, 1987, cited in joined this “Believers Movement” were alternative Christological views (126). Of Kate Zebiri, Muslims and Christians Face non-Trinitarian Christians, seemingly based course each group regarded all other views to Face (Oxford: One World, 1997), 191. on his anti-Trinitarian understanding of as heretical. Reynolds rejects the traditional Such scholars look to a recovery of Hebrew certain Qur’anic verses. However, Block view of Islam’s origins and its sacred text, as Christian views as a promising contextual gives evidence that these verses were aimed does Spencer. Many scholars view “ortho- Christology for Islam today. 48 at tri-theism and other heretical Christian dox” Islam as likely representing something Similarly, John Esposito, Islam: The views. (See footnote above.) that came into existence two or three centu- Straight Path (Oxford: Oxford University 30 Spencer, xiv. ries after Muhammad. Press, 1988), 15. 31 49 Reynolds, Emergence of Islam, 160. 42 Cf. Martin Accad, “Corruption and/ Smith, 20, cited in Zebiri, 190. Cf. also Spencer, xiv, and chapter 2. or Misinterpretation of the Bible: The Story Although zealous evangelical Christians com- 32 Donner, 112. Sometimes the anti- of the Islamic Usage of Tāhrīf,” The Near pletely reject any movement deemed heretical, polytheism denunciation “who has no East School of Theology Theological Review 24 we should realize that devout non-Chalcedo- associate” also appeared, but this was not an (2003): 67–97; also Abdullah Saeed, “The nian Christians were similarly classed—not obstacle for true monotheists. Charge of Distortion of Jewish and Chris- to mention Nestorius, who it seems did not 33 Donner, 114. tian Scriptures,” The Muslim World, Vol.92, merit that branding. I do not believe that such 34 “heretics” are necessarily infidels (unbeliev- Reference to the work of Petra Jijpes- No.3/4 (Fall 2002): 419–436. 43 teijn of Leiden University is made by Anton As a result of this more negative ers)—they may be trusting in Christ but have Wessels, The Torah, the Gospel and the Qur’an: stance toward Christianity, many Christians a different “grasp” of a theological mystery. Three Books, Two Cities, One Tale (Grand lay the blame of the bad fruit of the Islamic The same may be true of many evangelical Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2013), 106. Their self- system upon the root, Muhammad. However, Christians today, who if asked to explain identity as “emigrants” indicates a mentality following this logic, the responsibility and the Trinity would likely give an answer that of hijra with its notions of entering a devout blame for the religious system that developed the ancient church declared heretical. Even community, striving (even militantly) in the under the Pharisees (that shut the door to theologically sophisticated, Bible believing path of God, and adopting a non-nomadic Jews who sought to enter kingdom of heaven, Christians do not all agree in their under- lifestyle (Donner, chapter 2 and p. 134). Mt. 23:13) should be placed upon the shoul- standing of the nature of the Trinity. (Some see social Trinitarians as in conflict with a 35 Abdul Massih Saadi, “Nascent Islam ders of Moses. This is certainly not justifiable. Similarly, we would have to blame Peter and proper understanding of Nicene orthodoxy). in the Seventh Century Syriac Sources”, 50 in The Qur’an in its Historical Context, ed. Paul (and even Jesus) for what Christianity William Montgomery Watt, “The Gabriel Said Reynolds (NY: Routledge, became in medieval Roman Catholicism. Christianity Criticized in the Qur’an,” 2008), 217–219. Syriac Christian sources 44 Reynolds, Emergence of Islam, chapter 7. Muslim World 57:3 (1967):197-201. 51 are judged to be more objective than those 45 During the 1st century, Jewish Block,126. 52 of the Byzantines who were more polemical Christians were Torah-observant, distinct Block examines historical and exeget- due to their direct political and territorial from other Jews only by their belief in Jesus ical contexts of Qur’anic criticisms of various losses to the Arabs. as the Messiah. Later, they included groups Christian identities, 290; cf. also Basetti-Sani. 36 “Arab” was a linguistic or cultural like the Ebionites and Nazarenes. Some 53 Block, 281. Block traces the change to a identity, not a political one. It would be followed a Hebrew or Aramaic version of polemical attitude toward Muhammad to John

31:4 Winter 2014 188 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? of Damascus in the 8th century and details the and Visions: Muslims’ Miraculous Journey to the Ghassanids had bishops since the 4th history of deliberate malice in scholarship. Jesus (San Giovanni Teatino, Italy: Destiny century, the Nicene creed was in Arabic, and 54 Watt, William Montgomery, Islam Image, 2010); Tom Doyle, Dreams and Vi- there are Christian Arabic inscriptions from and Christianity Today: A Contribution to sions: Is Jesus Awakening the Muslim World? at least the 5th century. The text may have Dialogue (London: Routledge, 1983), 60–61. (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2012), 223; been in Syriac, but the debates were in Ara- I would agree with Watt in this regard, as Jean-Marie Gaudeul, Called from Islam to bic” (personal conversation, March 2013). well with his conclusion that Muhammad is Christ: Why Muslims Become Christians (East 77 Cragg, 86–87. not an exemplar for humanity when judged Sussex, UK: Monarch, 1999). 78 Cragg, 97. 64 by modern standards—only the incompa- Though my seminary and church 79 Gottfried Oosterwal, Modern Mes- rable Christ sets a moral standard that chal- background denied this possibility, my views sianic Movements (Elkhart, IN: Institute lenges all humans in all times and places. later changed through my experiences with 55 of Mennonite Studies, 1973), 37. Some F. Buhl, “Muhammad” in Concise individuals who are so gifted, and through key characteristics of modern messianic Encyclopedia of Islam, ed. H. A. R. Gibb and the writings of Carson, Grudem and Deere. movements are reminiscent of Islam: their J. H. Kramers, eds. (Leiden, Netherlands: Cf. D. A. Carson, Showing the Spirit (Grand seeking to present a holistic view of life with E. J. Brill, 2001), 393–394. Rapids, MI: Baker, 1987), Wayne Grudem, religion at its center, strength of community, 56 Christopher Little, The Revelation Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: simplicity of message, and establishing a of God among the Unevangelized (Pasadena, Zondervan Publishing, 1994), and Jack new fellowship that provides security and a CA: William Carey, 2000), 47. Deere, Surprised by the Voice of God: How new identity with meaning. 57 Charles C. Ryrie, The Ryrie Study Bible God Speaks Today through Prophecies, Dreams, 80 Oosterwal, 9. and Visions (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan (Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1986), 63–65. 81 David Shank, “William Wadé 58 Little, 115. This faith response to Publishing, 1996). 65 Harris,” in Mission Legacies, ed. Gerald H. special revelation always has some christo- Carson 1987, 94–98. 66 Anderson, Robert T. Coote, Norman A. logical element to it, is always true (though Don Richardson, Eternity in Their Horner, and James M. Phillips (Maryknoll, not always fully grasped), and its content Hearts, revised ed. (Ventura, CA: Venture NY: Orbis Books, 1994), 158. David Shank regarding what is necessary for salvation is Books, 1984), 9–25; cf. Craig S. Keener, The further describes Harris’ prophetic ministry: progressively developed. IVP Bible Background Commentary: New “Accompanied by two women disciples— 59 These included Basil, Gregory of Testament (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity excellent singers playing calabash rattles— Nyssa, John Chrystostom, and Gregory of Press, 1993), 373, comments on Acts 17:23. he visited village after village, calling the 67 Nazianzus in the Eastern church, and Am- Reformed Dogmatics, ed. John Bolt, coastal people to abandon and destroy their brose, Jerome, and Gregory the Great in the Vol. 1 (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, ‘fetishes,’ to turn to the one true and living West. Even Augustine changed in his views 2003), 318. God, to be baptized and forgiven by the when he saw such phenomena occurring 68 Johan H. Bavinck, The Church Savior; he then taught them to follow the around him (Morton Kelsey, The Christian between Temple and Mosque (Grand Rapids, commandments of God, to live in peace, and the Supernatural (Minneapolis, MN: MI: Eerdmans, 1981), 123. and organized them for prayer and wor- Augsburg, 1976), 97–98. 69 Some scholars believe the “night of ship of God in their own languages, music, 60 Little, 82. While the Bible was pres- power” (Surah 97:1–5) is actually a reference and dance, to await the ‘white man with ent in Arabia in some non-Arabic languag- to Christmas night, based on the similar vo- the Book’ and the new times that were to es, such as Syriac, it was the coming of a cabulary used in the Qur’an and the nativity come” (155). Harris declared himself God’s divine revelation in a “clear, Arabic tongue” narratives (Spencer, 183–185). prophet and was mightily used of God like (26:195) that gave such great significance 70 J. H. Bavinck, 124-126. no other person in West Africa in the con- to the mission of Muhammad. Stories 71 J. H. Bavinck, 126. version of thousands to Christ. Neverthe- from Bible translators record the immense less, we see error in some of his prophetic 72 Kenneth Cragg, Muhammad and the difference it makes to tribal peoples when views (155–165). Christian (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, the Scriptures are translated into their heart 82 Shank, 155. language, even though they are available to 1984), 84. 83 73 Casely Hayford, in William Waddy them in another language. Fazlur Rahman, Islam (Garden City, Harris, 16-17, n.d. Quoted in David Shank, 61 Little, 117. NY: Anchor Books, 1968), 4–5. 74 “William Wadé Harris,” in Mission Legacies, 62 I see this prophecy as having had an Rahman, 5. 75 ed. Gerald H. Anderson, Robert T. Coote, initial and partial fulfillment at Pentecost Cragg, 95. Norman A. Horner, and James M. Phillips 76 (Ac. 2:16–21) and will be fully fulfilled in the Block takes a different view, thinking (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994), 159. last days. The Pentecostal-charismatic move- “unscriptured” may simply refer to the fact 84 Lamen Sanneh, Disciples of All Na- ment whose explosive growth claims upward that Muhammad was not a known scholar tions: Pillars of World Christianity (Oxford: to ½ billion in just one century would lay like his uncle Waraqa, as the context gives Oxford University, 2008), 59. claim to be a further aspect of fulfillment. the impression of one who is an “amateur” 85 Founder of the Church of Jesus 63 or “under-educated.” This is influenced by This is special revelation, even if Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormonism). not viewed as normative authority for all his belief that “much of the Scripture already 86 Oosterwal, 13–15. believers, times and places. Daniel Jones, existed at least orally in Arabic, and textu- 87 “Dreams of Christ Awakening Muslims ally in Karshuni in Muhammad’s time. The Oosterwal, 21. 88 to Newfound Faith,” World Pulse 30, no. 5 Theopaschite [affirming that God can suf- Oosterwal, 28. (March 1995):4–5; Rick Kronk, Dreams fer] formula was debated by Arab Bishops, 89 Oosterwal, 34–35.

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90 Anthony Hoekema, The Four Major speaking, Paul becomes the greatest and fi- Saucy, The Case for Progressive Dispensa- Cults (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1963), 1. nal messenger, like Muhammad is in Islam, tionalism (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, We should note that Hoekema classified due to Islam’s overemphasizing his writings. 1999). This approach has considerable the Seventh-Day Adventists as a cult, along (Of course, the latter is incomparably more commonality with George Eldon Ladd’s with Mormonism, Jehovah’s Witnesses adverse due to Muslim neglect or rejection “already, not yet” view of the kingdom of and Christian Science; whereas, many of the Gospels.) Regardless of the degree God (The Gospel of the Kingdom, Grand like myself, count the Adventists as fellow to which one agrees with his assessment of Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1959). Moreover, evangelical believers (although I seriously Gentile Christianity’s overemphasis on Paul, even some amillennial covenant theologians differ regarding their theology of hell). This his incompleteness analogy of the Qur’an might not disagree greatly with much of should serve to illustrate the need for spiri- and the Epistles is helpful. this basic interpretative framework. tual sophistication that does not just apply 102 Although essential elements of 109 Garrison, 117–118. rigid categories and labels to an individual, gospel teaching are absent from the Qur’an, 110 Garrison, 118. group, or prophet. some listeners may have been acquainted 111 91 Timothy I, “Timothy’s Apology I mean apart from the writings in with it from the varied Christian groups for Christianity,” trans. A. Mingana, in En- the canon of Scripture. Some mistakes that formed the original context (as some counters and Clashes: Islam and Christianity in Agabus’ prophetic understanding (Ac. recent scholars assert). In any case, I under- in History. Vol. 2, ed. Jean-Marie Gaudeul, 21:10–11) are noted by Carson (1987:97– stand the Qur’an to demand that Muslims pp. 234–245 (Rome: Pontifical Institute for 99). Recall how even an apostle, Peter, erred believe in and follow the Injil. Arabic and Islamic Studies, 1984), 242. in his practical theology at Antioch (Gal. 2). 103 The term “cargo-cults” refers to 112 92 Martin Accad, “Christian Attitudes Alan Richardson, Creeds in the groups in Oceania that splintered off from toward Islam and Muslims: a Kerygmatic Making: A Short Introduction to the History the fruit of European missionary efforts Approach,” in Toward Respectful Under- of Christian Doctrine (London: SCM Press, because the missionaries hid the secrets for standing & Witness among Muslims, Evelyne 1935, reprint 1986), 31. obtaining the “cargo” of European material 93 A. Reisacher ed. (Pasadena, CA: William Oosterwal, 30. wealth (Mircea Eliade, “‘Cargo-cults’ and Carey Library, 2012), 39. 94 Little, 119. Cosmic Regeneration,” in Millennial Dreams 113 Bill A. Musk, Kissing Cousins 95 Paul G. Hiebert, “The Category in Action: Studies in Revolutionary Religious (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel, 2005), 82. Movements, ed. Sylvia Thrupp (The Hague, ‘Christian’ in the Mission Task,” Internation- 114 Reformed Dogmatics, 318. Others in Netherlands: Mouton, 1970), 122–125. al Review of Mission 72(3): 1983: 421–427. line with Bavinck cite biblical support for 96 104 Ibid. Eliade, 143. Spirit induced prophecy outside the biblical 105 97 This is an illustrative example, not Muhammad’s accusation against the canon but which is not necessarily infallible. ḥ necessarily expressing my view on when Jews (and Christians?) of ta rīf (“corruption” The NT gift of prophecy ( unlike NT apostle- they were saved. Admittedly, some would of the Word of God) did not charge them ship) was not necessarily infallible; for 1 Cor. see differences from our present age due to with changing the written text of Scripture, 14:29–31 and I Thes. 5:19–21 require that the transitional and dispensational distinctions. but with concealing the truth (Surah 3:71; pronouncements of prophets be sifted, not 98 Charles Kraft, “Contextualization 6:92), distorting its meaning as they read it necessarily accepted or rejected in toto. Cf. in Three Dimensions,” inaugural lecture aloud (3:78), composing their own texts and Donald A Carson, Showing the Spirit (Grand given at his installation as Sun Hee Kwak passing them off as Scripture (2:79), and Rapids, MI: Baker, 1987), 94–98; also Wayne Professor of Anthopology and Intercultural forgetting the covenant (5:14, 15). On the Grudem, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, Communication Chair, School of World contrary, he insists that no one can “change MI: Zondervan, 1994), chapter 53). Parallels Mission, Fuller Theological Seminary, Octo- the words of God” (10:64, 6:34). can be seen in church and mission history. In ber 20, 1999. 106 I would side with those who hold West Africa the charismatic prophet William 99 Cf. Surahs 2:285, 4:136, 163, that the NT distinguishes between these Harris claimed to have been called by God 5:44–48, 11:17, 40:69–72, and 42:15. original Apostles who authored infallible to be a prophet through a vision. Western 100 See C. Jonn Block’s work for likely authoritative revelation and those who are missionaries testified to the spectacular impact explanations, and Basetti-Sani (1977) for apostles merely as a spiritual gift, empow- of his ministry and considered it to be of God, possible ones. ered to be sent as missionaries or pioneers but some of his prophetic pronouncements 101 of new ministries. missed the mark. Cf. Mark Harlan, A Model Although the Qur’an’s portrayal of 107 Christ is incomplete and inadequate apart For an analysis of the various views for Theologizing in Arab Muslim Contexts (Pasa- from the Injīl, the same could also be said of on how Christ fulfilled the Law see Donald dena, CA: WCIU Press, 2012), chapter 11. 115 the apostle Paul. A religiously observant Jew A. Carson, “Matthew” in Matthew, Mark, Timothy C. Tennent, Theology in the who follows Jesus as Messiah pointed out to Luke. Expositor’s Bible Commentary, vol. 8, Context of World Christianity: How the Global me that an abridged New Testament volume ed. Frank Gaebelein, (Grand Rapids, MI: Church Is Influencing the Way We Think about called simply “The Epistles” that contained Zondervan Publishing, 1984), 141–145. and Discuss Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: only Paul’s writings would seem to be some- 108 I am here presupposing an initial, Zondervan, 2009), 43–44. what scattered and incomplete, just like the partial, and progressive view of kingdom 116 Ibid., 44. Tennent insists that such Qu’ran does to us. From his viewpoint, the fulfillment at Christ’s first coming, as an affirmation does not require Christians to Christian overemphasis on Paul’s writings advocated by progressive dispensationalists accept Islamic ideas of Muhammad’s infal- to the Greeks and Romans results in our writers like Craig A. Blaising and Darrell L. libility or his being the final prophet. More- giving greater authority to Paul’s teachings Bock, Progressive Dispensationalism (Whea- over, it does not obviate the need of Muslims about Jesus than to Jesus himself. Practically ton: IL: BridgePoint, 1993) and Robert for the gospel of Christ for salvation.

31:4 Winter 2014 190 Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets?

117 Anton Wessels, The Torah, The Gospel the Quranic References to Isa in Light of and the Qur’an: Three Books, Two Cities, One the Tafsir and Hadith.” Ph.D. dissertation, Tale (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2013), 32. Hartford Seminary Foundation, 1969. 127 118 Wessels, 42–43. “People of the Book” in this instance 119 Wessels, 53. refers to Muslims since “what was revealed 120 Regarding some alleged errors in to you by your Lord” refers to the Qur’an. the Qur’an, such as its reference to Haman They are obliged to uphold the Tawrah and as a minister of Pharoah (29:29), Wessels Injil as well. 128 explains that this is not a historical asser- Watt, William Montgomery, tion, but rather a spiritual one. Just as the Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions Bible often links motifs to powers of differ- and Misperceptions (London: Routledge, ent eras that are opposed to God, so Haman 1991), 148, cited in Block, 241. is connected to Pharoah, the enemy of God’s people. In the Qur’an these two, like Korah, are arrogant (Wessels, 156). Also, he believes Jesus is the Mahdi (197). 121 These “Muslims” or “Believers” likely included Christians and Jews, though many scholars would disagree. 122 Wessels, 226–227. 123 David Cook, “Why Did Muhammad Attack the Byzantines?” in Political Islam from Muhammad to Ahmadinejad: Defenders, Detrac- tors, Definitions, ed. Joseph Morrison Skelly (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger Security, 2010), 28. Given debates over chronology, Cook says that it is possible that the attack at Tabuk in 631 could have been the Muslim reaction to this veneration of the True Cross (31). 124 Wessels, 227–228. He cites other indications of positive attitudes toward other “People of the Book.” In 632 Muham- mad received a Christian delegation from southern Arabic to Medina and allowed them to pray in his mosque. His treaty with them and with Jews of the Hijaz was later ignored by his later successor, Umar. Yet even under Mu’awiya, the first Umayyid ruler, the police force in Medina was com- prised of 200 Christians and for many years there was a cemetery for Christians and Jews in Mecca (255–256). 125 Wessels contrasts the Qur’an’s at- titude toward conquest to the later Islamic view: “It is incorrect to understand the use of the word fath [success] in Muhammad’s time in its later sense of ‘conquest.’ . . . it is obvious, according to the Qur’an, that the attainment of the conquest and victory and the use of violence, however minor, entail dirty hands. That is why forgiveness must be continually sought: ‘When God’s help (nasr) comes, and success (fath), and you [Muhammad] see the people entering the religion of God in droves, then praise the glory of your Lord and ask him forgiveness.’ (Q. 110:1-3; cf. Q. 40:55; 71:10),” 252. 126 Geoffrey Parrinder, Jesus in the Qur’an (London: Sheldon Press, 1965), 16; cf. also Donald R. Rickards, “A Study of

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Towards a Theology of Islam: A Response to Harley Talman’s “Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets?”

by Martin Accad

n this article, Harley Talman is dealing with what I believe to be one of the most important topics of Christian-Muslim relations today. It should therefore not be viewed as some exercise in intellectual gymnastics. Evan- Igelicals have been divided over three major issues during the last decade: (1) the legitimacy for Muslims who become followers of Jesus to remain largely within their community (the so-called “Insider Movement(s),” often domesti- cized as “IM”); (2) the legitimacy of highly-contextualized, reader-driven Bible translations for a Muslim audience; and (3) the legitimacy of dialogue as a complementary approach to Christian mission to Muslims.

Generally, I have observed that evangelicals are quite consistent in being either supportive of all three issues, or systematically against them. What is striking is that despite the amount of ink already spilled on these questions, proponents on both sides seem to have a very hard time defining the terms of the conversation. I have arrived at the conviction that the essence of this disagreement is completely unrelated to the extent of one’s motivation for God’s mission, or the amount of Martin Accad is the third generation one’s experience in ministry, or the technical aptitude and effectiveness of one’s of a family deeply involved in build- missional methodology. Indeed, most people on either side of the spectrum have ing genuine loving relationships with Muslims, sharing the life and unquestionable pedigrees as missionaries, and most have a passion for mission that call of Jesus with them. In 2001, is next to blameless. That is what makes these disagreements and splits even sadder. he obtained a PhD in Islam and Christian-Muslim relations from Instead, I believe that at the heart of this unfortunate divide is one’s “theology Oxford University. Accad currently of Islam.” It is easy to notice that those evangelicals who lean towards being holds faculty appointments in Islamic Studies at both the Arab Baptist Theo- proponents of the three issues cited above (i.e., insider movements, reader- logical Seminary (ABTS) in Lebanon driven Bible translations, and dialogue) are also those who believe that there and Fuller Theological Seminary in Pasadena, CA. He directs the are some aspects of Islam’s religious culture that are redeemable, whereas Institute of Middle Eastern Studies opponents of the three issues above tend to have a more demonizing view of at ABTS (since 2003), an annual conference on the Middle East and Islam, seeing next to nothing redeemable in the entire phenomenon. Islam, and the Institute’s new Master of Religion in Middle Eastern and Very little has been done historically on the Christian side to develop a mature North African Studies. theological discourse on Islam, beyond the first couple of centuries when Islam

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 31:4 Winter 2014•191 192 Towards a Theology of Islam: A Response to Harley Talman’s “Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets?” was still taking shape. As indicated by Response was a great beginning), their increase creative conversations, trigger Talman, there is strong evidence that understanding of sin and salvation, etc. renewed and honest inquiry, and chal- Islam was initially viewed by Eastern lenge the historic situation of conflict This is quite a different endeavor to Christians as some sort of variant of between both communities. the historic approaches of comparative Christianity. This likely reflected Islam’s religions or comparative theology. It This is particularly important in the self-perception in those early days as well. consists in studying Islam’s theology in current situation because interreligious Given the strong Qur’anic affirmation of and of itself, not solely for the purpose of conflict is sharply on the rise. So for the Judeo-Christian tradition, it probably understanding Islam (that has been the Christians to try and make sense of took a while before Islam was able con- work of Islamicists), nor simply for the Islam, honestly, boldly, scientifically, fidently to assert itself as an independent purpose of affirming Christian superior- and humbly, is not a theoretical matter religion separate from Christianity and ity (that has often been the purpose of to be taken up in ivory towers. If we Judaism. Thus, in the records of the en- “comparative religions” as well as of po- do not take this endeavor seriously, we counters between Patriarch John of Se- lemical and apologetic missions). What will continue to recycle and rehash (as dreh and a Muslim prince (c. 644 ad), in we need today, however, is to develop we increasingly are doing) the insults the writings of John of Damascus (early a “Christian and biblical theology of that we have hurled at each other and 8th century), or in Patriarch Timothy I’s Islam.” This would be based on a solid that are well attested to in historical record of his encounter with the Caliph scientific understanding of Islam, and it texts. The outcome of this approach is al-Mahdi (c. 750 ad)—all mentioned by would also (at least in evangelical circles) also well documented in our historical Talman—we find an attempt at making have a strong concern for the mission of records: war in the name of religion. sense of Islam within a Christian world- view. There we find a “Christian theology As with any topic as controversial as this of Islam” of sorts. one, we should be careful not to judge trailblazers like Harley Talman too Within the Byzantine Empire, on the This is quite quickly. We must ensure that we do jus- other hand, where direct contact with different than the tice to the limitations and boundaries he Muslims was minimal besides the has put upon himself. He makes it clear relationship of political and military historic approaches of from the beginning that he does “not enemies, Byzantine Christians such view any kind of Islam as an alternative as Nicetas of Byzantium (c. 842–912) comparative religions way of salvation apart from personal or George Hamartolos (9th century) or comparative faith in Christ.” Talman clarifies another developed an extremely harsh and significant limitation to his endeavor in exclusivist polemical discourse on Islam theology. the conclusion of his article: rather than any real “theology.” And it This paper has provided theological, is this very harsh Byzantine view that missiological, and historical sanction has generally had a significant impact God. But it would also take the conver- for expanding constricted categories on medieval Europe and hence on the sation a number of steps further. of prophethood to allow Christians development of the Western view. Al- to entertain the possibility of Mu- ternatively, the Eastern attempts at the- Developing a “Christian and biblical hammad being other than a false ologizing, which were possible up until theology of Islam” would consist in prophet. (emphasis mine) the end of the first millennium, became making sense of the various dimensions far more difficult to sustain after Islam of the Islamic phenomenon within the It is clear that Talman is aware of the became the unchallenged ruler in the framework of faithful biblical Christi- potentially inflammatory nature of his region, and after the demographics also anity. The purpose of such an endeavor exercise, and in these words he there- fore sets humble goals for his work at turned decidedly in its favor. would be neither to discredit Islam, nor to eliminate the theological differ- this point. Though he pushes the usual All this to say that Talman’s attempt at ences between Islam and Christianity. boundaries of evangelical thinking on developing what I see as a “Christian Rather, from an evangelical perspective, prophethood, particularly Muham- and biblical theology of Muhammad” it would aim at continuing to carry out mad’s, he seems keen to affirm that he is highly commendable. I hope that our calling to fulfill the mission of God is still within the boundaries of pre- this will give rise to a constructive and in communities where Christians and decessors such as Kenneth Crag, Bill creative conversation, not just about Muslims live side by side. But we are Musk, Geoffrey Parrinder or William Muhammad, but also about the Qur’an, called today to do this on new foun- Montgomery Watt in their view of about Islam’s and Muslims’ view of dations of understanding that would Muhammad; and he works within the God (Miroslav Volf ’s Allah: A Christian boundaries of biblical prophethood as

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Martin Accad 193 defined by recognized Bible scholars like Donald Carson, Craig Blaising, espite Talman’s conciliatory approach to Darrell Bock, and Wayne Grudem. Muhammad and Islam, his conclusions are by One significant contribution that Tal- no means “orthodox” from a Muslim perspective. man makes is that he takes seriously D and the first half of the twentieth century author is not conceding much at all, and contemporary research on Islamic ori- (the so-called “orientalists”) based their certainly not for the purpose of “pleas- gins. Many Christian polemicists against study of Islam largely on an acceptance Islam make the mistake of basing all of ing” Muslims. Harley Talman’s work and of the reliability of Muslim traditions. their attacks on the traditional Muslim conclusions are indeed more useful for This uncritical acceptance has begun narrative about Islamic origins. So, for Christians who are trying to make sense to be rectified by the seminal work on instance, some of the recent satirical of Islam in their desire to reach Muslims the hadith undertaken by the likes of descriptions of Muhammad as a demon- with the gospel, than for Muslims who Wansbrough, Schacht, Crone, Cook, and possessed man are based on testimonies are trying to convince Christians about others, and recently has been made more about convulsions and trances that he Muhammad’s prophethood. In this sense, accessible by both Gabriel S. Reynolds experienced while receiving revelations Talman’s work—and the continuing (The Emergence of Islam) and Daniel (as attested in the hadith, the Muslim conversation which I hope his article will Brown (A New Introduction to Islam). traditions). But strong evidence has provoke—should be viewed as belonging been advanced by “revisionist” scholars The honest reader of this article will to the field of missiology par excellence, (often secularists without a religious axe quickly notice that, despite Talman’s con- and only in a secondary degree to that of to grind) that question the historical ciliatory approach to Muhammad and comparative religions or Islamic studies. reliability of such accounts, which may Islam, his conclusions are by no means But it also reveals clearly that those who have been constructed up to a couple “orthodox” or “mainstream” from a Mus- wish to engage in this conversation in of centuries later to match the popular lim perspective. So by suggesting that any helpful way will need to be well read expectations of the day with regards to there may be some space in the Christian in Islamic studies, as well as in Christian Arabian charismatic figures. Even the biblical worldview to consider Muham- theology, and in the fields of philosophy critical scholars of the late nineteenth mad as in some ways a prophet, the and theology of religion. IJFM

31:4 Winter 2014 WilliamWilliam Carey Carey Library Library

TheThe Road Road to toBau Bau and and the the TheThe Ways Ways of ofthe the People People TheThe Jesus Jesus Documents Documents AutobiographyAutobiography of ofJoeli Joeli Bulu Bulu A ReaderA Reader in Missionaryin Missionary Anthropology Anthropology AlanAlan Tippett, Tippett, Author Author | Doug | Doug Priest, Priest, Editor Editor AlanAlan Tippett, Tippett, Author Author | Doug | Doug Priest, Priest, Editor EditorAlanAlan Tippett, Tippett, Author Author | Doug | Doug Priest, Priest, Editor Editor ShawnShawn Redford, Redford, Editor Editor

EnglishEnglish missionary missionary John John Hunt Hunt and and Tongan Tongan MissionariesMissionaries and and anthropologists anthropologists have have a a ThroughoutThroughout The The Jesus Jesus Documents Documents, Alan, Alan missionarymissionary Joeli Joeli Bulu Bulu served served in inthe the Fiji Fiji tenuoustenuous relationship. relationship. While While often often critical critical of of Tippett’sTippett’s distinguished distinguished skills skills in inmissiology missiology islandsislands in in the the 1840s. 1840s. Their Their lives lives were were missionaries,missionaries, anthropologists anthropologists are are indebted indebted andand anthropology anthropology demonstrate demonstrate that that biblical biblical intertwinedintertwined as asthey they faced faced the the social social issues issues to to them them for for linguistic linguistic and and cultural cultural data data as as studiesstudies and and cultural cultural anthropology anthropology are are of islandof island warfare, warfare, cannibalism, cannibalism, and and the the ills ills wellwell as hospitalityas hospitality and and introductions introductions into into the the disciplinesdisciplines that that must must be integratedbe integrated for forholistic holistic broughtbrought to theto the Pacific Pacific by tradersby traders and and those those locallocal community. community. In TheIn The Ways Ways of the of the People, People, biblicalbiblical understanding. understanding. Tippett Tippett opens opens our our eyes eyes involvedinvolved in the in the labor labor trade. trade. In this In this fascinating fascinating AlanAlan Tippett Tippett provides provides a critical a critical history history of of to theto the intentional intentional missional missional nature nature of all of four all four two-volumetwo-volume book book Alan Alan Tippett Tippett first first provides provides missionarymissionary anthropology anthropology and and brings brings together together Gospels,Gospels, showing showing that that they they “were “were the thefruit fruit of of thethe biography biography of Hunt,of Hunt, then then together together with with a superba superb reader reader of seminalof seminal anthropological anthropological the theChristian Christian mission mission itself, itself, the theproof proof that that the the TomasiTomasi Kanailagi Kanailagi gives gives us us the the thoroughly thoroughly contributionscontributions from from missionaries missionaries Edwin Edwin Smith, Smith, apostlesapostles obeyed obeyed the the Great Great Commission” Commission” as as researchedresearched and and annotated annotated autobiography autobiography of of R. R. H. H. Codrington, Codrington, Lorimer Lorimer Fison, Fison, Diedrich Diedrich theythey “worked “worked out out their their techniques techniques for for cross- cross- JoeliJoeli Bulu. Bulu. Westermann,Westermann, Henri Henri Junod, Junod, and and many many more. more. culturalcultural missionary missionary communication” communication” with with culturalcultural sensitivity. sensitivity. DougDoug Priest, Priest, PhD, PhD, served served as asa missionary a missionary for for seventeen seventeen years years in in Kenya, Kenya, Tanzania, Tanzania, andand Singapore. Singapore. While While at Fullerat Fuller Theological Theological ShawnShawn Redford, Redford, PhD, PhD, is is a aspecialist specialist in in Seminary,Seminary, Priest Priest was was student student of of and and an an missiologicalmissiological hermeneutics. hermeneutics. He He has has taught taught assistantassistant to toAlan Alan Tippett. Tippett. Like Like his his mentor, mentor, BiblicalBiblical Theology Theology of of Mission Mission at at Fuller Fuller PriestPriest has has an anthropologyan anthropology degree degree from from the the TheologicalTheological Seminary Seminary and and the the Nairobi Nairobi UniversityUniversity of ofOregon. Oregon. He He is the is the executive executive EvangelicalEvangelical Graduate Graduate School School of Theology of Theology for for directordirector of CMFof CMF International. International. overover ten ten years. years. He He currently currently serves serves in Kenya in Kenya withwith CMF CMF International International and and is the is the founder founder of of the theMission Mission Institute Institute East East Africa. Africa.

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MISSIONBOOKS.ORGMISSIONBOOKS.ORG | 1-800-MISSION| 1-800-MISSION From Prophethood to the Gospel: Talking to Folk Muslims about Jesus by Perry Pennington

y own approach to communicating the gospel to South Asian Muslims began in a simple conversation late one evening with my neighbor, Dervesh. He is a Sufi teacher who, on that occasion, Mbegan to explain to me the logic of Sufi prayer. He laid out how the prayers of folk Muslims seek blessing from God through the intercessory prayers of Sufi saints. He also explained that the efficacy of those prayers is related directly to the intercession of the Prophet Muhammad. Prophethood, blessing and the hope for a better life were themes he wove together into a portrait of his local Muslim world. His thinking was “prophetological”1 in the way he pictured these core Muslim concerns, and that picture has shaped my perception of how biblical themes of prophethood and blessing should take a primary place in our presentation of the gospel to South Asian folk Muslims.

Missiological discussions about Islam often address Islam as a whole, present- ing it as a monolithic system, and ignore the cultural and religious diversity within the Muslim world. These discussions fail to take account of the folk Islam that influences most Muslims,2 or if they do recognize the place of folk Islam, they give it only a token of the attention it deserves in any strategic deliberation over contextualizing the gospel. If contextualization is to be truly effective in bringing the truth of the gospel to bear on the central difficulties and concerns for South Asian Muslims, then I believe we must focus on the unique perspective of folk Islam. So, let me first introduce what I see as the For twelve years Perry Pennington source and purpose of contextualization. I want this to be clear before I pro- worked among South Asian Mus- lims in church planting, discipleship, ceed to develop the key cultural concerns of blessing and prophethood in this and theological education. He holds a particular context. These cultural themes are then the basis of my proposal for Master of Arts in Intercultural Studies from Fuller Theological Seminary, a theological contextualization of the gospel for South Asian folk Muslims. a Master of Urban Education from Union University, and a Doctor of The Gospel from a Muslim Perspective Ministry in Missions from Gordon- Conwell Theological Seminary. He cur- The source of the gospel message is the saving activity of God in the life, rently teaches in inner-city Memphis. death, and resurrection of Jesus. The theological work we do in communicating

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 31:4 Winter 2014•195 196 From Prophethood to the Gospels: Talking to Folk Muslims about Jesus the gospel’s message in new cultural gospel message would be unhelpfully approach to contextualization focuses settings is at the heart of this process associated with something of only minor on major concerns and needs, the we call contextualization. The contex- importance in that culture. Frankly, this gospel will be expressed in terms of an tualization of this message is to find a is the situation when the theological issue or theme that is of vital impor- biblical and culturally relevant way to theme of sacrifice is used as the corner- tance to the Muslim society, leading to introduce Jesus, explain the reason for stone for any presentation of the gospel clarity and comprehensibility. and the result of his death, and call for to folk Muslims in South Asia. The of- Using the contextualization strategy a response. fering of an animal sacrifice is made each year by South Asian folk Muslims, but described above, this article will seek Missionaries have sometimes ap- that act of sacrifice is of relatively minor to answer certain questions: What are proached the task of contextualizing importance in their culture. Sacrifice is the central concerns, fears, and hopes the gospel for Muslims through a not viewed as either atoning or saving, so of South Asian folk Muslims? Which process of theological bridge building. by framing the gospel in terms of sacri- biblical themes correspond to and In “bridge-based” contextualization, fice (or any other familiar term of minor most directly address those concerns? areas of similarity between Islam and importance), the message of the gospel And are those biblical themes also suf- the Christian faith are sought. Then may actually be obscured. ficient to explain the meaning of the a theological bridge is built from that life, death, and resurrection of Jesus for area of commonality to the gospel. It In contrast to “bridge-building” the forgiveness of sin? How may those is hoped that by framing the presen- contextualization, I believe a better themes be used to present the gospel? tation of the gospel in terms of an contextualization of the gospel begins element within Islam (one which does Blessing and Prophethood in not contradict, but rather corresponds Folk Islam to Christian faith) the gospel will then Understanding the worldview of folk be more easily understood and ac- Muslims is essential for developing an cepted. Shared bodies of beliefs make The search for 3 appropriate theology for their context. such efforts possible. Finding com- blessing As I will show below, the search for mon ground between Muslims and blessing is the primary driving concern Christians promotes mutual under- is the in the worldview of South Asian folk standing, dialogue, friendship building, Muslims. In addition, prophethood is and even the sharing of the gospel. Yet primary driving the principal means of grace through the purpose of contextualization is not concern. which blessing is distributed among merely to increase the palatability of them. For South Asian Muslims, the gospel, but to focus on heightening therefore, prophethood and blessing the comprehensibility of the gospel in are central concerns of daily life. a particular cultural context. If an audi- by identifying the very deepest fears, ence clearly comprehends the message hopes, and frustrations of a Mus- For most South Asian Muslims, daily of the gospel but sees in it only the lim society. Contextualization seeks life is a persistent struggle. The Indian “offense of the cross” (Gal. 5:11),4 this to squarely address those pressing government appointed a commission may be recognized as an effective con- cultural concerns with relevant themes to study the socioeconomic conditions textualization of the gospel, because from the Bible that will illuminate the of the Muslim community, which the message was clearly understood. gospel. To locate the core concerns and numbers over 150 million in India. The Sachar Commission reported that The strength of bridge-building con- fears within a culture is to discover their analysis textualization is that it uses something what is considered important in that shows that while there is considerable familiar to the audience to explain the context. Attempts to address and solve variation in the conditions of Muslims gospel. The weakness of this approach is these deepest cultural concerns, fears, and hopes are like a powerful engine across states . . . the Community exhib- that the aspect of the local culture being its deficits and deprivation in practi- used as a bridge may or may not turn out that generates enormous amounts of 6 5 cally all dimensions of development. to be an important part of that culture. energy. When the gospel is presented This is especially true when a cultural in a way that connects with these core The indicators studied included edu- outsider is choosing what cultural aspect concerns, the power already being pro- cational, economic, and employment or truth might become the bridge. If a duced by a recipient cultural “engine” conditions, bank credit accessibility, peripheral cultural element were selected promotes an investigation of the gos- access to social and physical infra- for use in contextualization, then the pel as a potential solution. Because this structure, poverty, standard of living,

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Perry Pennington 197 access to government employment, and access to government affirmative ervesh prays according to “all the prophets and action. The difficulty of daily life for all the holy books,” including Jesus. Even this most Muslims in India creates a deep need for a practical framework for Dkind of prayer relies on the help of Muhammad. understanding, explaining, and solving potential to ordinary men, either dur- him. Dervesh explained that he prayed ing their lifetime or after their death, life’s difficulties. in the name of (with the vasila of ) all the manner of transmission being the prophets and holy books. Vasilas In their folk religious contexts, doc- greatly varied, sometimes strange.9 trine and orthodoxy take a back seat are required in prayer, Dervesh said, to a more pragmatic response to the Practitioners of folk Islam gain because prayer is talking to God, who 7 immediate concerns of daily life. Folk legitimacy in transmitting blessing by is mighty and powerful. He is full of religionists generally assume that bless- relying on Sufism, or Islamic mysti- blessing, but his power is so great that ing may be sought that might provide cism. Unlike Sufism, which is consid- direct contact with him is fraught with a solution to any of life’s difficulties. ered orthodox, folk Islam is viewed danger. God, he continued, is like an The worldview of South Asian folk as unorthodox because of the way it electricity-generating power plant. Muslims is deeply concerned with mixes orthodox belief and ritual with It produces such a powerful form of obtaining blessings of various kinds animistic practices. In the history of electricity that it is useless for ordinary through the help of the Prophet Mu- Islam in South Asia, local Sufi mystics household items like radios, for its hammad. In fact, this blessing might received special respect, especially power would destroy them if connect- ed directly to them. No one powers a possibly be the ultimate concern and from folk Muslims. They continue to radio directly at the power-generating aspiration of folk Muslims in South be venerated as those who are espe- plant. Instead, the electricity is taken Asia. I would like to examine three cat- cially close to God, and a genuine Sufi from the generating plant to an elec- egories of blessing which South Asian is considered a channel of blessing trical grid. From there, the electricity folk Muslims wish to obtain: general from God. Sufis are visited regularly goes to a transformer, after which well being, salvation, and social status. by people who need advice, healing, or it is sent into homes. Once the safe Seeking Blessing in Folk Islam even help with getting their children electricity has been sent into the home, to go to sleep at night. Sufis belong to All Muslims seek blessing from the radio may be used without fear. In Sufi “orders” or brotherhoods, which God. But unlike orthodox Muslims, prayer, Dervesh concluded, God is like folk Muslims seek blessing not only should be distinguished from Chris- the generating station, the prophets, through the observance of orthodox tian monastic orders, as they represent like the grid station, and Sufis, like Islamic practices, but also through un- certain schools of thought handed the transformer. They are a conduit for orthodox “magical” means. Many ritu- down by Sufi masters who each have the blessing and power of God that taught their mystical approach to God als of South Asian folk Muslims are 10 flows from them to their followers in a simply animistic practices that have according to a particular pattern. All manageable form. Regular people are been adapted and given an Islamic of the Sufi orders trace their spiritual the radio itself. They can pray for and veneer. Brown writes, lineage back to Muhammad through experience God’s power and blessing, Folk Muslims . . . tend to be . . . con- a chain of succession that continues to but only through the mediation of 11 cerned with averting demons and evil the present day. prophetic figures. and with gaining supernatural favors, As I mentioned in my opening and they view rituals, both Islamic and Dervesh prays according to “all the remarks about my former neighbor, traditional, as means to these ends.8 prophets and all the holy books,” in- Dervesh, the efficacy of Sufi prayers cluding Jesus. Even this kind of prayer, More specifically, they believe that is directly related to the intercession however, relies on the help of Mu- blessing can be obtained from places or of the Prophet Muhammad. Dervesh hammad. He understands that Islam objects with a connection to the proph- also introduced me to an interesting teaches that the prophets themselves, ets. The Encyclopedia of Islam states: logic regarding Sufi intercession: Ac- including Jesus, depend on Muham- God can implant an emanation of cording to him, for every work there mad in prayer. Muslim tradition tells baraka [blessing] in the person of is an accompanying vasila (means). us that the prophets prayed according his prophets and saints: Muhammad For instance, the vasila for reading is to the vasila of Muhammad, from the and his descendants are especially en- eyeglasses; for writing, a pencil; for time of Adam.12 Because Muhammad dowed therewith. These sacred per- drinking, a glass. Prayer, he made clear, is the “point of ‘association’ within sonages, in their turn, may communi- also requires a vasila. “Which vasila Islam between God and the human cate the effluvia of their supernatural do you use when you pray?” I asked world,”13 every vasila in South Asian

31:4 Winter 2014 198 From Prophethood to the Gospels: Talking to Folk Muslims about Jesus folk Islam leads back to Muham- Not everyone, he told me, can visit the Anything that has some physical or mad. Receiving blessing from God, tomb of Imam Hussain in person, so spiritual connection to Muhammad including having prayers heard and pious Shi’as are allowed to construct a may be used as a means for obtaining answered, is a prophetological process in model of the tomb. Visiting the model blessing, because all blessing is be- the folk Islam of South Asia. of the tomb of Hussain generates just lieved to come through Muhammad. Securing One’s General Well-Being as much blessing as making a pilgrim- In the South Asian folk Muslim’s con- age to the actual tomb. The power for cept of vasila, blessing and prophet- Folk Muslims in South Asia display this source of blessing for Shi’as is hood are never separated as they are the typical pattern of occasionally vis- that Muhammad’s true succession, the in orthodox Islam. In orthodox Islam, iting the dargah (tomb) of a Sufi saint, lineage of Ali and Hussain, provides blessing comes directly from God, and where they may pray and ask the saint the valid conduit of blessing. prophethood is an institution for the to intercede for them. They hope that guidance of humankind. But in South Another example involves the scene the saint will carry their petition for- Asian folk Islam, humankind is cut off of Hussain’s martyrdom, that place ward by speaking to his own masters from God and his blessing. Blessing is where he was carried into battle on a and guides in the school of Sufism, in available only through the appointed white horse named Zuljanah, whose a chain reaching back to Muhammad, vasila, which is Muhammad, the likeness is venerated in picture form in who can then intercede with God for ultimate prophet of Islam. Therefore the imambara. Around the corner from them. The physical relic of the saint blessing and prophethood are closely the imambara is a courtyard containing is venerated because of its perceived intertwined in the worldview of South spiritual connection to Muhammad. Asian folk Muslims. Each of them Like other folk Muslim practices in represents a deep need as well as a core South Asia, dargah worship is a means spiritual and theological doctrine. of obtaining blessing, via intermediar- ies, through the ultimate source of Salvation help, the Prophet Muhammad. Vasila What these phenomena suggest is that is the operative concept in understand- The logic of salvation for South Asian folk Muslims blessing ing how South Asian folk Muslims has everything to do (including the blessing of salvation) is seek to obtain spiritual power and primarily a prophetological concept. By blessing through a spiritual network- with one’s relation to “prophetological concept” I mean that ing of these practices. the Prophet. the logic of salvation has everything to Shi’a Veneration do with one’s relation to the Prophet Muhammad. Orthodox Islam, relying In South Asia, Shi’a and Sunni folk heavily on the Qur’an, places adher- Muslims share the operative concept ence to the prophethood of Muham- of vasila, though the particular vasilas mad at the very center of the faith of a live horse whose color is pure white. used may be different. On one visit to Islam. Entrance to the faith is through The horse, which was donated by a the local imambara (e.g., a congrega- the pronouncement of a creed stating Hindu devotee of the dargah in whose tion hall used by Shi’a Muslims for the the exclusive deity of one God and annual festival commemorating the courtyard the horse is kept, is venerated the prophethood of Muhammad. The martyrdom of Hussain, son of Ali and in memory of Zuljanah. According to Qur’an states in 7:158 and 4:69 that grandson of the Prophet Muhammad) the caretaker, the horse does no work. Muslims must believe that Muham- the cleric who gave me a tour showed Each day the horse is given a bath and mad is God’s messenger. Eternal salva- me all of the objects that are used there takes a two-hour walk around the city. tion depends on it. as vasilas in seeking blessing. These It has its own private barn, which will particular objects are defined by the soon be outfitted with an air condition- For South Asian folk Muslims, the doc- Shi’a belief that Muhammad’s physical er for the summer months. When the trine of eternal salvation is of secondary descendants (through Hussain) are his Shi’a folk Muslims of the locality show importance compared with concerns only true successors as leaders of the respect for this horse, they show respect related to this present world. While I Muslim community, so the commemo- to the real Zuljanah, and by extension will make clear below that eternal salva- ration of the martyrdom of Hussain to the person Hussain who rode Zul- tion remains a persistent concern of (son of Ali) is an important occasion janah, and by extension to the Prophet these folk Muslims, their understanding for obtaining blessing through sym- Muhammad. In this way, by venerating of salvation is less focused on orthodox bolic objects. For example, there is a and respecting a horse that resembles practices and doctrines and more con- model of the tomb of Imam Hussain. Zuljanah, blessing is obtained. cerned with forming a connection to

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Perry Pennington 199 the Muslim community, a connection which is defined by its allegiance to the heir hope (not assurance) of salvation is not Prophet Muhammad. based on individual holiness or merit but on Muslims generally cherish and respect belonging to the “right” community. all the prophets, among whom Mu- T hammad is preeminent, especially be- might be the view of salvation in Sec- the community of the final Prophet, cause his prophetic authority continues ond Temple Judaism. In his book, Paul they hope that a merciful God will into the present. In the Islamic under- and Palestinian Judaism, E. P. Sanders show mercy to them on the last day. standing of prophethood the period of is at pains to demonstrate that Juda- A Muslim friend explained to me a prophet’s authority extends only until ism was not a religion of works-based that if a human parent forgives the the coming of the next prophet. The salvation as was previously understood sins and mistakes of his children, why 15 period of the prophethood of Jesus, for in biblical scholarship. Sanders should not God, who is so superior to example, lasted only until the com- argues that Jewish people expected humans, do the same on the last day? salvation not because they had earned ing of Muhammad, but the prophetic Despite their expectation of forgive- it, but because they belonged to the authority of Muhammad will never ness and salvation at the last day, Jewish people. The Jewish people had end, since he is the final prophet. For Muslims of all kinds consider it highly a covenantal relationship with God, so South Asian folk Muslims, then, what presumptuous to claim eternal security. is important to the obtaining of the to be Jewish was to be saved. Instead of relying on their personal blessing of salvation is allegiance to Dunn’s modification of this theory add- holiness and claiming the “assurance the final prophet, Muhammad. ed to this basic premise the idea that of salvation” (to use the evangelical Blessing of all kinds, including eternal the Jewish people proved or validated Christian phrase), Muslims will as- salvation, is understood to follow their inclusion in the covenant people sume the triumph of the faith of the from a connection with the prophet. by using certain identity markers such Muslim community. Their hope (not In order to demonstrate that connec- as dietary restrictions, Sabbath obser- assurance) of salvation is not based tion, traditional Muslims use certain vance, and circumcision.16 The purpose on individual holiness or merit but on identity markers such as a beard, tradi- of these identity markers, or “works belonging to the “right” community. tional Muslim clothing, circumcision, of the Law,” was not to earn salvation, The Muslim community is the one and dietary restrictions. These iden- but rather to demonstrate member- possessing the final revelation and tity markers have more than cultural ship in the Jewish people. As shown following the final prophet. There- significance. For South Asian folk above, South Asian Muslims make use fore, salvation for a South Asian folk Muslims, these markers are an attempt of similar identity markers (circumci- Muslim is based on belonging to the to manifest their allegiance to the sion, diet, clothing) by publicly showing Muslim community, and this belong- worldwide Muslim community and to their allegiance to and membership in ing is defined by one’s allegiance to the the Prophet Muhammad. The use of the worldwide Muslim community. final prophet. The blessing of salvation, traditional identity markers connects Whether or not one accepts Sanders’ therefore, is a prophetological concept Muslim families to the greater Muslim for South Asian folk Muslims. community, even at the expense of interpretation of the pattern of religion advancement in the world at large.14 A in Second Temple Judaism, his work Social Status has recommended a reorientation of connection to the Muslim community, One of the most sought after bless- our conventional understanding of expressed through traditional Muslim ings in South Asian folk Islam is social Second Temple Jewish soteriology. identity markers, is important because status. All South Asian societies are I’m suggesting that our conventional receiving salvation on the last day is hierarchical, and the structure of South evangelical perspective on Islamic so- associated with belonging to the com- Asian Muslim society is no exception. teriology needs a similar reorientation. munity of the Prophet. Inclusion in A person’s position in the social hier- Evangelicals have sometimes assumed the community of Islam is determined archy is determined primarily by an- that Muslims seek salvation through strictly according to adherence to the cestry, kinship, and occupation. Again, a legalistic observance of the sharia, prophethood of Muhammad, so salva- just as with other kinds of blessing or Islamic law. We need to recognize, tion for South Asian folk Muslims is sought by these folk Muslims, one’s however, that Muslims hold a more primarily a prophetological concern. social status is determined propheto- nuanced view of sin and salvation. logically, as I will explain below. A Pattern in Judaism Most do not see themselves either as A helpful comparison for this South completely sinless or as dangerously Many South Asian Muslims flatly Asian folk Islam’s view of salvation sinful. Rather, because they belong to deny the existence of a clearly defined

31:4 Winter 2014 200 From Prophethood to the Gospels: Talking to Folk Muslims about Jesus social hierarchy in South Asian Islam, place in the Hindu caste system. In status and proximity to bloodline of and would simply state “all Muslims are some cases, they have retained their the Prophet Muhammad. This social equal.” The Qur’an in Sura 49:13 de- traditional caste names, occupations, system once again confirms the thesis scribes humankind as one family, and it and kinship patterns. Rajputs (descen- that for South Asian folk Muslims is sometimes cited as evidence that Is- dants of rulers and warriors) have a blessing, in this case the much sought- lam views all people as equal. In South higher status than artisan castes such after blessing of social status, is always Asian Islam, however, a social hierarchy as Nais (barbers) and Jats (cultivators), a prophetological concept. exists that is based on ethnicity and for example. The Mussalis (sweeper) For South Asian folk Muslims, the kinship. Ethnic groups which are most and Chamars (leatherworkers) occupy search for blessing is a central concern closely related to the family of the the lowest rung on the social ladder of of daily life and a primary spiritual Prophet Muhammad have the great- South Asian Islam. est amount of social status, while those goal. Blessings such as general well In this social situation, improving at the bottom of the social hierarchy being, salvation, and social status are one’s social standing can only be ac- belong to ethnic groups having no rela- sought through a variety of religious, complished by drawing closer to the tion to the Prophet Muhammad. spiritual, and “magical” means, each bloodline of the Prophet Muhammad. of which depends on the Prophet What’s most important regarding This is nearly impossible due to the Muhammad for effectiveness. Be- this hierarchy in South Asian Islam is preference among South Asian Mus- cause South Asian folk Muslims have that a family’s social status is directly lims for contracting marriage alliances a prophetological view of blessing, correlated with its proximity to the within their own ethnic group, with they are strongly inclined to seek out family of the Prophet Muhammad. sources of prophetological information The top position in the social hierarchy or inspiration in order that it might belongs to the Sayyids, who claim to result in some type of blessing. In their be direct descendants of the Prophet A family’s worldview all the important parts of Muhammad. Their ancestors came to life converge upon the key concepts of South Asia as Sufi masters, traders, social status prophethood and blessing. or invaders, and their family connec- is correlated with tion to the Prophet Muhammad is The Biblical Themes of the defining mark of their community its proximity to Blessing and Prophethood identity. The Sheikhs hold the second tier on the social hierarchy, claiming the family Because South Asian folk Muslims to be descendants of Arabs (but not of the Prophet. seek out prophetological information direct descendants of Muhammad). wherever they can, a gospel presen- They take the companions of the tation should give them something Prophet Muhammad or the presti- prophetological to think about. This gious tribes of Arabia for their ances- first-cousin marriages being the ideal. kind of contextualized gospel can tors, as reflected in their clan names To improve their social status, some speak to and challenge the worldview (e.g., Qureshi, Abbasi, Siddiqui, etc.). indigenous-origin South Asian Mus- of South Asian folk Islam. This world- The third level is made up of several lim families have invented an Arab lin- view of folk Islam assumes that all of non-Arab ethnic groups who came eage and origin story for their clan that humankind, except for the prophets to settle in South Asia, including the connects the clan back to companions and saints, are separated from God by Mughals, Turks, and Pathans. How- or descendants of the Prophet Mu- an impassable gulf. Blessing is avail- ever, as foreign-origin Muslims they hammad. Alison Shaw documents this able only through a system of media- are still considered higher on the social phenomenon by describing the ways tion, and that mediation ultimately de- hierarchy than are Muslims of indig- in which lower-status South Asian pends on the Prophet Muhammad. In enous origin. There are many different Muslims try to assume the social role contrast, the Christian gospel declares 17 groups of indigenous-origin Muslims and status of “upper caste” Muslims. that God desires direct interaction and in South Asia who are descendants Muslim missiologists bemoan the relationship with all of humankind. of the indigenous Indian communi- hierarchical status quo of South Asian He wants to provide blessing in the ties who converted to Islam after the Muslim society, noting that it is one of form of peace, joy, hope, and love. He the biggest obstacles to the expansion arrival of Muslim traders, preachers, 18 has overcome that impassable gulf and conquerors on the subcontinent. of Islam in South Asia. Nevertheless, through Jesus Christ, the Son of God, Their hierarchical social ranking is most South Asian Muslims perceive who restores those who believe in him based in large part on their traditional a direct correlation between social to a state of blessedness.

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According to the New Testament, through the fellowship of the Holy Spirit, ur presentation of the gospel will require that the people of God have direct access to we recognize the “prophetological” perspective God’s favor and blessing. In the same way so prevalent among folk Muslims. that Muslims understand their proph- O ets, the New Testament understands sons and daughters will prophesy… The theme of blessing is also used by Even on my servants both men and the followers of Jesus: they speak God’s the biblical authors to describe salva- women, I will pour out my Spirit in word, enjoy God’s favor, and experience tion. Today, because of the widespread God’s presence in a special way. So, in the those days, and they will prophesy. (Acts 2:17—18) preaching of a “health and wealth” context of South Asian folk Islam, aspects gospel, some may hesitate to use the of prophethood reflect what is meant by The act of receiving the Spirit, which language of blessing in relation to sal- salvation and blessedness in the Bible. As Peter has closely associated with vation. One might be reticent to imply will be shown below, from the perspective prophesying, is then used to explain or that salvation results in material bless- of South Asian folk Islam, in the New describe salvation in Acts 2:38, where ing or to minimize the importance of Testament Jesus transforms his followers Peter says to the crowd: spiritual renewal and reconciliation into what the prophets are by granting Repent and be baptized, every one of with God in salvation, regardless of them the Holy Spirit. you, in the name of Jesus Christ for material blessing. Nevertheless, salva- While prophethood and blessing are the forgiveness of your sins. And you tion is described in the language of will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. blessing in Scripture. excellent concepts for facilitating con- versations with folk Muslims, are they To the ears of the audience in Jerusa- In Galatians, Paul interpreted the death theologically sufficient for present- lem, the call to repentance and salva- of Jesus with the language of blessing ing the gospel? Can they explain the tion in Peter’s sermon was also an in- and cursing. First, Paul equates the gos- gospel effectively? In the following vitation to participate in the gift of the pel with the promise of blessing when paragraphs I want to quickly introduce Spirit, which had previously been the he says that God had “announced the how the New Testament authors wove exclusive experience of the prophets of gospel in advance to Abraham” when prophethood and blessing into their God. When the sermon is taken as a he said: “All nations will be blessed explanation of the gospel. whole, it is clear that Peter is promising through you.” (Gal. 3:8). Paul made it clear that the good news of the gospel, In the first chapters of Acts, we see Peter the audience that through faith in Jesus that promise of blessing made to Abra- proclaiming the gospel at Pentecost with the audience would receive reconcilia- ham, is fulfilled in Jesus Christ, and a striking message that included themes tion with God and with it transforma- that it is both a blessing of reconcilia- of prophethood, blessing, and the Holy tion into something like what the Old tion with God and the gift of the Spirit Spirit. In Peter’s sermon in Acts 2, he Testament prophets were. that accompanies it (Gal. 3:13–14). notes that after Jesus died and was resur- As implied in Peter’s sermon, prophet- Paul assumes that people are not natu- rected, he was exalted to the right hand of hood was considered normative in the rally within the sphere of God’s bless- God, received from the Father the prom- New Testament churches. The New Tes- ing, but that, on the contrary, all people ised Holy Spirit, and has poured out what tament authors assumed that all believ- are cursed because they do not follow you now see and hear (Acts 2:33). The ers were anointed with the Holy Spirit the Law (Gal. 3:10–12). In his death, behavior that Peter was defending (“what 20 and had the potential to be prophets. Jesus became a curse in order to redeem you now see and hear”) was the disciples’ For those living in the period of Second the church from the curse of the Law speaking in tongues and declaring the Temple Judaism, any reference to receiv- (Gal. 3:13). In Galatians 3:14 Paul wonders of God (v. 4, 11). Peter attributes ing the Spirit could only be interpreted states that the result of redemption in this behavior to the Holy Spirit’s presence 21 as receiving prophethood. Because the Christ is that those who believe may be and makes a direct connection between Spirit was shared by all in the church blessed and receive the Spirit. As I tried receiving the Spirit and prophecy. This community, it followed that all were to show above, during the period of connection is important, because later imbued with prophethood.22 Prophet- Second Temple Judaism (and also from Peter closely connects salvation with hood remained an important theological the perspective of folk Islam) receiving receiving the Spirit, so that the prophetic concept for the church until the church the Spirit was functionally synonymous and salvation are fused in any reception 23 19 lost its distinctly Jewish character. It with becoming a prophet. Like Peter, of the Spirit. Quoting the prophet Joel, remains a valid and important theologi- Paul relies heavily on the language of Peter states that, cal theme in the Bible that can provide blessing and cursing in order to explain In the last days, God says, I will pour a theological foundation for the church the necessity and result of the death out my Spirit on all people. Your among Muslim-background believers. and resurrection of Jesus.

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Clearly, blessing and prophethood were Cullmann, Oscar, The Christology of to deal with issues of power such as the central to the New Testament authors’ the New Testament (Philadelphia, PA: The demonic—a major concern of local people. explanation of the gospel.24 And while Westminster Press, 1963), p 42. I, in addition, arriving with a Ph.D. in Islam Darrow, William R. “Zoroaster Amal- as taught, found that I did not understand these themes deeply resonate with South gamated: Notes On Iranian Prophetology.” Islam as lived.” J. Dudley Woodberry, Asian folk Muslims, Western evangeli- History Of Religions 27.2 (1987): 109–132. “Power and Blessing: Keys for Relevance to cals usually fail to appreciate their signifi- ATLA Religion Database with ATLASeri- a Religion as Lived,” in Paradigm Shifts in cance. Indeed, our very different cultural als. Web. 1 Nov. 2011. Christian Witness: Insights from Anthropology, and religious traditions have caused us Hagen, Gottfried. “The Imagined Communication, and Spiritual Power, eds. to emphasize other biblical themes that and Historical Muhammad.” Journal Of Charles E. Van Engen, Darrell Whiteman, relate to our general well-being, salvation The American Oriental Society 129.1 (2009): and J. Dudley Woodberry (Maryknoll, NY: 97–111. ATLA Religion Database with Orbis, 2008), 98. It is estimated that folk and social status. Yet, even for Western- ATLASerials. Web. 1 Nov. 2011. Muslims comprise 70–85% of the world- ers, the study of prophethood and bless- Harvey, Warren Zev. “A Third wide Muslim population. Richard D. Love, ing in Scripture can be rewarding both Approach To Maimonides’ Cosmogony- “Church Planting Among Folk Muslims,” spiritually and missiologically. Gazing Prophetology Puzzle.” Maimonides 71–88. IJFM, 11:2 (April 1994), 87. into the world of Sufi Muslims in South Notre Dame, Ind: Univ of Notre Dame 3 Both Islam and Christianity teach Asia can help us grasp the missiological Pr, 1988. ATLA Religion Database with the oneness of God, the creation, the day of priority of harnessing these rather unfa- ATLASerials. Web. 1 Nov. 2011 judgment, heaven and hell, the virgin birth Momen, Moojan. “Bahá’u’lláh’s of Jesus, and the prophethood of Jesus. It miliar themes of blessing and prophet- Prophetology: Archetypal Patterns In The should be noted that these “shared” beliefs hood in order to feature them more Lives Of The Founders Of The World are overlapping but not identical. Distinct prominently in our presentation of the Religions.” Bahá’í Studies Review 5.1 (1995): differences exist between Islamic and gospel. However, to do this will require 51–63. ATLA Religion Database with Christian doctrines, even when a basic belief that we evangelicals not only become ATLASerials. Web. 1 Nov. 2011. (such as monotheism) is shared. 4 more deeply immersed in the doctrine Patch, Andrew. “Leo Strauss on Mai- Biblical quotations are from the New monides’ Prophetology.” Review of Politics and fellowship of the Holy Spirit, but International Version. 1(2004):83. eLibrary. Web. 17 Jul. 2011. 5 Douglas A. Hall, Judy Hall, and Steve that we recognize—and respond to—the Qasmi, Ali Usman. “Towards a new Daman, The Cat and the Toaster: Living Sys- “prophetological” perspective so prevalent IJFM Prophetology: Maulwï Abdullah Cak- tem Ministry in a Technological Age (Eugene, among South Asian folk Muslims. fâlawï’s Ahl al-Qur’än Movement.” Muslim OR: Wipf & Stock, 2010), 250–260. World 99.1 (2009): 155–180. 6 Rajindar Sachar, Social, Economic and

Endnotes Reeves, John C. “Manichaica Aramai- Educational Status of the Muslim Community 1 ca? Adam and the Magical Deliverance of in India: A Report (New Delhi: Cabinet I first encountered the term “propheto- Seth.” The Journal of the American Oriental Secretariat, 2006), 237. logical” in Oscar Cullmann’s The Christology of Society 119.3 (1999): 432–439. 7 the New Testament (p. 42). In my paper I use For an evangelical perspective on folk ul-Huda, Qamar. “Knowledge of Allah this term in a general way, not in a selective Islam, see Bill Musk, The Unseen Face of Islam: and the Islamic View of Other Religions.” sense. Prophetology is simply that section of Sharing the Gospel with Ordinary Muslims at Theological Studies. 64.2 (2003): 278–305. Street Level (Grand Rapids, MI: Monarch, theology that deals with the phenomenon and doctrine of prophethood. Below I have includ- Welburn, Andrew J. “Iranian Prophe- 2003), Rick Love, Muslims, Magic and the ed a sample of published writing in which the tology And The Birth Of The Messiah : Kingdom of God: Church Planting among Folk term is used by scholars to refer to the study The Apocalypse Of Adam.” Principat 25, Muslims (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Li- of the doctrine of prophecy in Judaism, Chris- 6. 4752–4794. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, brary, 2000), and Gailyn Van Rheenen, Com- tianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, 1988. ATLA Religion Database with AT- municating Christ in Animistic Contexts (Grand and the Baha’i faith. Outside of academic LASerials. Web. 1 Nov. 2011. Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1991). 8 work no one seems to use the term at all, Winter, T. J. “Jesus And Muhammad: Rick Brown, “Muslim Worldviews and and to practicing mission personnel the term New Convergences.” Muslim World 99.1 the Bible: Bridges and Barriers. Part I: God “prophetology” might be practically unknown. (2009): 21–38. ATLA Religion Database and Mankind,” IJFM 23:1 (Spring 2006), However, there is discussion among mission- with ATLASerials. Web. 1 Nov. 2011. 6–7. Rick Brown, “Muslim Worldviews and aries about the concept of prophethood with Zebiri, Kate. Muslims and Christians the Bible: Bridges and Barriers. Part II: Jesus, relation to Muslim evangelism. It is seen as an Face to Face. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. the Holy Spirit, and the Age to Come,” area of common ground between Christians (cited and quoted in: Gray, Leith and An- IJFM 23:2 (Summer 2006), 51, 52, 54. 9 and Muslims, who both view Jesus as a proph- drea Gray. “Making the Story Meaningful: The Encyclopaedia of Islam, CD-ROM et. That common ground can be used to build A Muslim Encounters the Gospel of Mark: ed., s.v. “Baraka.” 10 trust and relationships with Muslims. My Theological Implications of Contextual Mis- For a detailed and insightful study paper attempts to show why and how it works match.” IJFM 25:3 (Fall 2008): 127–134. on Sufism, see J. Spencer Trimingham, The theologically and missiologically to explain the 2 “Folk Islam” is a variety of Islam that Sufi Orders in Islam (New York: Oxford gospel in terms of prophethood (and blessing) combines orthodox Islamic practices with University Press, 1971). and to orient ourselves to a “prophetological” animism. Dudley Woodberry writes “Many 11 Carl W. Ernst, The Shambhala Guide to manner of thought. missionaries arrived in Pakistan ill-equipped Sufism (New Delhi: Shambhala, 1997), 121.

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12 Imam Imaduddin Abul-Fida Ismail References Washington, DC: The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. Ibn Kathir, Stories of the Prophets, trans. Aune, David E. Musk, Bill Rafiq Abdur Rehman (Karachi: Darul 1983 Prophecy in Early Christianity and Ishaat, 2004), 34. the Ancient Mediterranean World. 2003 The Unseen Face Of Islam: Sharing 13 The Gospel With Ordinary Muslims Kenneth Cragg, Jesus and the Muslim: Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers. At Street Level. Grand Rapids, An Exploration, (London: Allen and Unwin, MI: Monarch. 1985), 190. Brown, Rick Pennington, Perry 14 2006 “Muslim Worldviews and the Muslims in India, for example, are 2014 “Prophethood and Blessing: A Bible: Bridges and Barriers. Part at a greater risk of discrimination and even Biblical Theology of the Gospel I: God and Mankind.” IJFM 23:1 harassment in public life due to the use of for Folk Muslims.” thesis, Gordon- (Spring 2006), 5–12. Muslim identity markers (Sachar, 12). A Conwell Theological Seminary. 2006 “Muslim Worldviews and the similar situation exists for immigrant Mus- Sachar, Justice Rajindar, Chairperson, Prime Bible: Bridges and Barriers. Part lim populations in the West. David Masci, II, Jesus, the Holy Spirit and the Minister’s High Level Committee An Uncertain Road: Muslims and the Future of Age to Come.” IJFM 23:2 (April 2006 Social, Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community Europe (Washington D.C.: The Pew Forum 1, 2006), 48–56. in India: A Report. New Delhi: on Religion and Public Life, 2005), 6. Cragg, Kenneth 15 Cabinet Secretariat. E. P. Sanders, Paul and Palestinian 1985 Jesus and the Muslim: An Explora- Sanders, E. P. Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion tion. London: Allen and Unwin. 1977 Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A (London: SCM Press, 1977), 54. Cullmann, Oscar Comparison of Patterns of Religion. 16 James G. D. Dunn, Jesus, Paul, and 1963 The Christology of the New Testament. London: SCM Press. the Law: Studies in Mark and Galatians Philadelphia, PA: Westminster. Shaw, Alison. (Louisville, KY: Westminster, 1990), 192. Dunn, James D.G. 2000 Kinship and Continuity: Pakistani 17 Alison Shaw, Kinship and Continu- 1990 Jesus, Paul, and the Law: Studies in Families in Britain. London: ity: Pakistani Families in Britain (London: Mark and Galatians. Louisville, Routledge. KY: Westminster. Routledge, 2000). Stronstad, Roger 1997 Jesus and the Spirit: A Study of 18 Masood Alam Falahi, Hindustan 2010 The Prophethood of All Believers: A the Religious and Charismatic Study in Luke’s Charismatic Theol- Mein Zaat-Paat Aur Musalman [Casteism and Experience of Jesus and the First ogy. Cleveland, TN: CPT Press. the Muslim in India] (Delhi: Al-Qazi, 2007). Christians as Reflected in the New Trimingham, J. Spencer 19 Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: The important exegetical work link- 1971 The Sufi Orders in Islam. New Eerdmans. ing blessing, prophethood, and the gospel York: Oxford University Press. Ernst, Carl W. can only be summarized here due to the Van Rheenen, Gailyn 1997 The Shambhala Guide to Sufism. constraints of space. I provide a much more 1991 Communicating Christ in Animistic New Delhi: Shambhala. detailed explanation in the second chapter Contexts. Grand Rapids, MI: of my thesis (Pennington, 2014). Falahi, Masood Alam Baker Bk House. 20 Wayne Grudem, The Gift of Prophecy 2007 Hindustan Mein Zaat-Paat Aur Woodberry, J. Dudley. Musalman [Casteism and the Mus- in the New Testament and Today, Rev. ed. 2008 “Power and Blessing: Keys for lim in India]. Delhi: Al-Qazi. (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2000), 33–34, Relevance to a Religion as Lived.” Grudem, Wayne 167–69, 347–59. See also Roger Stronstad, In Paradigm Shifts in Christian 2000 The Gift of Prophecy in the New The Prophethood of All Believers: A Study in Witness: Insights from Anthropol- Testament and Today. Wheaton, ogy, Communication, and Spiritual Luke’s Charismatic Theology, (Cleveland, TN: IL: Crossway. Power, edited by Charles E. Van CPT Press, 2010), 65. Hall, Douglas A., Judy Hall, and Steve Daman Engen, Darrell Whiteman, and 21 David E. Aune, Prophecy in Early 2010 The Cat and the Toaster: Living J. Dudley Woodberry, 98–105. Christianity and the Ancient Mediterra- System Ministry in a Technological Maryknoll, NY: Orbis. nean World (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Age Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. Publishers, 1983), 103–05; James D. G. Kathir, Imam Imaduddin Abul-Fida Ismail Ibn Dunn, Jesus and the Spirit: A Study of the 2004 Stories of the Prophets, translated Religious and Charismatic Experience of Jesus by Rafiq Abdur Rehman. Karachi: and the First Christians as Reflected in the Darul Ishaat. New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Love, Rick Eerdmans, 1997), 82. 1994 “Church Planting Among Folk 22 Aune, 191–93. Muslims.” IJFM 11:2 (April 1994), 87–91. 23 Oscar Cullmann, The Christology of 2000 Muslims, Magic And The Kingdom the New Testament (Philadelphia, PA: The of God: Church Planting Among Westminster Press, 1963), 42. Folk Muslims. Pasadena, CA: Wil- 24 For more on this topic, see Perry Pen- liam Carey Library. nington “Prophethood and Blessing: A Biblical Masci, David Theology of the Gospel for Folk Muslims” (diss., 2005 An Uncertain Road: Mus- Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, 2014). lims and the Future of Europe.

31:4 Winter 2014 204 The Challenges of Following Jesus in the Middle East and North Africa

The Challenges of Following Jesus in the Middle East and North Africa

Introduction Each morning featured interviews with disciples of Jesus he Arab Baptist Theological Seminary, in Lebanon, from a wide range of socio-cultural and religious contexts. has been a hub for the formation of leaders for church Participants heard inspiring and challenging stories from andT society in the Middle East and North Africa region Egypt, Syria, Morocco, Jordan, Algeria, Lebanon, the Gulf, the since 1960. Throughout those years, it has been cognizant Philippines and sub-Saharan Africa. In addition, interviews of the tremendous challenges that constantly face the were conducted with experienced leaders from across the ch urch in the region in the area of discipleship. ABTS’ MENA region who journeyed along with many in their walk Institute of Middle East Studies (IMES) hosts the annual with Jesus. In dialogue with these local and regional voices, Middle East Consultation (MEC) to provide a context five internationally recognized theologians and missiologists whereby people from around the world can explore issues of diverse backgrounds were invited as global consultants, to of critical importance to the Middle East and beyond, in help us frame the conversation within the global context, and ways that seek the transformation of individuals and com- to draw out particular themes which would warrant further munities in line with the prophetic message of Jesus Christ. reflection. Consultation participants then spent a significant amount of time in round table discussi ons, reflecting upon The purpose of this document is to highlight a variety of the and processing what they had learnt from the interviews. day-to-day challenges facing disciples of Jesus in the MENA region today, as transpired from the 2014 Consultation. It also Each day during the afternoon sessions, one of the Global provides a foundation from which the Institute of Middle Consultants was invited to present on a particular topic related to the consultation’s themes, followed by a time for East Studies will seek to further develop the conversations questions and discussion. Subjects included: first begun during MEC 2014. It is anticipated that some of the recommendations deriving from this document will • “A Status Report on Movements of Discipleship in the inform our ongoing discussions on the theme of discipleship MENA Context: Where We Have Been and Where over the next two or more years. Early on, we will also attempt We Might Be Going,” Dr. J. Dudley Woodberry a definition of what we mean by the term discipleship. • “Emerging Communities of Faith: Exploring Ecclesiologi- MEC 2014 cal Opportunities and Challenges for Followers of Christ in the MENA Context,” Dr. Rosalee Velloso Ewell IMES hosted its 11th annual Middle East Consultation, “Discipleship Today: Following Jesus in the Middle East • “Roland Allen and Vincent Donovan Rediscovered,” and North Africa,” in Beirut from 16-20 June 2014. Dr. J. Andrew Kirk Organized for the first time in partnership with Near East • “Challenges and Opportunities in Developing a Biblical Initiatives, MEC 2014 hosted nearly 200 participants from Approach to Discipleship in Relation to Social, Religious, 21 countries and five continents. MEC 2014 saw the intro- Political and Cultural Identity,” Dr. John A. Azumah duction of a new approach to IMES’ flagship annual con- • “Distinctive Features of Contemporary Discipleship ference. It was intentionally designed as a consultation to Movements,” Dr. Louisa Cox allow for a far greater number of regional and international voices to be heard, both from the floor and from within the Evening sessions provided a context for inter-faith conversation, many round table discussions. as regional Muslim leaders were invited to share their thoughts

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on a range of related topics. During one of the evening sessions 2. Sustaining and repairing relationships with families Dr. Robert Woodberry also gave a keynote presentation on and communities for those who have become disciples his groundbreaking sociological research, entitled “The Great of Jesus. Omission: How Christian Missions Transformed the World.” 3. Finding acceptance and developing a healthy relation- Defining Discipleship ship with the existing Body of Christ. It is important to recognize that whenever we invite 4. Facing suffering, persecution and alienation as part of someone to become a disciple of Jesus, we are taking on a the shared experience of followers of Jesus. task with a serious level of responsibility. This is particu- 5. Overcoming the inherent difficulties of religious lan- larly so in the MENA region, where there are significant guage, terminology, and the implications for witness social, cultural, political and religious factors to consider. and discipleship. The tensions and conflicts that have existed historically in the multi-faith context of the MENA region often means Identity that new disciples of Jesus face persecution and alienation Identity formation was probably the most significant from their community, especially when their loyalty is seen and painful challenge facing new disciples of Jesus in the as shifting from institutional religion to the person of Jesus. MENA region. While finding a new identity “in Christ” Hence the methods and motivation behind those involved may be complicated in any context, significant social, in discipling others takes on a significant ethical dimension. cultural, religious and political dynamics of MENA were This ethical dimension is even further heightened when the illustrated that make one’s identity in Christ particularly ministry is among minors and vulnerable adults. difficult from within this context. On many occasions, the It became evident from MEC 2014 that the ways in which consultation heard painful stories from those who had people understand both the nature and function of disciple- attached their loyalty to Jesus, but who had, as a result, ship vary greatly. This diversity in understanding will lead to experienced numerous challenges reconciling their new- significantly differing approaches and practices within a wide found and previous identities. Individual disciples often range of contexts. For this reason, it is hard to derive a clear felt torn between two or more socio-religious categories, definition of discipleship from MEC 2014. However for wanting to somehow identify with and fit within both, and the purpose of further discussion, the following definition is yet often not finding acceptance in either. The risk of cogni- offered, largely inspired by the spirit of the consultation: tive and affective dissonance, often resulting in a painful Discipleship is the process of becoming more like Jesus. It is identity crisis, was highlighted on numerous occasions. a dynamic and lifelong process whereby followers of Jesus This was particularly evident when one’s “new identity” in learn to obey the Scriptures in community with other disciples Jesus was likely to cause significant socio-cultural fractur- through joys and sorrows. This takes place through prayer, fel- ing in a context. As a result, interviewees often encouraged lowship, intentional relationships, service, and by the growing the consultation to consider the distinction between one’s presence of the Holy Spirit in them. Disciples serve their family, community and society in accordance with their calling and socio-cultural (even “religious”) identity and one’s spiritual- gifting. The disciple is part of a community whose purpose is faith identity as a disciple of Christ, regardless of heritage. to impact society with the values of Jesus, to the glory of God It was commented upon during the course of MEC 2014 and for the welfare of all his creation. that a person’s identity is multi-dimensional and fluid. As such, outside attempts that seek to impose one particular The Main Challenges religious or cultural categorization upon a new disciple have During the course of MEC 2014, numerous interviews the tendency to be neither appropriate nor helpful. with followers of Jesus highlighted a number of significant Reconciliation and often overlapping challenges. In broad terms, the most The need for reconciliation was stressed on numer- significant challenges that face new disciples of Jesus from ous occasions with two main areas standing out wherein within the MENA region relate to the following: reconciliation was much desired by disciples from diverse 1. Discovering a healthy socio-cultural, religious and socio-cultural and religious backgrounds. The first related to spiritual identity. the restoration of positive relationships between those who

nterviewees often encouraged the consultation to consider the distinction between one’s socio-cultural (even “religious”) identity and one’s spiritual- Ifaith identity as a disciple of Christ, regardless of heritage.

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he reality we witnessed is that God is moving in the MENA region to make Jesus known within and beyond anyone’s existing efforts, in ways T and on a scale that would appear unprecedented. have come to affirm their loyalty to Christ and their family Christ found it very difficult, if not impossible, to find a members. The second involved the pursuit of healthy rela- new home within the cultures and structures of existing tionships between disciples of Jesus coming from different communities of faith. This was often very painful, as those socio-cultural and religious backgrounds. Both issues are new disciples had high hopes that they would be welcomed highly significant and complex within the MENA context in and loved unconditionally as brothers and sisters in when it comes to the discipleship process. Christ. Unfortunately, in many cases, this hope was not Reconciliation with Family fulfilled. In some cases, the hurt was devastating and the ensuing lack of trust palpable. The issue of familial relationships was often painful. Many It became clear that in many situations, it might not be of the contributors shared their experiences of alienation possible or even helpful for recent followers of Christ to from their families, resulting from their decision to become join with existing communities of faith in public acts of a disciple of Jesus. Some were essentially forced out of their worship, fellowship or service. It was felt that, given the families and wider communities as a result of their alle- complex socio-cultural and religious conditions in the giance to Christ. Some of those from whom we heard had region, such interaction might potentially damage the living been able over time to restore varying degrees of relation- model and the witness to Christ’s transforming presence ship. Others, however, found this impossible. This raises within a disciple’s community. That said, it was clear that significant questions for an understanding of discipleship, there is a need for repentance on the part of those who have its intended outcomes, and the processes which may be not been welcoming enough towards their new brothers used in contexts such as the MENA. and sisters in Christ, and that reconciliation was needed Questions that need further consideration include, but are between members of different social communities. not limited to: There is also the need for hope that some of these difficulties • Are there ways for a new follower of Jesus to develop might be overcome, and that there might be ways in which a healthy individual and social identity “in Christ” different socio-religious communities of Christ followers whereby he (or she) does not become alienated from his could learn not only to accept each other, but to seek each or her social, cultural and religious context, and yet do so other’s best interests through mutual love and respect. It is in a way that remains faithful to the gospel? hoped that future Middle East Consultations might provide • How might a new disciple preserve a positive witness to the foundations upon which healthy relationships might the transforming power of Jesus within his family and grow within the Body of Christ—even where there might community? continue to be different understandings of the nature of Christ-centered communities and of socio-religious practices. • How can we accompany people on their discipleship journeys, on paths that avoid social and familial fracture The question was further asked whether existing structures, and which protect them from experiencing painful cog- patterns and cultures of more established communities nitive and affective dissonance? How can this be done in of faith are biblical in their origin. To what extent have a way that is deeply faithful to the gospel? historical and cultural dynamics determined how those from different cultures and religious communities might be • How can the narrative and life paradigm of a follower accepted into the family of God? The reality we witnessed of Jesus become a compelling model to members of his is that God is moving in the MENA region to make Jesus family and community? known within and beyond anyone’s existing efforts, in ways • What sort of socio-cultural and religious community and on a scale that would appear unprecedented. Those who should a mentor, or someone who is journeying with might feel burdened for the guardianship of the boundar- a new disciple, encourage or desire for the person with ies of the body of Christ will not be able to control where whom he is journeying? What constitutes a healthy and God’s Spirit moves, nor the methods He uses. The danger it supportive community of faith for a new follower of Jesus? seems is that by seeking to control access to Christ through established ecclesiastical practices, new disciples might be Reconciliation within the Body of Christ left watching from the sidelines. It is our hope, therefore, Significant ecclesiological dimensions also emerged that that we might honor and accept the movement of God, and were in need of reconciliation. Many new disciples of support new disciples of Jesus in ways that do not result in

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thers were discipled in ways that enabled them to develop a narrative that was not as alien nor as potentially confrontational within their family O contexts. This authentic faith narrative allowed for an ongoing witness. an unnecessarily painful and burdensome process of cultural particular context play a significant role in the manner extraction, nor quench the possibilities for them to remain in which people become disciples. It seems fitting, then, as vibrant witnesses within their communities. that the responsible action for those involved in journey- Suffering and Persecution as Part of ing with young disciples through the process of matura- tion and growth is to become very aware of the potential the Landscape consequences of the approaches being used. The process of Many of the contributors at MEC 2014 had experienced discipleship is a journey between people in community and persecution during their journey of discipleship as a result it is important that those involved prepare themselves to be of their allegiance to Christ, which for some had led to an there for the persons with whom they are involved on this almost inevitable conflict with their families. This resulted in journey, through the good times and the bad. The impor- subsequent suffering for both parties. Others were discipled tance of the relational dynamics of this journeying process in ways that enabled them to develop a narrative that was not cannot be overstated if discipleship is to be about people as alien nor as potentially confrontational within their exist- and not programs, most especially in the MENA context. ing family contexts. This development of an authentic faith narrative allowed for an ongoing witness. It was recognized The Language of Discipleship and Witness that this was not an easy process, that committed followers of Language is important, and the language of discipleship Jesus would have to confront social norms and practices, and is of particular importance within the multi-faith contexts that this might lead to difficult challenges. In this way, some of the Middle East and North Africa. The language used degree of persecution is indeed inevitable for any follower of when coming along someone on his journey of disciple- Christ, regardless of his or her socio-cultural and religious ship with Jesus expresses, to a large extent, conscious and heritage. It was striking that the avoidance of persecution was subconscious theologies. This in turn influences methodol- never the motivation of some to remain in closer harmony ogy, which has a significant impact on outcomes within the with their native societies and cultures, but rather their desire discipleship process. It is important that great care be used for a more vibrant, personal testimony through their presence. not to replace the gospel message with socio-cultural and religious connotations that may be inappropriate within a It was painful to hear from those who had experienced certain context. For example, language associated with “the persecution from close family members. It was encourag- church” can be ambiguous, implying either the established, ing however to hear of later successful attempts to re-build historic and culturally Christian church, or the Body of family relationships, especially when those relationships had Christ universal. When we talk about “identity,” are we reached a point where respectful witness had become pos- referring to social and political identity, cultural identity, sible once again. religious identity or faith/spiritual identity? The call for freedom of conscience to become a lived-out reality across the MENA region was a significant theme In addition, it is important that we are able to express that emerged as well. It is always appropriate for followers theologically complex issues, such as the understanding of of Jesus to stand up for the rights of religious minorities, Jesus as Son of God, the nature of God as One and Triune, regardless of the religion in question, and to stand with the salvific implications of Jesus’ death on the cross, in those who have been marginalized as a result of their faith ways that are meaningful within any given socio-religious decisions. It seems prudent, however, for followers of Jesus context. It is wrongly assumed that new disciples of Christ to also act in ways that do not provoke religious hatred and will simply fit into traditional ways of understanding, by intolerance within the region. Sensitivity is desirable within explaining to them the theological ideas that seem alien to the conceptualization and practice of discipleship, particu- their own cultural context. larly where communities are multi-religious. Careful attention must be paid in order to ensure that Each context, be it national, cultural or familial, is unique the message transmitted remains faithful to the gospel. and the nature and degree of potential backlash for becom- Furthermore, it seems appropriate that this message be ing a follower of Jesus is different. We should be careful articulated in ways that may be understood and potentially not to label a specific community as intolerant with regard welcomed in multi-religious settings like the MENA. to religious rights and freedoms based on the experiences But in your hearts revere Christ as Lord. Always be prepared to of those from another context. The conditions within a give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason

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e should avoid blanket assumptions whereby we assume models and approaches will work across the region. The same may be said of eccle­siology. WOne community of Christ followers may look very different from another. for the hope that you have. But do this with gentleness and re- • continue to discuss themes relating to religious rights and spect, keeping a clear conscience, so that those who speak ma- freedoms for all and advocate for them all, and will also liciously against your good behavior in Christ may be ashamed of their slander. (1 Peter 3:15—16) continue to discuss issues of persecution and suffering as a result of religious choice within the MENA region; and Further Statements Emerging from MEC 2014 • seek to see God glorified and people reconciled within MEC 2014 recognizes that even across the MENA region our diverse expressions of faith within the MENA region each context is unique and complex. Where one mode of and to promote reconciliation, trust and mutual respect. discipleship may prove acceptable and effective, in another Themes for Future Middle East Consultations context it may not. We should take care to avoid blanket assumptions whereby we assume models and approaches MEC 2015 will explore in further detail issues relating will work across the region. The same may be said of eccle- to identity for followers of Jesus from within the MENA siology. One community of Christ followers may look very region. “Discipleship Today: Identity and Belonging in the different from another. Sometimes this may be the case Middle East and North Africa” will take place from 15–19 within similar local contexts. It is wise therefore to recog- June 2015, at the Arab Baptist Theological Seminary in nize and celebrate a diversity of approaches and ministry Beirut, Lebanon. models. Within the parameters of the gospel as laid out in Future Middle East Consultations will focus on issues the Scriptures, discipleship is incarnational and informed by relating to ecclesiology and trust, with an emphasis on fos- the context. tering diverse communities of Christ-followers within the One of the unique aspects of MEC 2014 was the fact that MENA region. IJFM we were able to listen to what God is actually doing in and beyond the MENA region in bringing diverse individu- Note: To be kept up-to-date with the latest developments als, families and people groups towards Himself and His related to MEC 2015, please sign up at the IMES Blog: Kingdom. Whilst there was room for theological reflec- tion, the focus was not on critique but rather on listening IMESLebanon.wordpress.com or contact IMES directly at and appreciation. God is bringing people towards Himself [email protected]. within the context of extremely difficult and turbulent times in the region, and He is doing this in diverse and unexpected ways. Many people are experiencing dreams and visions; others are having their practical needs met and seeing Jesus through those who are serving them. While we recognise the need for careful theological reflection on “models” of ministry, there comes a time when we must step back, watch and accept that God is doing what He is doing, and worship Him for it. At times He may invite the existing community of Christ to be involved in this process to a greater or lesser extent. At other times He may ask that community to be patient and accepting of what He is doing. In either case, disciples of Jesus from all backgrounds are called to lift their brothers and sisters up in prayer and encouragement. Statements of Intention The Institute of Middle East Studies will

• provide through the Middle East Consultation a platform for followers of Christ from different socio- cultural and religious contexts to share their experiences with one another, serving as a safe space for reflection and support;

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Religious Syncretism as a Syncretistic Concept: The Inadequacy of the “World Religions” Paradigm in Cross-Cultural Encounter by H. L. Richard

his paper focuses on syncretism in Western Christianity as seen in the paradigm of “world religions” that is assumed in both popular thought and in missiological scholarship. Syncretism is a complex topicT with various usages and nuances, yet in Christian circles the term is most often used as a pejorative against developments in non-Western churches that do not neatly align with Western Christianity. But, alternatively, this Christi- anity of the West is itself syncretistic, and never more so than when employing the distinctly Western construct of “religion.”

My intention is to survey different definitions of syncretism in order to provoke discussion of the meaning of “religion” and of the concept of “world religions.” I will then introduce current scholarship that demonstrates the Enlightenment origins of this established perspective on “religion,” calling for a fundamental shift in intellectual paradigm. Traditional Christian thought is indicted as syncretistic due to the infusion of this Enlightenment world- view, yet this analysis also opens stimulating perspectives on issues of crucial concern for missiology. I will conclude with some practical suggestions for beginning to move beyond the syncretistic “world religions” paradigm. Thinking about Syncretism

Perusing standard reference works on religion and missions reveals defini- tions of syncretism with subtle differences of meaning. Mark Mullins in the Dictionary of Asian Christianity points out a difference between standard usages in the social sciences and in missiology. Syncretism is usually understood as a combination of elements from two or more H. L. Richard has been involved in religious traditions, ideologies, or value systems. In the social sciences, this is a neu- ministry in the Hindu world for three tral and objective term that is used to describe the mixing of religions as a result of decades and is one of the founders of culture contact. In theological and missiological circles, however, it is generally used the Rethinking Forum. He fomerly as a pejorative term to designate movements that are regarded as heretical or sub- directed the Institute of Hindu Stud- ies and has published numerous books Christian….The legitimate cultural reshaping of Christianity is referred to as the “in- and articles on the Christian encoun- culturation” or “contextualization” of the Gospel, though most social scientists would ter with Hinduism. also include these cultural adaptations as examples of syncretism. (Mullins 2001:809)

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S. R. Imbach in the Evangelical Dic- turn the pejorative back on the West- Moreau avoided “religion” talk, referring tionary of Theology is clearly in accord ern churches that all too often casually rather to “idea, practice, or attitude.” with this, but note the centrality of the see a sawdust speck of syncretism in Syncretism. Blending of one idea, concept of “religion” in this definition. the non-Western churches while miss- practice, or attitude with another. Syncretism. The process by which ele- ing the plank that is in their own eye. Traditionally among Christians it has ments of one religion are assimilated been used of the replacement or di- D. A. Hughes in InterVarsity’s New into another religion resulting in a lution of the essential truths of the change in the fundamental tenets or Dictionary of Theology points out a gospel through the incorporation of nature of those religions. It is the major problem with the broad use non-Christian elements….Syncretism union of two or more opposite beliefs, of syncretism as including a positive of some form has been seen every- so that the synthesized form is a new sense of borrowing from other reli- where the church has existed. We are thing. It is not always a total fusion, gious traditions. naïve to think that eliminating the but may be a combination of separate [Syncretism] is also used in a broader negatives of syncretism is easily ac- segments that remain identifiable sense to describe the process of bor- complished. (Moreau 2000:924) compartments. (Imbach 1984:1062) rowing elements by one religion from another in such a way as not Moreau, by avoiding talk related to es- It is tempting to base this entire paper to change the basic character of the sences of religions, was able to acknowl- on this definition, as the assumptions receiving religion. It is questionable, edge both positive and negative syn- about “religions” and their “fundamen- however, whether such a broad defi- cretism in every church, and his further tal tenets or nature” goes to the very nition is helpful, since it makes every discussion of those points in the article heart of what this paper is addressing. referenced is highly recommended. It is certainly ironic that some West- ern Christian definitions of syncretism The Concept of “World are demonstrably syncretistic in their Religions” use of the category “religion.”1 Before laying out the case for this observation The “trickiness” of Numerous books and academic some further comments on syncretism courses introduce the major religions will be noted. syncretism of the world with varying levels of sophistication.2 In missiological circles In a major work on syncretism and needs to be kept it is also common to speak about dialogue, Andre Droogers laid out a constantly in mind. the world religions as if that was a basic definition that is again rooted in meaningful term, even though world assumptions about religion and which religions textbooks often challenge brings together elements of the two that traditional language.3 This alone previously cited definitions. is a massive problem that needs to Syncretism is a tricky term. Its main be addressed, but as the roots of this religion syncretistic to some extent. difficulty is that it is used with both imprecision or distortion are traced (Hughes 1988:670) an objective and a subjective mean- out below, it will be seen that what is ing. The basic objective meaning at play here is syncretism. refers neutrally and descriptively to The positive sense of syncretism cer- the mixing of religions. The subjec- tainly “makes every religion syncretis- Current academic work has challenged tive meaning includes an evaluation tic to some extent,” but one could also the commonly understood sense of such intermingling from the point argue that every religion is syncretistic of “religion,” although without the of view of one of the religions in- even in the negative sense. The issue, of development of an acceptable alter- volved. As a rule, the mixing of reli- course, is what one means by “religion.” nate paradigm. Richard King traced gions is condemned in this evaluation The lack of discussion of that term in the concept of religion to the Greco- as violating the essence of the belief these various definitions is troubling at Roman world, where the meaning system. Yet, as will be shown, a posi- best and perhaps empties their points focused on “tradition” with a recog- tive subjective definition also belongs of any clear meaning. Scrutiny of para- nition of the plurality of traditions to the possibilities. (Droogers 1989:7) digms for religion and world religions (1999:35f.) With the rise of Christian- are the focal point of this paper. The “trickiness” of syncretism needs to ity the term was redefined as “a matter be kept constantly in mind. This paper Finally, for this initial discussion of of adherence to particular doctrines is dealing with a very slippery concept syncretism, Scott Moreau presented or beliefs rather than allegiance to an- that is “generally used as a pejorative a carefully nuanced definition in the cient ritual practices” (King 1999:37). term” (Mullins above), and seeks to Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions. This meaning was then exported

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 211 and underlies the present concept of “world religions,” but this interpreta- he inapplicability of Western notions­ of religion tion involves a “Christian” reading of to the traditions of Asia has led to the creation different sets of data that really do not fit the paradigm. Fritz Staal powerfully T of so-called religions. (Staal) made this point. things. In pamphlet after pamphlet, “religion” in its modern form is a The inapplicability of Western no- treatise after treatise, decade after secular idea. Secularism is an ideol- tions of religion to the traditions of decade the notion was driven home ogy, and “religion” is one of its basic Asia has not only led to piecemeal that a religion is something that one categories....It sees the universe, and errors of labeling, identification and believes or does not believe, some- human nature, as essentially secular, classification, to conceptual confu- thing whose propositions are true or and sees “the religions” as addenda sion and to some name-calling. It is are not true, something whose locus that human beings have tacked on also responsible for something more is in the realm of the intelligible, is up here and there in various shapes and extraordinary: the creation of so- for inspection before the speculative for various interesting, powerful or called religions. (1989:393, quoted mind. (W. C. Smith 1962:40) fatuous reasons. It sees law, econom- from King 1999:144) ics, philosophy (things we got from Smith adamantly objected to the Greece and Rome) as distinct from In light of these realities King suggests intellectualizing and reification of religion.4 (W.C. Smith 1992:16) that religion, seeing personal faith as the …it is important to realize that the vital reality which was obscured by this More recently this point has been “world religions” as they are usually idealistic construct. “There is nothing powerfully outlined by Timothy portrayed are idealized and largely in heaven or on earth that can legiti- Fitzgerald, who traced in detail the theoretical constructs that bear some mately be called the Christian faith,” transition from a medieval focus on relationship to, but are by no means he asserted. “There have been and are religion as Christian Truth that cov- identical with, the actual religious the faiths of individual Christians...” ered all of life to the modern sense of expression of humankind, especially dichotomized and compartmentalized in the pre-modern era. One should (Smith 1962:191; italics original). This religion that stands in contrast with also note that such “universal” faiths certainly seems to be an over-reaction, are simultaneously the homogeniz- as there are clearly confessional com- the secular. ing and imperialistic ideologies of a munities and not merely individual One thing which has presumably religious world. In effect by focus- faith expressions; but Smith’s critique always been clear, even to scholars ing upon the brahmanical strands of of religion as an inadequate (or erro- in religious studies who tend to at- tribute to every culture “a religion,” Indian religion, the theological trea- neous) Enlightenment construct has tises of Catholicism, or the scholarly or even several: the English-language been reaffirmed by later scholarship. Qu’ranic commentaries of Islam, one category religion has for almost all inevitably marginalizes a significant This intellectualizing of religion also its history been inseparable from the proportion of human religious experi- began the compartmentalizing and Christian incarnation and Christian ence and expression. (1999:67-68) trivializing of it. Jonathan Z. Smith theology, and required a process of abstraction and modern fetishism pointed out that and animism before it was ready The Enlightenment Roots of the religion was domesticated....the to incarnate in different manifesta- Concept of “World Religions” Enlightenment impulse was one of tions in different cultural contexts. tolerance and, as a necessary con- In 1962 Wilfred Cantwell Smith But when this contested term is pro- comitant, one which refused to leave jected onto other peoples, who think wrote The Meaning and End of Reli- any human datum, including religion, in entirely different languages, there gion, a seminal work critiquing the beyond the pale of understanding, is always ambiguity about whether very concept of religion. He traced beyond the realm of reason. (J. Z. the projector is imagining “religion” the roots of the modern usage of the Smith 1982:104) to encompass all institutions on anal- term to the Enlightenment, where the ogy with medieval and early modern centrality of the intellect indicated W. C. Smith returned to his theme ideas, therefore seeing it as indis- that truth and doctrine were most of Enlightenment distortions thirty tinguishable from holistic culture; important in religion. years later and had an even more harsh or whether “religion” is imagined This is the view of the Enlightenment, conclusion. in the Calvinistic mode as radically evinced not only in the religious realm When I wrote The Meaning and End separated from the profane world; but as a comprehensive world out- I knew that “religion” was a Western or whether “religion” is more simply look which stressed an intellectualist and a modern notion. I had not yet a projection of the Western religion- and impersonalist schematization of seen, but now do see clearly, that secular dichotomy whereby religious

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practices are assumed to be different the diverse cultures and civilizations into a theological construct has hin- in kind from political, economic and dered the church from incorporating of the world. If King is right, radical technical/instrumental ones. (Fitzger- that insight into missionary methodol- ald 2007:104-105) change of missiological paradigms and ogy. (Conn 1979:214) terminologies is required. Since King Thomas Idinopulos likewise docu- speaks for a considerable consensus in The example of this Western syncre- mented the compartmentalization and the academic world, if he is wrong the tism with Enlightenment thought on trivialization of religion when secular- missiological world must enter the fray religion is by no means singular. An- ism became dominant. and, at the very least, defend whatever drew Walls implicated the entire nine- The word, religion, acquired its own it is that it might think to be the true teenth century missionary movement distinct meaning when the forces of understanding of “world religions.” as fundamentally syncretistic, although secularization became so dominant he did not use that pejorative label. in western culture that religious be- Missiology, the Enlightenment …nineteenth century missions were lief and practice became distinctly hu- and World Religions part of an Enlightenment project, man acts. For once secularity became stamped by Enlightenment ideals; fully evident in society it was possible I have attempted a brief summary of the the evangelical Christianity that un- to speak by contrast of the religious case that a “world religions” paradigm derlay them had made its peace with way of life. (Idinopulos 2002:10) developed out of the Enlightenment the European Enlightenment and compartmentalization of religion within operated in its categories. (2002:244) Idinopulos objected to this develop- a dominantly secular world. This is a ment, suggesting that in both “archaic” In a lecture Walls later applied this peoples and in modern life there is evi- perspective to current Western mis- dence of “the interweaving of religion siological thought. with everything else in life” (2002:10). One of the things we have to get be- yond in the next stage of Christianity Richard King provides a good sum- is the Enlightenment. We can’t give mary statement for this discussion. it up ourselves because it is part of As a number of scholars have pointed This perspective is at our identity. But we have to realize it out, both our modern understanding is not part of everyone’s background. of “religion” as a “system of beliefs odds with the holism of (Walls 2011) and practices” and the academic field biblical faith. of religious studies are a product of The supposition of syncretism among the European Enlightenment….As Western Christians is not new.5 The such its [the term “religion”] contin- process of rooting out Enlightenment- ued unreflective use cross-culturally, related syncretism will be so complex while opening up interesting debates that it may never be fully achievable, and interactions over the past few as Walls noted. But as Western mis- centuries (and creating things called perspective at odds with the holism of sionaries call other peoples to battle “interfaith dialogue” and “the world biblical faith, yet Western Christians, against syncretism, they must engage religions”), has also closed down ave- many of whom boast of a biblical world- nues of exploration and other poten- battle with their own hearts and minds view, seem to have embraced terms and tial cultural and intellectual interac- regarding their own homegrown vari- ideas from this alien worldview. tions. (King 2011:39; italics original) eties of syncretism. It is not as if missiology has com- This paper barely introduces the This line of analysis leads to King’s pletely failed to notice the significance complex issue of “world religions” as conclusion that of these discussions. Over thirty years an example of Enlightenment-rooted The continued unreflective use of the ago Harvie Conn objected to the di- syncretism in missiological and popular category of “religion,” however, does chotomization of religion and culture, thought.6 A thorough analysis of “Hin- not carry us forward in our attempt calling for a biblical missiology which to understand better the diverse cul- duism” and “Buddhism” and “Chris- puts all of life under the Lordship of tures and civilizations of the world. tianity” as empty reifications should (King 2011:43) Christ, not merely “religious” life. be presented here, but space and time Cultural anthropology has increasingly forbid.7 But be forewarned that many This is not a conclusion that can be refuted the bifurcation of religious practitioners of these traditions will merely observed by a missiological from cultural life, of the sacred from likely object to this deconstruction of world which purports to wrestle with the secular in the world’s ethne. But the their reified paradigms. The resistance understanding and communicating into Pietist mythologization of individualism experienced in inter-religious encounter

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 213 often forces mission practitioners to grip even tighter their own syncretistic issiology all too easily employs the binary paradigm. Thus, the vital question, who language of “religion” and “culture” without speaks for any of these traditions? Who any recognition of the problems involved. has the right to speak for Hinduism, or M for Christianity? Which of the many Three steps can be taken to begin ex- major “religious” traditions has “confes- Hinduisms is the truly valid expression; tricating our understanding of Chris- sional” groupings that can be meaning- which type of Christianity is the legiti- tian faith from syncretistic bonding to fully spoken about (many of these claim mate one, when each seems to claim Enlightenment-rooted paradigms and to be the true spokespersons for their that for itself? terminologies related to religion. These “world religion.”) Careful thought is steps are just a beginning towards long needed to speak meaningfully in terms Missiology all too easily employs term solutions that might root out the of these sub-groupings, avoiding the the binary language of “religion” and depths of this syncretism based on broad (and usually demonstrably false) “culture” without any recognition of the deep reflection and interaction with generalizations often used for world problems involved, let alone a serious ongoing discussions of these matters religions in the singular. grappling with numerous profound 8 in the secular academy. implications. When syncretism is dis- Third, the change of religion terminology cussed and defined in terms of religions One first step towards transcending needs to be abandoned as a meaningful and their intermixing, particularly the inadequate paradigm of “world way to speak of someone becoming a dis- when “cultural” elements are considered religions” as it is expressed in both ciple of Jesus. This seems to be increas- acceptable for adaptation but “religious” academic and popular discourse ingly the trend, even as the meaning elements are viewed as tainted, this is would be to insist on always speaking of Christian is deeply distorted even in itself an expression of the syncretism in the plural and never in the singular. the Christian world, let alone among within Enlightenment constructs. “Buddhism” gives a false impression of Muslims or Hindus. This represents a unity; speaking of “Buddhist tradi- significant departure in missiological Paradigms or terminologies that sug- tions” avoids the suggestion of unity parlance, as a “convert” from Hindu- gest that there is an essence of Hindu- and takes a significant step away from ism or Buddhism to Christianity is ism or Islam are likewise syncretistic, the false reification of the “world just the normal way to think and speak reflecting the Enlightenment reifica- religions” paradigm. Similarly, Chris- about many people historically and in tion of masses of disparate and even tianity should not be referred to in the the present. Yet this traditional termi- contradictory ideas and practices into singular; there is too much diversity nology has been questioned by many the neat package of “world religions.” present for the usage in the singular to outside the Western world, with an Paradigms or terminologies that define carry any substantial meaning. increasing exploration and embracing syncretism based on religious concerns of “multiple religious belonging” and without recognition of the presup- Second, rather than being content with of “insider movements” that reject the positions involved in Western use of the lazy use of these broadly general “change of religion” paradigm.9 religious phraseology are also syncre- terms (even in plural forms), it is decid- edly preferable that contextually specific A recent statement from leaders of Ro- tistic. These lines of thought can lead man Catholic, Protestant and Evangeli- one towards despair, because Western- terms be employed. “Hinduism” does not consider the world to be an illusion, cal thought on witness and dialogue il- ers are deeply, even subconsciously, lustrates the assumption that Christians implicated in Enlightenment thought, and it would be simply erroneous to af- firm this about “Hindu traditions.” The expect people of other faiths to “change as pointed out by Andrew Walls. Advaita Vedanta tradition, one school religion,” without reflecting on the roots or implications of this terminology. A Way Forward? among the Hindu traditions, has often suggested that the world is an illusion, Christians are to acknowledge that Is there a way forward for missiol- with contested understandings of not changing one’s religion is a decisive step that must be accompanied by ogy and missiologists (not to mention only that term but also of how truly sufficient time for adequate reflec- popular parlance and lay Christians)? representative it is of Advaitic thought. tion and preparation, through a pro- Scott Moreau is certainly right that, Similarly, one can speak quite meaning- cess ensuring full personal freedom.10 “We are naïve to think that eliminat- fully about even such a broad category (WCC 2011:5; emphasis mine) ing the negatives of syncretism is easily as American Evangelical Christian- accomplished” (Moreau 2000:924), ity, although more meaningfully about The intent of this impressive inter- and this is most definitely true in rela- American Evangelical Anglicans/ confessional statement is clearly tion to our own syncretisms. Presbyterians/Baptists, etc. Each of the to reduce inter-religious tensions

31:4 Winter 2014 214 Religious Syncretism as a Syncretistic Concept and to call Christians to high ethi- warfare” against their own basic structure. 10. The language of religious freedom, cal standards. Yet, by yoking itself to “One clear-headed approach is to wage a development and universal human rights are the “change of religion” terminology steady program of guerilla warfare against all rooted in Enlightenment constructs; see the hapless [world religions] textbook— Dallmayr 1998:247ff. for discussion of this. Christian bondage to Enlightenment perhaps even against the stated subject mat- categories is perpetuated. If the argu- ter of the course itself ” (Hawley 2006:118). References 3. ment of this paper is valid, this entire Note Friedhelm Hardy’s comment in Bosch, David J. “change of religion” paradigm also rep- The World’s Religions as an example of this. 1991 Transforming Mission: Paradigm resents a syncretistic concession (albeit “The conventional labels of ‘Buddhism,’ Shifts in Theology of Mission. Ameri- subconscious) to an Enlightenment ‘Jainism’ or ‘Sikhism’ neither exhaust the (very can Society of Missiology Series no. worldview. Certainly great respect large) range of the traditions we can identify 16. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. needs to be shown to individuals who outside the most unhelpful title of ‘Hinduism,’ Conn, Harvie nor do they, for the most part, even define 1979 “Conversion and Culture: A Theo- under the current paradigm want to proper ‘religious systems.’” (1988:573-574) logical Perspective with Reference change religions and religious labels, 4. This focus on the Enlightenment’s to Korea.” In Gospel and Culture, whether into or out of Christianity, contribution to a reductionist understand- edited by John Stott and Robert T. Coote, 195–239. Pasadena, CA: but this should no longer be seen as ing of “religion” is not meant to suggest that William Carey Library. normative when the basic paradigm in there were no positive results from the En- Cornille, Catherine, ed. lightenment, even in the area of “religion,” play has been exposed as syncretistic. 2002 Many Mansions? Multiple Re- particularly religious tolerance. ligious Belonging and Christian The challenge of “religion” and of 5. For example, see Hesselgrave 2006: Identity. Faith Meets Faith Series. transcending the Enlightenment 79ff., Jennings 2006, and other studies in Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. worldview that dominates the Western Van Rheenen 2006. Dallmayr, Fred 6. world (and that increasingly influences David Bosch painted a devastating 1998 Alternative Visions: Paths in the all the world through modernization picture of Enlightenment influences on Global Village. Lanham, MD: and globalization) is a complex matter Christian missions, but did not focus on the Rowman and Littlefield. “world religions” paradigm (1991:262-345; that defies easy solution. The discipline Droogers, Andre cf. 477-483). This paper could be considered 1989 “Syncretism: The Problem of of missiology should be in the fore- a further application of Bosch’s principles to Definition, the Definition of the front of confessional Christian efforts an area not yet clearly seen when he wrote. Problem.” In Dialogue and Syncre- to grapple with these constructs. Yet 7. The power that these reified catego- tism: An Interdisciplinary Approach, it hardly seems to be on the agenda, ries manifest is a point not overlooked in edited by Jerald D. Gort, Hendrik M. Vroom, Rein Fernhout and scholarly analysis, and qualifies the “empti- as Enlightenment-speak about “world Anton Wessels, 7–25. Grand Rap- religions” and “changing religions” is ness” of the reifications. See, for an example ids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. in cross-cultural contexts, Arvind-Pal ubiquitous, suggesting that missiology Fitzgerald, Timothy Mandair’s reference to “someone for whom 2007 Discourse on Civility and Barbar- as a discipline has not yet adequately the concept of religion may not have existed engaged discussions and controversies ity: A Critical History of Religion in their language(s) prior to their accession and Related Categories. Oxford: in the field of religious studies. to the dominant symbolic order imposed by Oxford University Press. the colonizer/hegemon, but for whom this Hardy, Friedhelm May those who interact with this pa- now exists as if it had been an indigenous per embrace the three suggested steps 1988 “The Classical Religions of India.” concept all along….[necessitating] distanc- In The World’s Religions, edited by and contribute to deeper and abler de- ing oneself from the concept of religion Peter Clarke, Friedhelm Hardy, velopments towards better paradigms while fully acknowledging that the vestiges Leslie Houlden and Stewart and terminologies for the future. IJFM of ‘religion’ continue to haunt their very Sutherland, 569–659. London: existence and the possibilities of cultural Routledge. Endnotes formation” (Mandair 2009:434). Hawley, John Stratton 8. Is there sufficient representation from 2006 “Comparative Religion for 1. Larry Posten, in an appeal for the missiological field in the discipline of Undergraduates: What’s Next?” contextualization without syncretism, is religious studies? Is there even adequate in- In Comparing Religions: Possibili- more deeply implicated in syncretism by teraction with ideas generated from within ties and Perils?, edited by Thomas A. Idinopulos, Brian C. Wilson his strong emphasis on the centrality of that discipline? and James Constantine Hanges, religion. “First, we must determine to the 9. On multiple religious belonging, see 115–142. Leiden: Brill. best of our ability what are the actual religious Cornille 2002 and Tan 2010, 2012. On insider Hesselgrave, David J. practices and religious objects of a particular movements see the papers collected in Winter 2006 “Syncretism: Mission and Mis- culture that are purely religious in nature” 2007 and Travis and Talman (forthcoming). I sionary Induced?” In Contextual- (2006: 252; italics original). have a forthcoming paper (Richard) on “New ization and Syncretism: Navigat- 2. Some books and courses, in line with Paradigms for Religion, Multiple Religious ing Cultural Currents, edited by the approach of this paper, now present Belonging and Insider Movements” that Gailyn Van Rheenen, 71–98. what John Stratton Hawley calls a “guerilla further explores these matters. Evangelical Missiological Society

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 215

Series No. 13, Pasadena, CA: Mullins, Mark R. Walls, Andrew William Carey Library. 2001 “Syncretistic Movements.” In 2002 The Cross-Cultural Process in Hughes, D. A. Dictionary of Asian Christian- Christian History. Maryknoll, NY: 1988 “Syncretism.” In New Dictionary ity, edited by Scott W. Sunquist, Orbis Books. of Theology, edited by Sinclair B. 809–810. Grand Rapids, MI: 2011 “Turning Points in World Church Ferguson and David F. Wright, William B. Eerdmans. History.” Unpublished lectures, 670. Downers Grove, IL: Inter- Posten, Larry William Carey International Varsity Press. 2006 “‘You Must Not Worship in Their University, Pasadena, CA. Idinopulos, Thomas A. Way’: When Contextualization Winter, Ralph D., ed. 2002 “The Strengths and Weaknesses Becomes Syncretism.” In Contex- 2007 “The Jerusalem Council: Descrip- of Durkheim’s Methodology for tualization and Syncretism: Navi- tion or Prediction?” International the Study and Teaching of Reli- gating Cultural Currents, edited by Journal of Frontier Missiology 24(1). gion.” In Reappraising Durkheim Gailyn Van Rheenen, 243–263. World Council of Churches, the Pontifical for the Study and Teaching of Reli- Evangelical Missiological Society Council for Interreligious Dialogue, and the gion Today, edited by Thomas A. Series No. 13, Pasadena, CA: World Evangelical Alliance William Carey Library. Idinopulos and Brian C. Wilson, 2011 Christian Witness in a Multi-Re- 1–14. Leiden, Boston, Köln: Brill. Richard, H. L. ligious World: Recommendations for Imbach, S. R. 2015 “New Paradigms for Religion, Conduct. Online version sourced 1984 “Syncretism.” In Evangelical Multiple Religious Belonging and on May 26, 2012 at http://www. Dictionary of Theology, edited by Insider Movements.” Missiology, oikoumene.org/fileadmin/files/ Walter A. Elwell, 1062–1063. (forthcoming). wcc-main/2011pdfs/Christian- Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. Smith, Jonathan Z. Witness_recommendations.pdf. Jennings, Nelson 1982 Imagining Religion: From Babylon Young, Katherine K. 2006 “Suburban Evangelical Individual- to Jonestown. Chicago Studies in 1992 “World Religions: A Category in ism: Syncretism or Contextualiza- the History of Judaism. Chicago, the Making?” In Religion in His- tion?” In Contextualization and Syn- IL: University of Chicago Press. tory: the Word, the Idea, the Reality, cretism: Navigating Cultural Currents, Smith, Wilfred Cantwell. edited by Michel Despland and edited by Gailyn Van Rheenen, 1962 The Meaning and End of Religion: Gérard Vallée, 111–130. Waterloo, 159–178. Evangelical Missiological A New Approach to the Religious ON: Published for the Cana- Society Series No. 13, Pasadena, CA: Traditions of Mankind. New York: dian Corporation for Studies in William Carey Library. Macmillan. Religion/Corporation Canadienne King, Richard 1992 “Retrospective Thoughts on The des Sciences Religieuses by Wilfrid 1999 Orientalism and Religion: Post- Meaning and End of Religion.” In Laurier University Press. colonial Theory, India and “The Religion in History: The Word, the Mystic East.” New Delhi: Oxford Idea, the Reality, edited by Michel University Press. Despland and Gérard Vallée, 13–21. 2011 “Imagining Religions in India: Waterloo, ON: Published for the Colonialism and the Mapping of Canadian Corporation for Studies South Asian History and Culture.” in Religion/Corporation Cana- In Secularism and Religion- dienne des Sciences Religieuses by Making, edited by Mark Dressler Wilfrid Laurier University Press. and Arvind-Pal Mandair, 37–61. Staal, Fritz Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1989 Rules Without Meaning: Rituals, Kunin, Seth Daniel, ed. Mantras and the Human Sciences. 2006 Theories of Religion: A Reader. New York: Peter Lang. With Jonathan Miles-Watson. Tan, Kang-San New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers 2010 “Dual Belonging: A Missiological University Press. Critique and Appreciation from Mandair, Arvind-Pal S. an Asian Evangelical Perspective.” 2009 Religion and the Specter of the West: In Mission Studies 27(1), 24–38. Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality, and 2012 “The Inter-Religious Frontier: A the Politics of Translation. New ‘Christian-Buddhist’ Contribution.” York: Columbia University Press. In International Journal of Frontier Masuzawa, Tomoko Missiology 29(1), 23–32. 2005 The Invention of World Religions, Travis, John and Harley Talman or, How European Universalism Understanding Insider Movements, was Preserved in the Language of (forthcoming). Pasadena, CA: Pluralism. Chicago, IL: University William Carey Library. of Chicago Press. Van Rheenen, Gailyn, ed. Moreau, A. Scott 2006 Contextualization and Syncretism: 2000 “Syncretism.” In Evangelical Navigating Cultural Currents. Dictionary of World Missions, ed- Evangelical Missiological Society ited by A. Scott Moreau, 924–925. Series No. 13, Pasadena, CA: Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. William Carey Library.

31:4 Winter 2014 216 Book Reviews

The current volume, then, seeks to bring Fakirbhai’s unique project to an English-speaking audience, though not for the first time. An English translation was published in 1969 Reviews after Fakirbhai’s death. However, the Indian translators of that version made the curious decision to use and insert verses from the Revised Standard Version of the Bible Song of the Heart (Sri Hriday Gita), by Dhanjibhai rather than translate Fakirbhai’s own paraphrase of verses. Fakirbhai (New Dehli, India: APH Publishing House, 2014, To rectify this, the translators of the current edition pp. 189) sought to produce a translation that was more faithful to Fakirbhai’s paraphrase and that would preserve its sensitiv- —Reviewed by Darren Duerksen ity to Hindu and bhakti traditions. To aid this, the trans- lators at times use the Gujarati/Sanskrit terms with the thoroughly enjoyed English translation in parentheses. In addition, the book’s this book, though for landscape and top-bound format seeks to physically repli- aI Euro-American reader cate the way in which ancient Hindu palm-leaf manuscripts Song of the Heart can, of Hindu texts were traditionally copied and read. at first, seem somewhat Such translation choices beg the question, for whom is this strange. The book is made book intended, and what is its purpose? There are at least up entirely of passages that two audiences that may find Song of the Heart interesting echo or quote the Gospels and letters of the New Testament, and helpful. The first and main group for whom it would but they are rearranged and paraphrased in unique ways. appeal would be readers who are familiar with the Bhagavad Even the physical layout, with the binding at the top so that Gita. For example, many English-speaking Hindus, or the reader has to flip the pages upwards, signals that this is those from Hindu backgrounds, may perhaps recognize no ordinary book. One quickly wonders what exactly is this the format and resonate with the Gujarati and/or Sanskrit Song of the Heart and what is it trying to do? terms included in the text. In so doing, such readers may As the translators explain, Song of the Heart (Sri Hriday hear and understand the teachings of Jesus and his disciples Gita) is a fresh translation of a book written in the mid more easily than they would via some of the Gospels and 1950s in Gujarati. The author Dhanjibhai Fakirbhai (1895- letters of the New Testament. Those who have worked 1967) grew up in a Hindu family in Gujarat, India and, as among Hindus, or any group unfamiliar with the Bible, a young man, became a follower of Christ. Unlike many know how confusing certain parts of the Bible (particularly Christians, however, he remained attuned to Hindu culture the epistles) can be to these groups. Certainly an important and philosophy and, following his retirement, reflected part of discipleship should include learning how to read and wrote extensively on connections between Hindu and and understand the Bible. However, Song of the Heart could Christian thought and scriptures. provide Hindus a helpful bridge and an introduction to important teachings and themes of the New Testament, the Song of the Heart is one such manuscript. In it, Fakirbhai experience of which may invite them to read and seek to attempts to reinterpret the message of Jesus and his fol- understand the Bible itself. lowers using the format, style and linguistic feel of the Bhagavad Gita, or Song of the Lord. In that classic Hindu Non-Hindu background readers may also find Song of the text, the Lord Krishna engages his soon-to-be disciple Heart interesting, though Christian readers may be con- Arjuna in a series of dialogues. Each chapter focuses on fused by the way in which biblical passages are pulled from different yogas, or paths or disciplines, that progressively their original contexts and juxtaposed with passages from reveal the true nature of reality and the purpose and path other parts of the New Testament. This may particularly for humanity. It was, and is, a particularly important text be the case for those of us who are used to hermeneutical for Hindus of the later bhakti (devotional traditions). In approaches that interpret a given verse in relation to its liter- like manner, Fakirbhai arranges sayings of Jesus and his ary context. However, it was helpful for me to remember that disciples in a type of dialogue, each of which highlights a the Christian church has periodically arranged and presented different yoga or way in the life of a disciple. Chapter six, for Scriptures according to themes for the purposes of teaching example, focuses on Premyog, or the Yoga (or way) of Love, and worship, such as in catechisms and liturgies. If the Song and includes many passages from the Gospel and letters of of the Heart can be understood as a type of catechism that John, among others. In this and other chapters, Fakirbhai organizes and introduces passages of the New Testament paraphrases the biblical passages using words and language according to certain themes, readers may encounter refresh- drawn from the bhakti traditions. ing or even new understandings of Jesus’ teachings.

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he book may provide a window into the way in which a Christian in a Hindu context, particularly one influenced by Hindubhakti or T devotional traditions, might read and understand aspects of the gospel. In addition, missiologists and scholars of World Christian- hermeneutic traditions may wonder at this, but it remains ity may find Song of the Heart to be an interesting example an important area for further reflection and study. of a locally produced, vernacular theology. Viewed in this Whether as a devotional text or an example of a local, devo- way, the book may provide a window into the way in which tional theology, Song of the Heart is certainly worth reading. a Christian in a Hindu context, particularly one influenced And, perhaps most importantly, it is worth sharing with by Hindu bhakti or devotional traditions, might read and those from Hindu backgrounds who are interested in learn- understand aspects of the gospel. In the following para- ing about the way of Jesus. IJFM graphs, I will suggest some possible areas and connections that scholars could explore more fully in this regard. References One area that could be explored regards the ways in which Rosen, Steven. aspects of the Bhagavad Gita and its hermeneutic tradition 2007 Krishna’s Song: A New Look at the Bhagavad Gita. Praeger. Sherma, Rita D. may imbue Song of the Heart. For example, the Bhagavad Gita 2008 “Introduction.” In Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: To- is normally considered by Hindus to be smriti—or extensions ward a Fusion of Horizons. Edited by Rita D. Sherma and of truth arising from past Vedic scriptures that were “remem- Arvind Sharma. Springer. bered” and written down. Smriti texts like the Bhagavad Gita serve to awaken within its hearers the memory of fundamen- tal truths (Rosen, xi). In a similar sense, while not claiming to be scripture itself (since it is a paraphrase), Song of the Heart nonetheless seeks to highlight for its Hindu hearers aspects of God’s intent and teaching that they had heard, or only partly heard, but not fully understood. Just as the Bhagavad Gita sought to draw together and represent strands of thought from the Vedas, so Song of the Heart seeks to draw together and represent strands of thought from the New Testament in ways that address the questions and devotional sensitivities of modern Hindus. Another area for exploration is the ways in which Song of the Heart, similar to Hindu texts, seeks to not only convey meaning, but also more importantly, to help readers experi- ence truth. Whereas much Western biblical hermeneutics focus on the meaning of a text, Hindu hermeneutics has traditionally sought to evaluate the experience a text like the Bhagavad Gita creates. As R.D. Sherma has pointed out in her discussion of the Bhagavad Gita, most Hindu herme- neutical schools of interpretation prioritized the importance of “practical” methodologies, evaluating a text and its theory based on its capacity to give rise to a practical experience (Sherma, 10). In other words, scriptures such as the Gita were authoritative insofar as their teaching evoked experi- ence, including bhakti devotion. Could it be that Song of the Heart, reflecting this sensitivity, prioritizes this herme- neutic and seeks to help people experience a love for God? It would certainly explain why Fakirbhai felt the freedom to paraphrase and re-arrange biblical texts. His desire was perhaps to help Hindus experience the gospel, hoping that they would subsequently turn to the Bible for fuller under- standing. Again, those of us schooled in Western biblical

31:4 Winter 2014 218 In Others’ Words The Middle East is Not Just Muslim In Others’ Words Dr. Rowan Williams, former Archbishop of Canterbury, has written a short background article for the BBC on “How Christianity’s Eastern History Has Been Forgotten.” It Editor’s note: In this department, we highlight resources outside recounts many centuries when religious minorities peacefully of the IJFM: other journals, print resources, DVDs, web sites, co-existed but also mentions historic devastations such as blogs, videos, etc. Standard disclaimers on content apply. Due to those perpetrated by Tamerlane, which “hideously foreshadow” the length of many web addresses, we sometimes give just the title the ISIS attacks. A February 27, 2015 New York Times article of the resource, the main web address, or a suggested search phrase. entitled “ISIS Onslaught Engulfs Assyrian Christians” details Finally, please note that this October–December 2014 issue is how more than 350 Assyrian Christians have been abducted, partly composed of material created early in 2015. We apologize over 30 of their villages decimated, and priceless Assyrian mu- in advance for any inconvenience caused by such anachronisms. seum artifacts in Mosul systematically destroyed. To top it off, ISIS began bulldozing the UNESCO World Heritage site of Different Views of the Prophet Muhammad Nimrud (NYT, March 5, 2015). For links to recent scholarly In the wake of the Charlie Hebdo killings in Paris, ostensibly presentations about religious minorities in the Middle East, provoked by a satirical cartoon of the Prophet Muhammad, check out www.Middle-East-Minorities.com/videos.html. many scholars and journalists have taken a long, hard look at historic representations of the Prophet in media. The New Prophetological Worldviews Make the Front Page Republic, in an article entitled “What Gandhi Understood Into the dispute of whether radical jihadist movements are About Inflammatory Depictions of the Prophet Muham- truly Islamic comes a lengthy and hotly contested article mad,” led off with a recounting of the assassination in India published online in The Atlantic called “What ISIS Really of a Hindu publisher in 1929 following the distribution of a Wants.” The cover story for the March 2015 print edition, this derogatory pamphlet called “The Colorful Prophet.” Mean- article has drawn reactions from all over the world, including while, in her meticulously researched Newsweek article, “The some disturbingly approving tweets from ISIS supporters. For Koran Does Not Forbid Images of the Prophet, ” University Graeme Wood’s comments on them, see “What ISIS Really of Michigan art historian Christiane Gruber took issue with Wants: The Response.” Two days later, The Atlantic published this commonly-held notion. the first Muslim pushback in which the author, Caner K. Dagli, claimed ISIS was just cherry-picking Qur’anic texts with The Connection Between Islam and Violence which it agreed and ignoring those with which it disagreed. In late February 2015, the Muslim World League sponsored a three-day conference in Mecca on Terrorism and Counter- Middle Eastern Missiologists Respond to Atlantic Article Terrorism. One of the main speakers was Sheikh Ahmed What are Middle Eastern missiologists saying about these al-Tayeb, the Grand Imam of Sunni Islam’s most respected prophetological worldviews? Martin Accad responds to The Islamic university, the al-Azhar in Cairo. The Atlantic in “An Atlantic article in a blog called “Beating Back ISIS,” while Anti-ISIS Summit in Mecca” quoted him as saying that after Nabeel Jabbour blogs on the same article, giving ten credible discounting poverty, social marginalization, and incarceration reasons why young Muslims all over the world are joining as the primary causes of radicalization, “the most prominent the Islamic State. The last sentence of Jabbour’s piece links source of radicalization among Muslims is the historical ac- to a newsletter by Ramez Attalah, director of the Bible Soci- cumulations of extremism and militancy in our heritage.” ety of Egypt, which was written after twenty-one Eygptian Coptic Christian young men were beheaded in Libya. John Azumah, an associate professor of World Christianity and Islam at Columbia Theological Seminary, has written The Witness of the Egyptian Martyrs a brilliant piece for First Things on the connection between No sooner had ISIS released its video of the beheadings by Islam and violence. Entitled “Challenging Radical Islam,” the sea than the Bible Society of Egypt set out to produce his cogent analysis of the four main schools of Islamic a tract for Egyptians that would counteract the message jurisprudence is significant to an understanding of the roots of terror. In the first week alone, a record-breaking 1.65 of Islamic extremism. He asks, “How is it that groups so million copies of “Two Rows by the Sea” were distributed widely condemned as heretical by Islamic authorities receive to Muslims and Christians alike. Jayson Casper, in his so much tacit support from the mainstream Muslim world?” Christianity Today article entitled “How Libya’s Martyrs are He then turns to evangelicals and claims that we have Witnessing to Egypt,” writes that this tract contributed to the invisibility of Christian presence and witness contains biblical quotations about the promise of blessing amid suf- in Muslim lands [by not] . . . openly challenging the criminaliza- fering, alongside a poignant poem in colloquial Arabic [which ends tion of Christian missions and evangelism in Muslim contexts . . . with]: Who fears the other? The row in orange, watching paradise Powerful questions that deserve thoughtful answers. open? Or the row in black, with minds evil and broken? IJFM International Journal of FrontierZ Missiology IJFM & Perspectives 219

Related Perspectives Lesson and Section Whether you’re a Perspectives& instructor, student, or coordinator, you can continue to explore issues raised in the course reader and study guide in greater depth inIJFM . For ease of reference, each IJFM article in the table below is tied thematically to one or more of the 15 Perspectives lessons, divided into four sections: Biblical (B), Historical (H), Cultural (C) and Strategic (S). Disclaimer: The table below shows where the content of a given article might fit; it does not imply endorsement of a particular article by the editors of the Perspectives materials. For sake of space, the table only includes lessons related to the articles in a givenIJFM issue. To learn more about the Perspectives course, including a list of classes, visit www.perspectives.org.

Articles in IJFM 31:4 Lesson 6: The Expansion of the World Christian Movement (H) Lesson 9: The Task Remaining (H) Lesson 10: How Shall They Hear? (C) Lesson Pioneer Church Planting (S) 14:

Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets? Harley Talman (pp. 169–90) X X

Towards A Theology of Islam: A Response to Harley Talman X X Martin Accad (pp. 191–3) From Prophethood to the Gospel: Talking to Folk Muslims about Jesus X X Perry Pennington (pp. 195–203) Middle East Consultation 2014: The Challenges of Following Jesus in the Middle East X X and North Africa (pp. 204–8) Religious Syncretism as a Syncretistic Concept: The Inadequacy of the “World Religions” X X X Paradigm in Cross-Cultural Encounter H. L. Richard (pp. 209–15)

Book review of Song of the Heart Darren Duerksen (pp. 216–17) X X X

31:4 Winter 2014 MIDDLE EASTCONSULTATION2015 Discipleship Today: Identity and Belonging in the Middle East & North Africa

The Institute of Middle East Studies at the Arab Baptist Theological Seminary, Beirut, Lebanon, will again be hosting its annual Middle East Consultation. MEC 2015 will focus on specific challenges related to “identity” and “belonging” that face followers of Jesus within the MENA context. These challenges are particularly important given the diverse socio-religious and cultural backgrounds of Christ-followers in the region and of the leaders who disciple them. We live in a world where belonging to multiple social and cultural traditions is the reality for many. Identity is a complex and multi-dimensional aspect of human life, formed in part as a response to a variety of dynamic social, cultural, historical, political, religious and spiritual experiences and commitments within today’s interconnected world. MEC 2015 will consist of listening to and reflecting on personal testimonies from those who live in the midst of specific challenges pertaining to identity and belonging. Conversations with diverse global missiological thinkers and practitioners, as well as round-table discussion groups will provide a unique context for reflection on the practice of discipleship in the MENA region. This hermeneutical dynamic (or process of accountable theological reflection) provides a framework for mutual enrichment within the worldwide Body of Christ, one that we are convinced will impact the future of Christ-centered witness in and beyond the MENA region. To apply for MEC 2015, please visit imeslebanon.wordpress.com | www.abtslebanon.org/mec2015

Have you considered a Master’s - MRel - degree to help you become more Master of Religion effective for God’s Kingdom in in Middle Eastern the MENA region and North African Studies The MRel is a unique and innovative multidisciplinary? program designed for individuals who want to be involved in addressing the real issues facing Middle Easterners in and beyond the Middle East and North Africa. Administered primarily online with two two-week residencies per year in Lebanon, this postgraduate degree focuses on providing a strong theoretical understanding of the region and the issues that it faces, combined with an emphasis on developing applied skills needed to work in the region and among MENA communities worldwide. It is based upon a strong theological and Biblical framework in that each module will weave scripture and theology into its theory and practice. The MRel aims at opening new doors for students with relief and development agencies that address poverty and humanitarian crisis, with church and mission organizations seeking to engage with Islam and historic Christianity, as well as with advocacy and peace-building organizations. These opportunities may be based in the MENA region or elsewhere. For more information or to apply, please contact:

[email protected] www.abtslebanon.org/mrel | IMESLebanon.wordpress.com/mrel