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An edition and analysis of Kitab Qira'at Abi 'Amr by Al-Nakzawi.

El-Magboul, Abbas Mustafa

How to cite: El-Magboul, Abbas Mustafa (1991) An edition and analysis of Kitab Qira'at Abi 'Amr by Al-Nakzawi., Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1187/

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AN EDITION AND ANALYSIS OF

KITAB QIRÄ'AT ABI `AMR

BY AL-NAKZAWI

(THE BOOK OF THE QUR'ÄN READING OF ABU `AMR IBN AL-`ALÄ' AL-BASRI BY IMAM ABU MUHAMMAD 'ABDALLAH IBN MUHHAMMAD AL-NAKZÄWI)

Abbas Mustafa El-Magboul

A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies

The University of Durham September 1991

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Abbas Mustafa El-Magboul: AN EDITION AND ANALYSIS OF

KITAB QIRA'AT AB1 `AMR BY AL-NAKZAWI (THEBOOK OF ME QUR'ÄN READING OF ABU 'AMR IBN AL-'ALBA' AL-BASRI BY IMAM ABU MUHAMMAD 'ABDALLAH IBN MUHAMMAD AL-NAKZAWn. A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of,, Durham in September 1991.

The subject of this thesis is the preservation of a particular method of reading the Qur'än (girä'a or "Reading"), the Reading of Abd Àmr ibn al-À1ä' of Basra or girä'at Abi Àmr al-Basri, which dates from the first Muslim century. There are no published works in any language which deal comprehensively with this Reading. Considering that from at least the eighth century of the Christian era through the nineteenth, this Reading was the dominant method of reading the Qur'an throughout the central Muslim lands, this is a great lack, and the thesis aims to help rectify this situation. The core of the thesis is a technical treatise about this particular girä a, written by the Imam Abü Muhammad Àbdallah ibn Muhammad al-Nakzäwi in the seventh Muslim century. As the title indicates, the thesis provides a critical edition of the text of the treatise, and a broad analysis of its transmission. The preservation, or transmission, of the Reading has three main aspects. First, its preservation in physical book form, primarily this particular treatise. Second, the preservation of its sounds, i. e. a record of the main characteristics of the Reading. Third the method whereby, in Sudan at least, the Reading is passeddown. These aspectsare dealt with in turn in the three sections of the thesis. An audio tape is attachedas an appendix. fi"Ayt J-1 LOUt4 tj,. WU 4-IAv4kß LA yL5 4.;,.s.o 1r; JSJ+ -l 4JI . . j ýýUJI

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I would like to offer my thanks and appreciation to eminent men whose assistance played a significant role in completing this study. In particular, I would like to give my special thanks to Professor Adrian Brockett, Chairman of the Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, Professor of Arab and Islamic Studies in Durham University, and the supervisor of this study; in whom I have found deep thoughts, variety of knowledge, skilfull methods of research coupled with humbleness, kindness and patience. He gave me a lot of his time and efforts. From his opinions, discussions and directions I drew great benefit.

Also, I offer my sincere and heartfelt thanks to my dear friend Dr. Ahmad Tutunji, who works alone yet achieves more than organisations with hundreds of workers. He has offered me much financial and spiritual support enabling me to continue my study.

My thanks go to my respected friend Shaykh A1-Tayyib Ibn al- Jadd Badr for the valuable information he supplied, and also to Dr. Muhammad Hasan a1-Turäbi who introduced me to Professor Brockett and helped me through difficulties. I also extend sincere thanks to Dr. `Ali `Abdullah, Dr. Zia` M. Islim, and to Durham University.

Finally, I thank the youth at `Umar House, Leeds, management, members and visitors, for their respect and appreciation, which helped me to settle comfortably and to carry out my duties and to finish. my study. To these men and to everyone who helped me I offer my warm thanks. Table of Contents

page Terms and conventions 1 Introduction 2

§1 Written transmission

1.1. The for the study 5 . need 1.2 The reasonsfor selecting the manuscript 8

1.3 The description of the manuscript 12 1.4. The contentsof the manuscript 13 1.5. The transmission 16

1.6. The Meccan and Medinan suras

-- and the numbering of the verses 33 §2 Oral transmission

2.1. The distinguishing characteristics of girä'at Abi `Amr 37

2.2 The audio tape (appendix) §3 Institutional transmission

3.1. The khalwa 47

1.7. The edition of the manuscript' 1 Endnotes 158

Bibliography 229 TERMS AND CONVENTIONS

Glossary of main technical terms

al-idghäm al-kabir major assimilation, eg. gärrajul for gäla rajul al-idgham al-sagh r minor assimilation, eg. mirrabbikum formin rabbikum al-imäla al-kubra major inclination, eg. al-nays foral-näs al-imäla al-sugra minor inclination, eg. al-dunye foral-dunyd farsh individual cases (as opposedto al-usül) al-hurüf - 'isnäd chain of transmission khalwa, p1. khaläwi residential Sudanese Qur'an school gäri', p1. qurra' Reader/s girä'a, p1. gira'at Reading/s or reading/s' riwäya transmission räwi, pl. ruwät transmitter tiläwa transmission of the Qur'an sound al-usül general principles (as opposedto farsh)

Transliteration scheme

The scheme is that used by the Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd. edition, with the following differences.

" alif-läm is always al- "j stands for j; m " th, kh, dh, sh, gh for thä', kh if, dhäl, shin and ghayn are not underlined or overlined "q stands for qäf

Dates are A. H. unless specified A. D. If cited as 8th./14th. = A. H./A. D.

'A capital R signifies the whole method,a small r an individualword or phrase.

ýýý ý ý--ý ýý> ý ýýý INTRODUCTION

The subject of this thesis is the preservation of a particular method of reading the Qur'in (gira'a or "Reading"), the Reading of Abü

`Amr ibn al-`A1ä' of Basra or gira'ät Abi 'Amr al-Basri, which dates from the first Muslim century.

There are no published works in any language devoted to this

Reading. Considering that from at least the eighth century of the

Christian era through the nineteenth,this Reading was the dominant

ethod -of -reading-the-Qur'an-throughout the central Muslim lands, this is a great lack, and the thesis aims to help rectify this situation.

The core of the thesis is a technical treatise about this particular qir fa, written by the Imam Abü Muhammad `Abdallah ibn

Muhammad al-Nakzäwi in the seventh Muslim century

(henceforward called simply al-Nakzäwi). As the title indicates, the thesis provides a critical edition of the text of the treatise, and a broad analysis of its transmission. For convenience, the edition comes last.

2 The preservation, or transmission, of the Reading has three main aspects.

- First, its preservation in physical book form, primarily this particular treatise.

- Second, the preservation of its sounds, i. e. a record of the main characteristicsof the Reading.

- Third the method whereby, in Sudan at least, the Reading is passeddown.

These aspects are dealt with in turn in the three sections of this thesis: §1 Written transmission

2-Oral transmission

§3 Institutional transmission

Under §1 come:

1.1. The needfor the study

1.2 The reasonsfor selecting the manuscript

1.3 The description of the manuscript

1.4. The contentsof the manuscript 1.5. The transmitters.

1.6. The Meccan and Medinan sums

3 and the numbering of the verses. 1.7. The edition of the manuscript (placed after §3)

Under §2 come:

2.1. The distinguishing characteristicsof girä'at Abiý'Amr.

2.2 The audio tape (appendix)

Under §3 comes: 3.1. The khalwa.

4 §1. WRITTEN TRANSMISSION

§1.1. The need for this study

Since at least the second century A. H. it was a tradition that compilers of Books of Readings included a large number of

Readings in their works. Some authors wrote books on the seven

Readings and some wrote on the ten, and others increased this by including irregularities This shawädhdh . applies to the author of Al-Sab' fir al-girä'ät, Abu Bakr Ibn Mujähid, to Abü `Amr a1-Däni, to Al-Shätibi, to Makki ibn Abi Talib and likewise to our author al-Nakzäwi. Ibn al-Jazari mentioned that he wrote a comprehensive book on Readings. 1 Most scholars like these produced comprehensive compilations of Readings. But in order to make it easy for non-specialists some scholars of Readings singled out some Readings and compiled independent books for every Reader with an outline of the principles followed in his

Reading. Among those who wrote such independent books on

Readings is a1-Nakzäwi, who wrote one on the Reading of Abb

`Amr Ibn al-`A1ä' al-Basri.

There are three Readings current in the Muslim world, those of

I Ghaya, vol. 1 p. 452. 5 `Asim as transmitted through Hafs, of Näfi` as transmitted through

Warsh and Qilnn, and of Abi `Amr as transmitted through Abü

`Umar al-Din. The first two are widespread in the Muslim world2 and have been printed and recorded on audio tape, but very little work has been done in the West on the Reading of Abü `Amr. 3

Apart from small areas in Mauritania, Somalia and Ethiopia, this

Reading is now confined to the Sudan, where I memorised the

Qur'än according to this Reading from childhood. There is therefore a great need to fill this gap in knowledge, and I am well placed to fill it. Furthermore, much of, the knowledge is disappearing in the, Sudan itself, and should be recorded before it is too late.

The Reading of Abü `Amr al-Bash is no longer known on the level of thousands of people because their Qur'än is still written by hand and the handwritten Qur'än is more costly and difficult to obtain. As a result most Qur'an Readers of the Reading of Abü

`Amr through al-DBr now possess printed Qur'än copies of the

Reading of `Asim through Hafs. This has led to the conflation of

the two Readings. Furthermore, the knowledge of Readings is an

oral skill. It is a knowledge that depends on direct hearing from

Shaykhs, through words and voice of definite distinction that can

only be heard from special scholars who have trained their

2A special study of them is to be found in Brockest, Two transmissions, and "The value of the Hafs and Warsh transmissions". 3 Since Jeffery's brief mention (p. 6 n. 6), the only studies that have gone into any depth are Neuwirth and Brockett "Aspects". 6 tongues to be exact in this science. This science has been badly neglected because most scholars avoid the science of Readings, because it cannot contain language or sound mistakes. It is not an exaggeration to say that 90% of graduates in Islamic 'Studies, not to speak of the others, cannot properly read short chapters from the Qur'an. The learned Shaykh Yiisuf Ibrähim al-Nür (one of the first graduates of al-Ma'had al-`Ilmi in Omdurman) expressed his sorrow over the negligence of this knowledge after it had been famous in the Sudan as it used to be in the Hijaz 4 He pointed out how conditions have deteriorated since the last century and

Qur'änic science in the Sudan has become a thing of the past, and

how there is no one now in the Arabian Peninsula who has a

thorough understanding of the Qur'än except for a few individuals

who met Al-Sharif Muhammad al-Amin, the last famous Qur'än

Reader in the Arabian Peninsula. Yiisuf Ibrähim al-Nür criticised

the al-Ma'had al-'IlmT in Omdurman which has neglected this

knowledge completely. It is not within its syllabus. Within its

three certificates, primary, secondary and University, there is no

mention of Qur'änic science; and no study circle to deal with this

knowledge such that with the death of scholars like Al-Shaykh al-

Nadhir Khälid, Al-Shaykh Muhammad al-Amin al-Darir it has

disintegrated, - and the Institute has not redressed this

shortcoming.

4 "Safha min tä'rikh al-Südän al-gadim". 7 Yüsuf Ibrahim al-Nür complained about the negligence of the scholars towards Qur'änic sciences, but the complaint now is that today's scholars have neglected and become ignorant even of the

Qur än text itself. So a student of the Reading of Abu `Amr must be attentive firstly to restoring sound foundations for it. This can be assisted by publishing an authentic book which lays down the principles, and at the same time observes the different stages of recitation that will earn the scholar his objective. Beginners rwill also clearly benefit. The student of Readings will find it easy to view every reading independently instead of taking it from a book that discusses various Readings.

There is clearly therefore a need for such a book, but why did our choice -fäll ön-the -b6bk of the Reading of Abü `Amr by al-Nakzäwi rather than another manuscript of this Reading?

§1.2. Reasons for choosing the manuscript.

I- The author is famed as a scholar with sound knowledge in

Qur'anic Sciences. He wrote other books that have been praised by other prominent scholars.

8 2- The period in which the book was compiled was one in which the Qur'änic Sciences increased in quantity and quality.

The author was a student of Abu Qäsim al-Shätibi, like Al-

Sakhäwi, Al-Kamäl al-Darir and Al-Safräwi.

3- The book is neatly structured and clearly written.

4- It contains all that the student may need regarding the principles of Reading. It summarizes without a loss in meaning.

5- The book is of a moderate size which makes for a handy reference for scholars.

6-I have consulted many other works on the Reading of Abu-

`Amr, by -going through indices of manuscripts or reading microfilms on travels I_ have undertaken for this purpose. I read through a manuscript in al-Zahiriyah Library in Damascus under the heading Qira'ai, for instance. I found that it contained discussions about the Readings generally rather than specifically

the Reading of Al-Basri. Another manuscript I consulted in Dar

al-Kutub al-Misriyya called Al-Qutr al-Misri was discovered to be

of far later compilation than Al-Nakzawi's book, as it was written

in the ninth century A. D. A third, anonymous, manuscript I

consulted the Reading AH `Amr Ibn in was of , al-`Alä' al-Basri a

9 photographed version from the Islamic University of Imam

Muhammad Ibn Sa`üd, in Riyadh, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. A fourth was a manuscript entitled `Alam al-Nusrah in Ribat, but the author `Abd al-Rahmän ibn ab-1 al-Qäsim commented principally on the language structure while neglecting other topics. A fifth manuscript I studied was obtained from Italy, but it omitted the transmission of al-Süsi, the second transmitter of the Reading of

Abi `Amr al-Bash A sixth manuscript I consulted was entitled

Jamal al-Qurrä' by al-Sakhäwi, and there were others. All these manuscripts were found unsuitable either because of the quality or because of the lack of knowledge of the author, or, because they did not embrace the subject completely. They were however beneficial as references.

7- There is an excellent copy of al-Nakzäwi's book in the

Library of Faydallah -attached to the Library of Millat in Istanbul in Turkey under Number 213.

8 - It has the stamp of Al-Janäb al-`Ali, indicating the attention of the Sultan.

9- The Arab World League paid attention to it in the

Introduction to the Institute of Reviving Manuscripts in

22/2/1949.1 met the Director of this Institute in Cairo; he told..

10 me that the Institute does not copy or sell a manuscript unless it

has educational value, and its correctness has been confirmed by

the expertise of the Institute.

10 - The book was used extensively by Dr. `Abd al-Sabür Shähin,

a famous teacher of Arabic and Islamic Studies at the College of

Dar al-'Ulum in Cairo University in his book The Effect of

Readings in Sounds and Arabic Grammar. This is significant

testimony from a prominent scholar in this field.

11 -I compared the content of a1-Nakzäwi's work with

manuscripts and their references to various topics. For example I

compared makhärij al-hurüf and al-'idghäm al-kabir in the

manuscript with what is mentioned in Kitab al-idgham al-kablir of

Al-Däni in Kitab Sibawayh did -the . -(in -manuscript) and - .I the same with other chapters like those on the 'isnäd, their histories,

'imälä, waqf, the Meccan and Medinan verses, hamza with sukün,

etc. I seldom found poor or irregular information in the

manuscript of al-Nakzawi, with the exception of certain errors

which have been pointed out in the edition. These are copyist's

spelling mistakes due to lack of revision or copyists' ignorance of

the Reading of Abü `Amr.

12. The accuracy of this work by al-Nakzäwi has continually

11 proved itself during the study of it. Its information tallies entirely with the Reading I was taught as a child (and continue to use daily) and which has passed down from teacher to student, not just from the time of a1-Nakzäwi to today, but from the time

of Abü `Amr to Al-Nakzawi. It can be said for certain that the contents of this manuscript are a faithful and near perfect account

of the Reading of Abü `Amr ibn al-`A1ä' al-Basri.

§1.3 Description of the manuscript.

The manuscript is a work in the science of Qur'änic Readings. Its

title is "The Reading (girä'a ) according to abü `Amr ibn al-`A1ä' al-

Basri reported by abu `Umar Hafs al-Düri and abu Shu'ayb Salih

al-Süsi". The author is Imam abii Muhammad `Abdullah ibn

., r --Muhammad Ibn -`Abdullah al-Nakzawi al-Iskandari, born 614 and died 683 (1217-1284 A. D. )

The manuscript was therefore written between about 640 and

680, i. e. in the second half of the 13 th. century A. D., probably in

Egypt. There is a frontispiece in Mamluk style. It is written on

paper in a fine 'Naskh' hand dating from the 8th. /14th. century,

with the opening page in illuminated letters. There are no glosses

or marginalia. The original manuscript is kept in Fayd Allah's

Library in Turkey under reference number 213/1/79. A

12 photocopy of the manuscript is kept in the Institute of

Manuscripts of the Arab League at Cairo and it has 80 leaves, size

18x27cm.

§1.4 Contents of the manuscript

(i) The Introduction.

(ii) Transmission from the Prophet of both the types: tiläwa

and riwaya.

(iii) Transmission of the riwaya of al-Düri.

(iv) Transmission of the riwaya of al-Sysi.

(v) Phonetics.

(vi) Al-idghäm al-kabir.

(vii) Madda.

(viii) Vowelless hamza.

(ix) Conjunction of two hamzas.

(x) Al-ldghäm al-saghir.

(xi) Dhal as in "idh".

(xii) Tä' of the feminine.

(xiii) Dal as in " qad".

(xiv) Hal and bal.

(xv) Vowelless nun and tanwin.

13 (xvi) Vowelled to vowelless. (xvii) Al imäla.

(xviii) Alimala al-saghira.

(xix) Weakening and strengthening of sounds.

(xx) Pause at the end of words.

(xxi) Pause at the end of words as written. (xxii) Possessive ya' . (xxiii) Apocopated ya' .

The above topics are detailed in the first part of the manuscript individually and explained in separate chapters. The author then enters the chapters of the Qur'an (starting from Sürat al-Fätiha

(1), ending with Surat al-Nas (114)) and discusses all the places of the difference of opinion of Readers in order to explain the girä'a

f-Ab i- Amr-without-mentioning the names of the other Readers who differed with him. This is done, as the author explained in the introduction of the manuscript, for the sake of brevity.

The method of presentation of the author is to start by mentioning the name of the süra then to explain whether it is Makkan or

Medinan and state the number of its verses then to point to the

Qur'anic words as read by al-Basri. At the end of the sura ya'ät indication is made to al-idäfa (1st person possessive suffixes) whether Abü `Amr read them with fatha or with sukün,

14 or committed them or omitted' them (deleted them in his girä'a), or differentiated between waqf and wasl. This discussion always 'idgham comes to an end with the mention of occurring in the sura whether al-idgham al-kabir or al-idgham al-saghir.

The above methodology was followed by all the Readers. One point of difference is the presentation of al-idghäm al-kabir, which is especially attributed to Abü Àmr ibn al-À1ä' al-Basrf among the ten prominent Readers. Others did not mention it. "As for the ruwit (of al-idgham al-kabir), the fam ous one, from among the ten Readers and the one to whom it is attributed, and the one who specialized in it, is Abü Àmr ibn al-Àlä'. However he is not alone in that, for al-idghäm al-kabir was also reported from al-

r Hasan al-Basri, ibn Muhaysin and al-A`mash etc. "s

Ibn al-Jazari then explained that the scholars of gira'a have different ways of reporting al-idghäm al-kabir. Some scholars omitted it altogether, like Abi `Ubayd in his Kitäb, and ibn

Mujähid in his Saba, and Makki in his Tabsira. He also explained that some of the scholars (mostly Iraqis) have provided its one interpretaion reporting it from Abü `Amr by 'isnäd. Some of the scholars, like Abi Ma'shar al-Tabari in his Talkhis, and Safräwi in 7'län, his' attributed it to al-Duri and al-Süsi and some, like the

Ibn a]-Jazari, al-Nashr, vol. 1 p.275. 15 author of al-Taysir and his Shaykh Abu al-Hasan Tahir ibn

Ghalbün and al-Shätibi etc. attributed it to al-Süsi only. While some other scholars, as like the author of al-Tajrid, and Maliki in his al-Rawda did not attribute it to al-Süsi or a1-Duri, but to the followers of al-Yazidi, and to the followers of Shuja' via Abn `Amr.

These different attributions were of course made after considering the riwäya and sanad for each of them. The present Sudan as well as the ancient Sudan however never recited with al-idghäm al- kabir. In this decision they are influenced by al-Taysir and al-

Shajibiyya. Also because the Sudanese riwaya of the girä'a of

Abü `Amr is the riwäya of al-Düri and not of al-Susi.

§1.5 The names of the transmitters

Al-Nakzäwi mentions the names of forty-seven persons in his isnäd. chapter on the All these names have been examined in the light of the information provided in the most reliable biographical works, notably Ghayat al-Nihäya by Ibn al-Jazari, and are set out in what follows. Preceding that, as a supplement to Al-Nakzäwi's chapter, brief biographical notes regarding Abü `Amr al-Basri, Al-

Yazidi, Al-Dori, Al-Süsi and Al-Nakzäwi are provided. This is because they are the most important figures in the transmission under -investigation, and need to be highlighted. The notes are

16 brief because they are fully documented in print elsewhere.

ABU `AMR IBN AL-`ALA

Abü Àmr Zabbän ibn al-À1ä ibn Àmmär ibn al-Ùryin al-

Tamimi a1-Mäzini al-Basri was one of the "seven Readers"7 of the

Qur'in. He was probably born in Mecca in a 68, but there is a

controversy over the precise date of his birth. He studied the way

of reciting the Qur'än in Mecca, Madina, al-Kufa and al-Basra. His

teachers were 'Anas ibn Malik, Al-Hasan al-Basri, Said ibn

Jubayr, `Asim ibn Abi al-Nujud, `Abdullah ibn Kathir al-Makki, 'Ikrima and Mujahid ibn Jabr. His students were Yahya ibn al- Mubarak Yunus ibn Habib Sibawayh al-Yazidi, and .

Abu' the his in __Amr was most outstanding scholar of time the

sciences of the Qur'än and Arabic language. Al-Asma`i8 said that

Abü `Amr told him, "I have learned a lot of things with regard to

the Qur'änic sciences that Al-A`mash would never have been able

to carry if I wrote them on paper. "9 A1-Asma`i added that he

knew of no man who surpassed Abü `Amr in knowledge.

6 E12 s.v. 7 Jeffery; Gilliot. 8 The famous grammarian. E12 s.v. 9 A1-A`mash was one of the fourteen Readers. (E12 s.v. ) 17 According to Al-Akhfash, 10 the great Al-Hasan al-Basri passed by

Abu `Amr's halaqa (teaching circle) where a lot of people were listening to him, and said: "There is no God but Allah - scholars have almost become gods ('arbab) and all glory unsupported by knowledge will vanish. "11 He died between 154 and 158.

AL-YAZIDI

-Imam Al Abu Muhammad Yahya ibn al-Mubärak ibn al-Mughira Adawi al I al-Basri, commonly known as Al-Yazidi. He was one of the "fourteen Readers" 12 of the Qur'an. He learned the rules of

Qur'anic Readings under the supervision of Abu `Amr al-Basri and Abu subsequently became his caliph, i. e. he deputised for him. Abu `Umar al-Duri and Abu Shu'ayb al-Süsi (the transmitters of

`Amr's Reading) were among Al-Yazidi's students.

Ibn Mujahid13 said, "We (meaning himself along with others) rely on Al-Yazidi's transmission, since he devoted himself solely to followers. Abu `Amr's Reading and was the closest of Abu `Amy's

A1-Dhahabi14 said that Al-Yazidi was a reliable and eloquent

10 The famous grammarian. 11 Ibn al-Jazari, Ghaya vol ii p. 288f. 12 the "ten". i. e. in the third rank of Readers, after the "seven" and 13 Ibn al-Jazari, Ghaya vol ii p. 370. 14 ibid. 18 -ý°ý scholar who possessed enormous information about the Arabic language. It has been said that Al-YazTdi wrote ten thousand papers about Abu `Amr's work. A number of Al-Yazidi's works have been recorded15 of which are: Kitab al-Nawädir, Kitab al-

Magsur, Kitab al-Mushkil and a book on Arabic grammar. In addition Al-Yazidi composed good quality poems. He died in a 202.

AL-DURI

Abu Ùmar Hafs ibn Ùmar ibn Àbd al-Àziz ibn Sahban al-Duri a1-Azdi al-Baghdädi al-Nahwi was the chief of the readers of the

Qur'an of his time. He was a reliable and trustworthy reciter, and he was the first person who wrote a book on the Readings. Al-

Dur, the place after which he was named, was located on the eastern side of Baghdad. He studied and taught in Baghdad. Al-

Duri was the student of Al-Yazidi, Ismail ibn Ja'far, Salim al-Kisai and Abu Bakr ibn `Asim. Among his students were: Ahmad ibn

Farah al-Mufassir, `Abd al-Rahman ibn `Abdus. ' It is also known that Ahmad ibn Hanbal narrated information about Al-Düri. He died in 24616

15 Ibn al-Jazari, Ghaya vol ii p. 370. '" Ibn al-Jazari, Ghaya vol i p.255; al-Baghdadi vol. 8, p.203. 19 AL-SUSI

Abu Shu'ayb Sä1ih ibn Ziyäd ibn `Abdallah ibn Ismä`il al-Rasti

al-Susi al-Raqqi was a reliable and precise reader of the Qur'an,

and the second of Abu `Amy's narrators. He was one of the closest

companions to Al-Yazidi who taught him the rules of the Qur'an.

He studied and taught in Baghdad. His son Abü al-Masnm

Muhammad and Musa ibn Jarir were some of his students. He

died in 261."

AL-NAKZAWI

Abu Muhammad `Abdallah ibn Muhammad ibn `Abdallah ibn

`Umar ibn Abi Zayd al-Qädi Win al-Din al-Nakzäwi al-Madani al-

' Iskandari al-Ansari. 18 He was born in Alexandria in a 614/ 1217

and died there in a 683/1284. He was taught in Egypt by the

following teachers: `Ali al-Safriwi, Abü al-'Abbas al-Marjäni, Abn

`Ali al-Qabisi, Al-Kamäl al-Darir and Ibn al-Hajib. He was also

taught in Damascus under the supervision of 'Ali al-Sakhawi. The

most outstanding of Al-Nakzäwi's students were `Ali ibn `Abd al-

Rahman al-Qurashi al-Maliki al-Iskandari (d. a 730) and Ahmad

ibn 'Ali, well known as Al-Safi al-Harazi (d. a 730).

" Ibn al-Jazari, Ghaya vol ii p. 331. 18 Ibn al-Jazari, Ghaya vol i p.411; Brockelmann,SI 729 §17. 20 His works: Al-Shämil fi~al-girä'ät al-sab' exists in manuscript, 19 but is not yet located. Al-'igtidä' fir ma'rifat al-wagf wa al-'ibtidä'

I consulted in the library of Al-Azhar in Cairo. Another copy is available in the University of Al-Zaytüna in Tünis. 20 It is being edited by two men in Cairo. In addition to these A1-Nakzäwi wrote Kitab Qira'at Abi 'Amr, which is the subject of this study.

Having mentioned A1-Nakzäwi's biography Al-Dhahabi said that

Al-Nakzäwi wrote a book about the Readings of the Qur'än. 21 He added that he was a leading teacher who taught many people the way of reading the Qur'än. Ibn al-Jazari said that Al-Nakzäwi was a knowledgeable, leading and perfect reciter who composed A l-

Shämil fial-Qirä'at al-Sab'. 22 Al-Si 'üti acknowledges that he has made use of Al-Nakzäwi's works when composing Al-Itgän fi

`Ulüm al-Qur'an. 23 Al-Nakzäwi's biography is also to be found in the books of Ibn Hajar, 24 A1"Zirikli25 and Brockelmann. 26

19 Brockelmann, SI 729. 20 Brockelmann, S1 729. 21 Ma`rifa vol ii p. 545. 22 Ghaya vol i p. 411. 23 ltgan vol. 1 p. 21 24 Lisan vol i p. 325. 25 vol. 4 p. 270. 26 Brockelmann, S1 729. 21 Following is the sanad of al-Nakzäwi of the girä'a of abn `Amr transmitted according to two riwäyäs, the riw'aya of Abn `Amr

Hafs ibn `Umar al-Düri and the riwäyä of Abü Shu'ayb Salih ibn

Ziyäd al-Süsi. These riwayas are narrated, both riwäyatan and tiiawätan (according to the transmitters and the content) with an explanation of why there are multiple sanads.

Sanad 1 of the riwaya.

1. The author

2. Al-Sharif Najm al-Din abu `Amr `Uthman ibn al-Shaykh al-

Sharif al-Hasan27 (d. 634).

3. Abu `Abdullah Muhammad ibn Said ibn Zarqun a1_Ishbili.

He transmitted the gira'a from Abu `Abdullah Ahmad ibn

Muhammad ibn `Abdullah al-Khawläni. (d. 586)28.

4. Abu `Abdullah Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn `Abdullah al-

Khawlini. Ibn Zargi n read with him. He also read with al-Däni

(d. 508)29. Imäm 5. Al al-Hafiz abn `Amr `Uthmän al-Däni, the author of al-Taysir (271-444).

27 See Ibn Kathir a1-Bidäya vol. 13, p. 146. 28 ibid. 142. , p. 29 ibid. 121. , p. 22 Sanad2 of the riwaya

1. The author.

2. Al-Sharif Najm al-Din abü `Amr `Uthnian ibn al-Shaykh al-

Sharif abi Hasan.

3. Abu Bakr ibn Khattab ibn Abi Jamra/Muhammad ibn

Ahmad ibn `Abd al-Malik ibn Musa ibn Abi Jamra abn Bakr al-

Maräsi, the gadi of Marsiya (508-599). He read with his father 30

4. Abu Ja'far Ahmad ibn `Abd al-Malik ibn Musa ibn Abi Jamra

Abu al-Qasim al-Maräsi (dates unknown). He transmitted al-

Taysir from al-Däni and was the last person to talk about him 31

5. Al-imam al-Hafiz abü `Amr `Uthman al-Däni.

Sanad3 of the riwäyäh

1. The author.

r 2. Àlam al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Àli ibn Muhammad ibn Àbd al-

Saurad al-Sakhäwi (born at Sakha in Egypt, died 642). 32 He read with al-Shätibi The author of the manuscript al-Nakzawi read with him.

3. A1Imäm al-Shätibi, Abu Muhammad Qasim ibn Firäh abu al-Qäsim al-Shatibi (born at al-Shatiba in Andalus in 522 and died

30 ibid. 69. , p. 31 ibid. , p.77. 32 ibid. 568. , p. in 590 in Cairo) 33 A1-Sakhäwi and ibn al-Häjib read with him.

4. Abi `Abdullah Muhammad ibn al-Hasan ibn Said known as ibn Ghuläm al-Faris (472-547). 34

5. Abü `Abdullah Muhammad ibn al-Hasan (d. 496)35. He

transmitted from the following scholars. All of these scholars are

at one level. (i) Abü al-Hasan `Ali ibn Muhammad ibn `Abd al-

Rahman known as ibn al-Dush who read with al-Din[ Ibn al-

Ghuläm al-Farris Abü `Abdullah Muhammad read with him. (ii)

Abü Däwüd Sulaymän ibn Najäh ibn abi al-Qäsim (d. 496)36. Some

of his works are Kitab al- Bayän s and an urjüza of

18,440 verses. (iii) Ibn al-Bayäz, abü al-Hasan ibn Yahyä ibn

Ibrähim ibn Zayd (d. 496)37 He Ibn abi . read with al-Däni. Ghuläm and ibn Hazm a1-Ghäfigi'read with him. al-Faris _`1sä 6. A1-Imäm al-Hafiz abi `Amr `Uthman ibn Said al-Dim (see

above).

Sanad 4 of the riwaya.

1. The author.

2. Abi Àmr Ùthmän ibn Ùmar, known as ibn al-Hajib

33 ibid. 20. , p. 34 ibid., p. 121. 35 ibid., p. 548. 36 ibid., p. 216. 37 ibid., p. 264. 24 (570/71-646)38. He read with al-Shätibi.

3. Abi al-Jnd Ghayyath ibn Färis al-Mundhirf al-Misri (518-

605)39. Abu Àmr ibn a1-Hajib and a1-Sakhäwi read with him. 'Ismaìl 4. A1-Sharif al-Khatib, Nasir ibn Hasan ibn Abi al-Futüh al-Zaydi (d. 562)40. He read with Yahyä ibn Àli ibn al-Faraj al-

Khashshäb and with `Abdullah ibn Abi al-Wafa al-'Atabi. Abi al-

Jud Ghayäth read with him.

5. A1-Khashshab, Yahya ibn `Ali ibn al-Faraj al-Misri (d. 504)41.

He read with `Ali Abi al-Fath Ahmad Babshadh al-Jawhan. Abu a1-Ftüh Näsir ibn al-Hasan al-Sharif al- Khatib read with him.

6. Abü Àbdullah Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Q2rrawani ibn Àli abu Àbdullah ibn abi Said al-Qazwini (d. 452)4 2. He read with

`Ali ibn Dawud al-Daräni and with `Ali al-Hasan ibn Sulaymän al-

'InCaki. Yahya ibn `Ali al-Khashshab read with him.

7. Abu `Ali al-Husayn/al-Hasan ibn Sulayman/ibn al-Khayr al-

'Intäki al-Näfi`i (d. 299)43. He read with Abu al-Fath ibn Badhan and in Egypt with abu Bakr al-ub\i F, i Abu `Amr al-Däni read with him.

8. Abu `Abdullah al-Dajuni/al-`Abbäs ibn Muhammad abu al-

Fad1 a 1- Ram11

38 ibid., p. 508. 39 ibid., p. 4. 40 ibid., p. 329. 41 ibid., p. 275. 42 ibid., p. 75. 43 ibid., p. 215. 25 (d. 270)44. He transmitted the girä'a from abu Bakr al-Däjüni, the senior, his uncle, and from abu Bakr ibn Mujahid. Al-Hasan ibn

Sulaymän al-Afafi`f a1-In(aki transmitted from him.

9. Abü Bakr Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Rahman/Ahmad ibn

`Umar al- Däji ni, the senior (d. 324)45., He read with Müsa ibn

Janr. Al-`Abbas ibn Muhammad al-Dajüni, the junior, read with him.

10. Abu `Imrän Musa ibn Jarir al-Nahwi al-Rägqi (d. 310 or

316)46. He read with a1-Süsi, one of his boon companions.

`Abdullah ibn al- Yasa` a1=lnfaki and al-Däjüni, the senior, read with him.

11. Abu Shu'ayb Salih ibn Ziyäd ibn `Abdullah al-SUsi (d. 261)47, the transmitter of the riwäya of al-Sufi. He read with abn

Muhammad Yahyä al-Yazidi. Ibn Muhammad al-Ma`süm and

Müsä ibn Jarir read with him. (For a more detailed biography of al-Süsi, see above).

12. Abu Ùmar Hafs ibn Ùmar a1-Düri, the transmitter of the ri wäya of al"Düri (d. 246)4 8. He read with Abu Muhammad Yahya al-Yazidi. Àbd al-Rahman ibn Àbdus abü al-Zara' read with him. (For his biography see above).

44 ibid., p. 254. 45 ibid., p.77. 46 ibid., p.318. 47 ibid., p.332. 48 ibid., p.255. 26 I 13. Yahyä ibn al-Mubä rik ibn al-Mughira al-Yazidi (d. 202 at

Marw)49. Al-Duri and al-Snsi read with him (see above for a more detailed biography).

14. Ab"n `Amr Zabbän ibn al-'Ala' al-Basri (68-154)50. He read with al-Hasan al-Basri and with Said ibn Jubayr and with Mujähid ibn Jabr. Al-Yazidi read with him. (see above for a more detailed biography).

Sanad 1 of a1-tiläwa

1. The author.

2. Abü al-`Abbäs Ahmad ibn Sulaymän ibn Ahmad al-Marjäni Iskandar al- Mäliki al (his dates are unknown) S1 He read with

`Abd al-Karim ibn 'Atiq.

3. Abü Muhammad Àbd al-Karim ibn AT Bakr ibn Àtiq al- Iskandari Rabì al known as ibn al-Sharabi (dates unknown). He read with abu al-Ghana'im and with al-Yasa` ibn Ìsa. Ahmad

ibn Sulaymän a1-Marjäni read with him 52

4. Abü al-Ghana'im Salim ibn Ibrahim al-Umawi al-Iskandari

(485-564)53. He read with abu a1-Qäsim `Abd al-Rahman ibn al-

49 ibid., p.275. 50 ibid., p.288. 51 ibid., p.58. 52 ibid., p.402. 53 ibid., p.300. 27 Fahhäm. Abd al-Karim ibn `Atiq read with him.

5. Abu al-Qasim Àbd al-Rahmän ibn abii Bakr al-Qallüshi, known as ibn al-Fahham/Àbd al-Rahmän ibn Àtiq ibn Khalaf abu al-Qäsim ibn abi Bakr ibn abi Said ibn al-Fahhäm (d. 516)54. He read with Ahmad ibn Naffs.

6. Abu al-`Abbas Ahmad al-Taräblasi/Ahmad ibn Said ibn

Ahmad ibn Ahmad ibn `Abdullah ibn Sulaymän known as ibn

Naffs abu al-`Abbäs originally from Tarablus, then migrated to

Egypt (d. 452/445)55. He read with `Ali ibn Ahmad `Abdullah al-

Sämiri. Ibn al-Fahhäm read with him.

7. Abi Ahmad Àbdullah al-5amiri/Àbdullah ibn al-Husayn ibn Hasnün Abu Ahmad al-Sämiri al-Baghdädi, who afterwards migrated to Egypt (295-256/370)56. He read with Àli ibn

Mujahid and with Müsa ibn Jarir. Abu al-'Abbas Ahmad ibn naafis read with him.

Sanad2 of al-tilawa

1. The author.

2. Abü al-`Abbas Ahmad ibn Sulayman (see above).

3. Abu Muhammad `Abd al-Karim ibn abiý Bakr ibn `Atiq al-

Rabi`i (see above).

54 ibid., p. 274. 55 ibid., p. 56. 56 ibid., p. 415. 28 4. Abü Yahyä al-Yasa' ibn `Isä ibn Hazm a]-Andalusi al-Ghafigi

(d. 575 in Egypt)57. He read with his father abu al-Asbagh Isä.

Abu a1-Qäsim a1-Safräwi and abn al-Jüd read with him.

5. `Isa ibn Hazm ibn `Abdullah ibn al-Yasa' abn al-Isbagh al-

Ghäfigi al-Andalusi (dates unknown)58. He read with ibn al-

Bayyiz and with abu Dawüd and with ibn al-Dush.

6. Abu Diwüd Sulaymän ibn Hajah and abu al-Hasan Yahya ibn

Ibrahim al-Bayyäz (see above).

7. Abu `Amr `Uthmän ibn Said al-Däni (see above).

8. Abi Muhammad `Abd al-'Aziz al-Baghdädi/`Abd al-'Aziz ibn

Ja'far ibn Muhammad ibn Ishaq Khuwästi abü al-Qäsim al-Färisi then al-Baghdidi, known as ibn Abi Ghassän (320-412)59. He read with `Abd al-Wähid ibn Abi Hashim. Abu `Amr al-Däni, when visiting Andalus as a merchant, read with him.

9. Abü Tahir `Abd al-Wahid/'Abd al-VWahid ibn `Umar ibn

Muhammad ibn Abi Häshim abu Tahir al-Baghdädi (d. 349)60. He read with ibn Mujähid. `Abd al-`Aziz ibn Ja'far Khuwästi and a

great number of other scholars read with him.

10. Abu Bakr ibn Mujähid/Ahmad ibn Musa ibn al-`Abbas

ibn Mujahid (245-324)61. He is the first scholar who reduced the

57 ibid., p. 375. 58 ibid., p. 608. 59 ibid., p. 392. 60 ibid., p. 475. 61 ibid., p. 139. 29 number of girä'at to seven. He read with `Abd al-Rahmän ibn

`Abdüs. Abu Tahir and a great number of scholars read with him.

11. Ibn Àbdüs/Àbd al-Rahman ibn Àbdns abü al-Zara' al-

Baghdädi (d. 280)62 who reported it from al-Dhahabi. He read with abü `Umar al-Diiri. He was one of his near colleagues, the most prominent one, having the most accurate memory and the most trustworthy. Abu Bakr ibn Mujähid and some other scholars read with him.

12. Al-Dori and al-Süsi63 (see above).

13. Yahyä ibn al-Mubärak al-Yazidi64. (see above for a more detailed biography).

14. Abü `Amr ibn al-`Ali' al-Basri65. (see above for a more

detailed biography).

15. Mujahid ibn Jabr ibn al-Hajjäj al-Makki (d. 103/102/101)66.

He read with ibn Àbbas. Abu Àmr ibn al-Àla' al-Basri read with

him.

16. Said ibn Jubayr ibn Hish im a1-Aýdi (al-Hajjäj killed him in 1-11 95)67. He read with Àbdullah ibn 'Abbas. Abu Àmr ibn al-Àla'

al-Basri read with him.

17. Ibn Àbbas/Àbdullah ibn Àbbas ibn Àbd al-Muttalib

62 ibid., p. 373. 63 ibid., pp. 255,332. 64 ibid., p.375. 65 ibid., p.288. 66 ibid., p. 41. 67 ibid., p.305. 30 (d. 68)68. He read with Ubayy ibn Ka'b and with Zayd ibn Thäbit and with `Ali ibn Abi Talib. Mujahid ibn Jabr and Said ibn Jubayr read with him.

18. Ubayy ibn Ka'b ibn Qays a1-Ansäri (d. 19/20/32)69. He read with the Prophet (s.m. ). `Abdullah ibn `Abbas read with him.

19. The Prophet, peace be upon him.

Sanad3 of al-tiläwa

1. The author.

2. Hasan ibn Ùthman ibn Àliýal-Qabisi al-Maliki who migrated Iskandariyya, to al- known as ibn al-Rukn (574-670). He read with Abu Àli Mansur ibn Khamis. Ibn abi al-Tähir read with him.

3. Abi `Ali Mansur ibn Khamis ibn Muhammad al-Lakhmi al-

Andalusi (dates unknown)? O. Al-Hasan ibn `Uthman al-Qabisi read with him.

4. Abü `Abdullah Muhammad ibn Sulayman ibn Yahya al-Qaysi

al-Büti

5. Abu- Dawüd Sulaymän abn al-Qäsim (see above).

6. Abu `Amr `Uthmän ibn Said a1-Däni (see above).

68 ibid., p. 425. 69 ibid., p. 31. 70 ibid., p. 312. 31 Sanad4 of al-tilawa

1. The author.

2. Abü Àbdullah Muhammad ibn Ùmar al-Fäsi al-Muàfiri who later lived in al'Iskandariyya (born in 549)71. He read with al-

Qäsim ibn Muhammad ibn al-Zagqäq. The author explained that the sanad of al-Mu`afiri describing the riwäya of al-Süsi is as the sanad of Hasan al-Qabisi.

3. Al-Imam al-Zagqäq/Qäsim ibn Muhammad ibn Mubärak

abu Muhammad ibn al-Zagqäq, known as ibn al-Hajj and ibn al-

Tawil (d. 560)72. He read with a number of scholars, two of them

are Ìsa ibn Hazm - and Abü Àbdullah Muhammad ibn Ùmar al-

Ma`äfiri.

4. Abn Dawnd Sulaymän ibn abi al-Qäsim (see above).

5. Abu `Amr ibn `Uthnian ibn Said al-Däni (see above).

The author then described that there are some other 'isnäds but

he did not mention them.

71 ibid., p.218. 72 ibid., p.24.

32 §1.6 The Meccan and Medinan suras and the numbering of verses

These two subjects are summarised by some of the famous authors of works on girä'at, while others omit them. Ibn Mujahid, Al-Däni, and

Ibn al-Jazari, for instance,did not mention them, whereasMakki Ibn abi

Tä1ib in his book al-Kashf mentioned at the start of his discussion of each süra whether it was Meccan or Medinan, or both, followed by the number of its verses according to the Medinan and Kufan methods of numbering. Since al-Nakzawi is also among those who gave some attention to clarifying the Meccan and Medinan siras and the number of verses, a brief outline is provided here. It should be noted that for a süra to be designatedMeccan or Medinan has no bearing on its readings, whereas the number of verses doeshave an effect, with respectto pausal and non-pausal forms.

1.6.1 The Meccan and the Medinan suras

This Qur'änic sub-science is not of direct relevance to the science of girä'at, but since al"Nakzäwi mentioned in the headings of each sera whether it was Meccan or Medinan, a brief discussion follows. This

Qur'änic sub-scienceis of importanceto the interpretersof the Qur'än, studentsof hadith, and jurisprudents. Some scholarshave compiled specialbooks on the subject. Its principal function is the determiningof

33 the chronology of individual sections of the Qur'än, so that legal principles can be deduced according to the principle that the later abrogates the earlier. A secondary function is that it assists an understandingof the developmentof the Islamic legal system.

The scholars have three ways of classifying whether a süra be Meccan or Medinan. The first is that "Meccan" denotesall that came before the hijra and that "Medinan" denotes all that came after the hijra, irrespective of its recorded time and place (sabab al-nuzül ). This definition is preferred by al-Siiyiiti in al-Itgän 73 The second is that "Meccan" denotes the süras that came in Mecca, even after the hijra, and that "Medinan" denotes the süras that came in Medina. This classification is not comprehensivebecause in the Qur'än there are süras that came in neither Mecca nor Medina. The third is that "Meccan" denotes the süras that came to address the people of Mecca and that

"Medinan" denotesthe surasthat came to addressthe people of Medina. This classification is also not comprehensivebecause some verses which

came with the words usually addressedto the people of Mecca, "Oh you people", came in Medina, for instance at the beginning of the Meccan

süras al-Nisä' and al-Hajj. The address "Oh you who believe" was the

usual addressfor the people of Medina.

The first method of classification, as preferred by al-Süyüti, is to be

recommended, since it is comprehensive and excludes contradictions,

73 vol. 1 p. 25ff. 34 74 w kcrt0.s the other two do not. Al-Suyüti notes in al-Itgän, that twenty suras in the Qur'an are agreed as being Medinan, that there is a difference of opinion regarding twelve suras, and that the rest are Meccan;

1.6.2. The numbering of verses.

Abu `Amr al-Dani said that the number of verses in the Qur'an is ageed to be 6,000? 5 but there are various opinions that hold that there are more than that. The schools of Mecca, Medina, Basra, Küfa and Syria isnäd all have their own traditional numbering, traceable by back to the Prophet. Because his book concerned only the Reading of Abu

`Amr (al-Basri), al-Nakzawi only mentioned the Basran calculation.

The scholars have divided the calculation of the verse-numberingin the Qur' .n into three groups of sums. With a group of forty suras there is unanimity on the numbering. With four süras76there is agreementover the total but disagrement over where the verse ends occur. With the remaining seventy suras there is disagreement over the total of their verses."

74 vol. 1 p. 28. 75 Itgän vol. 1 p. 210.This is the Basran numbering. 76 al-Qasas, al-'Ankab it, al-Jinn and al-'Asr. Al-Fätiha also. " E. g. sürat Ta Ha has 132 in the Medinan and Basran numbering, but 134 in the Küfan. 35 Understanding the numbering of verses requires principles of practice and theory. Regarding practice, stopping at the end of every verse is preferred by reciters - Abu `Amr himself used to - and in fact it is sünna (the practice of the Prophet). On the authority of Umm Salama, the Prophet used to break his recitation verse by verse.7s Thus with Surat al-Fätiha he would recite "In the name of God the most gracious, the most merciful", then stop, then recite, "All praise is due to God, the

Lord of the worlds", then stop, then recite, "the most gracious, the most merciful" and so on. Regarding theory, note the precept cited by al- Suyüti, "Whoever lacks the knowledge of sürat al-Fätiha must substitute it with seven verses",79 and the regulation that the Friday sermon must contain a complete verse.

" Itgän, vol. 1 p. 271.

79 Itgän, vo1.1 p. 218.

36 §2 ORAL TRANSMISSION

§2.1 The distinguishing characteristics of girä'at Abi `Amr

The Reading of Abu Àmr has many similarities with the other seven Readings. It also has many differences, and in this section, these differences will be highlighted. The first two sub-sections illustrate a general characteristic possessed by the Reading of Abu Àmr, that of constraint. The Reading can generally be considered as a middle way between some of the more extreme positions of the other two principal Readings, those of Àsim and Näfi`. The final sub-section outlines the large number of transmitters for the Reading of Abn Àmr and the phenomenon of variety within a Reading. The distinguishing characteristics of the Reading of Abi Àmr can probably be best appreciated by listening to the audio tape attached as an appendix to this thesis and recorded by the author It contains süras al-Kahf and Maryam in the transmission of al-Duri, and sürat al-Fajr in the three Readings of Abn Àmr through al-Duri, Nafi` through Warsh, and Àsim through Hafs.

Al-Nakiawf did not mention the specific nature of any differences or agreements between Abu Àmr and other Readers, nor did he even state that ANY Àmr has differences or agreements with other Readers. For example, he did not say that Abü Àmr was in agreement with Nafi` over this word, or that he disagreed with Ibn Àmir over that word. The procedure that he followed with a given word was simply to find out whether one or more of the Readers was in disagreement with the others including Abn Àmr, and then

37 state that the Reading of Abi Àmr is such and such, or that he omitted ya' or fatha or sukun, or the like. The author's aim was to single out the Reading of Abü Àmr from other Readings without detailing disagreement, in order to summarise the subject. This is stated in the introduction to his book. Similarly, he did not discuss important but the subject of al-idghäm al-kabir , simply placed at the end of each surah the number of letters that Abn Àmr assimilated in this way. Since al, idghäm al-kabis is an area in which there are great differences between scholars of gira'at it has a sub-section below.

2.1.1. al-1m5la al-kubra

AbiT Àmr was in some agreement concerning al'fmala al-kubra with Hamza and al-Kisa'i but he did not go as far as them. They employed al-(mäla al-kubra for every ya'-'alif in nouns and verbs, Abi Àmr it fa', in e.g. ý.. and . only employed after as Abu Àmr Nafi` in L5yJl thus agreed with employing al-imäla al- sughra, since alimala al-kubra was not employed by Warsh in by Qälün in lA in except aL , nor except -Iy sürat al-Tawba.

It was not employed by `Asim except with in sürat Hid.

Thus Abü `Amr employed in his Reading a light kind of 'imäla, reflecting his intermediate position between the Reading of the Hijaz and the traditional language of Tamim. It could be said that imala the degree of used by Abii `Amr was in line with that of the Quraysh accent.

38 2.1.2. vowelless hamza

Concerning vowelless hamza, the Reading of `Äsim pronounces the hamza fully in all circumstances, whereas the Reading of Warsh from Nafi' elides it when it is the first radical of the word, as in ý1) J_tSL s The Reading Abu `Amr is ,:jj:. and .:., of intermediate. It agrees with `Äsim when read slowly, and agrees with Näfi` through Warsh when read with'idgham or in prayers or fast readings. In the latter case, however, the elision is not limited to the first radical of the word, but applies to any radical.

2.1.3. al-idghän: al-kabir

That al-idghäm al-kabir is an area in which Abt Àmr was alone in disagreement with others is well-known. Not all scholars agree however. According to Ibn al-Jazari for instance, "' of the ten Readers Ab'u' Àmr was not the only one to have employed a l- ýidghäm al-kabir, but that al-Hasan al-Basri, Ibn Muhaysin, and al- A`mash are also reported to have done so. Ibn al-Jazari then cited various opinions of scholars of gira'at about Abi Àmr employing al-idghäm al-kabir. Some scholars, like Abü Ùbayd and Ibn Mujähid did not even mention it. Others mentioned it as transmitted through both al-Düri and al-Süsi, like Ibn Ma'shar al- Tabari and al-Safräwi. Others mentioned it as transmitted through al-Süsi alone, like al-Däni and his Shaykh Abu al-Hasan Tähir ibn Ghalbun, as also al-Shätibi. Yet others did not mention it as

40vol. 1 p.275 39 transmitted through al-Susi or al-Düri but through others from the colleagues of al-Yaiidi and Shuji', like ibn al-Fahhäm the author of al-Tajrid and al-Talmanki the author of al-Rawda.

Despite the fact that Abu Ùbayd and Ibn Mujähid did not mention it, the majority opinion of the scholars of gira'at mentioned above 'idgham show that al al-kabir was employed in the Reading of Abi Àmr. The main disagreement arises over who transmitted it from Abi Àmr. The transmission through al-Snsi is the most acceptable. This view is supported by the great scholars of qira'at al-Dani and al-Shatibi, and is widely mentioned in the books of girä'at. The transmission through al-Düri is the least acceptable. Written Qur'ans in the transmission of al-Duri are numerous, yet none indicate al-idgham al-kabir. Moreover, in/ Sudan the transmission of al-Dori has been widely known and carefully preserved for centuries, yet it has not been noted that al idghäm al-kabis has ever been used there.

2.1.4. Other unique characteristics of the Reading of Abu 'Amr.

2.1.4.1. General.

" He used kasra on the mim of the plural before sukün if a hä' before it kasra came with or a ya' with sukün, such as ýl ý!I j. : I and ZJ iJ r.i--. .

9 He disregarded the first of two hamzas with kasra, e. g.

40 r=S CA I'VSA .

" He did the same with damma, the only example of this being in LJ surat al-Ahgäf, jl .

He lam " assimilated rä' with sukün to such as iä1 '. L,

He 'imala I: JI final kasra. " used with v,, with

ya' 0 He stopped on the of Cli-'Ü, in pause, i. e. he did not

pronounce the ntin, despite its spelling; and on L before lam (but

not when the läm formed the actual word Jl. ) in the surahs al-

Nisa', al-Furgän and al-Ma`ärij despite its spelling; and on the kaf L5. of C ej and 451-5.,j from sürat al-Qasas despite its spelling.

------He-pronounced the kasra as a yä' in seven cases when not in yt.., Ij in in Al `Imrän, pause: 4.) sürat al-Bagara, CjyL* j sürat 1j in in sürat al-Ma'ida, 01.1A .131 sürat al-An`äm,

and Cjj Vj in sürat Hid and in sürat Ibfahim

and »y_, I., in surat al-Zukhruf. In manuscripts this is indicated

by a red ja'.

He in in " pronounced the ya' L5al..r wý; sürat al-Zumar, with

fatha when not in pause and with suk6n in pause, as transmitted by al-Süsi.

41 2.1.4.2. Specifics.

Abu `Amr is known to have read the following individual words in a unique way:

In L' (as " sürat al-Bagara: .uj without alif after the waw also in l; sürat al-A`räf and surat Ta Ha); r. in both its occurences with suknn in place of hamza, or near omission of the vowel; L r-5-I,. - and its like with sukün on the rä' or near omission of the vowel; _t-WIJ with damma for the wäw, and ýy` with fatha on the ia' and kasra on the jim.

" In sürat Al `Jmrin: 415 CjI J3 with damma on the - __aJ _.-'D 1äm; L ( and rSi. without shadda on the 1äm (and so throughout the Qur'än).

" In sürat al-A`räf: a:ýý) with sukün on the hamza in pause;

L LL:*.. (as ll. in Nuh) r. also rL -,-. surat on the same basis as LJ i, J, Is1yý ja'. rSL ; L oI and jI with the

In " sürat al-Anfäl: 0,45 ýt with the tä', and OjL.. VI ýj with the hamza and 'alif after the sin.

42 " In sürat Yünus: with hamzat al-qat` of interrogation.

In Hüd: i, JI hamza " sürat C.5 L$aL with at the end of the first word.

J " In Yüsuf: L. L with alif in both words when not in pause, but without them in pause.

" In sürat al-Nahl: 4J Ij.

"Isrä': " In sürat al Ij 3&:.-, Vt with the yä'.

In `º in both " sürat al-Kahf: ý. and with sukün on the mim words (this is the transmission of al-Düri through a1-Yazidi and i. tt L... those who agreed with him); j`... with fatha on the rä' and the shin.

In Ti Hä: J :ýC. i " sürat 'IyL with the yä': Ij. ýL; with elision of the alif and fatha on the mim, and &; with fatha on the nun and damma on the fa'.

"in sprat al-Hajj: Lg:SL I with damma on the tä'.

In sürat lC jj 'alif, " a1-Mu'minün: .41i , with the and damma on the hä'.

43 " In sürat al-Qasas: with the yä'.

I, fatha ' " In sürat Lugmän: y, ýJ with on the Ti.

" In sürat al-Ahzäb: J- (twice) with the yä', and 71 with the tä'.

" In sürat Säd: Ij with the form fu`oC.

" In Surat al-Zumar: e. =, ' ° lS and 4---j _ºL%,...- with tanwin in both and fatha on the fa' in and on the tä' in

4--- ,.

" In sürat al-Qitä1: J.. 1ý with damma on the hamza, kasra on the lam and fatha on the yä'.

In surat Imo. l.; " al-Fath: .; C). ß with the yä'.

In JL " sürat a1-Hujurät: rS 11 with the hamza.

9 In sürat al-Tur: 1:, Iý with hamzat al-qat' and sukun on the tä' and `ayn, and pronouncing nun and a1if81 ;Ljl in the plural.

All the others have wattaba'athum. 44 L1 damma hamza, " In si rat al-Hadid: rOL:.,. with on the ( L.; kasra on the kha' and damma on the qäf; rSb with curtailment of the hamza.

" In sürat al-Hashr: vý; y.: with shadda on the rä'.

" in sprat al-Mumtahina: (J5.,,.. ß 'l j with fatha on the mim and shadda on the sin.

fatha " In sürat al-Munafiqün: ýsSlý with the waw and on the nun.

" In sürat a1-Mursalät: ._. ý with the waw.

" In sürat al-Fajr: ýý.. J, ýý. ý.ý DJ and with the ya' in each.

The above are the places where Abu `Amr al-Basri has unique readings in al 'usul and infarsh al-hurüf.

2.1.5. transmitters (ruwat )

It should be noted that transmitters from Abü `Amr, other than al- Di r have in and al-Süsi, . agreed some of the above with other Readers. This is considered perfectly acceptable. Abü Bakr Shu`ba

45 ibn `Ayyäsh, for example, a transmitter from Asim had many readings that disagreed wi th his colleague, Hafs, the second transmitter from `Asim. Moreover, the limitation of two transmitters for each Reader is simply a convenience for keeping the number of transmitters manageable, and does not exclude other scholars of gira'ät.

According to some, Abü Àmr had seventeen transmitters: al- Yazidi, Shüja`, Àbd al-Wärith, al-'Abbas ibn al-Fall, Said ibn Aws, Harlin al-A'war, al-Khaffäf, Ùbayd ibn Ùgayl, Husayn al-Ju`fi, Yünus ibn Habfb, al-Lu'1ü'i, Mahbüb, Khärija, al-Jahdami, Ìsma, al- Asmaì and Abu Ja'far al-Ru'asi. The Reading of Abi Àmr cannot therefore be confined to the transmission of al-Yazidi, ignoring these others. Some of them indeed may have been even more knowledgeable and trustworthy than al-Yazidi. Furthermore, the ten most famous transmitters from al-Yazidi were al-Düri, al-Süsi, Abu Samdän, Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Jubayr, Awqiya Abü al- Fath, Abu Khiläd, Ja`far -ibn Hamdän Sajjäda, Ibn Sa'c'-an, Ahmad ibn -Muhammad ibn al-Yaiidi and Abü al-Harith al-Layth ibn Khalid. It is therefore a shortcoming of the author that he limited his information to the transmissions of al-Süsf and al-Düri alone, ignoring these other transmitters, some of whom might in certain cases have been more strict and trustworthy. His intention to be brief excuses him.

In Sudan, however, the khaläwi have been more eclectic, and have diverged a little from the transmission of al-Duri. In al"usül this is ! notably with al imäla al-sughra, which they replace with fatha, itibi. contrary to al-Sh Two examples from farsh al-huruf are: ý l,Sj J... a1 :, and j-ý from sürat al-Kahaf. They were

46 transmitted by `Ali ibn Nasr and Husayn al-Ju`fi through Abu `Amr with the mim with damma, corresponding with Näfi` and disagreeing with al-Düri who read the mim with sukün.

§3 INSTITUTIONAL TRANSMISSION

Islam spread in the Sudan through the Süfis, of that there is no doubt. It was they who used and greatly expanded the khaläwi to run their courses for teaching the Qur'an. This section focusses on one such khalwa, Umm Dubban, with the overall aim of showing how the khalawi have preserved the Reading of Abt

`Amr al-Basri up till today. After a brief explanation of the word khalwa, the sub-sections therefore provide an overview of the coming of the Reading of Abu `Amr to the Sudan, of Umm Dubban and its history, of its shüyükh, of its enrolment and teaching procedures, and to conclude, of its daily life to illustrate the discipline in transmission.

3.1 The word khalwa

The meaning of the root of the word khalwa is to be confined to yourself away from other people, either in a room, mountain or in

47 the open. In the Sudan, it means that a person has kept himself alone from others in a room for the purpose of worship. It occurs when the Shaykh or one of his followers on his order, "enters the khalwa". If a person is left alone outside the room they are called sa'ih. The word khalwa may also mean a guest's room including the general facilities (bathroom, toilet etc. ), but this has been replaced in many areas of the Sudan by the word diwan, and in towns and cities by the word sälün. But the most common meaning of al-khalwa or al-khalawt is that of the school/s devoted to the teaching of the Qur'än especially when associated with the name of a founder, such as khalawi al-Shayqiyya wal-Majädhi. b, khalawi al-Ghubush, khalwat Wad al-Fädni., khalwat Wad Nu`man.

3.2 The coming of the Reading of Abu 4Amr to the Sudan

According to Ibn al-Jazari the Reading of Abu `Amr was widely known in his day in the Hijäz, the Yemen and Egypt, and that up till the fifth century it was the Reading of Syria 82 Now many of the emigrants to the Sudan at the end of the fifteenth century A. D. were from al -Hijaz, al-Yemen and Egypt. It is also known that a considerable number of Islamic scholars were among the Arabs

82 Nashr vol. 1 p.41.

48 who settled in the Sudan at that time. Accordingly over time

many khaläwi were established in different places throughout the

Sudan. Some of these khaläwi are still providing the teaching of

the rules of Abu `Amr's Reading, despite the fact that this Reading

is no longer known in, the rest of the Islamic world. Since the

spread ' of the Ottoman Dynasty, it has been replaced by the

Reading of `Asim. This is because the mushaf of the Qur'an was

printed according to `Asim's Reading on a mass scale and then 11 distributed throughout the regions under Turkish rule, and in

particular to the Government controlled schools. The Sudan,

however, was too remote and its communications too difficult to

be influenced by this phenomenon, and it was able to preserve

the tradition of the early scholars of the Qur.'än.

Apart from the unsuccessful exploratory raids against the Nubians

by the Umayyad 'Uqba ibn Nafi' during the early Muslim

conquests, "' the first Arab emigrants to the Sudan were a small

number of Ummayads fleeing from the conquering `Abbäsids.

Then there were merchants who came looking for gold and

animals, and bedouin shepherds seeking pasture and water for

their animals. These people were the first to establish khalawi as

a sign of their good intention towards religion. They were full of

emotional, feelings for Islam rather than knowledge, and as such,

" Trimingham 60. 49 the khalwa had only a limited benefit to them,, mainly as a place for their gatherings and to accommodate their guests. Due therefore to their limited knowledge of Islam, the Sudan was far removed from orthodox teachings, and it was not until the great expansion of the Sufi movement that Islam proper spread in the

Sudan. Four great scholars should be isolated.

The first came to the Sudan from Yemen. 84 He was Shaykh

Ghulämalläh ibn "A'id al-Yemeni who settled in Dongola in the mid-fourteenth century A. D. He was the forefather of the famous

Sudanese tribe of al-Rikäbiyya. He is reported to have said that he came to the area when the people were in great doubt about their religion. There were no copies of the Qur'an, and no scholars.

He build Qur'an started to -mosques, and to teach the and other knowledge-to-his--sons and to other pupils. Shaykh Muhammad

Nur ibn Dayfallah notes" that under the Funj, who had ruled

Nüba since 910 A. H. and established the town of Sýar, there were no schools to teach the Qur'än or even to teach any knowledge and that a man could divorce his wife and re-marry her in the same day without allowing for the period of `idda to expire.

The second was Shaykh Mahmüd al-'Araki, who came from Egypt in 1510 A. D. and started to teach people about the religion,

" Or at least his father did (Trimingham100) 'S Tabaqat p. 40. 50 settling near the White Nile and establishing many khaläwi there. "'

The third scholar, or rather group of scholars, were the four sons of Jabir, descendants of Ghulamallah ibn `A'id. These four greatly improved the teaching in the khaläwi in the sixteenth century

A.D. " Their sons and other pupils later became leaders and scholars themselves, like Shaykh Ya`qüb the forefather of al-

Ya`qübät near the town of Sinar, and Shaykh `Abd Allah al-'Araki the leader of al-`Arakiyyin to the east of the Jazira.

BB The fourth scholar was Muhammad walad `Isa Siwär al-Dhahab, during whose time (the second half of the seventeenth century

A.D. 89 specialisation in the Qur'an and its teachings developed.

-Although his khalwa was an extension of the khalwa of the-sons of

Jäbir (his father had been a pupil in their khalwa taught by his father) Muhammad Siwar al-Dhahab incorporated the Arabic and T Qur'änic studies taught him by al-Tilmisäni al-Maghribi. It can be

said that the expansion of religious studies in general came

through the children of Jabir, and the expansion of Qur'änic

studies in particular came through Muhammad. Every Qur'anic

reader in the Sudan who came after him would have to have his

"Trimingham 100,115 n. 2. "' Trimingham 100. "Trimingham 116. " Trimingham 197,116. 51 transmission connected to Muhammad (unless of course it was that of Hafs from `Asim, only introduced into the Sudan this century). The transmission of Warsh from Näfi`, still in use in

Dongola, is also connected to Muhammad through al-Tilmisäni al-

Maghribi. Those from I?ongola who studied this particular reading trace their transmission back to `Isa walad Kanu, a pupil of

Muhammad Siwär al-Dhahab. 9° It could therefore be said that

Muhammad taught a different Reading to that of Abi `Amr.

However, while it is true that he taught `Isa walad Kanu the

transmission of Warsh, this transmission was not his main one,

nor did it spread beyond Dongola for two reasons. First, `Isa was

not consistent in his teaching, and according to Süfi practices he

would take time off, called "Attraction Time" (jadhb) when he

was absent from his senses. Second, a fellow student of `Isa called

`Abd Allah al-Aghbash, was more intellectual than the other

students and developed his studies contrary to `Isa walad Kanu.

He was followed by his sons and grandsons who became famous

scholars in the Qur'anic sciences, called al-Ghubush. Al-Ghubush

are known to the Sudanese as the tribe of those who read the

Qur'än by heart. `Abd Allah al-Aghbash and his offspring and

students reached the highest level in the teaching of the Qur'anic

sciences, writing and editing many books. In their time, the

number of those who knew the Qur'an by heart greatly increased,

'° I am indebted to Dr. Ahmad `Ali al-Imäm for this information. 52 and their period was the golden era for the khalwa and Qur'änic studies. A story that illustrates this is that if somebody wanted a

written Qur'än, he would bring paper and other requirements and

give them to a few of those who knew the Qur'an by heart and

who had a similar way of writing. He would then ask each of

them to write from such and such a verse of the Qur'än up to such

and such a verse. At the end of the day he would collect all the

individual sections from them and it would make up a complete

written Qur'än in exactly the same style. One of the scholars of

this time was Daf' Allah ibn abi Idas al-`Araki" to whom most of

the branches of al-Täriga al-Qadiriya are connected in the Sudan.

Through his followers, the biggest and many of the khaläwi of the

Qur'an were founded in different parts of the country, such as the

khalwa of Umm Dubban.

§3.3. The khalwa of Umm Dubbin

Umm Dubbin is a large village east of Khartoum. It has grown up

around a khalwa founded by Shaykh Muhammad Badr (1810 -

1884 A. D. ), a Sufi of great fame and an outstanding teacher of the

Qur'an y2 Umm Dubbin is, and has been for the last century, the

" Trimingham 131,134,198. 92 It was featured in Basim Musallam's Channel 4 TV series The Arabs. See also Trimingham 220. 53 largest khalwa in the Sudan in terms of both human and financial resources. It was where I had my primary education and learnt the Qur'an by heart. It has been ignored by researchers for a long time, and nothing has come down to us about it except the limited information provided by Muhammad al-Nur Wad Dayfallah in his

Kitäb al-Tabagät. For these reasons I have taken this khalwa as a good example of the khalwa in the Sudan.

As to the origin of the name Umm Dubbän, according to reliable

Sudanese sources, when Muhammad Badr arrived for the first time to the area, he sat under a tree in which a colony of bees was nesting, so he called the place Umm Dubban. In Sudanese colloquial bees and domestic flies are both called al-dubban (al- dhubäb in Classical Arabic). The former president of the Sudan,

Nimeiri, renamed it -Umm Dawan Ban, to avoid using the word flies for this respectable place. But the original name is preferred by those attached to the place, and fits the metre of the poetry composed about it.

3.3.1. The fire of Qur'än

The khalwa of Umm Dubbän was established in 1285 by

Muhammad Badr, but his teaching the Qur'an started twenty one

54 years before that in1264 when he asked his follower al-Faki

Muhammad ibn al-Hajj to kindle the fire of Qur'an in al-Nakhayra, an agricultural area to the east of Umm Dubbin.

The words Shaykh, Khalifah and Faki have specific meanings in Umm

Dubban. Shaykh means Shaykh al-Tariqa and on its own it means

Muhammad Badr. It may also mean the pupils who later on become r Shaykh al-Tariga by the order of the Shaykh. Sometimes, however, the

title Shaykh can be given out of respect to a ruler or even to an outside

official. Khalifah means the man chosen to be in charge after the

death of his predecessor. He has to be from the sons of the Shaykh or

his grandsons and their male children. The word Faki (cf. faqih) is a

scholar or someone who knows the Qur'än by heart. He might be from

the Shaykh's sons or not, although the sons of the Shaykh who became

Khalifahs or Shaykhs had their title changed from Faki to Khalifah or Shaykh.

The fire of Qur'an is a fire set to logs of wood during the night to

enable the pupils of a khalwa to recite the Qur'an, since this study

is mainly at night and at dawn. The above mentioned Faki

Muhammad ibn al-Hajj lit the fire for a year. He was followed by

al-Faki Balla for another year, then his brother al-Faki

Muhammad for a year, then al-Khälifa Ahmad ibn al-Shaykh

Muhammad for two years, after which the al-Faki Balla returned

to light the fire for four years. Al-Khalifa `Ali al-Karär ibn al-

Shaykh Muhammad then lit it for one year followed by al-Faki

55 `Abd al-Rahmän ibn al-Fakir Muhammad a1-Muhalläwi for eleven years.

A new era of the fire of the Qur'an then started when al-Shaykh moved from al-Nakhayrah to Umm Dubbän, where it settled and more effort was paid to it. Hajj al-Tayyib took over as Shaykh.

He had great knowledge and respect, and continued in his teaching for eleven years, after which his brother `Abbas succeeded him for six years. The process of teaching the Qur'an at

Umm Dubbän continued under the supervision of the following

men one after another:

al-Faki `Abd al-Rahnian Handöl (four years)

al-Faki Muhammad al-Häjj Nur (four years)

al-Khalifah Hasab al-Rasiil ibn al-Shaykh Muhammad Badr

(forty years till his death in 1349)

al-Faki Klialid (eight years till his death in 1357)

al-Faki Harlin `Umar(till 1963 A. D. )93

al-Faki `Ali Salih (till 1984 A. D. )

al-Faki `Uthmän al-Rayyah - in charge of the fire of the Qur'än

till the present time.

Those who chair the teaching in the khalwa need assistance from

93 He was the one who taught me the Qur'an.

56 those who recite the Qur'än by heart. They help in teaching as in khalwa In well as managing the . some cases, they will become Shaykh, such as al-Faki Khälid and al-Faki Harlin. There were others who expended considerable efforts in teaching but did not succeed in becoming Shaykh. This may be due to early death, such as al-Faki Ibrahim Muhammad in the time of al-

Khalifa Hasab al-Rasul or due to leaving the job of teaching in the khalwa, such as al-Faki Muhammad al-Bashir `Amr and al-Faki al-

Tahir al-Rubätäbi.

The following are the Khalifahs94 of Shaykh Muhammad Badr from his sons, with their dates of birth:

Khalifah Ahmad 1245

Khalifah `Ali 1252 a1-Kar .rä r Khalifah Hasab al-Rasü1 1282

Khalifah Mustafa 1288

From his grandsons - Khalifah Yüsüf `Amr.

The system of choosing the Khalifah during the time of the

Shaykh's sons was that the eldest son should be Khalifah, unless

he gives up his right to the next in line. This happened with

14 i. e. the leaders of the Sufi tariga 57 Shaykh `Abbas who relinquished his right to become Khalifah to his younger brother Hasab al-Rasul. After the death of the last son of the Shaykh, Khalifah Mustafa, the grandsons decided to follow a new procedure in choosing the new Khalifah. This was to choose one of the grandsons of the Shaykh whose father had not had a chance to become Khalifah although he had had all the requirements of becoming one. It was unanimously agreed that

Khalifah Yüsuf al-Faki `Amr be chosen. After his death, some difficulties arose with choosing the new Khalifah due to external intervention, but they were solved by choosing two Khalifahs, al-

Tahir al-Shaykh al-Tayyib and al-Faki `Amr, a brother of Khalifah Yusuf.

3.3.2. Enrolment and teaching procedures in the khal wa

There are few restrictions for attendance at the khalwa. People of different age groups may enrol, for instance, some are in their teens and others in their fifties. There is no specific time to apply, nor any application forms for enrolment. It is open all the year and joining the khalwa can be at any time and from any place, village, city, or even from outside the Sudan. Those who are from the village usually stay at their homes and simply attend the

58 khalwa, but those who are outsiders are provided with free accommodation and meals. The ability of the student and his intellect will determine the period necessary for him to stay in the khalwa. He graduates from the khalwa when he has learnt the Qur'än by heart.

A mature prospective applicant usually comes without a written request, and greets the Khalifah, -telling him that he wants to study the Qur'an. If the Khalifah accepts, he will answer him by saying

"Khayr in sha' Alläh", andl order one of the students to take the newcomer to Shaykh al fugarä' who will consider that the acceptance of this student has been approved since the new student is accompanied by an older student sent by the Khalifah.

This is for a mature student, but for younger ones their father or guardian will follow this procedure until the new student is received by Shaykh al fugarä'. The Shaykh al fugara' will ask some questions to ascertain the level of the new student particularly in connection with learning the Qur'än by heart. Also through the discussion he will find out the personality, way of

thinking and the environment which the newcomer has been raised in. The Shaykh al fugara' will then call one of the old

students whom he thinks is the most suitable one to share

accommodation etc. with the new student. The old student will

then greet and receive the new student and a new bed will be

59 provided. After settling down, the old student will bring the new one back to the Shaykh al-hirän who will give him a wooden writing board, which differs in size depending on the level of the new student. Bigger wooden writing boards are given to those of an advanced level of education, and smaller ones for the beginners.

If the new student has already made advances in learning the

Qur'an by heart, then he will become directly attached to the

Shaykh al-hirän or to one of his assistants, but the beginner is usually attached* to an older student appointed by the Shaykh. * The new student will be called huwär and will be considered a pupil of the older one.

The advanced student may have many beginners (hiran) under his supervision. He usually starts them with the basics of the alphabet. Sometimes he writes on the soil and other times he sticks date stones to a wooden writing board (law/. ), to show the pupils the shapes of the letters, and asks them to run their pens around the date stones, to teach them writing skills. After becoming familiar with the alphabet the Shaykh will transfer the

pupil to a higher level which is called al-ramya. This level has two

categories, one is very simple and the other one is an ordinary

level. The simple level is run by the Shaykh who pronounces the

word to be written by the pupils each letter separately. He may

also mention that this letter is connected to that one or is

60 separated from the other letter and so on. For example, the

Shaykh says, "al-hamdu lilah" then he says, "write hamza". The pupil replies, "sayyiduna hamza" then the Shaykh says, "1äm", where, upon the pupil will write lam and will say, "sayyidunä him". and so on. The word sayyiduna is pronounced with'imala in the khalwa according to the narration of al-Duri. It is mainly used in the conversation with the Shaykh either for the sake of al-ramya or in general conversation. The ordinary ramya is conducted by the Shaykh by pronouncing a whole word such as wal-duha. The pupil then writes the word and after he has finished writing, says the word wal-duha, whereupon the Shaykh says the next word or words, i. e. wallayii idhä sajä. ' The ramya can be for one pupil or ten or more at any one time. It may also involve different chapters of the Qur'an, and each pupil will reply in turn to avoid confusion. The Shaykh knows the level of his pupils, so he may stop one of them at a certain word or ask another to write an extra line or two.

The period of al-ramya ends when the pupil has learnt to read and write and when he has developed the skill of learning by heart.

The Shaykh then asks his pupil to start learning al-mutala`a. This means it is now compulsory for this particular pupil to learn by himself, since the period of receiving knowledge from the Shaykh is now over, and it is time to rely on himself. Al-mutäla`a is a

61 specific amount of the Qur'in for a student to write on his wooden writing writing board for the next morning. For those who are not jus" q C, t learning by heart, it is about one eighth or sixteenth ofLthe Qur'an, which they write on the following morning. The Shaykh or one of the elder students will read the section out loudly, and the student will follow by listening and looking at his writing on the wooden writing board. He then spends his day learning that part of the

Qur'an and the following morning erases what has been written, ready for the next session. The beginners usually sit in a circle round their Shaykhs for al-ramiya. The advanced student will have his own writing board and usually separates himself from others to write what he has learnt from al-mutäla`a. The Shaykh watches those who are doing al-mutäla`a from a distance so that they -do not -cheat. They are only -allowed to ask one or two

-questions. Exceeding -these limits will -result in punishment for the student who did not prepare his mutala`a very well. After finishing writing on the writing board the process of correction begins, called al-sahha. The beginners will give their writing boards to the advanced students. The advanced students will give theirs to the Shaykh al-hirtin or to one of his assistants. The writings are checked thoroughly for the shape of letters, and any errors. Commendations, reminders and other comments will be made and in some cases they will ask the pupil to clear this writing board and re-write the subject again if there is large number of

62 mistakes. The Shaykh will then write on one side of the writing board what is required to be written by the student for the next day. He writes in a beautiful way so that the student may be able to follow or copy the same style. He also notes that this particular writing board has been corrected. The student who does not correct his writing errors will face punishment. The punishment will be harsher if the student writes on the space left for the

Shaykh's writings. Writing may vary from a few lines for the beginners, a sixteenth for other ones which is called kharuba, an eighth for those of intermediate level, and two eighths for those

about to graduate, called maqara.

Those whose writing boards have been corrected will go back to

their writing boards to continue reading and reciting until eleven

o'clock in the morning. This period is called al-dahwiyya. After

that the is dismissed to to take food student .h accommodation and rest and to prepare themselves for the coming period which is

called al-duhriya. This starts from al-zahira 94 and is for the

student to read from his writing board to the Shaykh. The student

reads in a loud voice, continous looking. at his writing board to

ensure he reads correctly.

The next period is called al-`asriya, from the time of al-'asr. This is

" zä' is usually pronounced as dad. 63 for learning the mutäla'a. The following period is called al- maghribiya, from the time of al-maghrib. This period is for al-

`arda which is when the student recites by heart to the Shaykh what is written in his writing board without looking at it. The time of al-` isha' is called the period of al-scab`. This period is for the advanced students to read a seventh of the Qur'an which they have learnt by heart, lest they forget what they have learnt. This period ends at ten o'clock in the evening. Supper is then served followed by bed-time.

Th enext period is called al-daghshiya. For Sudanese in general this means the time for morning prayer al-fajr, but here it starts one hour before al fajr. This is to give time for revision and a last chance for al-'arda for those who were unable to show their writing boards the night before. This is called al-daghshiya al- kubra. The other is called al-du. hshiya al-sughra and it starts

after morning prayer and lasts until sunrise when all writing

boards are cleaned and ready for a fresh start as with the day

before. This is the daily programme except for Thursday and the

Friday which is the weekly holiday. The other exceptions are the

two Eids, when each student has a break of fifteen days.

Each year many students graduate on completing learning the

Qur'än by heart. They have to pass an exam before the Shaykh

64 al-hirän in which they have to recite the whole Qur'an by heart to the satisfaction of the Shaykh al-hiran. If any fail, the Shaykh asks him to take his writing board back and to start again. This is called

`awda. Graduates usually stay in touch with their Shaykhs and with the khalwa. They show great respect to Shaykhs and the khalwa since they offered these graduates the best thing in the life of a Muslim which is learning the Qur'än by heart. Also provided was the accommodation, food and a parental care. These facilities are provided to more or less two thousand students. The most recent figure is one thousand and seven hundred students.

Through the graduates of Umm Dubban many khaläwi have been . established which have had great success in teaching many students to know the Qur'än by heart, and in directing the public towards Islamic knowledge and behaviour. Examples of these other khaläw are the khalwa of wad Abü Salih, from which the greatest reader of the Qur'an in the Sudan graduated, Shaykh Sicldiq

Ahmad Hamadün; the khalwa of Abü Qurün and the khalwa of

Shaykh Mustafa al-Fäd ni. These three khaläwi are on the East bank of the River Nile. In al-Jazira there are the kh al wa of Umm

Daqras, the khalwa of al-'idayy4 and the khalwa of al-Nakhayra al- Thaniya.

65 3.3.3. The role of the khalwa in preserving the reading of Abu 'Amr.

The reading of Abi `Amr has been preserved only in the Sudan, and this is solely thanks to the khalwa. The reasons are:

1. At the time the khaläwi expanded rapidly the Reading of Abi

`Amr was the only one for them to learn and to teach.

2. The khalwa in the Sudan is independent from the government with its own financial resources, whereas in many other parts of the Islamic world, the State can impose upon educational institutions and even on scholars.

3. The strictest discipline is imposed on the pupils of the khalwa to prevent intermixing the different Readings.

4. The loyalty of the khaläwi to each other. The new khalwa will follow the footsteps of the old one, since they have the same resources of knowledge. This knowledge has enormous influence on the pupils since it has been inherited by fathers and forefathers and it is unacceptable for any of it to be lost.

5. The continuity of the khaläwi. Before one khalwa becomes old, 66 a new one is established.

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157 Endnotes

Endnotes to p. 6 .4%M J.,.JI t

Endnotes to p. 8 .AV : L. -JI I

Endnotes to p. 10 LKJ I &3L 1 -_, &.4 J OJcSI

Endnotes to p. 16

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