UNIT 9 DANCE

Objectives Introduction Dance: Attributcs 9.2.1 The.ory 9.2.2 Technique Dance: Historical Evolution 9.3.1 Archaeological Evidence 9.3.2 Literary Evidcncc Indian Classical Dance 9.4.1 Bharatnatyam 9.4.2 Kathak 9.4.3 Kathakali Let Us Sum Up Answers to Check Your Prog~ Exe

OBJECTIVES

Dances of India are a very important tourist attraction especially for those who have an interest in the'cultural richness of India. Our purpose in this Unit is to acquaint you with dance as an art form. After reading thc Unit you will be able to: a know the theory and techniques of Indian dance forms, a trace the history of Indian classical dances, and a understand thc distinctive features of some of the main styles of classical dances inIndia.

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Dance is nearly as old an art as the human civilization is. It has always been a part of the life of Indian people. Our religious literature rccognized dance as an important activity in the human search for god. The relics of earliest civilization in India clearly demonstrate the importance of dance. In the later period too dance remained at the forefront of all the fine arts. We learn about it from the sculptures, from the paintings, as also from numerous textual treatises on the art of dance.

In its simplest and most obvious form and meaning, a dance is the physical expression of the The art of the dance emotive content of music. The pleasure of music is in the 1istcning;the pleasure of dancing exists in the instant of is in watchingthat music take a bodily shape and express its meaning in a visual experience. execution. A dancer's It is a miracle of both movement and stillness, of music and of silence, the dancer taking you life is focussed on this instant of execution. int.0 hisher innermost confidence. (Martha Graham, Letter to the World). In this Unit we shall take a closcr look at this art form, called dance. The focus of our discussion shall be the classical dances of India.

9.2 DANCE: ATTRIBUTES

For such an ancient art as the dance, a study of the main attributes is essentially a matter of selection. We, therefore, focus on two main themes viz. the theory and the technique of dance in this section.

In Indian literary tradition there is no dearth of critical writings on the art of dance. Both, at the level of theory and technique, the texts provide valuable information. But the most important and also fundamental amongst all these works is Natyashastra. It was composed by Bharat, a sage, and its date is generally believed to fall between the 2nd century B.C. and I Fine Arb 2nd century A.D. (in all probability around thc 1st century A.D.) Most of the information on theory and technique given here is thus bascd on the same text.

n 9.2.1 Theory

The theory of Indian dance is holistic in its exposition and cannot be understood in isolation, without taking into account the technique of the dance. At thc level of the technique, the art of dance has to bc comprehended as an interesting synthesis of the arts of sculpture, painting, music, and evcn literature. The dance texts do not deal with the technique in isolation of one or all of the above. All the treatises, in fact, consider dance as one amongst many communication techniques. The Natyashastra thus states categorically, about dance, in the following words: This art will be enriched by the teachings of every scripture (shastra) and will give a review of all arts and crafts.

The theory of dance is an integral part of the tradition of drama (natya). It is, therefore, imperative to understand the conception.of the drama to be able to realise the implications of the integrating character of the dance. At a very early stage of development dance and drama fused themselves into one. Thus, by the time Natyashastra was composed, the dance was very much a part of drama. Evidently in the text then both appear as one - consciously conceived as one. They also have numerous points of contact. The theory of Indian dance has actually to be picked out and its principles selected with discriminatian from the entire technique of drama prescribed by Bharata (Kapila Vatsyayan, Indian Classical Dance, Publications Division, New Delhi, 1992).

There are three broad principles that govern the structure of Indian dance:

The mode of presentation modes (dharmis) stage way (natya) way of the world (loka)

Types of styles (vrittis) graceful (kaiseki) grand (sattavati)

There are nu limitations energetic (arabhati) of theme or content of verbal (bharati) dance since it depicts the exploits of the gods, asuras and kings as well Types of acting (abhinaya) gestures (angika) as of ordinary human vocal (vachiak) beings. It. range exiends to the seven divisions of stageprops (acharya) the world (Sapta dvipa) and thus, when the temperament (sattvika) entire limitless range of haman nature with its It is, infact, a combination of all or most of these principles which characterises the classical joys and sorrows is dance. The Natyashastra, as has been said above, does not discuss these in the context of depicted through dance or drama done. This division si sto be seen later texts such as Abhimaya Darpan, which gestures etc., it is called drama (natya). deal with dance as an independant art. The treatment given to dance in Abhinaya Darpan becomes a standard for almost all later writers/commentators. Thus Sharangdeva, and the texts like Vishnudhahmottara Purana and Natyashastra Sangraha more or less accept the same treatment and analysis.

9.2.2 Technique

According to Sangitratnakar, Abhinaya Darpana and other medieval treatises, dancing is divided into three distinct categories namely nntya, nritya and nritta. Natya corresponds to drama and nritya to gesticulation when it is performed to the words sung in a musical melody. Nritta corresponds to pure dancing, where the movements of the body do not express any mood (bhava) and do not convey any meaning. All these aspects use movements of the limbs and poses of the humari body as their medium.

The other type of distinction stated by these texts is that of tandava and lasya. Hence the technique of classical Indian dancing can be classified either under nritya, nritta and natya or tandava and lasya. These terms are prevalent among practising dancers, and we find thdt dancers from all parts of our country speak an identical language of basic technique, even though there may be serious variations in their interpretation. ~. 9. ., . r.. . r . . Dance two clear heads - pure dancing ,. It would be more appropriate

I.. 8......

Indian dancing mks to depict (ht perfect point the full ' or moment of balance ~~di~along the vertical mecUan (brahmsntra) so much so tbat all movemcnls return to llw? sama or point of prkrt balance akin lo (he samabhangn of sculptwe. Indfan danct concerns iL4tUwitb (hc movement of the humen

, , . ,, , , . - form in direct relation lo the pull of gmvviiy. Such , ! a conception accounts for ihe absence of great > -A- - . . A .- . . -....~~-.- .,-.. , -L. .>A .: ;y?,&! %,i<1-ps gu- movements in the ah, m Ths-' aspect of the natya ternied as aqpikabhipaya in the ~~sh:&&i$ :&+ cb=acteM* of 1.e - Western ballet. (Kapila bqal part of dancing. In danm (nrib.) it is know&~&$bhimya.Same pr@cip&, ,..A ' , 1, '. . <* . .... Vatsyaypn)

b 4h and nritya or abhinaya. .~ ~ , )! drama . '- ,.A. . . .j

' h4nritra portion, musical a&mPanknent utilizes m&ns of a.melady in a giveir~ythib ': qcle-:(tala) and the variations of tala are interpreted by the feet and the other angas ,pd Iim s of the body. In theabhinaya portion, the m~~accompanimentinvariablycodsts or narrative, which is set to music and rhythm. It is this poetry wkich is petation, especially in the solodancing of all various transient stat~~~.(?en~hariBlp~)~dl a). This is done through a word or line of poetry is interpreted in as natyadharmi is fully fogowed - tht.&mcer'assumes of dress or costume. ..,!. . , -.?. .,. , . '.I . . .wvements &f the angas and upasgrrs the nritya m abhinaya. portion mI ege@u-eof the hands and face especially the ntovemea-tsof the... eyes, . .

dance is as complex as the technique of *@hei art in India. ft o a composite whole by'a series of laws appli.e4,syktematidy.

a pariicular stage af mind or rasa. ' ' . ,. I i - I 1. ~. > . j. ,. - Check Your Prqpem-1 n . . 7,;. 1) ~&e~~&esontti~thWryof~n~dance. % &.*--. !,$:;:c*~< . . *?3* ...... *. w-s. .Y,': > 2) What is the difference between nritta adabhiaaya?

8 The histmy of Indian classical dance ddsfrom the earliest days of pniwnt d4y. India's prehistory and pr* - fact. For -pie there is the dancing @ Hafappa$@ad suggestive of dance pose the;VetW+~don the art of dance. Dance as a profession, and as a said acti~ylsasbn associated with all sgdicant moments d the cycle of life. Dance Roughly spc:aking vie can tracc thc hisiory of dai~ceinto three main time divisions. o The carly pcriod comprises ~hcevidenct: found in the cave paintings, engravings, the evidence of Harappan civilization and the literary cvidencc which can be had from the Vedas, the Upanisl~ads,the E)rahrn3ns, and the epics. e The sccc~ndperiod is from the second cen!ury B.C. to the ninth century A.D. This inciudcs rhc cvidcnct: available f;om Buddhist stupas such as those of Bharhut, Sanchi, !3haja, Amravati, and Nagarjunkonda, and the caves of Ellora and the temples in different parts 01' India from Kash~nirto Orissa. specially, the early Gupla temples and those of Bhul~antlshwara. e Tlc third period - from the tcnth or clcvcnth to the cightilenth century A.D. - period incluties carly mcdie:.ai and iatc rnedieval monuments. *Nhi!i- there arc no literary records vf the prc-historic pcriiltl, in the later half of thc liist period (Vedic India) and in the scconld period, Sanskrit exercised outstanding i11flu~:nceon the intellectual and ctrtistic iifc of the people and its rich literature manifested the all-round development of the arts in the country. This may be considered as a pcriod of unity along with the cmcrgence of somc regional styles. In the third period, therc was a marked development of rcgional architectural, sculptural, pictoria,l music and clance styles along with :he development of regional iitc1-ature.

9.3.1 Archaeological and Literary Evih

It was in thc scccind period th& there ~m&~.%rstartico1atbp.q -pf &~I~-co& undcrsianding of dance as an art: l'Bk'a,~dNatpa~htr~~it.. We find that therc was an cflort at s:yfizationaltB rclicfs show that they had arrived at a, rcpcatcd. ?'hc motifs in thesculptural tra 2nd Yahhani and many othcrs; all thesc Krishna. In Bharhut, Sanchi, Mathu Yaksl~nis who stand against trcc anid,, ;ind womcn ~rcsccn in' the dance pl~~e. I: is also the period of the cmer dnd goddesses cspccially Siva, has a dance aspcct popular1 sculputral evidence of the sc must havc becn c~ntralto the cube for inspired to arrcst it iu stoilc repeatedly. . . 'To this second peri~dalso beiongcd thc construction of stupas and rc~nplcs.Diffcrcnt aspccts of lire havc becn dcpicted on thc raiiings and gates of stupas, and the walls of the temples. Amongst these arc the motif of dancer, the dance recital as also the dancing aspect (4god and goddess. The Orissan tcmpic:~of Bhubaneswara and cven earlier the stupas of Ratnagiri tell us of the prc-occupation of the sculptor with the image of dancc. The tcmples oT Raja-Rani, of I'srasuramcswara, and of Lingraja - all rcvcrbcrate with music and c.i;~nce. :nnumerabic figures entwined with trecs or pillar holding Illrds! standing cn animals or dwarfs smiling or more serious, are depicted in pancl after pancl on the outer wails of these templcs. Looked at closely, one is impressed by the fact that the sculptor was nut only a kcen ob:icrvcr of movement, but was also a self-conscious illustrator of the basic positions i.e. the sthanas and the fundamental movements calicd thc charis dcscribcd in thc Nalyashastra. The monuments of Central India especially those of Khajuraho built by Chandelcs and, Udaycshwar of the Parmaras belonging to the 11th and 12th centuries also present a wide array of movement patterns from solo standing figures to figures in arrlhamandali, Lo groups and finally to the most iinprcssivc series ol [lying figures, lcaves a staggering impression of thc popularity of ii::ncc. l'hcsc sculptors and painters record in stone and in painting, through line and colour, what no chronicle could record in words. This tradition continues in mini,:~urcpainting. Some are inspired by Buddhist texts other by Jaina themes and yet others by Hindu Puranic myths and legends. The evidence of dancein mural paintings ranges from the famous dance scenes of Bagh. caves to Ajanta, Ellora and Pannamalai.

93.2 Literary Evidence This impression of the pervasive popularity of the dance motif is further reinforced by the evidence available in Sanskrit literature of the classical period. In the epics Ramayana and the Mahabhamt, many dance performances are prescribed. In the works of poets Bhasa, Kalidas, and others, until1 the time of Harsha, we encounter many precise descriptions of dancers and dance recitals. From all this, one can gather that the poet and the dramatist were equally well-versed in the technical intricacies of dance. They appreciated the aesthetic beauty and drew upon this art to structure their play on poetic or dramatic edifice. None of the plays of Kalidas, Bhavbhuti, and Harsha had been conceived of as drama dependent on the spokesword alone. The communication system employed by the writer takes into account not only the verbal communication through gestures, costume$, decor alone but all the inner states of bingwhich are reflected in involuntary expressions. This tradition was established in India many centuries prior to the writing of the plays of Bhasa or Kalidas. This is evident from the codification of these communication techniques in the first treatise on dramaturgy i.e. the Natyashastra. This tradition continuous in the plays of Bhavabhuti and Harsha and culminates in the work of Rajshekhara. Many examples of this could be cited from the Dance dramatic works of the 10th century A.D. Karpuramanjari is the example of this where the dramatic form, chiefly utilizing the verbal hand, gives place to the musical play. Now it is clcar that the musical play was an important genre in the Sanskrit tadition. However, its full and vigorous flowering took place only in the early and the late medieval period say 9th century A.D and continuing until 11th and 12th century A.D.

In the 9th and 10th century a commentary of Natyashastra by Abhinavagupta was written. The commentary of Abhinavagupta began a new phase of the evolution of different theories of aesthetic and artistic creation.

From the 13th century onwards one can find manuals on dance from practically every region of the country. Even a superficial study of these manuals emphasizes two broad facts; first, that despite regional variations all schools subscribed to the basic principles of the Natyashastra tradition. The dance continued to be divided intonatya and nritta onone hand and into tandava and lasya on the other. The second is that, although they continued to follow these broad principles, many distinctive regional styles evolved and each region ultimately developed a distinctive vocabulary. This second fact led to the formulation of different classical styles in India. The beginning of the contemporary classical styles - be it Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Manipuri, Odissi, or Kathak - can be traced back to developments in the medieval period, roughly dating from 1300 A.D. to 1800 A.D. (Kapila Vatsyayan)

The recent revival of interest in dance, developed as a sign of national pride in the glories of indigenous art and culture, helped the development and popularity of our various dance styles. During the past five decades many layers of the past artistic glory have been uncovered. The digging continues and each time one delves deeper, a greater treasure is discovered.

EzxlCheck Your Progress-2 1) What is the nature of archaeological evidence on dance in India?

2) Discuss the information on dance available in the literary sources...... -- 9.4 INDLAN CLASSICAL DANCE SIWJES

In this Section we present the details of three more prominent and popular styles of Indian classical dances.

9.4.1 Rharatnatyam

Rharatnatyam is perhaps the oldest among the contemporary classical dance forms of India. Its claim to antiquity rcsts not on the name which is derived from the name Bharata and thus associated with the Natyashastra, but on the overwhelming literary, sculptural and historical evidencc availablc.

The Rharatnatyam dancer's repertoire is extensive. It is fair' i well established that the dance was performed both as a solo dance and in rrll)lrp. tiowever, the present form of Rharatnatyam crystalized as a solo dancc aboul the 19th century, primarily through remarkable contribution of tour brothers from Tanjore - Chinnaya, Phnnayya, Vadivelu and Sivanandam.

In the villages, Bharatnatyam continued as part of the presentation of the Bhagvata Mela tradition in the villagcs of Piellore, Melattured, Soolmangalam etc. However, here only it was menwho perforriled the dance. The efforts ofE.Krishna Jycr and later cf other pioneers, lit a small torch for a new awareness. On this sccne came othcrs from very different background. Rukmani Devi decided to study Bharatnatyam under the grand old mastcr Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai and from Mylapura Gauri Amma. In 1936 she gavc her first performance. This was the lighting of a new fire. Finally, there was the emergcnce of dancers from the families of the traditional repositories. The most important amongst them werc Devadasis who decided to perform in the public. ~husBaiasaraswati gave her first public performance outs~dcthe traditional milieu in Varansi in 1935.

The post Independence period was an era of revival and reconstruction. Institutions begun by Rukmani Devi, recitals performed by Balsaraswati and disciples trained by Meenakshi sundaram Pillai, such as Shanta Rao, all left a deep impact. Some continued the tradition of their peers others reconstructed and rccornbined fragments they found intcl a new whole.

Normally, a recital opens with alarippu, considered a creation. It is performed, beginning with perfect repose and an attitude of perfect equilibrium (sambhanga) in thc standing posture. The movements of neck shoulder and arms are introduced with -great charm. Thc movements of all major and minor limbs are employed in their simplest forms. The basic attitudc of these items is obeisance to the God of Dancc.

In thc ncg~piece called jatiswaram, the performer wcaves several pat terns on a basic musical composition. The basic material patterns (talas) which guide the music also guide the dancers. Here the dancer introduces for the first time, full scquence of various types of adavus or dancc cadence.

Thc piece that follows is called sabdam, again a composition of Carnatic music. Hcre thc dancer perfcrms to a song and introduces mime. The miming is deliberately clcmcntary and only the literal illustration of the word ib presented through movemcnt. The end sequences of this short number are of pure dance and serve as a bridge between the pure nritta composition like the alarippu and the jatiswarm on the one hand and thc major composition of the varnam on the other.

After having introduced substantially all elements of the dance, the dancer proceeds to render the varnam, which is easily the most intricate and complcx number. The varnam provides thc fullest scope to the dancer to improvise on a given theme. Like the jatiswaram and sabdam this varnam is esscntially a musical composition rendered through dance.

9.4.2 Kathak

Kathak is one of the most popular dance forms of North India. It is also called as the Natwari dance. The genesis of this dance is commonly traced from the word Kathak figuring in ancient Sanskrit lexicons. It indicated the existence of a community of story-tellers through enacting the various parts of the story. The Jain religious literature also mentions a specific category of people - the entertainers - through a word Kahag. In its present form Kathak Dance was developed a~~dgiven ptronagc in the court of thc Nawabs of Awadh. One noticeable deviation from the original structure of Kathak during its growth in Awadh is the preponderance of scnsuous elements. Musiczl forms such as tappa and thumri now provided the rhythmic bdse for the dance. The two percussion instruments that have come to be used heavily in Kathak performances are tabla and pauawaj.

The dance is composed cf three basic parts - the dance yerse, movement (gat), and the cnactment (abhinaya). The dance is only rhythmic play of the different parts of body. Movement (gat) is the depiction of, primarily, the Krishna Leela through facial expressions in consonance "with different posturcs of hands and arms. The feet respond to the musical rhythm by thumping thc ground. Enactmect (abhinaya) is the climax. Here the dancer sings and through different dance postures enacts the story.

The costume used in Kathak is generally a brilliant sherwani (long coat), churidar pajama (tight breaches), a decorated cap and angarakha (fine tunic) ctc. The Muslim and Rajput impact is clearly visiblc on the costume.

ICathak has been promoted through three main gharanas - Lucknow, Jaipur, and Banaras. In fact the Jaipur and Ranaras gharanas owe their origin to the L,ucknowgharana. The kings of Kathak, Lachhu Mahami and Sharnbhil Maharaj, belong to Lucknow. This gharana was founded by their grandfathcr Maharaj Thakur Prasad, who was a courtier and the dance tcacher of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. His two sons, Maharaj Kalka Prasad and Rindadin did yeoman service to the cause of Katbak. Some of the other important artists have been Birju Maharaj, Ciopi Krishna. Sitara Devi, Damvanti Joshi, etc.

9.4.3 Kathakali Kathakali is the dance from the southcrnmost state of India - its centre has been the region of Kerala and Malabar. The genesis of the word Kathkali is generally traced to a combination of Katha and Keli, the literal meaning of which is dance-drama. This tradition of dance-drama has been popular in the Malabar region primarily in the form of Krishna and Rama ballets. The same folk-art was rechristened, in the 17th century A.D., by the ruler of Travancore State, Manaraja Veerkeral Verma, as Kathkali. The lyrics used in this dance secm to be influenced very largely by Jaidev's Gita-Govinda.

This dance form, curiously, is an exclusive domain of the male dancers. Even femal~roles in the story line are performed to perfection by male artists. In support of the performance of dance, a group of singers keep continuonsly reciting the poems and epics. The artists who perform Kathkali do not sing the lines themselves. The actions are all executed in sileiice by the artists, only through the poses and postures of body and face. These dance postures are more complex than those used in Bharatnatyam.

One of the peculiarities of this dance form is its costume and very elaborate make-up of the face. In this respect Kathkali has presented and also kept alive and concinued the ancient dance- dramas of Keraia, such as Chakkiyarkuthu and Kuttiyattam. The face is mostly painted with red and yellow and the eyes and eye- lashes are adorned with lincs in white all around. These white tines arc known as Chuttee. The head-dress in Kathkali is of special significance as it also defines the hicrarchical status of differcnt artists participating in the performance.

The dance is performed all thiough the night on a stage which is simple yet specially designed for Kathkali. A large brass lantern is invariably hung on the stage. The beginning of the performance is preceded by Chaidakaran, a ritual playing of drums. Traditionally the stage prescntation of this dance was immediately preceded by a practice session called sevakali and undertaken in the precincts of a temple.

Late Shankaram Namboodiri and Gopinath have been kthkali artists of repute. In the

I propagation of this dance form late Vallatol, the famous poet and dancer of Kerala had done r tireless work. He had made it suitable to the requircments of changing time;. An 1 organization. known as Keral Kala Mandalam, was set up by him and has since done commendable work. rCheck Your Progress3 1) Describe the structural composition of Bharatnatyam dance......

2) Write in the following space some of the main features of the facial make-up of Kathkali......

9.5 LET US SUM UP

Dance is part of a musical triumvirate of song, instrument and dance. The three cannot be separated yet in many ways retain individual identity. Dance can be traced, in the form of an art, from the dawn of Indian civilization. Centuries of refinements and introduction of new elements have today made dance one of the most elaborate arts. It is also sustained by a rich theoretical lexicon and vivid details of technique. Since dance is an essentially visual art, it has also found a prominent place in the rich tapestry of Indian culture. Thus sculptures on temples and paintings both mural and miniature have depicted dance in its myriad forms rather profusely.

Indian classical dances are today one of the most important tourist attractions. The ambience provided by our glorious architecture has only added to this attraction. The backdrop of our ancient and medieval monuments is an ideal foil for arranging the performances of classical dances. And this is today turning out to be a prime tourism mover.

We have also discussed in this Unit three more prominent classical dances. There are, however, several others which may merit attention. Somc of these may be listed thus: Odissi, Manipuri, Mohiniattam, etc.

9.6 ANSWERS TQ CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES nCheck Your Progress-1 1) See Sub-Sec.9.2.2

2) See Sub-Sec.9.2.3

UNIT 10 MUSIC

lob! Objeh. l02i Mwicinhdia-S

10.22 No& Indian and Camat& Styles 103 Music - Essential Elemeats 103.1 Sound (!jwara) , 103.2 Beat (Tael)

I t&. Thus music has brdtn gt&@ ,m . r'3. /.I ..,... Music :;eetam, Vaadyarn, Nrityam, Trayam, Sangeet, Muchyate. i.c. the music is composed of three. basic parts - the vocal, the instrument anci the dance.

It is true that all these three forms of art are interrelated though all have also grown and developed somewhat independently. Since sound is the common feature of all, it is generally understood that music comprises all the three .

10.2.1 Marg and Desi Music:

It is an interesting fact that Indian music, since very beginning develuped along two parallel 4treams. One ol , ' IC stream used masic a1)undantly in the religious ceremonies while the other equally rich tradition is that of recourse to music during popular festivals or on occasions for public entertainment. The fcrmer is known as marg music ::lid the latter is called desi.

'The two streams, we may like you to understand. did not remain independent of each other. The truth is that the fonthead of both has been popular music and therefore there is no diffcrcncc in thcir parentage. Since rcllgious ceremonies gradually became the monopoly of a specialized group, the marg strcam in some ways distanced itself from the multitudes of pcoplc and latcr came to be designated as classical. Unlike this the other strcam viz. desi remaincd in the domain of people and gained great popularity in a variety of forms in all regions of Ind'a,

To further clarify the difference we would iikc to cquate marg music with the rather quiet soulful flow of the water of a river like Ganga or Godavari. In today's context the musical styles such as Dhrupad and Iihayal will be known as marg music. Unlike this the desi genre is like the free flowing, sonorous streams in the hills. The only controlling features in this kind of music are the regulations of popular tastc. One of tile significant markings on desi music is the variety of sounds that it incorporates. Modern singing of GhazaSs and Thumaris may be classified as falling under desi music.

It is today an acceptable fact ihat marg and ciesi music stylcs are inter-re!ated. Both are esserltially based on popular music. It is only when a particular kind of refinements begin to inrrude and such a strearn acquires the interest of thc clitcs of a society that elen~ents classicism get imbued in it and make it marg music. It soon gets a grammar and finds avid followers among thc more disciplined practitioners of this art form. it is also a much ack~iowledgedfact ihat the life line of this classical form is always connected with popular music, from where all kinds of new and fresh elements are continually integrated into it to makc if a throbbing, lively genre. The ragas and raginis, reiated musical instruments and even the other elements of fine arts such as dance are all generous contributions of the evcrgrccn popular musical forms. We must remember that for classical forms to grow and reach greater heights it is absolutely essential that they kecp a livewire contact with the popular forms and tastes and also occasionally mould their contours accordingly. any laxity on this count is always at the risk of becoming static and soulless. Some of the known classical forms of Indian music owe their gcnesis to specific. regiona.1 styles that were in vogue is not so a distant part now. Thus, for instance, the Khayal style, during the era of Dhrupad music was rated as a form semi-ciasaical or cven non-classical in character. Gradually, and with the inclusion of newer elements, as also under great popular pressure, Khayal got elevated to the status of a full-fledged classical musical form. Similar, if not identical, histories cail be traced for categories like Ghazal, and Thumri and Dadra. The acceptability of these different styles or sub-styles in the classical division is best gauged by the fact that most highly rated artists today used them in their performanccs with great clan. Some of the most popular forms such as Chaiti, Kajri or Rasiya, are today equally acceptable to these artists and hence find a place in the classical stylc. We would, infact, like to suggest that no iormationls in the realm of fine arts may be considered eternal. there has to be a continuous interaction between classical md popular forms for the former to survive and move onwards. The inclusion of ragas like Khamaj, Wlambhavati, Kafi, Piloo, Maand, Malavi or Sarang in the category of classical music is sufficient supporting evidence in favour of this contention.

Wc have, on the basis of above discussion, if given you the impression that the interaction between the two styles - marg and desi - is one way, we may immediately rectify the defect. The truth is that this exchange is a two way process. Even desi music cannot remain aloof from an unaffected by the deveiopments in the marg style. 'I'his give - and - take is much more intense than what we would have thought about. In many ways the popular musical forms today may be seen to borrow the elements of classical music so as to sustain and enliven the interest of the populace in general. It is probably for this reason that a grammatical codification of desi music has not been seriously attempted. Perhaps we should not try to locate the popular styles within such parametres. The emergence and tremendous popular support enjoyed by the Indian music (discussed at some length in Unit 13, Block-4) is a good illustration. In its use of words and the application of swar fibmusic has travelled quite a path and thus presents a fine amalgam of popular and classical forms.

10.2.2 North Indian and Carnatic Styles:

Apart from this distinction, based essentially on the content, in Indian music, we find another stylistic classification. Today two main divisions are noticeable based on such variations. These are known as North Indian and Carnatic styles. The main distinguishing feature of the two styles is the preponderance of local colours in each. This argument is sustained on the strength of an ancient text - Brihaddeshi - authored by Matang Muni wherein specific mention of the regional varieties being classified under North and South (Carnatic) is available.

Dasopant, a Marathi The North Indian and Carnatic styles owe their origin to essentially the same source. The musician and Poet difference that becomes apparent in these styles is caused by regional or local colour. A quick 16thCentury AD. refers to Carnatic or glance on the development of music over a long period of history reveals that atleast from South Indian styles as ,, the seventh century A.D. several regional variations begin to seep in. The mainstream music, distinct from North if at all there wonld have been any, was now influenced in a large measure by these new local Indian style. or regional developments. Between seventh and thirteenth century A.D. the Indian music Hemadri, the famous also came in contact with muscial styles of other countries. This was an important period, minister of Devgiri especially from the point of view of the enrichment of Indian musical tration. One particular (later Daulatabad) in influence, and the one that probably resulted in the further growth of North Indian and the 13th century AD. demarcates the region Carnatic as distinct styles, needs to be mentioned - this was the contact of Irani music and of South Indian style as related treatises with Indian musical tradition. Naresh Haripal of Saurashtra (Gujarat) lying to the South of clearly mentions these two styles of distinct streams of Indian music in his 4th century (A.D.) Krishna and Vaishya treatise called Sangeet Sudhahr. rivers. We shall now give you the distinctive and identifying features of the two styles of music. This is based on the application of different raags, Srutis, thaats and the instruments in these two styles. One major and most noticeable difference is the purity of Srutis in Carnatic style unlike the North Indian music where the Srutis tend to merge into each other at the time of rendering a raag. By the purity of Srutis is meant the rendering of the minutest sound related with a certain swara in its pure form. As against this, the practitioners of North Indian or Hindustani music often shift to lower or in some cases to upper contours of these pure Swaras, which are called as Komal (soft) or teenra (shrill) respectively. In the following table we have given a comparative detail of the placement of Swaras in the two styles. Music The other major difference in discernible in thc composition of raagas in the two systems. Carnatic style follows purity of swaras as the principal determining element in these compositions. Hindustani style on the other hand practices the merger of raagas as the central element in such compositions. Thus in some cases there are common names for raagas in the two systems while in other cases though being similar in their rendering the raagas bava different names. We list these features below. Raagas having similar names but different renderings:

Hindol, Sohani, Shree Raagas with different names but similar renderings:

Carnatic Hindustani Mohanam Bhupali Malkauns Hindolam Durga Sowari

In Hindustani style the main forms of music are Dhrupad, Khayal, Thumri, and Tarana etc. Carnatic style is dominated by Kirtanam, Kruti, Jawali and Tillana. Moreover in Carnatic style the performer gives equal importance to Swara and Shabd while the Hindustani style gives precedence to Swara over Shabd.

During the past one century or so the two styles have also come closer to each other. Both have adopted the raag compositions of the other after introducing suitable adjustments. Some of the important Carnatic raagas adopted & now freely rendered by practitioners of Hindustani music are Hamsdhwani, Shreeranjani, Aabhogi, Kimani, and Saraswati. Late Ustad Abdul Karim Khan's famous sargam was definitely influenced by similar features found in Carnatic music. Similarly famous violin makes too Gopal Krishnan synthesised the two styles beautifully in hisviolin playing of Late Pandit Bal Murali Krishna and Ustad Amjad Ali Khan have become famous for beautifully merging the features of the two styles in their vocal and Sarod performances respectively.

ExzlCheck Your Progress-1 1) Describc the difference betwcen marg and desi music......

2) Write four main forms in each of the following:

Hindustani Music Carnatic Music 3) How are the following raags in Carnatic s1g.1~called? a) Aabhogi ......

b) Bhupati ......

c) Hindolam ...... - 10.3 MUSIC - ESf3EN'FibM-JELEMENTS - We have seen in earlier secticns how did the musical tradition of Mia develop. Wc also discussed the development of the two main styles of Indian music. An important question with which we are faced now pertains to the elements which make a certain composition musical in character. You will appreciate that all the poetical renderings do not automatically qualify to be called musical. Therefore there musf he, some basic character which would make a rendering musical which we should now understand.

A composition becomcs or qualifies to helong to the category of musical composition when it rests on the following three conerstones: viz.

a) Swara or sound b) TaalLay or beatltune c) Raag or melody

These thrce are the fundamental constituents of music, We shall discuss them in some detail in the following sub-sections.

10.3.1 Sound (Swara)

Swara is that s0ur.d which has some meaning and which possesses a distinct identity. Sound becomes music only when it holds a specific connotation anlong other sounds alo~gwith rhythm. Music, be it Indian or Western, is based on Swans. it is composed of different configurations of Swapas.

The basic Swara in lndian music is called Shadaj. It is also known as the basic swara. Since the literal meaning of the word shadaj is six, it can be easily understood that this basic swara is always related to sk other swaras. The spectrum of swaras in Indian music is thus composed of seven bands also known as saptak.

In Indian music the swaras are not related with a fmed pitch unlike the Western music. It is the musician here who defines the pitch of shadaj and accordingly other sixswaras get located on the musical spectrum. Western music, however, has the concept of an "absolute pitch". This means specific pitch for different swaras. Likewi+ethe musical instruments are created according to fmed pitches.

We have to now answer another basic question that comes to our mind - how are swaras created? This question also brings us to discuss a related connotation of swarn thus helping us undertstand the character of Indian music in a better fashion. A shruti is a micsotone which creates a swra by adhering to a particular pitch. It is necessary for a shout to have the following two characteristics to become a swara:

e it should be audible, e it should have an echo.

There are countless shrutis in the Indian musical system, but it is a maxim to have only 22 of these in any saptak (i.e. a particular spectrum of swaras).

1.0.3.2 Beat (Taal)

The second important element in Indian music is the beat or hal. Traditionally taal is considered as integral feature of Indian music. it is a process thr~ughwhich rhythm gets Music depricted in musical compositions. The taal is further measured in terms of the numerical content of the pulse in each composition. Thus when the pulse is slow, the composition is called vilambit. A medium pulse count makes it madhyam; and the faster counts are called as drut pulse. Innumerable combinations of these pulse counts provide such a tremendous variety in Indian music.

The taals bestowed by the musical tradition from ancient past were further elaborated during the medieval period to make a total count of 1008. Most of the raag formations use taals from this same repertoire.

The taals are generally played through percussion instruments such as jhaqjh, manjira (metallic) etc and mridang, pakhavaj, tabla, (drums) etc. The music exponents who play taal instruments also practice a vocabulary of their own during the performances. Some of these words are: theka, bol, gat, tutra, tihai, palta etc. the two main percussion instruments, tabla and mridang, used m North Indian and South Indian music systems respectively, use the same words.

103.3 Melody (Raag) The third chief element of music is melody (raag) which is also the characteristic feature of Indian music. Whereas Western music is known for its harmony, the Indian music is famous for its melody. Interestingly melody is not confined to India. but is the main element of the musical traditions in such countries as Iran, Arabia, Afghanistan, China etc.

The central manifestation of a raag is delightfulness. It is still possible to have a composition of sound which may not delight - we shall not call it mag. There are, in addition to the quality of delightfulness, ten other features that make a mag. The various permutations and combinations of these features give Kith to the whole repertoire of raag music. Another significant quality ofa raag is that it should also be imbibed with sentiments. The melody, it is believed in Indian music, becomes mechanical if it is devoid of the sensuousness. The raagini, a sub-division of the raag, owes its genesis to the integration of this very element - the sensuousness. It will not be out of place here to tell you that the famous Raagmala series of paintings in India are in fact based on this element as they depict the various moods of raag and raagini in their pictorial representation.

'ICheck Your Progress3 1) Write below the qualities which shrutis should possess to become a swara.

2) Give names of four percussion instruments in the space given below...... -10.4 MUSIC :GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT '

Music has always been a companion to culture. The sequence of growth visible in music traverses the same sequence as the culture. Thus, in the early stages of its development music and its manifestations - the swara, musical instruments, and to some extent forms of dance - appear to be in a process of growth. Folk music, as we all know, definitely preceded the classical forms. In this section we shall be tracing the historical development of Indian music.

10.4.1 Ancient We know very little about the form of music that might have been practised during the earliest phase of Indian civilization, i.e., the Harappa culture. Contrary to this the Vedic culture abounds in references pertaining to music. All the three forms - the vocal, the instrumental, and the dance music - were prevalent in a fairly developed shape during the Vedic period. The recitation of Vedic humns was essentially a musical exercise. The following references from Rigveda will certainly interest you and add to your information.

Variety of songs

Geer Gaatu Gaatha Gaayan

Saam; etc.

Variety of Instruments

Veena Vaan Tunva Dundubhi a Venu Karkati

Ping etc.

It must, however, be noted that any text or reatise detailing the tenets of music does not become available to us till the very end of the Vedic period. In the period following the Vedic period, we find a continuously ascending graph of the growth of music. Musical traditions had now come to be firmly established in the society. As a consequence of an uncleasing refinement and hence change in the presentation of music a classical tradition had now come into being. By way of concrete historical evidence to buttress the contention made above, we may cite the famous gold coin from the Gupta period. This coin has, on one side, embossed a figure of Samudra Gupta playing Veena. We are also fortunate in having an extensive musical treatise from around the same period - the Natyashastra prepared by the sage Bharat.

Another significant feature of the music of this period is that it made a deep impact on the cultures of the other regions of Asia e.g. eastern and Central Asia. The Indonesian ballet depicting Ramayana is clearly influenced by Indian musical traditions.

10.4.2 Medieval

Music is the least documented of all the fine arts of medieval India. Whatever little information we get about the music and its development in the Delhi Sultanate is from the works of Amir Khusru. There is not much change in this situation in respect of provincial kingdoms. Historical information is scanty and at times it becomes difficult to sift history from legend. We shall, however, prepare a narrative account on the basis of piecemeal records handed down to us by history.

The earliest known treatise on music in the medieval period is Sangeet Ratnakar. The text has not been lost and is referred to by the practitioners of musiceveri today. It was composed by Sharangdevsometime between 1210-47at the court of the Yadavruler of Devagiri. Besides being a treatise on music - vocal as well as instrument - Sangeet Ratnakar also delves into the details of the contemporary dance forms. It describes as many as 264 ragas classified into major and minor categories, though the basic of this classification remains obscure. The chief merit of this text lies in its being the first systematic exposition of the various elements of music. From the court of Vijaynagar, we get a Sanskrit commentary on Sharangdev's Sangeet Ratnakar written by Kallinath, a courtier under king Malliiarjun (1446-65). There are two other Sanskrit commentaries of the same kind, by Keshav and by Singhbhoopal, but it is not known as to when and where they were written. In the 15th century we come across two interesting musical treatises from Gujarat. The first one is called Sangeet Sudhakar, and is attributed to Haripal Dev, the ruler of Saurashtra. It is here for the first time that the Indian musical form is divided into the Hindustani and the Karnatak styles. The other text is a Persian work called Ghunyat-ul Munya, meaning literally 'pleasure of desire'. Unfortunately, the manuscript copy of this text is incomplete with its first folio and the last four Sub-sections missing. Thus the name of the author, it at all was given in the missing portions, is lost forever. We, however, know that the text was compiled at the instance of Malik Shamsuddin Abu Raja, the governor of the province of Gujarat under Feroz Tughluq. Ghunyat, as its author claims, aimed at being a compendium on the art of sangeet in India, for the avowed purpose of educating the taste of the elite of the time and also to cater to the demands of the Mu'tabiran (the authorities) and Na'rif (the adept). (Ghunyat-ul Munya: The earliest known Persian work on Indian Music, ed. Shahab Sarmadee, Asia Publishing House, New Delhi, 1978). This text has been of great value in several respects. It is the earliest treatise and commentary in Persian on music and some of the Sanskrit texts on music respectively. Besides that Ghunyat extensively uses some such Sanskrit works on music which have become extinct now. In the 15th century, we come across a text called Raag Tarangini ascribed popularly to Lochan Kavi. It contains illustrations from both Jaidev (of Geet Govind) and Vidyapati, and may thus be safely placedin the 15th century. Raag Tarangini is important for having initiated an alternative system of the division of rags - the that - system. AU the various forms of music described here are practiced today. Music got an impetus under the Sharqui rulers of Jaunpur in the second half of the 15th century. A connoisseur and an expert in his own right, Sultan Hussain Sharqi (1458-99) promoted vocal music by introducing a variant form of rendering khayal the Kalawanti khayal. He is also credited with some new rag, such as Jaunpuri Todi, Sindhu Bhairavi, Sindura and Rasuli Todi.

We have noted earlier that the court at Vijaynagar had become a centre off music under its more prominent rulers. The most significant treatise on the South Indian style is the Swarmel Kalanidhi, written by Ramamatya, the foremost of the exponents of the South Indian style. It is considered as the most authentic treatise of its kind and is frequently referred to by the music lovers today. It is evident from the description given above that music in the 13th-15th centuries had grown even if its development seemed located in specific places and was not indicative of any coordinated attempt to bring all the various forms at one place. The development of music had attained the take-off stage when Mughals intervened and gave it greater heights.

Centres of musical study and practice, as stated above, were located in regional kingdoms. In the South, a system of parent and derivative modes, i.e., Janaka and Janya ragas. existed around the middle of the 16th century. The earliest treatise which deals with this system is titled Swaramela Kalanidhi. it was written by Ramarnatya of Kondavidu (Andhra Pradesh) in 1550. It describes 20 janak and 64 janya ragas. Later, in 1609, one Somanatha wrote Ragavibodha in which he incorporated some concepts of the North Indian style. It was sometimes in the middle of the 17th century that a famous treatise on music, called Caturdandi-pradasika was composed by Venkatamakhin in Thanjavur (c.1650). The system propounded in the text hascome to form the bedrock of the Carnatic system of music. The dcvelopn~entof music in North India was largely inspired and sustained by the bhakti movcmcnt. The compositions of the 16th and 17th century saint poets were invariably set to music. In Vrindavan, Swami Haridas promoted music in a big way. He is also considered to be the tcachcr of Tansen the famous musician of Akbar's court. Tansen himself is considered one of the great exponents of North Indian system of music. He is given credit for introducing some famous raagas viz., Miyan ki Malhar, Miyan ki Todi and Darbari. Raja Mansingh of Gwaliar (1486-1517) played a distinguished part in the growth and perfection of Dhrupad, a variant style of the North Indian music.

In the 18th ccntury, music in North Indian style received great encouragement at the court of the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah. Sadaranga and Adaranga were two great composers of lil~ayillgapki at his court. Several new forms of music such as Tarana, Dadra and Ghazal also came into existence at this time. Moreover, some folk forms of music were also incorporated in the courtly music. In this category mention may be made of Tbumri, employ~ngfolk scales, and to Tappa developed from the songs of camel drivers of Punjab.

In passing, it should be noted that while in the South the texts of music enforced a stricter science, in the North thc absence of texts permitted greater liberty. Thcrc were thus several experiments in mixing the raagas carried out in the North. A loose code of North Indian style of music is a featurc that has continued to the present day.

It w;ds around the closing years of the 19th century and the early years of 20th century that a resurgence of Indian music, especially classical music, took place. The credit for this stupendous task goes to Pandit Vishnu Digambar Paluskar and Pandit Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhandc, These two avowed lovers of music dedicated their lives to fighting a general apathy as alsr~a feeling of disrespect among the common folk about music. they travelled extensively and wrotc profusely, and succeeded in reviving that wading interest of the public in Indian classical music.

At the same time sotne rnore music devotees were trying to susta~nthe tradition of music training in thc gharanas. Prominent among these was llstad Alauddin Khan, who came to live and practlcc music in Maihar, a small state in Madhya Pradesh. He gave to Indian music two O! the hrightcst stars - LJstad Ali Akbar Khan (Sarod player) and Pandit Ravi Shankar (Sitar playcr). The glrarana system of music has contributed immensely to the resurgence of classical tradition. We give below some related information in a tabular form:

1- .!.No. 1 Name of Ghatanas Prominent Artists Genre Practiced ---+ -- P' Ustad Falyyas Khan Ustad Sharafat Husaln I Ustad Abdul Kaem Khan Vocal Pandit Bhimsen Joshi Vocal I I veena 1 i Ustad Sadiq Ali Khan 1 1 -I---- I 61)1 Jaiyr Pandit Mallika jun Mansur 1 vocal I Ustad Ali Akbar Khan Sarod Pandit Ravi Shankar Sitar 4 I I Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Vocal Khan L 1 Some other famous artists are lbted below: ----- I 1) &I Ustad Amir Kbiln Vocal

I' Zi Pandil Jasraj Vocal C.--L_-\ 1 I I 1' 3: 1 Ust;idAmjad Ali Sarod i&.--. -- I I ------Sitar r- , i- --I Ustad Asad All Khan 1 Vlch~traVeena 1

" 7) 1 ST.T.V. Mahalingam mute L-: -.--2 I Music

1) Wri~efour lines on music in the Vedic age.

I of I 2) Match the contents List A with List B:

A B i) Geer a) Instrument ii) Venu b) Instrument iii) Veena c) Song iv) Gargar d) Instrument v) Gaatha c) Song

3) Identify the instruments which the following artists play.

a) Pandit Ravi Shankar ...... b) Ustad Amjad Ali ...... c) Sri.'I'.V.Mahalingam ...... d) Ustad Asad Ali ......

10.5 LET US SUM UP

We recapitulate the main fcatures of music as a fine art thus:

e Indian ~riusicaltradition goes as far back as 2nd millenium before Christ.

0 The two main styles of Indian classical music in existence now are North Indian and Carnatic stylcs. e The essential elements of music are swarna, taal, and raag. The Indian classical music recognises a spectrum seven swaras of which the permanent one is called shadaj. All other swaras relate essentially to shadaj For dctcsmining their position on the spectrum.

e The Indian classical music is today flourishing under the patronage of different traditional families called gharana. 10.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress-1 r- 1) See Sub.Sec.lO.2.1

2) a) Dhrupad Kirtanarn b) Khayal Kruti c) Thurnri Jawali d) Tarana Tillana

3) a) Aabhogi

b) Mohanam

c) Malkauns

rCheck Your Progress3 1) It should be audible It should have an echo.

2) Manjira, Mridang, Pakhawaj, Tabla.

EzIlCheck Your Progress3 1) See Sub.Sec.lO.4.1

2) i) c, ii) a, iii) b, iv) d, v) e 3) a) Sitar b) Sarod c) Flute d) Vichitra Veena UNIT PAINTING

Objectives Introduction Aesthetics 11.2.1 DeFStion 112.2 Indim and European Aesthetic Scm'bility Indian Painting 11.3.1 The Context 11.32 Thdory of Aesthetic Flavour 11.3.3 General Characteristie8 Spatial Distribution lL4.l Pre-historic 11.42 Classical 11.4.3 Madid Modem Paintings 114.1 European in India 1152 Modern Indian Painting Co~l~emtion Let Us Sum.Up 11.8 . Keywords 11.9 Answers to ChaYour Progress Ex!?$&Ses I

In this unit we will dhuss the art of painting htflourished in India frap&tcric b. After going-throughthis unit you will be:

able to Imderstand the -aesthetic point of view oif Indian pikting. . I better pladto undtw&md the principle;' the theme and historid context etc. of Idiitn paintings. able to familiarise yomlfwitb dim of the miain schools and 0entwi af in different parts of our country,

. 1.1 INTRODUCTION

India has a very rich tradition of paintings. In tbc earlier period p- concerned with religious myths though society was alm amply presentad. Later mostly concerned with awt life. In both the wse~court or rehgisus ioatiWw wd to patronise the artists. You will notice as yau pnxeed through the W, tgolt.-lier wxks were collecthe efforts and usually wall pain*. It was quite late that we eoald e practice of illustration of nmwscripts. It wing the Sultanate and post- e period &at referen- of portrait inWual phters were avttihbk.

I Our main objective in this- unit is to high&&t disWv:e features of painting+ia dHmmt parts of the country. It would not be possible for us to take account of dthescb&/mtres 1 of pain* which flourished in India. I I As 'we aiil~~in the following pwthe Indian paintings are dBkrent k~rn I WesWEuropeiur paintings in htb wz&mt.iw cuent. The d&n&$s of hikin

p&t& attracts a large number d dtdPouri%t$.. I - ,

! - . -. 11.2 AESTHETICS

Thatart of painting is the expression of ideas and emotions with the creation of certain athetic qualities in a two-cbensional visual.language. The dements of this language - its shape, lbs, enbur4 tom and textures - are used in various ways to produce sensations of wlumq spa% -t and light on a flat surface. These elements are combined into resent real or supernatural phenomena to interpret a ct visual relationships. The artist communicates and expressive possiWties as also limitations of a

,<" . 'I . d rt of tribes, religions, guilds, royal cowls and states largely controbd W &&, bag& and subject matter of painting. These also deltermined its hdion, whether ritualistic, devstional, decorative, entertslining, or educationd. Painters ww& en@l@ more as skiIed artisans than as creative genius. Later on the Far East and Renakance Europe saw the emergence of the fine artist, with the social status of scholar cou3 [email protected] Signed his work, who decided its designs and often its subjects and imagery. The d&l%lsoestablighed? @re persona if not sdways amicable, relationshtp with their p4tmllS. 5 7

through ckmmrcial Irk &nce also. He &ay dm be from industry d tbe &ate. He ha4 kver, to +sperbmtwith naakand

2 . - - --- .. - i d *-is tP_ probims of a ita~lbc~clpcolifwe~dtdiae~sab and meof the term aesthetics.

1' 8 htworks d art ~ot~~by tk to perform. Where they function .purely as works of art, thPrg also etion - &tend& and~tinrcm~d.I% tltis &don is did, art thegeneterlised~bf~~~th~ceof~~d ' nevertheless need+) pqdd~w hd0JUi. ' If its very essence arises from performing unrecgonised functions, art must be a less self-conscious, a less "nationalised"and indeed a less professionalised activity than any other in the cultural sphere. Since it must be ready to perform unrecognised functions as they unpredictably arise, the system of the arts cannot be a specialised one, adapted to a particular set of circumstances. It must remain generalised, to some extent maladapted to the existing state of society, and able to function in a wide range of areas of ambiguity. The survival over times and perhaps the aesthetic quality, of works of art, depends on how a range of unintended and unrecognised functions they can effectively perform. It is because they have a wide aesthetic range, in this sense, that great works of art function for us even when it is not known precisely what they have meant for their producers, as is ihe case with pre-historic art. The latent functioning of a work of art is not dependent on the grasp of its intended meanings.

L If aesthetic value depends on co~ciouslyunrecognised functions, does an explanation of' ! these functions erase the aesthetic experience? Not necessarily if the work of art, after one of its functions has been explicated can still function effectively in other unrecognised and r unintended ways. The interpretation of art could be viewed as a struggle against its inexhaustibility, but the functions that have been fully explicated would seem to become more cognitive than aesthetic.

11.2.2 Indian and European Aesthetic Sensibility It is in terms of aesthetic values that Indian painting possesses a very distinct nature. Symbolism in Eastern painting - intended to deepen the experience of a picture's mood and spirituality - is more generalised and poetic than in Western art. Much of Indian symbolism is visually emotive, images such as snakes, plantain leaves, twining creepers and rippling water being overtly less sexual. And although symbolic attributes and colour codes identify Indian mythological characters (for example, the four arms of the terrible form of Kali and the blue skin of the divine lover Krishna), the formal character and colour scheme of settings generally reflect the narrative's emotional mood. As an example we can cite vibrant, dark blue, cloudy skies and embracing, purple-black glades evoking amourous anticipation and red grounds expressing the passions of love or war. Western symbolic systems, however, are more intellectually directed, their imagery having precise literary meanings and their colour codes intended primarily for narrative or devotional identifiption. The iconographic programmes of the early Christian churches, fm example, laid down complex formulas for the viewpoints, gestures, facial expressions and positions of arms, hand and feet for religious figures. An elabate CWstian iconographic system was followed until v&y recently. Elsewhere also tradtiohd methods survive of idenbfylng archangels and saints by their attributes and by their symbols of martrydom that they display; distingukhiag white Wded %.Peter tkom black bearded St.Paul Christian iconography adopted gmd elaborated Cireco-Roman and Jewish symbolic,^, the pagan signs of viae and the fish fur e]~~p1&,ad the image of Christ as the Good Shepherd based on Greek themes are other symhk & this kin&. Medieval and Renaissance writings define an-em dsymbalio hagps SWAadthe crescent and owl signifying heresy etc. .C

+. nCheck Your Progress-1 1) What is the relevance of paintings for Tourism? ...... la 2) DeheAesthetics. 3) Disthpd between European and the Indian Aesthetic SeWJity.

Ag a Zackx, the religious adphilosophic thought in thc: dmtextbf art at any moment

mWm of~~b~sidru~mm ahrities have hathat ' mimy YJf these religim went though a primitive stage of Aninbarn. magic and sadistic pulytbkq &witb it's legacy of expressive haggry, before passing w to monotheism and pmtkisrn. 'I%&is the context in which Indian paintings be seea . - 1 rta.~x*#24.m~ rj

I' a- Czwident in fie:

. <( amaafhmmyths md legends representact as aSbjeet matkwr, mch BIE stories of the mebnt hem IkbBncr and the cow- @Is; m s of artists, rulers and public to accept fantastic representations of the

, &pa-mhual as iq the case of several arms of Siva, a majar Hindu deietr, and 1c placed upon mystic symbism in the errs, indudhg Painting On thc whole, within an extensive culture such as the Greek or Indian, the arts tended to develop first partly for magical and religious purposes. Theoretical discussions of the same came later. Philosophic discussion of their aims and standards of value tended to come relatively late.

Though it has been said by some historians and contested by others that all Indian art is religious, it is true that most Indian art can be given a religious interpretation by persons of a strongly theistic attitude. This was not necessarily the intention of the artist or of his public. Religious interpretations can be applied to the most humble, utilitarian products as to the most magnificent palaces. A work of art can be appreciated on various levels by the educated observer, and one of these levels or attitudes may be super-naturalistic, another naturalistic.

Indian theories of aesthetics disparage the realm of sensory experience as mere illusion, Indian artists continue to employ sensory materials and to display them for others. In trying to explain the arts, super-naturalists tend to feel that they reflect a divine creator, whereas naturalists regard them as reflecting man alone.

Another basic concept of Oriental art is mystic symbolism. In its ordinary usage, the word symbolism, refers to the practice of using a familiar image, such as a lion, to mean something very different, such as the abstract quality of courage. In India the figure of the dancing Siva is well-known as a symbol of that God. a figure that signifies the cosmic rhythm of creation and destruction as symbolized by a drum - especially its destructive aspect, through an emphasis on fire.

11.3.2 Theory of Rasa: Aesthetic Flavour

In the psychology of art, an integral part of'modern Western aesthetics, lndia has much to offer, especially in its theory of rasa, or aesthetic flavour. Recent Western psychologists have so strongly emphasised behaviourism and externally observable phenomena, that they have almost ignored the inner world of individual subjective experience. Indian philosophers wll attention to the importance of rasa in the total experience of creating and appreciating the arts, especially visual arts. The many kinds of rasa and ingredients in rasa which as they are felt and cultivated are thus enhanced in value.

The theory of rasa was first proclaimed by a mythical sage-priest Bharata (around A.D.500) and developed by Abinavagupta (C.lOOO A.D). It was used in explaining the forms, techniques, and varieties of poetry and visual arts. Bharata listed the principal feelings of human nature as delight, laughter, sorrow, anger, heroism, fear, disgust and astonishment. These are transformcd by arts into rasas: erotic, comic, pathetic, furious, terrible, odious, marvellous and calm - qualities into which ordinary feelings can be analysed. Psychological studies of this sort were not purely mystical. Bharata interpreted the power to feel and understand beauty (to taste rasa) as a reward for merit in a previous life.

On seeing the richly carved and painted ornamentation of Hindu temples, Western travellers are often puzzled by what they regard as obscenities, sometimes involving complete nudity and extremely erotic scenes carved and painted in full detail. At times they fail to understand the claim of Indian scholars that such art is "religious"and "spiritual". The same may be said of erotic Indian literaturc, such as that of Kama Sutra. It also presents a realistic account of amorous relations between the sexcs in ancient India. Sensuous pleasure is not proposed as the highest good, nor it is morally disparaged. It is a psychological and cultural fact that Orientals do not regard their erotic art as pornographic in the Western popular sense. Sex as a means to love and joy is regarded as a basic fact of life, religious in that it carries on the divinely established rhythm of creation and destruction. It can be and has been transformed into fine art by capable artists.

11.3.3 General Characteristics

Moved by the charm of nature around him, man has expressed his appreciation of it in works of art produced by him. This goes back to time when he was still a primitive. Art has had a softening influence on him. The earliest paintings of the pre- historic age in the caves all over the world give us magnificent examples of the observant eye and the trained hand even in man's savage state. The colours chosen, the movement penetrated and the expression suffercd in the pictures really make us marvel even if all of them are not of the standard of the paintings at Ajanta. The pre-historic cave paintings in India give us a picture of life in 31 those far-off days pf early man in India. It is a great and true experience that Kalidas expresses, when he feels that even the happiest man is elated when he sees beautiful things or hears melodious notes. Though music, like art, deeply stirs the heart, it is the impression of beautiful form on the eye that has an cven greater effect.

While in Chinese art, the delineation is as the eye sees, in Indian art, it is both as the eye perceives and as the touch feels. The depth of the figure is thus indicated. The pictures in India show an attempt at modelling.

This is corroborated by the fact that the concept of portrayal at its best in India is in terms of the figure in the round styled chitra. The figure in relief, high or !ow, is ardhchitra; and the painiing resembling sculpture 1s chitrabhasa. The tcrm chitrabhasa itself indicates that the aim is to portray some kind of modelling to suggest depth.

In the six limbs of painting or Shadanga described in Vatsyayan in Kamasutra, modelling is given as an important limb; others are variety of form (rupabhedaj, proportion (pramanaj, on the infusion of emotions (bhava yojana) creation of lustre and bid essence (lawanya yojana), portrayal of likeness (sadrisya), colour mixing to produce the effect of modelling (varnikabhangj.

The Vishnudharmottara Emotions portrayed in pictures are best illustrated in such master pieces as the mother and elucidates the process of child before Buddha or the subjugation of Nalagiri from Ajanta. The former effec~ively painting, and the strong points in painting are presents karunarasa, while the latter shows first bhayanak rasa in the stampede of the narrated The line elephant Nalagir, and santarasa where the furious animal lies humble at the feet of the sketch, the most Master. The Vishnudharmottara has specially stressed suggestion as an important element imporlanl, fumly and in art. Different methods for suggesting various aspects of nature are here enumerated: gracefully drawn, k considered the highest achievement by the e portraying lotuses in bloom and rishis hurrying for a bath to suggest day break, masters. Feminine taste appreciates decoration in e prowling thieves and amorous damsels going to the place of their tryst far indicating art (striyo bhushnam night, lotuses and aquatic beings for the sensation of water, ishshhanti); but Ule common taste is for the e overcast sky and white cranes flying in the sky to signify the rainy season, splendor and glory of colour (barnadhyamilare pleasant flower decked forests and gardens to recall spring, jaoah). This virluness is a travellers oppressed by heat and greatly fatigued to suggest summer. of three kinds - vindujavnrtana, puiravartana and All these devices are carefully fellowed in paintings and are to be understood in order to fully raikhikavarlana The appreciate the meaning of a picture, specially in the later-day miniature painting from first is tippling, the Rajasthan, Raramasa paintings and those portraying the loves of the nayakas and nayikas. second cross-hatching and the third fiie line shading.

Check Your Progress-2

1) How many rasas are there in Indian aesthetics? ......

2) Define general characteristics of Indian paintings...... i Painling 11.4 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION

Literary evidence proves that painting was a highly developed art in ancient India. Palaces and the homes of the rich were adorned with beautiful murals and smaller paintings were made on prepared boards. Not only were there professional artists. bui many men and women of the educated classes could ably handle a brush. Though now all invery bad condition the surviving rcmains of ancicnt Indian painting are sufficient to show its achievement. They consist almost entirely of murals in certain of the cave temples.

The earliest paintings in India have becn found in primitive caves and rock-shelters in:

Mirzapur and Banda in Uttdr Pradesh, Mahadeo hills of the Vindhyan range in Bundelkhand, Larimur hills in the area of Baghelkhand, Singanpur in Raigarh district of Central India, and Bcllary in the South.

These paintings are mainly hunting scenes representing man in his encounter with wild animals. The paintings, though in a crude technique, represent vivid pictures of hunt. Red pigment has been frcely uscd. Some of the figures have got washed off. In a well prcserved scenc thcrc is thc hunt of a bison and a sambhar. Thc human figures are conventionalized. The torso is sometimes drawn as almost a ladder composed of steps. Sometimes it is a qilhouetted figure with the head dominat~ngthe rest of the body, the hands and feet in all cases appearing as just straight or bent lines. Thcir handling (if pikes and javelins, in their effort to attack the animal, is indced most lively. One of the animals at Singanpur represents a barking dog, rushing forward at a terrific pace, the tail stretched out and the leg indicating the speed of its motion. This is in contrast with the stylizcd form in many of the human figures.

As these paintings are not ornated, very small numbcr of tourists are attracted towards them. As a result these sites lack tou~istinfrastructural facilities. 'These are also not bcing promoted for tourism. Only historians and archaeologists arc primarily interestcd in thcm. These sites are located in mountain ranges and poorly connected with metropolitan towns of India. Since prc-historic paintings have thc potential of becoming a major tourist attraction, the sitcs need to be developed for this purpose.

11.4.2 Classical

Ajanta

The earliest historical paintings in India belong to the Satavahana period (2nd century A.D) in the Dcccan. During this period some of the most glorious Buddhist caves were excavated in thc living rock, many of thcm in Western India; Nasik, Bedsa, Rhaja, Karla, Kondane caves are famous. The earliest caves at Ajanta are also of the Satavahana period. The paintings are concentrated in caves - 9 and 10.

The paintings cover the walls, pillars, and ceilings to illustrate sccnes from the life of the Master (Buddha) and his previous livcs, comprising thc jatakas and avadanas. There are dso floral and animal motifs dexterously created. Cave I) is a chaitya hall with a fine facade, 11s nave, apse and aislcs composed by a colonnade of pillars running the entire length. The cave has two layers of paintings, the earliest is contemporary with the structure and the later 7s of the 5th Century A.D. The paintings here show the worship of the Bodhi tree, the Sama .lataka and the Chhadanta Jataka.

'The Vakatakas succeeded the Satavahanas in the Deccan. Some df the caves at Ajanta have inscriptions of thc Vakatalia period. Now the paintings comp!etcly cover the walls, pillars and ceilings. They constitute a grcat gallery of Buddhist art illustrating scenes from the lifc of Buddha.

The mode of paintings at Ajanta is the tempera and thc materials used are very simple. The five colours usually described in all the siIpa texts are feud herc - red ochre, ycllow ochre, lamp black, lapis-lazuli and white. The first coating on the rock was of clay mixed with rice husk and gum. A coat of lime was done over this which was carefully smoothed and polished. On this ground paintings were created. The outline drawing was in dark brown or black and subsequently colours were added. Effects of light and shade were achieved by the process of streaks and dots illustrating the methods of patravartana,t stippling and hatching mentioned in the silpa tegs. The lines composing the figres painted at Ajanta are sure, rich in form and depth and recall the iines in praise of the effective line drawing in theviddhasala bhanjita where by a few lines sketched, the maximum effect of form is produced.

The painter at Ajanta had studied life around him and natural scenes of great beauty with intense sympathy and apprcciation. Plant and animal life had interested him considerably. He had lovingly treated such themcs of flora and fauna as he had chosen to depict. The elephants under the banyan tree in cave 10, the geese in the Hamsa Jataka from cave 17, the deer in the Miga Jataka, also from the same cave, may be cited as a few examples of the tender approach of the painter to the themes of animals and birds. He had been equally at home in ably representing the dazzling magnificence of the royal court, the simplicity of rural life and the hermits' tranquil life anlidst sylvan surroundings.

There are excellent illustrations in these paintings at Ajanata of the six limbs of painting, (shadanga). The diversity of form at Ajanta is indeed incredible. The painters here mastered the vast complex of human, animal and plant form in addition to giving free shapes to their imaginations and were creating designs galore. The master at Ajanta has control over not only the proportions of individual figures but also has the ability to group them and he has designed excellent compositions. Emotion is at its best in the narration of scenes from the legends.

These cave paintings achieved fame because of which they have become an important tourist attraction. The tourist infrastructural facilities have developed and it is quite convenient to reach the place. Numerous conducted tours are being operated mainly from Aurangabad which is the nearest district headquarter.

Ellora

In the eighth century, the early Western Chalukya power came to an end and the Rashtrakutas under Dantidurga asserted themselves. Dantidurga was followed by his uncle Krishna - I, who was not only a great ruler but was also the creator of unique monument in the Decean, the Kailasnarha temple at Ellora, carved out of living rock. The paintings at Ellora covered the ceilings and walls of the mandapas and represent not only the iconographic forms but also the lovely floral designs and animals and birds entwining in the patters. The Natraja here is a spIendid example of the Chalukya type. The figure is multiarmed and the dance is in the chatgra pose. The anatomy of figure, the details and the ornamentation closely follow that of sculpture, including such minute details as the pattern of thc jatamakuta, the elaboration of decoration and so forth. It is one of the most beautifully preserved panels at Ellora.

The Jain cave towards the end of the group of caves at Ellora has its entire surface of ceiling and wall covered with paintings with a wealth of detail. There are scenes illustrating Jain texts and decorative patters with floral, animal and bird designs.

The tourist infrastructural facilities are well developed as it is situated near Ajanta.

Bagh Caves

The Gupta emperors were great patrons of art and literature. The aesthetic qualities of Samudra Gupta are very well known. This phase of art is amply illustrated in the caves, close to the village Bagh near Gwalior, which are excavated on the slopes of the Vindhya Hills at a height of 150 feet above the river Bagh in the vicinity. There are nine caves in all but the most important are eaves 2,4 and 5.

The paintings in the Bagh caves are mostly lost, but the best preserved of the remains are found on the outer wall of the continuous,verandah of caves 4 & 5. The subject illustrated is clearly a jataka or avadana. The first scene shows a princess and her companion, one in great grief and the other consoling her; the second, two divine and two princely figurea seated in conversation. Composed of cavalry and foot soldiers with bows and arrows in the hands and with the umbrella held over at least two stately figures, with princes on tuskers and high ranking women on cow-elephants close to the royal gateway, probably in the vicinity of the Painting palace, it suggests an important event in this royal household and the procession associated with that. It is one of thc most magnificent representations of a royal procession in all its glory. On other walls and on the ceiling in this cave, there are floral decorations most pleasing to the eye, the long wandering length of the lotus-stalk with a wealth of flowers, half-blown and in full bloom, and pairs of birds in flight particularly geese.

! Others The tradition of painting specially cave-temple painting continued till vcry latc. It was I primarily preserved in Southern India. Usually a part of the building was so painted as to D arrest the attention of appreciative and aesthetic minded connoisseurs of art. At Mahabalipuram, a fervent of painting may be noted in the upper cells of the Dharmarajaratha. t Similarly they occur in other Pallava cave temples and the Kailashnatha temple at 1 Kanchipuram. At Badami, Hampi, too this decorative factor is present. The paintings in * the Brihadisvara temple constitute the most valuable document on the state of the painters' art during the time of the Cholas.

b At Lepakshi (Andhra Pradesh), there is one of the most remarkable paintings of the Vijayanagara period, a colossal one of Virabhadra painted on the ceiling of the mandapa.

! The scenes depicted here are from the Mahabharata, the Ramayana cave and the Puranas. The coronation of Rama, Arjuna fighting Kirat, and Krishna as vatapatrasayi are charming portraits of this series.

11.4.3 Medieval Miniatures . Medieval painting is distinctive but Indian. It has the flavour of the Persian but the inborn charm of Indian tradition. The study of Mughal painting in India may be said to begin with Khwaja Abdus Samad of Shiraz who was patronized by Humayun and continued in the time of Akbar. The practice of signing pictures in this period gives us names of artists at Akbar7s court. The Babur-Nama, Akbar-Nama, Humza-Nama, Razm-Nama and other beautifully illustrated manuscripts of the period have a great artistic achievement. Still in this period, the Persian treatment of the background and the landscape is obvious. The Mughalpaintings are aristocratic, individualistic, strong in theirtharacter of portraiture, being fostered by and for nobility. Mughal art peeped into the inner revelry of the harem, the magnificance of the court, the delightful wild bouts, depicting elephants and camels fights that appealed to the emperor, scenes of hunting, toilet dress and decoration of coquettish damsels.

Rajasthani

The Rajasthani School of Art is a natural outcome of a long sequence of art tradition. The miniatures that comprise the Rajasthani School found in such profusion in several art galleries of India and the world, did not, strangely enough, originate as miniatures. In the palaces at Jaipur and Udaipur, there are wall paintings which show how wonderfully the painter of this school produced large murals. The Raslila and the love of Radha Krishna form a happy theme.

The Rajput paintings were more in tune with the throbbing life around, simple, with a direct appeal to the peasant and the common folk. Universal in appeal, deeply religious and mystic, true interprctcrs of phases of nature in her different moods, Rajasthani paintings evoke themes whose appeal goes direct to the heart.

11.5 MODERN PAINTINGS

11.5.1 European Artists in India

18th century India was a melting pot politically, with diverse forces crossing swords and intriguing against one another for supremacy. Art cannot flourish when life is unstable. In the foregoing state of instability Indian painting followed a path of decline and finally degenerated into soulless imitative skill of artisans only. The craft and techniques of fresco and miniature painting, unique in the history of art, were lost. What still remained was degenerate copies of the old art form. . Folk traditions in art, however, were yet alive with some measure of vitality even under early British rule, but the lingering traits of Ifidian art gave into new fashions brought by foreigners. Miniatures werc ousted by European oil painting. Ultimately, with the British conquest of the country, art and architectural styles of 19th century Earope found access in India and the prosperous section of Indian society came very much under the influence of Victorian concepts of living.

The British. during their rule, founded art schools in the capitals of the provinces. The art schools were mainly required to produce painters and draughtsmen for the Railway and Survey departmcnts. Patronagc of paintcrs of the then popular genre painting was confined to the landed aristocracy and wealthy merchants and to some extent to British bureaucrats in India. Mention must, however, be made here of the small group of enlightened Enghshmen who camc to learn and appreciate the aesthetic values of Indian art and save it from decay and oblivion. Best known among them are Cunnigham, Fergusson, Cousins, Have11 and Percy Brown.

11.5.2 Modern Indian Painting

Towards the end of the 19th century a positive reaction commenccd against the stallions of the degenerate school of painting and time was ripe for the rise of truly Indian painting. Quite ! a few talented Indians, however, became adepts in the current style of European painting and in the techniques of oil and water colour. Raja Ra\l Verma of Kcrala gained much reputation in the period through his paintings of mythological subjects and portraiture. The pioneers looked back into the heritage for inspiration. Abanindranath, conscientiously tried to re-create a national style in painting. He and his worthy pupils assidcously experimented in techniques of Indian miniature, frescos, scroll and pata paintings. This new artistic faith spread far and wide in the country. It was known as Bengal school of painting. Naturally enough, the exponents of the school, charged with the newly awakened sense of nationalism tried to copy andirnitate old water pieces of Indian art, aiming at revival. But no sooner the romantic rcnaissance phase came to an end than the school readily yielded to stronger modern inspirations. As early as in the early twenties, Rabindra Nath Tagore dissociated himself from the entire revivalist thought.

For the first time we began to hear 'painterly paintings'. It is almost impossible to explain what is understood by the term painterly, but it is safe to assume that it lays accent on the manner of pigment is handled and on the fact that colour by itself is an important elcrnent in modern painting, independent of subject matter if any. Stale traditionalism was rejected in preference to progressivism. Modcrn Indian painting is a complete reversal and final break away from the past.

What is modern painting? It is not easy to explain in words what belongs to shape, colour and form. Secing is learning in the visual art and we must look at a work of art with eyes and heart and head. Modern Indian paintings reflect the complexity of modern life. Modern Indian painters are city dwellers and not free from the complexities of modern life. Moreover, intellectually they accept the tenets of modern art, as much as they share the experience of modern man.

Rabindranath's credo thus provides Indian modernism with a character for expressionistic ' art of all types. Gaganendranath, studied the pictorial possibilities of light, especially in interior scenes. He experimented with cubism and coalescence of forms. There was nothing specifically Indian about it. He used his art for social comment, often with a pleasant satire.

In her heredity as well as her art, Amrita Shergil symbolizes the interaction of Indian and European tradition that is visible in the bulk of modern Indian painting. it can be scen in her works that the preference for forms is reduced to their essential planes, suggestions of volumes through colour modulation, seizure of effects of light, even in open air scenes, lcss by play of light and shade than by the brilliance of the pigment itself.

Jamini Roy returned to the far more vigorous tradition of folk art, of the pat and the scroll, the clay dolls and pottery decorations. The positive achievement of this period was the creation of a ferment rather than a precise definition of aesthetic objectives and stylistic canons. Painting This format has led to the trying out of cverv conceivable manner of expression. A quick scanning should be enough to show the rdnvc

V.S. Gaitnde - abstracts Shabbir Husain - optical qualities e Bimal Dasgupta and Manu Parekh - modalities and recombined forms M.F. Hussain and Ram Kurnar - earthly Bhupen Khakhar - curious reality a Gulam Sheikh - colour sensitive Rajeev Lochan - a peep into the past.

The number is not exhaustive, nor the artists mentioned form a merit list; but they should give an idea of the variety of expression now available on the Indian scene.

EzxlCheck Your Progress-3 1) Explain general characteristics of Classical Indian paintings......

2) What are the major themes of Medieval Indian paintings? ......

11 6 CONSERVATION

The close relationship between tourism and the environment is also a source of problem for thc conservation of environment. Tourism is often developed in environmentallyfragile and vulnerable settings, such as paintings in Ajanta, Ellora or Bagh caves, because these are important resources or attraction for tourists.

We should keep in mind the fragile state of existence of painting in cave-temples. Due to use of floodlights to illuminate the interior paintings of caves, the brightness of paintings is diminishing. Had these been paintings on paper, these would have been framed behind the glass, as is the normal practice elsewhere. Paintings of movable article are being and can be preserved in museums which are usually air-conditioned now. The old practice of putting varnish over paintings, though retain the brightness leads to the growth of yellowishness over pictures, over a period of time.

It is not that touris& leads only negatively as far as conservation is concerned. Tourism provides the incentive and helps pay for the conservation of sites, that might otherwisebe allowed to deteriorate or disappear, thus resultingin the loss of the cultural heritage. Touri5m also helps provide the incentive for 'cleaning up' the overall environment through control of air, water and pollution, littering and other environmenta! probjems and for improving environmental aesthetics through landscape programmes.

11.7 LET US SUM UP

This unit has introduced you to several aspects of paintings in India. The treatment of subject matter was on two levels - (a) heo ore tical orientation of paintings (b) details of same selected sites. We discussed the main differences in Indian and European aesthetics. We also gave details of the textual references on the genre from India. The sites of important paintings were discussed in an order than conformed to their historical growth. You were also introduced to the main features of modern Indian painting. It also explained why paintings in India are a major attraction for foreign tourists. With the help of this Unit you can introduce the viewerltourist to the finer nuances of Indian paintings.

11. KEYWORDS . .

Aesthetics : Study of bcau~yand the philosophy of taste.

'Rasa' : Emotions

Conservation : Preservation

Sultante : The period of Indian history when Turkish conquerers were ruling over India, beforc the coming of Mughals. (1206 - 1526A.D.)

Pre-Sultanate : It signifies the period of Indian history from 7th century upto the coming of the Turkish conquerers. (7th to 12th century)

Renaissance : It means rebirth. In history Renaissance defines the period of European history in 15th century A.D. when an attempt was made to review thc ancient culture and past.

Iconography : Study of meanings conventionally attached to pictorial repre- sentations.

Pagan : Ancient Christians used to call the believers of other religions as pagan.

Greco-Roman : It signifies that era of European history when whole of Europe and larger part of central Asia was ruled by the rulers of Rome.

Cartography : It is the technique of drawing maps

Occidental : Since ancient times Europeans have tried to identify themselves by juxtaposing to the Eastem (Asian) Societics. In this attempt Europe has been termed as occidental.

Oriental : Ancient Europeans used to fantasize about the Eastern (Asian) Societics, and in this attempt they coined the term Oriental for all the societies east of Black Sea.

Animism : Societies where even animals arc ascribed a special position in their rituals lo protect them are know as practicing Animism.

Pantheism : Ancient societies, when they could not control natural forczs they ten~cdto worship them. It gives rise to the belief that God and Giverse (the whole world) are identical. Hence on earth every- thing is part of God.

KarunaRasa : It is feeling of piety, according to Indian Rasa theory. Painting Ja taka : Extremely popular stories of former lives of the Buddha that are preserved in all branches of Buddhism.

Tempera : A tempera medium is dry pigment tempered with an emulsion and third with water. It is a very ancient medium. Traditional tempera painting is a lengthy process. Ciesso, mixture of plaster of paris (or gypsum) with size, is the traditional ground which after laborious preparations, results, however, in an cpaque brilliant white light reflecting surf ace, similar in texture to hard flat icing sugar.

Colours were applied with sable brushes in successive broad sweeps or washes of semi transparent tempera.

The luminous gesso base of a tempera painting combined with the accumulative effects of overlaid colour washes, produces a unique dcpth and intensity of colour.

Lapis-lazuli : It is a mineral which provides a unique colour of violet-blue. It was an expensive mineral hence reserved for focal accents and impor- tant symbolic features in design.

Altarnira : Prehistoric cave towers famous for its magnificent paintings and engravings. It is in northern spain.

Fresco : Fresco (Italian; 'fresh') is the traditional method for painting directly on to wall or ceiling. It is the oldest known painting medium, surviving in the pre-historic mural decorations.

Mural : Mural painting has its origins in the primal instrincts of people to decorate their surroundings and to use wall surfaces 2s means for expressing ideas, emotions and beliefs. Their universal manifesta- tion is in the form of graffiti. But in more disciplined attempts to symbolise the importance and function of particular buildings through their interior decoration, murals have been designed for the restricted framework of specific surface areas.

11.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES 3 I ! rCheck Your Progress-1 1) See Sec.ll.2.

2) See sub.Sec.ll.2.1.

3) See sub.Sec.ll.2.2.

rCheck Your Progress-2 1) See silb.Sec.11.3.2.

2) See sub.Sec.ll.3.3.

rCheck Your Progress3 1) See sub.Sec.ll.4.2.

2) See sub.Sec.ll.4.3.