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A GIS-Based Investigation Into Social Violence and Settlement Patterns in the Gallina Area of the American Southwest Adam M University of New Mexico UNM Digital Repository Anthropology ETDs Electronic Theses and Dissertations 5-1-2016 A GIS-Based Investigation Into Social Violence and Settlement Patterns in the Gallina Area of the American Southwest Adam M. Byrd Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/anth_etds Part of the Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Byrd, Adam M.. "A GIS-Based Investigation Into Social Violence and Settlement Patterns in the Gallina Area of the American Southwest." (2016). https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/anth_etds/11 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Electronic Theses and Dissertations at UNM Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Anthropology ETDs by an authorized administrator of UNM Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Adam M. Byrd Candidate Anthropology Department This dissertation is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication: Approved by the Dissertation Committee: David A. Phillips, Chairperson James L. Boone Michael W. Graves Christopher D. Lippitt A GIS-BASED INVESTIGATION INTO SOCIAL VIOLENCE AND SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE GALLINA AREA OF THE AMERICAN SOUTHWEST by ADAM MUIR BYRD B.S., Anthropology, University of Oregon, 2002 M.A., Anthropology, University of New Mexico, 2008 DISSERTATION Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Anthropology The University of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Mexico 2016 © 2016, Adam Muir Byrd iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are so many people to thank for their support and encouragement along the way. Looking back at what seemed at many times like a meandering and disjointed process, the one common thread throughout has been the support that other people have given me. This dissertation would not have been possible if not for the many who graciously donated their time and advice to help me at many stages in the process. First, I would like to thank my dissertation committee members: Dr. David Phillips (chair), Dr. Jim Boone, Dr. Michael Graves, and Dr. Christopher Lippitt. They were all very generous with their time and expertise and helped provide timely nudges on my way to the finish line. Dr. Phillips deserves special mention. While I often wondered if he felt like he had signed up for more than he bargained for when he agreed to serve as my committee chair, I could not have done it without him and I am extremely grateful he decided to sign on. From the beginning, he was always available to answer questions, give advice, or read numerous drafts. I am truly endebted to him for sharing his wisdom and intelligence and for his patience with me at every step in the journey. Many others helped guide me through the proposal and dissertation process. Dr. Chip Wills, Dr. Patricia Crown, and Dr. Paul Zandbergen served as committee members while I was developing my proposal and were instrumental in getting me over that hump. Dr. Lawrence Straus and my proposal writing classmates helped form my proposal in its early stages. Dr. Bruce Huckell provided early guidance and introduced me to Dave Phillips. Dr. David Wilcox from the Museum of Northern Arizona pointed me to the Gallina as a research topic and set me on my path early on. iv Archaeologists from federal agencies in Albuquerque and Santa Fe were an invaluable resource. Mike Bremer from the Santa Fe National Forest (SFNF) was a constant source of assistance, whether by answering questions, by providing data, by allowing me to camp out for weeks in the SFNF Supervisor’s Office to review site records, or by giving a tour of Gallina sites. Likewise, the archaeologists from the Bureau of Indian Affairs office in Albuquerque (Peter McKenna, Harding Polk, and Bruce Harrill) were tremendously helpful answering questions, allowing access to their records, and patiently listening to my speculations. Gretchen Obenauf and Anthony Lutonsky from the Bureau of Land Management, Rio Puerco Field Office were very generous with their time and knowledge. Special thanks to Tony for letting me tag along on his weekly surveys in the Cuba area. The bulk of the data from this study was provided by the Archaeological Records Management Section (ARMS) of the New Mexico Historic Preservation Division. The folks at ARMS, especially Cordelia Snow, Tonya Fallis, and Bridget Barela, graciously helped me navigate their archives while I spent several weeks poring over site records. Statistical Research Inc. (SRI) deserves thanks for giving me a job and providing professional development leave to work on my dissertation. Thank you to everyone in the Albuquerque office, especially Robert Heckman, Phil Leckman, and Carrie Gregory, for their words of encouragement and for accommodating an often very irregular schedule. Thanks also to Edgar Huber, Sarah Van Galder, and Stephanie Jolivette in the Lacey office for helping me through the last year and a half. Additional thanks go to the current generation of Gallina scholars, especially Connie Constan, Erik Simpson, Lewis Borck, and Paula Massouh. Anything that I may v have accomplished in this study owes a great debt to what they have already put out there. Finally, I would be tragically remiss to not acknowledge the support of my family. My parents were always there for an encouraging word or a bit of advice. Thanks to my two children, Sam and Sofia, for tolerating a sometimes absent and often stressed out father and helping keep everything in perspective. Most importantly, I would like to thank my wife, Sarah. None of this would have been possible without her constant support and for the many sacrifices she made to help me pursue my dream. This is her accomplishment as much as mine and I often had the easier part of the bargain. A heartfelt thanks for everything she has done and for giving anything I do meaning. vi A GIS-BASED INVESTIGATION INTO SOCIAL VIOLENCE AND SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE GALLINA AREA OF THE AMERICAN SOUTHWEST by Adam Muir Byrd B.S., Anthropology, University of Oregon, 2002 M.A., Anthropology, University of New Mexico, 2008 Ph.D., Anthropology, University of New Mexico, 2016 ABSTRACT The Gallina area is an ideal location for an investigation into social violence using GIS-based methods. Situated in northern New Mexico, the remote Gallina region and the Gallina phase (A.D. 1100–1300) in particular have a clear record of violence that peaked in the latter half of the 13th Century (Borck and Bremer 2015; Constan 2011). Although there is an abundant record of violence, the source of the violence remains unclear. Were the Gallina attacked by an outside group or groups? Did the Gallina turn on each other? Or was some combination of internecine conflict and foreign attacks to blame? The Gallina do not appear to have been restricted territorially by outside groups and there are few indications that they influenced neighboring groups. The Gallina phase has been characterized as an area of intense conflict, with researchers citing the many defensible sites (towers, cliff houses, and site locations with limited access), burned sites, lack of trade wares, and skeletal evidence of violence throughout the region (Byrd 2010, 2015; Borck and Bremer 2015; Constan 2011, 2015; Dick 1976; Green 1956; Hibben 1939). The construction of defensible structures, such as towers and cliff houses, involved a significant investment of time and resources. Their vii specific locations on the landscape were likely the result of careful planning with an inherent concern for defense as demonstrated by location and design. Investigating the placement of these structures on the landscape and their relationship to other settlements (including intervisibility) could demonstrate the existence of alliances between communities, territorial boundaries, potential regional organization, and from where communities most felt threatened. In addition, examining the locations of settlement clusters and the distribution of trade wares can clarify the nature of interactions among settlements. Finally, identifying spatial and temporal patterns of warfare-related sites can be used to help identify both the source and the objective of attacks. This study specifically investigated how intraregional conflict and interregional conflict result in different spatial trends seen in the archaeological record by comparing spatial datasets to three hypotheticals models of tribal conflict. The three models of conflict included conflict between Gallina groups (internal), conflict between Gallina and outside groups (external), and a combination of internal and external (mixed) conflict. Based on ethnographic and archaeological research, the models identify a suite of regional settlement characteristics that have been previously demonstrated as relevant to warfare (Haas 1990; Haas and Creamer 1993; LeBlanc 1999; Solometo 2004; Wilcox and Haas 1993), such as settlement density, defensibility of sites, sites with evidence of violence, and interaction between Gallina settlements. For each model, variations for each of these settlement characteristics are correlated with expected settlement patterns and expected results from different spatial analysis techniques. The settlement data for documented sites within the study area were then compared to the expected results for viii each model, suggesting that the violence in the region was the result of groups migrating from the Four Corners region to the Rio Grande Valley. ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 The Gallina area and major Ancestral
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