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Britain After the Romans BRITAIN AFTER THE ROMANS AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO THE POSSIBILITIES OF AN ADVENTUS SAXONUM A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN CLASSICS at RHODES UNIVERSITY by GLYN LLOYD-JONES Supervised by Mr John Jackson February 2015 Abstract In the fifth century, after the departure of the Romans, according to tradition, which is based on the ancient written sources, Britain was invaded by the Angles and Saxons. This view has been questioned in the last century. The size of the ‘invasion’, and indeed its very existence, have come into doubt. However, this doubting school of thought does not seem to take into account all of the evidence. An interdisciplinary, nuanced approach has been taken in this thesis. Firstly, the question of Germanic raiding has been examined, with reference to the Saxon Shore defences. It is argued that these defences, in their geographical context, point to the likelihood of raiding. Then the written sources have been re-examined, as well as physical artefacts. In addition to geography, literature and archaeology (the disciplines which are most commonly used when the coming of the Angles and Saxons is investigated), linguistic and genetic data have been examined. The fields of linguistics and genetics, which have not often both been taken into consideration with previous approaches, add a number of valuable insights. This nuanced approach yields a picture of events that rules out the ‘traditional view’ in some ways, such as the idea that the Saxons exterminated the Britons altogether, but corroborates it in other ways. There was an invasion of a kind (of Angles – not Saxons), who came in comparatively small numbers, but found in Britain a society already mixed and comprising Celtic and Germanic-speaking peoples: a society implied by Caesar and Tacitus and corroborated by linguistic and genetic data. ii Contents Page Introduction – The Trouble with Scholars 1 Chapter 1 – Germanic raiding – the defensive role of the Shore Forts 5 Barbarian piracy and the Roman Navy 7 The locations of the Shore Forts 10 The problem with the forts’ interior layouts 18 The inland fortifications 20 A comprehensive system 21 Evidence of raiding, and its lack 24 Conclusions 26 Chapter 2 –Britannia and the Saxons – Literary Evidence 27 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 27 Gildas 28 Bede 33 Procopius 35 The Life of St Germanus 38 The Life of St Guthlac 40 The Laws of Ine of Wessex 42 Conclusions 45 Chapter 3 – Traces in the Ground – Archaeological Evidence 47 Settlement patterns 47 Burial patterns 54 Other interpretations 63 Conclusions 66 Chapter 4 – The Linguistic Landscape of Roman Britain 68 Extermination theory 69 British Latin 72 Germanic-speaking Belgic tribes 75 Contact linguistics trends and mechanisms 80 Brittonic influences on Old English 82 iii Socio-political factors 92 Conclusions 96 Chapter 5 – The Genetics of Conquest and Settlement 98 Early genetic testing techniques 99 Recent genetic testing techniques 102 Towards a broader picture 113 Conclusions 121 Conclusion – An Inter-Disciplinary Approach 123 Appendix – Extracts from the Original Sources 127 Bibliography 139 Primary sources 139 Secondary sources 141 iv Acknowledgements In the course of the last two years, I have received help and support from a number of people, to whom I must express my appreciation. First and foremost among them, I am indebted to my supervisor John Jackson, for his diligent help, support and advice. I am also indebted to Mike Lambert and Daniel Malamis for their not inconsiderable input. Also, along with the rest of the Classics Department, I must express my appreciation for the support and encouragement of Grant Goodwin and Philippa Evans, my classmates, who were always willing to debate ideas and offer their insights. I am also indebted to the people and groups who have helped in funding this degree. Specifically, I would like to thank the trustees of the Agar Hamilton Bursary, the trustees of the Supplementary Bursary Trust and Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu. I would like to thank my parents for their undying love and support, and also my friends who provided motivation and distraction (when necessary). Finally, I would like to thank my girlfriend Jess for her love and patience, and for expressing interest in my lengthy (and I dare say sometimes somewhat tedious) expositions of post- Roman British history – whether or not they held any particular relevance to whatever we happened to be doing at the time. v Introduction The trouble with scholars “Of all the tribes of the Germanic race none was more cruel than the Saxons. Their very name, which spread to the whole confederacy of Northern tribes, was supposed to be derived from the use of a weapon, the seax, a short one-handed sword. Although tradition and the Venerable Bede assign the conquest of Britain to the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons together, and although the various settlements have tribal peculiarities, it is probable that, before their general exodus from Schleswig-Holstein, the Saxons had virtually incorporated the other two strains... The history books of our childhood attempted courageously to prescribe exact dates for all the main events. In 449, Hengist and Horsa, invited by Vortigern, founded the Jutish kingdom of Kent upon the corpses of its former inhabitants. In 477 Ella and his three sons arrived to continue the inroad. In 495 Cerdic and Cynric appeared. In 501 Port, the pirate, founded Portsmouth. In 514 the West Saxons Stuf and Wihtgar descended in their turn and put the Britons to flight. In 544 Wihtgar was killed. In 547 came Ida, founder of the kingdom of Northumberland. All that can be said about these dates is that they correspond broadly with the facts, and that these successive waves of invaders, bringing behind them settlers, descended on our unhappy shores.”1 This is how Winston Churchill, writing in his monumental History of the English-Speaking Peoples, described the ‘received wisdom’, that he was taught, pertaining to the supposed invasion and settlement of Britain by Germanic peoples in the 5th and 6th centuries (be they Jutes, Angles or Saxons). This view was largely based on interpretation of the written accounts of the period, especially as archaeological and other scientific approaches were still, to a degree, in their infancy. As is clear in Churchill’s own writing, the neat chronology set up by convention and Victorian antiquarians, that was prevalent in his childhood in the 1870s and 1880s, had already come under suspicion. However, his comment that “All that can be said about these dates is that they correspond broadly with the facts, and that these successive waves of 1 Churchill, 1956, p. 51. 1 invaders, bringing behind them settlers, descended on our unhappy shores” is still broadly consistent with what one might call the ‘traditional view’, or the orthodox academic position.2 Tied up inextricably (in my view) with the idea of the 5th and 6th century Germanic3 invasion and settlement is the notion of the Germanic piracy and raiding that we are given to understand preceded it, between the 2nd and 4th centuries. The received wisdom regarding this raiding, much like the later invasions, is based largely on the surviving historical accounts of it: notably in the Notitia Dignitatum4, as well as in the writings of (among others) Ammianus Marcellinus5, Aurelius Victor6, Eutropius7, Claudian8 and Pacatus9 all of whom were 4th century A.D. writers, and Zosimus10, who was somewhat later (late 5th – early 6th centuries). But the orthodox, historical view is in doubt. As opposed to a full scale invasion – resulting in the replacement of the majority of the population, there is a revisionist school of thought which argues in favour of a much smaller migration of Germanic peoples in the fifth century, perhaps constituting a ruling, military, elite; meanwhile, the basic population did not change. 11 This view is based largely, but not exclusively, on archaeology. The argument made is that there is little – to no – evidence from archaeology to support many of the aspects of this view of events. Among the proponents of this school of thought, Francis Pryor seems to suggest that the instability of the North Sea region, and the existence of the pirates and invaders, is probably an erroneous reading of events. The apparent behaviour of the remaining Romano- British people in the Late Roman period, he argues, seems inconsistent with that sort of situation, as they seem to have been experiencing a particularly prosperous time.12 He is joined in this opinion by John Cotterill, who also questions the existence of North Sea piracy.13 Andrew Pearson, likewise, questions the extent of the piracy, and even whether it existed.14 Pryor, and the school of thinking whence he comes, doubt the plausibility of a large scale invasion, arguing rather that the changes that can be observed to have occurred in 2 See Salway, 1981, pp. 415-500 and Davies, 1999, pp. 151ff. (on the accepted succession of events in late Roman Britain); Collingwood and Richmond, 1969, pp. 47-51 (on coastal raiding and the Saxon Shore); Esmonde Cleary, 1990, pp. 162-187 and de le Bédoyère, 2006, pp. 254-269 (for a discussion of the constituents and merits of this ‘traditional view’). 3 I find it convenient to refer, here, to ‘Germanic’ raiders, pirates and invaders for the simple reason that, as is raised at a later stage in this thesis, the identification of these peoples as specifically Saxon, Angle, Frisian or Jute is unclear, and warrents some consideration. 4 Notitia Dignitatum, 28 5 Historia Romana, 27.8. 6 Liber de Caesaribus, 39.20-1. 7 Breviarium Historiae Romanae, 9.21. 8 Panegyric on the Fourth Consulship of Honorius, 24-33.
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