ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 1-7 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.1
Time-Dependent Multiplier for Load Test
Kanaan S. Youkhanna
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Duhok, Duhok, IRAQ
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: The ACI Code does not provide information about the time-dependent Received: 30/08/2015 multiplier for the period (0≤ t ≤1 day). A Single span portal frame is cast to Accepted: 21/06/2016 perform load test. Load test is performed and the results indicate that time- Published: 10/1 /2017 dependent deflection takes place from the first hour after load application. The Keywords: frame passed the load test successfully. Theoretical formula to predict time- beam, dependent multiplier () for the period (0 ≤ t ≤ 1 day) is suggested. The suggested deflection, formula is to be used with the ACI code method in calculating long-term frame, deflection. The suggested formula gives logical value for t = 0 compared to other load test, formulas, also may be used in computer aided design. Time-dependent multiplier. *Corresponding Author: Kanaan S. Youkhanna,
E-mail: [email protected]
1. Proof testing to show that a structure 1. INTRODUCTION can safely resist intended design loads 1.1 Load Test with an adequate factor of safety against failure. Concrete structures are designed to carry 2. Proof testing to show that a structure dead and live loads during construction and in can resist the working design loads in a service. The in-place strength of concrete will serviceable fashion where deflections not be equivalent to that measured on standard and cracking are within limits considered acceptable. cylinders (due to handling, placing, 3. Testing to failure to show the ultimate consolidation, and curing). Structural design capacity of a structural member. principles recognize this, and the ACI Code (ACI 2011) has a process of assuring the structural safety of the concrete construction. A general acceptance for the behavior ACI Code, chapter 20, provides provisions for under test load is that a member does not show the use of load testing as one means of strength evidence of failure. evaluation of existing concrete structures. ACI 1.2 Time-Dependent Deflection Committee 437 (ACI 437-2007) reported that the purpose of load testing should be divided Deflections must be controlled to ensure into three distinct categories: satisfactory performance of concrete structures. Considering serviceability of concrete systems, 2 Youkhanna, K. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 1-7 several reasons to control deflections arise, 2. SCOPE OF RESEARCH among them: In this study, an attempt is made to show 1. To prevent damage of attached that the time-dependent deflection takes place partitions or other construction during the first hours after the application of elements likely to be damaged by large loading. Also, an attempt is made to suggest a deflections. theoretical formula for time-dependent factor 2. To prevent deflections to be noticeable by occupants such as to convey a sense for the period (0 ≤ t ≤ 1 day). Since the load of inadequacy or safety concerns. test is consisted of four stages of load application, it is preferable to prove that time- dependent deflection takes place during the Simplified methods for predicting short- first hours after the application of loading. term and long-term deflections are mainly based on empirical equations that are based on experimental research, these approaches are 3. RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE available in codes (ACI 2011) (Standard Australia 2009) (Notes on ACI 2008) (CEB – Serviceability requirements make it FIP 1993). An example of simplified imperative for the structural designer to possess approaches is that of Australian Standard for simple and reliable formulas to predict concrete structures (Standard Australia 2009). deflections (instantaneous and particularly According to Australian Standard AS 3600, the time-dependent). For the period (0 ≤ t ≤ 1 day), long-term deflection due to creep and the ACI Code does not provide values of time- shrinkage is derived by multiplying the short- dependent multiplier. So, in this study, a goal term deflection by a factor, Kcs which depends is to set a formula to predict values of time- upon the steel area provided in the member dependent multiplier (ξ) for periods less or cross section at compression and tension zones. equal to 1 day. Nowadays, mathematical This empirical factor for a reinforced concrete formulas, as simple as possible, are required beam or slab is given as for computer aided design. This is another A significant point from the present study. sc K cs 2 1.2 0.8 . Analytical model Ast is proposed (AL-Nu’man 2007) for the 4. Prediction of Deflection According to the calculation of long-term deflections of ACI Code 318 - 2011 reinforced concrete two-way slabs. Mechanism Generally, instantaneous deflection may be of creep and shrinkage in concrete are of a predicted by: similar nature and both are due to the M .L2 movement of moisture from cement gel of 5 a i K. (1) hardened concrete (Lenczner 1981). 48 Ec .I e Where There is lack of information regarding time
– dependent multiplier for load test. 3 3 M M I cr (I ) 1 cr (I ) (2) e M g M cr a a
f r .I g M cr (3) yt 3 Youkhanna, K. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 1-7
' It can be seen from Table (1) and Fig. (1), f 0.62 f c (4) r that there are no values given to time- dependent multiplier ξ for periods less or equal Where I is the effective moment of inertia, e to 1 day. Ig is the gross moment of inertia, Icr is the cracked moment of inertia, Mcr is the cracking moment of the section, Ma is the applied 5. Experimental Work – Model for Load moment, fr is modulus of rupture of concrete, yt Test is the distance from the section's centroidal axis Single span portal frame F1 was cast as (neglecting reinforcement) to the extreme fiber case study for load test. General configuration in tension. Additional time-dependent ’ of frame F1 is shown in Fig. (2). Concrete: fc = deflection, Δ(cp+sh) may be estimated as: 23 MPa. Steel: fy = 700 MPa, Footing: (350x350x100)mm, 4–φ5 mm. Cement fineness is 290 m2/kg (Blaine), initial and final (cpsh) .(i )sust (5) setting times (Vicat) are 150 min and 320 min respectively. Specific Gravity of sand is 2.61 and absorption is 0.69 %. Specific Gravity of ' (6) 1 50 sand is 2.59 and absorption is 0.71 %. Based on the ACI Code, calculating Where ξ is the time-dependent multiplier given in Table (1) and Fig. (1) (ACI 2011). bending capacity of beam section, then equating this bending capacity to suitable
moment coefficient formula, the load to be Table (1) Time-dependent multiplier . applied as follows: Duration According to support moment: w = 10.19 kN/m According to mid-span moment: w = 8.91 3 months 1.0 kN/m 6 months 1.2
12 months 1.4
5 years or more 2.0
Figure 2: Detail of frame (F1)
To ensure safety, the smaller load value w = 8.91 kN/m (0.61 k/ft) is chosen. To ensure that the beam will not reach failure during load test, the applied test load for frame F1 is taken less than 8.91 kN/m assumed to be 6.0 kN/m Figure 1: Time-dependent multiplier . (0.41 k/ft). This is due to the requirements of safety and practical considerations for load application. Dead and live loads are assumed 4 Youkhanna, K. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 1-7 approximately (depending on load factors) as follows:
1.2 DL (6.0) 2.57kN / m(0.18k / ft) 1.2 1.6 1.6 LL (6.0) 3.43kN / m(0.24k / ft) 1.2 1.6
Dead load (2.57 kN/m) (0.18 k/ft) was applied for a period of 35 days, after which a test load is performed applying live load of Figure 4: Load-deflection relationship of the load test for Frame F1. 3.43 kN/m (0.24 k/ft) in four increments (stages). Dead and live loads were applied Table (2) Load test results for portal frame F1. experimentally using concrete blocks and sacks Increment Load Time Deflection filled with gravel and hanged on steel pipes, Type (hr) Load (mm) Fig. (3). For load test, live load increment is (kN/m) equal to 3.43 / 4 = 0.8575 kN/m, and Table (2) DL 0 2.57 0.000 A gives the results of the load test for the portal B frame F1, and the load-deflection relation of 1 DL + 0 3.43 0.071 the load test performed is shown in Fig (4). % LL 0.5 0.076 C
From Table (2), it is obvious that the 2 0.5 4.29 0.242 duration of each stage is half an hour. At the beginning of each stage (load increment), the 1.0 0.251 value of deflection is less than the deflection at 3 1.0 5.14 0.441 the end of same stage. This is a very good indication that time-dependent deflection takes 1.5 0.460 place even for a small period of time (hours) 4 1.5 6.00 0.675 after the application of the load. 2.0 0.720
24.0 0.765 D
DL 48.0 2.57 0.401
A The reading for dead load is considered as datum value.
B Immediate deflection at the beginning of load stage.
C Time-dependent effect at the end of load stage. Figure 3: Frame F1 under experimental load. D 24 hours after application of last load increment
5 Youkhanna, K. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 1-7
According to the ACI Code, measured time-dependent deflection takes place each maximum deflection shall satisfy the hour in a day. following: A theoretical formula for time-dependent 2 2 l t (1110) multiplier is suggested (Youkhanna 2010) 0.770mm 1 20000h 20000(80) for the period of (0 < t ≤ 90 day). Youkhanna suggested the following formula: Since measured maximum deflection 0.765 4 mm is less than Δ1 = 0.770 mm, hence the 999 t (t) 4 log(1 t) 0.29 (7) frame is considered as passing load test 1200 10 successfully. where t is time in days. Some of the values
predicted using the suggested formula is given 6. Time-Dependent Factor (ξ) For a Period in Table (5). (0 ≤ t ≤ 1 day) Equation (7) cannot be applied when time t Space (three dimensional) frame with nine = 0, because it will give negative value which panels (3 x 3) was subjected to load test (Al- is not logical. If the values are chosen within Rawi & Youkhanna 2005). The results are the period (0 < t ≤ 1 day), then by using Eq. (7) given in Table (3). The first hour effect of for this period, Table (6) is constructed. Figure time-dependent deflection is also shown in (5) represents the curve of Eq. (7) for the Table (3). period (0 < t ≤ 1 day), it can be seen that this Table (3) Load test results for space frame. curve is not smooth in the range of (0.6 ≤ t ≤ 0.9 day). Increment Load Time Deflection Type (hr) Load (mm) Considering the above literature and (kN/m2) making use of results of the load test of the DL 0 12.00 0.000 present study, the following theoretical formula, Eq. (8), is suggested to represent time- 1 DL 0 14.81 0.094 dependent multiplier for the period of (0 ≤ t + % ≤ 1 day). 2 LL 0.5 17.62 0.181 (t) 0.834 log(1 t) 0.164 t (0 ≤ t ≤ 1 day) (8) 3 1.0 20.42 0.262 The suggested formula is applicable for t = 4 1.5 23.23 0.338 0 and also checks the value given in Table (5) for t = 1 day which is 0.46. Also, the suggested 24 23.23 0.412 formula show smooth curve for the whole DL 45 12.00 0.005 range of t values within the period (0 ≤ t ≤ 1 day) as shown in Fig. (6). Table (7) gives some Straight and cambered beams in portal of the values of time-dependent multiplier frames were studied (Youkhanna 2006) and predicted using Eq. (8). deflection for period of fourteen hours in a day was measured for ten days. Total applied load was 4.576 kN/m, some of the deflection readings for single span portal frame are given in Table (4). Readings in Table (4) indicate that
6 Youkhanna, K. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 1-7
Table (4) Deflection readings of single span portal frame. Date Timing (Hour) 15 July 8:00A 10:00 12:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00B 10:00
2003 3.291 3.311 3.313 3.331 3.375 3.376 3.380 3.378
Date Timing (Hour) 11Sept 8:00A 10:00 12:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00B 10:00
2003 4.135 4.155 4.152 4.252 4.358 4.365 4.358 4.358
A 8:00 am. B 8:00 pm
Table (5) Time-dependent factor for period (0 < t ≤ 90 day) using Eq. (7). Time (days) 1 10 20 40 60 80
Factor (ξ) 0.46 0.75 0.83 0.91 0.95 0.99
Table (6) Time-dependent factor for period (0 < t ≤ 1 day) using Eq. (7). Time (days) 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Factor (ξ) 0.18 0.26 0.34 0.39 0.41 0.46
Table (7) Time-dependent factor for period (0 ≤ t ≤ 1 day) using Eq. (8). Time (days) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Factor (ξ) 0 0.33 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.46
Figure 5: Time-dependent factor for period Figure 6: Time-dependent factor for period
(0 < t ≤ 1 day) using Eq. (7). (0 ≤ t ≤ 1 day) using suggested Eq. (8).
7 Youkhanna, K. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 1-7
7. CONCLUSIONS Al-Rawi, R. Shafiq & Youkhanna, K. Sliwo 2005, The Role of Membrane Action in Load Test, Journal of 1. Load test is performed and the results Engineering-Baghdad University, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 51-60. indicate that time-dependent deflection takes place from the first hour after load CEB – FIP Model Code Comité Euro-International du application. Béton, 1993, Thomas Telford, London. 2. Theoretical formula to predict time- Lenczner, David 1981, Movements in Buildings, 2nd dependent multiplier () for the period Ed., Pergamon Press, Chapter one: Introduction, pp. 1-7. (0 ≤ t ≤ 1 day) is suggested. The suggested formula is to be used with the Notes on ACI 318-08, Notes on ACI 318-08 Building ACI code method in calculating the Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, Portland Cement Association, 10th Ed., USA, 2008. long-term deflection. 3. The suggested formula gives logical Standard Australia Concrete Structures, AS 3600, 2009, North Sydney, Australia. value for t = 0 compared to other formulas. Youkhanna, K. S. 2006, Deflection of Straight and 4. The suggested formula may be used in Cambered Beams Measured During Fourteen Hours per Day, Journal of Engineering-Baghdad computer aided design. University, Vol. 4, No. 12, pp. 1103-1110.
Youkhanna, K. S. 2010, Suggested Formula for Time- REFERENCES Dependent Factor (ξ) for Long-Term Deflection, Zanko Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences- ACI 437.1R-07 2007, “Load Tests of Concrete University of Salahhadin, Vol. 22, No. 6, pp. 39-46. Structures: Methods, Magnitude, Protocols, and . Acceptance Criteria”, American Concrete Institute.
ACI 318M-11 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary and Commentary, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, USA, 2011. AL-Nu’man, Bayan Salim, 2007, Analytical Model for Estimating Long-Term Deflections of Two-Way Reinforced Concrete Slabs, Journal of Engineering and Development, Vol. 11, No. 1, March, pp.1-12.
ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 8-21 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.1
Seasonal Variation of Exposure Radiation Dose in Ishik University Using Survey Radiation Dosimeter
Zakariya A. Hussein(1), Mehmet Ozdemir(2) and Cemal Cakez(3)
(1)Faculty of Sciences and Health, Department of Physics, Koya University, Erbil, Iraqi Kurdistan (2) Faculty of Education, Department of Biology, Ishik University, Erbil, Iraqi Kurdistan (3) Faculty of Engineering, Department of IT, Ishik University, Erbil, Iraqi Kurdistan
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: The radiation dose affects health when it causes changes in the cells of Received: 21/05/2016 the human body. The risk of harmful health effects generally increases with Accepted: 21/08/2016 the amount of radiation absorbed. In this work, the annual internal radiation Published: 10/1/2017 doses have been measured in seven building for Ishik University in Erbil Keywords: city, using active technique (survey radiation dosimeter) during two seasons- Radiation protection, survey winter and spring. The highest average values of exposure radiation dose radiation dose, seasonal were found in dentistry faculties for winter season (0.699 ± 0.09 µSv/h) and lowest values were found in Student dormitory (boys) for summer season variation (0.109± 0.05 µSv/h). The highest average exposure radiation dose was found *Corresponding Author: in the basement floor for all buildings compare with the ground, first, second Mehmet Ozdemir and third floors. The rate radiation dose in different type rooms depended on [email protected] the ventilation rate, leakage dose and age of building. The annual exposure dose was considered as the main factor to assessment risks of that leakage on the health of workers and student.
1. INTRODUCTION radio nuclides that are found in the earth and in The concept behind effective dose and its our bodies (Gilbert, 2009). Since the majority of population in mountain areas spend nearly 80% predecessor effective dose equivalent was of their time indoors, it is interesting to obtain a proposed in 1975 (Pierce, 2008). The effect of reliable value for the contribution of external radiation dose in the environment can be dangerous and fatal to humans. The damage it environmental gamma radiation to the total causes depends on the level of radiation and the dose received by the population (UNSCEAR, 2010; Brugmans, et al., 2010). Natural sources resiliency (Gilbert, 2010). Internal dosimetry provides methods for inherent to life on earth are considered to be a calculation of radiation dose and risks from major source of human exposure to ionizing radio nuclides incorporated inside the human radiation. Radon gas, gamma rays, cosmic body. The Radionuclide deposited in human (natural sources) radiations, and internal body will irradiate that person and will give radiations constitute 2.4 mSv/y of the absorbed dose to body until excreted or completely radiation dose. In addition, artificial and other sources contribute to 2.8 mSv/y of the absorbed decayed from the body (Brenner et al., 2009 ; radiation dose (Magill and Galy 2005; Martin, Yakoumakis, et al., 2010) Natural radiation arises from cosmic rays and from naturally occurring 2007) . People may be exposed to external and internal radiations by inhalation and ingestion 9 Hussein, Z. et al., /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 8-21
due to background radiations that exist in the environment (NCRP, 2009).The effective radiation will increase the frequency of some cancers that already occur naturally (or spontaneously), and that this increase is proportionate to the radiation dose; that is, the greater the dose, the greater the risk of cancer. These are referred to as stochastic effects (Chen, 2005; Kendall and Smith 2006) . The aim of this study was to measure exposure radiation doses inside Ishik University, during two seasons (winter and Figure 1: Survey radiation dosimeter used to spring), using active technique (survey measure the rate of radiation exposure radiation dosimeter).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Internal radiation dose in Ishik University 2. Research Methodology was evaluated for two seasons winter and To assessment, a seasonal risk of internal spring using active technique (survey radiation radiation dose on workers and student health dosimeter); the results listed in Table 1. The inside Ishik University in Erbil city, active results showed that the highest and lowest technique (survey radiation dosimeter) is used. average values of exposure radiation dose were Survey radiation dosimeter, a digital dosimeter in dentistry faculties (0.699 ± 0.09 µSv/h) in Inspector Ext., version 2.1, model: 2-0033-10, winter and Student dormitory (boys) (0.109± S/N: 8307 – 019, was used to measure the rate 0.05 µSv/h) in summer seasons, respectively, of radiation exposure (µSv/h), as shown in as shown in Figure 2. The effects can occur at Figure 1. Its internal detector has a measuring any level of radiation exposure. However, the range from 0.5 to 1100 μSv/h. Seven buildings risk of harmful health effects generally were selected from Ishik University (education increases with the amount of radiation faculties, engineering and law, construction absorbed. Increasing the size of the dose engineering , atelier and store, student increases the probability of inducing cancer dormitory (boys) and student dormitory with that carcinogen. Consequently, the level (girls),this building has five floors (basement, of exposure radiation dose recorded in this ground, first second and third). The exposure study compared with International Commission radiation dosimeter was measured inside 105 on Radiological Protection (ICRP) reports fall rooms for 35 floors; 3 rooms on each floor. The under the acceptance level (1 Sv) (ICRP, 2000) radiation dosimeter is of fundamental importance in the disciplines of radiation dosimetry and health physics. The average time of exposure is 10 min per day (5 h/ month), each season equal to three months (15 h/season).
10 Hussein, Z. et al., /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 8-21
Table 1 Exposure radiation dose in Ishik University for winter and spring seasons
Building Exposure radiation dose (µSv/h) for Exposure radiation dose (µSv/h) for spring season winter season
Minimum Maximum Average Minimum Maximum Average
Education 0.134 ± 0.04 0.172± 0.01 0.159± 0.02 0.629± 0.05 0.644± 0.04 0.634± 0.03 faculties
Engineering 0.149± 0.01 0.168± 0.03 0.154± 0.04 0.615± 0.01 0.629± 0.02 0.622± 0.04 and law
Dentistry 0.199± 0.03 0.219± 0.07 0.209± 0.08 0.684± 0.04 0.706± 0.05 0.699± 0.09 Faculties
Construction 0.144± 0.09 0.168± 0.04 0.159± 0.03 0.598± 0.06 0.609± 0.09 0.604± 0.08 engineering
Atelier and 0.114± 0.05 0.138± 0.09 0.129± 0.06 0.546± 0.09 0.559± 0.07 0.552± 0.06 store
Student 0.098± 0.08 0.115± 0.05 0.109± 0.05 0.401± 0.04 0.409± 0.06 0.405± 0.04 dormitory (boys)
Student 0.109± 0.07 0.128± 0.02 0.119± 0.07 0.512±0.03 0.526±0.01 0.518±0.07 dormitory (girls)
Figure 3 shows that more than half of exposure buildings compare with the ground, first, radiation dose recorded in winter season were second and third floors, as shown in Figure 4. within the range of 0.600 - 0.699 µSv/h (57.14%), which is relatively lower than those recorded in the summer (0.100 - 0.140 µSv/h). Conclusion This is due to the variation in ventilation rates and the concentration of radioactive gases The health risk of exposure to radiation (radon and thoron) in the seasons. The survey dose was estimated using survey radiation dosimeter was fabricated to measure doses of dosimeter (active technique) for two seasons alpha, beta and gamma radiation, which also (winter and spring) in seven buildings for Ishik affects the outcome of the results. University in Erbil city. The highest and lowest average of radiation dose was found in winter The result shows that the average exposure and spring season, respectively. The effects can radiation dose has different values for each occur at any level of radiation exposure. floor (basement ground, first, second and However, the risk of harmful health effects third). This depended on the type of room, generally increases with the amount of ventilation rate, leakage dose and age of radiation absorbed. The effect of radiation dose building. The highest average internal radiation in the environment can be dangerous to dose was found in the basement floor for all humans. The damage it causes depends on the 11 Hussein, Z. et al., /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 8-21
level of radiation and the resiliency. The of Acknowledgements radiation dose of the basement floor is higher The authors would like to thanks to all staff than to the ground, first, second and third members of Ishik University in Erbil city for floors. This is due to the low ventilation rate of their help in data collection. ground floor, and its close proximity to the soil
Figure 2: exposure radiation dose for different building for winter and spring season
Figure 3: Comparison results of frequency variation of exposure radiation dose measured within seasons of winter and spring
12 Hussein, Z. et al., /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 8-21
Figure 4: Average exposure radiation dose of the each floor
REFERENCES Magill J., Galy J.(2005).“Radioactivity Radionuclides Brenner D. J., Doll R., Goodhead D. T., Hall E. J., Land C. E., Little J. B.(2009). Cancer risks attributable to Radiation”, Germany: Springer- Velag, 40-86. low doses of ionizing radiation: assessing what we really know. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA; 100:13761– 6. Martin C. J.(2007). Effective dose: how should it be applied to medical exposures. The British Journal Brugmans, M. J. P., Buijs, W. C. A. M. and Geleijns, of Radiology, 80 (2007), 639–647. J.(2010). Population exposure to diagnostic use of ionizing radiation in the Netherlands. Health Phys. NCRP (2009).National Council on Radiation Protection 98, 500–509. and Measurements, Recent applications of the
Chen J., A. (2005). Review of radon doses, Radiation NCRP public dose limit recommendation for Protection Bureau, Health Canada Radiation ionizing radiation, NCRP Statement No. 10, Protection Management, 22(4): 27-31.
Gilbert .ES.(2010). Studies of workers exposed to low Pierce D.A.(2008). Age–time patterns of radiogenic doses of radiation. Am J Epidemiol; 153:319–22. cancer risk; their nature and likely explanations.
Gilbert E. S.(2009). Studies of workers exposed to low Radiol. Prot.; 22:A147–54. doses of radiation. Am J Epidemiol 2001;153:319–22. UNSCEAR. (2000). Sources and effects of ionizing radiation. ANNEX A. Dose assessment ICRP (International Commission on Radiological methodologies. Report I p.18-82. Protection). (2000), Lung cancer risk from indoor exposure to radon daughters, Publication 66. Yakoumakis E., Tsalafoutas I. A., Nikolaou D., Nazos I., Koulentianos E., Proukakis C. h. (2010)
Differences in effective dose estimation from dose– Kendall GM , Smith TJ,(2006). Doses to organs and area product and entrance surface dose tissues from radon and its decay products. J Radiol measurements in intravenous autography. Br J Radiol;74:727–34. Prot, 22(4): 389-406. ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 35-42 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.3
The Investigation of Terrestrial Radioactivity in Soil Samples around Pshdar Region in Iraqi-Kurdistan.
1Mohammed I. M. Mustafa, 2Najmadin A. Yazici, 1Peshawa H. A. Mangur
1Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Raparin -Rania, Sulaimania, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
2 Department of Physics, School of Natural and Applied Science Engineering, University of Gaziantep, Turkey.
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: Measurements of the natural radioactivity levels in soil samples from the Received: 30/04/2016 Pshdar area in Iraq have been carried out. This survey is considered as the first Accepted: 24/08/2016 scientific assessment of the radioactivity level in the studied area so far. Soil Published: 10/ 1/2017 samples were collected in 22 regions across the landscape over an area of 1,339.13 Keywords: km2. Gamma ray spectroscopy analysis was carried out using the high purity Natural Radioactivity, germanium (HPGe) detector in a low background configuration to detect 226 232 40 Activity concentration, radioisotopes of natural decay chains ( Ra, Th), the long-lived radionuclide K 226 in the environment. It was found that the activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and Ra, 40 -1 -1 -1 232 K ranged from 7.6±1.0 Bq kg to 23.5±1.7 Bq kg , less than 2.50 Bqkg to Th, -1 -1 -1 31.8±2.2 Bqkg and 77.6±7.8 Bq kg to 554.5±42.7 Bq kg respectively. The 40 K. results have been compared with other radioactivity measurements in different *Corresponding Author: countries’ soils. The absorbed dose rate (D), the annual effective dose equivalent
Mohammed I. M. Mustafa (AEDE), the radium equivalent activity (Raeq), the external hazard index (Hex) and
Email: the internal hazard index (Hin) in the soil samples were also determined. The [email protected] obtained results indicate that the radiation hazard from primordial radionuclides in all soil samples from the studied area in the current work is not significant, and the natural background radiation of the area is at normal levels.
both cosmic and terrestrial radiation. The upper 1. INTRODUCTION atmosphere protects the earth and blocks most Radionuclides can occur both naturally and of the cosmic rays that approach the earth. anthropogenically in the environment. They However, a number of radionuclides are can contain radioisotopes of Uranium and produced by the interactions of cosmic rays 40 Thorium decay chain series, natural K and with the earth’s upper atmosphere. The 137 Cs of anthropogenic origin. Natural secondary particles, or cosmogenic radionuclides are components of the earth, radionuclides, are continuously generated by present for as long as its existence. They exist the bombardment of stable nuclides in the in soil, sediment, water, plants and air, all of atmosphere by cosmic rays (Khan et al., 2012); which are widely spread in the earth’s they vary with the elevation above the ground environment (Degerlier et al., 2008). All living (El-Samad et al., 2003). The major contributors organisms are continually exposed to ionizing to terrestrial radiation are known as primordial radiation coming from two main sources, radionuclides. They have very long decay half- natural and artificial radionuclides. About 85% lives, comparable to the age of the earth. of the dose received is due to natural radiation Examples are the decay products of 226Ra, (Dołhańczuk-Śródka, 2012), which is from 232Th and 40K, which are available naturally in 14 Mustafa, M. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 35-42 terrestrial soils and rocks, and in building 2.MATERIALS AND METHODS materials (Radiation, 2000, Lu and Zhang, 2.1 Study Area 2008, Abu-Haija, 2012). The artificial 137Cs radionuclides can also be present in The Pshdar area in Iraq- Kurdistan Region 2 environmental samples, resulting from occupies a total area of 1,339.13 km . It atmospheric fallout from nuclear weapons extends approximately 59 km from north-south testing and power plant accidents such as at and 31 km east-west. It shares a geographical Chernobyl and Fukushima Dai-ichi. (Radiation, border with Iran to the east, as shown in the 2008, UNSCEAR, 1988). The radiological map of the Figure 1. The interest in the implications of radionuclides will occur due to naturally occurring radioactive material the exposure of the body to gamma rays. (NORM) in the Pshdar area is specifically Therefore, the assessment of gamma radiation linked to the size of the local mountain chain doses from both natural and artificial sources is that may have resulted in contamination and of particular importance for evaluating the enhanced the level of background radioactivity contribution of radiation to the external dose of in the surrounding areas. This formation the world population. This study has been possibly could cause elevate levels of radiation carried out to measure the activity contamination in particular areas and concentrations of the natural of 226Ra, 232Th potentially affect people who reside near the decay chains and long-lived natural occurring surrounding regions. 40 radionuclide K in soil samples that were collected from the Pshdar area for the first time. Also, calculations have been performed for the total absorbed dose rate, the annual effective dose, the average radium equivalent activity, the external hazard index and the internal hazard index for understanding the radiation background of the studied area.
15 Mustafa, M. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 35-42
2.2 Soil Sampling homogenized samples were filled into one litre The samples were obtained using shovels Marinelli beakers that were then hermetically sealed with the aid of PVC tape to prevent the and scoops at typical depths of 5-15 222 220 centimetres from the top surface layer to escape of airborne Rn and Rn from the produce approximately 2 kilograms’ weight per samples. Finally, the samples were stored and sample. The presence of extraneous materials kept sealed for one month in order to reach those are not relevant for the soil samples radioactive secular equilibrium (Mollah et al., might introduce errors in the analytical results . 1987). Those samples were also processed in Therefore, stones, vegetable matter, glass order to be ready for counting by pieces, twigs, and/or leaves were eliminated semiconductor detector system (GX5020, from the soil samples. Each soil sample was Canberra) at the Cekmece Nuclear and packed into its own secure water-tight bag to Research Training Centre (CNAEM), prevent cross-contamination and was shipped Department of Health Physics, Istanbul, to the laboratory at the Gaziantep University. Turkey. The twenty-two (22) samples were collected from the locations per the numbering scheme 2.4 GX5020 Detector System plotted onto the Pshdar area map, as shown in Figure 2. The gamma ray spectrometry measurements were implemented using a coaxial hyper-pure germanium detector (HPGe) Canberra GX5020 Model. The detector crystal is p-type, and its geometry is closed-ended, with dimensions of 68.5 mm in diameter and 53 mm in length. Its relative efficiency is % 50 and its energy resolution is 2.0 keV at the 1332.5 keV of FWHM from 60Co. Its peak-to-Compton ratio is 60:1. For gamma-ray shielding, a front opening split-top shield was used to reduce the background. It features a 100-mm lead thickness that is jacketed by a 9.5-mm-steel outer housing. The graded liner comprises a 1- mm-thick tin layer and a 1.5-mm-thick copper layer to prevent interference by lead X-rays. To minimise scattered radiation from the shield, the detector was centred in it. Gamma spectroscopy analysis was performed with the Genie-2000 software system that interfaced 2.3 Sample Preparation with a multichannel analyser DSA-1000, which The samples picked up, a total of 22 pcs, was a full-featured 16K channel multichannel were dried in an oven at 105oC for 24 hours to analyser and advanced digital signal processing ensure that any significant moisture was techniques. DSA-1000 operates through the removed from the samples at the laboratory of Genie-2000 gamma spectroscopy software that Physical Engineering in GAUN. The dried includes functions such as peak searching, peak samples were pulverized into a fine powder evaluation, energy and efficiency calibration and passed through a standard 2 mm mesh. The mode and nuclide identification. The 16 Mustafa, M. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 35-42 calibration energy and relative efficiency of the 1120.3keV and 1764.5 keV) photopeak GX5020 spectrometer were carried out using energies were calculated respectively. The 1000 ml Marinelli calibration sources that daughter radionuclides were assumed to be in contain 241Am, 109Cd, 57Co, 139Ce, 203Hg, 113Sn, secular equilibrium with their parents; 85Sr, 137Cs, 88Y and 60Co peaks for an energy therefore, the activity concentrations were range of between 80 and 2500 keV. averaged to represent the 226Ra decay chain. Background counting was also performed. Similarly, the photopeak energies of (238.6 Each sample was counted for 50,000 seconds. keV), (338.3 keV, 911.2 keV, 964.8 keV) and Sample activities (A) in (Bq kg-1) were (583.2 keV) have been used to calculate the calculated by using (Protection, 1991); activity concentration for 212Pb, 228Ac and 208Ti respectively in the 232Th decay chain. Furthermore, the observed photopeaks of 1461 keV have been used for the 40K radionuclide. The activity concentrations for dry weight in Where, CR is the net count rate of the gamma (Bq kg-1) for 226Ra, 232Th and 40K have been ray photopeak in the sample spectrum presented in Table 1. The range of measured subtracted from the corresponding gamma ray radioactivity concentrations of 226Ra was from photopeak area in the background spectrum, 7.6±1.0 to 23.5±1.7 Bq kg-1 with an average of is the absolute efficiency of the HPGe 14.5±0.3 Bq kg-1, of 232Th was from ˂ 2.5 to detector, is the gamma ray emission 31.8±2.2 Bq kg-1 with an average of 20.08 ± probability and M is the mass of the sample 0.4 Bq kg-1, of 40K was from 35.6±12.3 to (kg). After corrections for background and the 554.5 ± 42.7 Bq kg-1 with an average of Compton continuum, nuclide activities were 345.68± 6.64 Bq kg-1. The worldwide average obtained for 226Ra, 232Th and 40K concentrations of the radionuclides 226Ra, 232Th respectively(Dovlete and Povinec, 2004). and 40K reported by (Radiation, 2000)are 35, 30 and 400 Bq kg-1, respectively.
The radioactivity levels of 40K were found 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION in some samples to be above worldwide limit, 3.1 Activity Concentration this increasing may attributed to the presence of loamy and clay sediments, or to the high Gamma ray spectra of the soil samples content of monazite(Radiation, 2008). Also, It studied in the current survey have been it was found to be higher than 232Th and 226Ra obtained after energy and efficiency calibration in all the studied samples. This is an indication of the detector were calibrated using standard that 40K is a more abundant radioactive element calibration sources which contain 241Am, 109Cd, than the other elements in the soils under 57Co, 139Ce, 203Hg, 113Sn, 85Sr, 137Cs, 88Y and consideration. It can be seen that the average 60Co peaks for energy range between 80 and activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K 2500keV. The activity concentrations of in the investigated samples are in agreement gamma ray emitting radionuclides for all soil with the worldwide activity concentrations. samples were calculated from the net count rate This is a direct indication of natural chain of the background subtracted from the radionuclides. The distribution of 226Ra, 232Th corresponding gamma ray photopeak and its and 40K activity concentrations of the soil photopeak energy. The activity concentration samples in the current survey are shown in of 114Pb and 214Bi radionuclide at (242 keV, Figure 3. 295.2 keV and 51.9 keV), (609.3 keV, 17 Mustafa, M. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 35-42
Table 1: Measured radionuclide activity concentrations and uncertainties and calculated absorbed dose rates, Annual Effective dose, Radium equivalent activity, External and Internal hazard index in the soil samples collected samples in the current study.
Activity Activity Activity Absorbed Annual Radium External Internal Sample 226Ra 232Th 40K Dose Effective Equivalent Hazard Hazard Rate Dose Activity No. -1 -1 -1 (Bq Kg ) (Bq Kg ) (Bq Kg ) (nGy h-1) (µSv) (Bq kg-1) Index Index
Soil 1 20.6 ± 1.5 30.5 ± 2.1 392.1 ± 30.9 44.31±1.93 54.34±2.37 94.40±4.11 0.26±0.01 0.31±0.01
Soil 2 20.6 ± 2.0 30.0 ± 2.7 395.0 ± 38.3 44.13±2.46 54.12±3.02 93.91±5.25 0.26±0.01 0.31±0.01
Soil 3 23.5 ± 1.7 31.8 ± 2.2 352.6 ± 28.0 44.79±1.93 54.93±2.37 96.12±4.17 0.27±0.01 0.32±0.01
Soil 4 13.8 ± 1.2 21.4 ± 1.7 554.5 ± 42.7 42.43±2.12 52.04±2.61 87.10±4.26 0.24±0.01 0.27±0.01
Soil 5 10.6 ± 1.0 12.3 ± 1.1 215.9 ± 19.3 21.34±1.14 26.17±1.39 44.81±2.38 0.26±0.01 0.15±0.01
Soil 6 15.4 ± 1.2 21.3 ± 1.5 378.2 ± 28.9 35.79±1.60 43.86±1.97 74.98±3.31 0.21±0.01 0.24±0.01
Soil 7 9.4 ± 1.3 ˂ 2.5 35.6 ± 12.3 7.34±0.78 9.01±0.96 15.72±1.60 0.04±0.004 0.07±0.002
Soil 8 16.8 ± 1.9 23.4 ±2.6 353.7 ± 38.0 36.66±2.39 44.96±2.94 77.50±5.09 0.22±0.01 0.25±0.01
Soil 9 14.7 ± 1.5 21.8 ± 2.0 370.6 ± 34.5 35.42±2.00 43.44±2.45 74.41±4.18 0.21±0.01 0.24±0.01
Soil 10 9.4 ± 0.7 6.0 ± 0.5 77.6 ± 7.8 11.21±0.54 13.75±0.67 23.96±1.16 0.07±0.003 0.09±0.002
Soil 11 16.5 ± 1.5 27.6 ± 2.3 446.5 ± 38.1 42.93±2.22 52.65±2.72 90.35±4.65 0.25±0.01 0.29±0.01
Soil 12 9.2 ± 1.0 8.6 ± 1.1 265.1 ± 26.7 20.50±1.37 25.15±1.68 41.91±2.77 0.12±0.007 0.14±0.006
Soil 13 7.6 ± 1.0 8.8 ± 1.2 205.8 ± 22.6 17.41±1.27 21.36±1.56 36.03±2.64 0.10±0.006 0.12±0.006
Soil 14 8.2 ± 1.0 10.8 ± 1.3 242.7 ± 25.1 20.44±1.4 25.07±1.7 42.33±2.86 0.12±0.007 0.14±0.007
Soil 15 17.2 ± 1.6 28.4 ± 2.4 477.1 ± 41.5 45.01±2.37 55.20±2.91 94.55±4.95 0.26±0.01 0.30±0.01
Soil 16 15.0 ± 1.2 23.5 ± 1.8 449.2 ± 35.4 39.87±1.91 48.90±2.34 83.19±3.93 0.23±0.01 0.27±0.01
Soil 17 14.5 ±1.7 19.4 ±2.1 435.5 ± 33.5 36.59±2.04 44.86±2.50 75.78±4.30 0.21±0.01 0.24±0.01
Soil 18 12.5 ±1.3 25.7 ±2.0 375.4 ± 31.5 36.96±1.88 45.33±2.30 78.16±3.96 0.22±0.01 0.24±0.01
Soil 19 17.8 ±1.5 28.6 ±2.3 285.5 ± 25.4 37.42±1.87 45.89±2.30 80.68±4.11 0.23±0.01 0.26±0.01
Soil 20 18.4 ±1.5 15.7 ±1.1 510.4 ± 38.9 39.29±1.88 48.18±2.31 80.15±3.70 0.22±0.01 0.27±0.01
Soil 21 15.7 ±1.1 26.4 ±2.4 420.2 ± 28.4 40.74±1.93 49.96±2.37 85.81±4.21 0.24±0.01 0.27±0.01
Soil 22 11.6 ±1.4 17,3 ±1.8 365.8 ± 30.4 31.07±1.79 38.11±2.19 64.51±3.75 0.18±0.01 0.21±0.01
18 Mustafa, M. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 35-42
The natural radionuclides 226Ra, 232Th and 40K values of the rocks forming the geological activities did not show a uniform distribution. structure of this region. Rather, they depended on the radioactivity
3.2. Absorbed Dose Rate concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K The contribution of natural radionuclides to respectively (UNSCEAR, 1988). The the absorbed dose rate in the air depends on the calculated outdoor absorbed dose rates for the 238 soil samples in air are given in Table 1. They natural specific activity concentration of U, -1 232 40 ranged from 7.34 ± 0.78 to 45.01 ± 2.37 nGy h Th and K radionuclides. The dose -1 coefficients of 0.463, 0.604 and 0.417 have with an average value of 33.26 ± 0.39 nGy h , been used to convert the activity concentrations represents 56.37% of the average absorbed 226 232 40 - dose due terrestrial gamma radiation of the of Ra, Th and K into dose rates (nGy h -1 1/Bq kg-1) respectively (Saito and Jacob, 1995). worldwide value (59 nGy h ) (Radiation, The absorbed dose rates due to gamma 2008). The main contributor to the absorbed dose rate in some of the soil samples is 232Th, radiations in air at a height of 1m above the 226 ground surface were calculated by assuming and for other samples, it is Ra, as measured gamma sources uniformly distributed in the in the current work ground. The following relation has been used 3.3 Annual Effective Dose in the outdoor absorbed gamma dose rate Estimation of the annual effective dose rate calculations. received by an adult in the air can be identified by using the conversion coefficient from the Where ARa, ATh and AK are the specific activity absorbed dose in the air to the effective dose 19 Mustafa, M. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 35-42 received by an adult (0.7SvGy-1) and by the present work are lower than the world average outdoor occupancy factor of 0.2 (or by the allowed maximum limit of 370 Bq/kg. indoor occupancy factor of 0.8 (Radiation, 2000).The annual effective dose (AED) in 3.5 Hazard Index -1 mSvy can be calculated by the relation; The external hazard index is an evolution of The estimated values of the annual effective the hazard of natural gamma radiation. The dose are presented in Table 1. It ranged from proposed model (Beretka and Mathew, 1985) -1 -1 suggested that the value of H must be lower 9.01 ± 0.96 µSvy to 55.20 ± 2.91 µSvy (see ex - than unity (construction materials limited to Table 1) with an average of 40.79 ± 0.48 µSvy -1 1. This estimated value is lower than the world 1500 µSvy ) in order to keep the radiation hazard insignificant, which corresponds to the average annual effective dose equivalent −1 (AEDE) from outdoor or indoor terrestrial upper limit of Raeq 370 Bqkg (Beretka and gamma radiation of 0.46 µSvy-1 (Radiation, Mathew, 1985, Slunga, 1988, Radiation, 2000). 2000). The calculation can be achieved by the relation;
3.4 Radium Equivalent Activity In addition to the external hazard index caused The radium equivalent activity was by radiation exposure, inhalation of alpha introduced to assess the radiological hazard particles into the respiratory tract can be associated with materials that contain 226Ra, produced by the decay of two of the most 232Th and 40K radionuclides (NEA, 1979), dangerous gases (radon and thoron) that can which is determined by assuming that 370 damage the internal organs. 222Rn and 220Ra are Bq/kg of 226Ra or 260 Bq/kg of 232Th or 4810 the daughter products of 226Ra and 224Ra Bq/kg of 40K produce the same gamma ray respectively, with very short half-lives. dose rate (Beretka and Mathew, 1985, Kumar Therefore, this hazard exposure is quantified et al., 2003). The radium equivalent activity in by the internal hazard index, which is given by Bqkg-1 is widely used in radiation hazard index the relation(Beretka and Mathew, 1985).; assessments and is mathematically expressed as; Also, the values of internal hazard index must be less than unity. The external and internal Where ARa, ATh and AK are the specific activity hazard index for all samples measured in the concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K, current survey were found to be in the normal respectively. The maximum value permissible range, as shown in Table 1, and our results for the radium equivalent activity for the confirm that the radiation dose is below the general public is 370 Bq kg-1, which is permissible limit of 1000 µSv y-1 equivalent to an effective dose of 1 mSv recommended by. (Protection, 1991). (Radiation, 1982). The radium equivalent activity of gamma dose rate for all samples was found to range from 15.72 ± 1.6 to 96.12 ± 4.17 4. Conclusion Bq kg-1 (see Table 1) with an average of 69.83 ± 0.82 Bq kg-1. It can be seen that the radium In this study, the baseline of terrestrial equivalent activity values calculated in the radioactivity in the surface soil samples from different locations around Pshdar region were 20 Mustafa, M. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 35-42 determined using high resolution gamma-ray Stobrawskie forests (PL). Environmental spectrometry in CNAEM in Istanbul. The mean monitoring and assessment, 184, 5773-5779. activity concentrations of 40K, 226Ra and 232Th DOVLETE, C. & POVINEC, P. 2004. Quantification of in the soil samples were determined. The uncertainty in gamma-spectrometric analysis of results show that to be within the worldwide environmental samples. Quantifying uncertainty in nuclear analytical measurements, 103. average activity concentrations. The radioactivity levels of 40K were found to be EL-SAMAD, O., ZAHRAMAN, K. & BAYDOUN, R. 232 226 2003. Determination of Natural Radionuclides in higher than Th and Ra in all the studied Mount-Lebanon by Gamma Ray. samples. This is an indication that 40K is a KHAN, H. M., ISMAIL, M., ZIA, M. A. & KHAN, K. more abundant radioactive element than the 2012. Measurement of radionuclides and absorbed other elements in the soils under consideration. dose rates in soil samples of Peshawar, Pakistan, Radiation dose assessment and other relevant using gamma ray spectrometry. Isotopes in values were determined for each soil sample environmental and health studies, 48, 295-301. absorbed dose rate, annual effective dose KUMAR, A., KUMAR, M., SINGH, B. & SINGH, S. equivalent, radium equivalent, external and 2003. Natural activities of 238U, 232Th and 40K in internal hazard index. The average value of some Indian building materials. Radiation Measurements, 36, 465-469. radium equivalent activity in the studied samples was below the internationally accepted LU, X. & ZHANG, X. 2008. Measurement of natural value of 370 Bqkg-1, the calculated average radioactivity in beach sands from Rizhao bathing beach, China. Radiation protection dosimetry. values of the annual effective dose rate were below the internationally accepted values, and MOLLAH, A., RAHMAN, M., KODDUS, M., HUSAIN, S. & MALEK, M. 1987. Measurement of the mean values of the indoor and outdoor high natural background radiation levels by TLD at radiation hazard index was found to be less Cox's Bazar coastal areas in Bangladesh. Radiation than the critical value. The results could be protection dosimetry, 18, 39-41. useful as a first baseline data for radionuclide PROTECTION, I. C. O. R. 1991. ICRP Publication 60: concentrations and for radiation dose 1990 Recommendations of the International assessment, with its hazard index, for Commission on Radiological Protection, Elsevier monitoring possible radioactive pollution in the Health Sciences. future. RADIATION, U. N. S. C. O. T. E. O. A. 1982. Ionizing radiation: sources and biological effects. REFERENCES RADIATION, U. N. S. C. O. T. E. O. A. 2000. Sources and effects of ionizing radiation: sources, United ABU-HAIJA, O. A. 2012. Determination of natural Nations Publications. radionuclides concentrations in surface soil in RADIATION, U. N. S. C. O. T. E. O. A. 2008. Sources Tafila/Jordan. Modern Applied Science, 6, p87. and effects of ionizing radiation: UNSCEAR 2008 BERETKA, J. & MATHEW, P. 1985. Natural report to the general assembly. Annex B: Exposures radioactivity of Australian building materials, of the Public and Workers from Various Sources of industrial wastes and by-products. Health physics, Radiation, 1. 48, 87-95. SAITO, K. & JACOB, P. 1995. Gamma ray fields in the DEGERLIER, M., KARAHAN, G. & OZGER, G. 2008. air due to sources in the ground. Radiation Radioactivity concentrations and dose assessment Protection Dosimetry, 58, 29-45. for soil samples around Adana, Turkey. Journal of SLUNGA, E. 1988. Radon classification of building environmental radioactivity, 99, 1018-1025. ground. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 24, 39-42. DOŁHAŃCZUK-ŚRÓDKA, A. 2012. Estimation of UNSCEAR, S. 1988. Effects and Risks of Ionizing external gamma radiation dose in the area of Bory Radiation. United Nations, New York, 565-571.
ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 12-12 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.4
146 156 The Evolution of Nd– Nd Isotope States under the Framework of BM, IBM-1, IVBM and D-G
1Imad Mamdouh Ahmed and 2Mohammed I. M. Mustafa
1Department of Physics, College of Education for Pure Science, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq 2 Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Raparin -Rania, Sulaimania, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: The properties of the ground, beta and negative parity state bands of 146Nd– Received: 30/04/2016 156 Nd isotopes have been studied. The ratio of gamma energy over spin E / I Accepted: 22/08/2016 has been calculated and drawn as a function of spin (I) to show the ground-state Published: 10/01/2017 evolution for each isotope. The ratio between the excitation energies of Keywords: successive (I+2) and (I) states as a function of spin (I) has been calculated and Ground-state band, drawn to determine the property of the ground-state bands of 146Nd–156Nd negative-parity band, isotopes. The odd-even staggering has been drawn to determine the energy E-GOS, difference of the states of the ground-state bands and the negative-parity bands. Ratio between the energies The energy levels for the ground-state band of 146Nd–156Nd have been calculated of I+2 and I , using the Bohr-Mottelson Model, the Interacting Boson Model, the Interacting IBM-1, Vector Boson Model and the Doma–El-Gendy Relation. The energy levels of the IVBM, D-G formula; beta band for the measured experimentally levels of 148Nd, 150Nd and 152Nd have Bohr and Mottelson been calculated using the Interacting Boson Model. The energy levels of the *Corresponding Author: negative parity band of the 146Nd, 148Nd, 150Nd, 152Nd and 156Nd isotopes have also Imad Mamdouh Ahmed been calculated using the Bohr-Mottelson Model and the Interacting Vector
Boson Model. The calculated energy levels compared with the experimental data Email: indicate the quality of the fit presented in this paper. [email protected] odd angular momentum of the positive parity 1. INTRODUCTION ( I 23 , 31 ,43 ,.... ) and in the negative The properties of different even-even parity band (NPB) with successive odd angular nuclei vary with the number of constituent momentum of the negative parity protons and neutrons, and these are associated with the corresponding changes in the nuclear ( I 1 ,3 ,5 ,... ) [Bohr and Mottelson, excitation spectrum and in the decay properties 1998]. After the first few values of angular of the excited states [Iachello and Talmi, 1987] momentum I, the GSB and the NPB become and [Greiner and Maruhn, 1996]. Energy levels interwoven, forming a single octupole band in even-even nuclei can be grouped into with I 0 ,1 ,2 ,3 ,..... [Raymond and ground-state bands (GSB) that consists of the Sood, 1986], [Phillips et al., 1986], [Bonatsos even angular momentum (spin) of the positive et al., 2000] and [Ganev et al., 2004]. One can parities ( I 0 ,2 ,4 ,....); beta bands get primary information about the property of are of the same angular momentum and the nucleus from the position of the first parity as the GSB ( I 02 , 22 , 42 ,.... ), excited state (E21 ) , which approximately gamma bands have the successive even and equals 100, 300 and 500 keV, and the ratio of 22 Ahmed, I. and Mustafa, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 12-12 the second excited state to the first excited the collective excitations in the nucleus. The IVBM is used to describe the ground and state (R E41 / E21 ), which obeys 3 R 3.3, 2.4 R 3 and 2 R 2.4 domai octupole bands of the nucleus. [Doma and EL- Gendy, 2013] (D-G) applied the collective ns for rotational, -soft and vibration nuclei model to calculate the rotational and vibration respectively [Krane, 1987]. In literature a energies of some even-even nuclei. They simple method was introduced to determine the introduced a new relation that depends on the evolution in the properties of the nuclei moment of inertia and the spin of the nucleus. alongside their excited states; this method In the present work, the energy levels for the depends on the relation between the gamma GSB of 146Nd-156Nd are calculated using BM, energy over spin E / I as a function of spin I IBM-1, IVBM and D-G; the available and is called (E-GOS) [Regan et al, 2003]. measured values of are also calculated Regan and his colleagues have studied many using IBM-1, and the NPB are calculated using nuclei around the A=110 region and observed BM and IVBM and compared with their the evolution in their yrast states. The ratio experimental counterparts. between the energies of I+2 and I states gives a good indication of the property of the nuclei 2. METHODS OF CALCULATIONS [Bonatsos and Skoures, 1991, and Khalaf and Ismail, 2013], when drawn versus I and The E-GOS method gives good information compared with the standard values of the about the evolution of the excited states of the vibration U(5), rotational SU(3) and -soft even-even nuclei when the gamma energy over O(6) nuclei. Bohr and Mottelson (BM) have spin is plotted as a function of spin I and introduced a relation of the rotational energy E the shape of the curve is studied, where the of an axially symmetric nucleus as a function vibrational nuclei in the E-GOS curve drop of I(I+1) [Bohr and Mottelson, 1998]. The quickly from the highest value (≈250keV) at forming of the complicated level schemes in (I 21 ) to (0) at (I→∞). For -soft nuclei, the interacting boson model (IBM-1) are well the curve drops slowly from the highest value approximated in terms of the six-dimension (≈150keV) at to the quarter of the first group called the U(6) unitary group. The group reduction scheme of the U(6) produces three excited state E21 / 4 at (I→∞), and for limits that end in the O(2) group. The three rotational nuclei, the curve increases slowly limits are the vibrational U(5), the rotational from the smallest value (≈50keV) at SU(3) and the -soft O(6) [Iachello and to 42 / 2 at (I→∞) [Regan et al., 2003]. The
Arima, 1987]. Another phenomenological relations between gamma energy over spin study indicated that nuclei might have an R E / I and spin I for the three limits are intermediate structure: the U(5)–SU(3), U(5)– given by [Scharff-Goldhaber and Weneser, O(6) and SU(3)–O(6) limits [Iachello,2000]. 1955; Bohr and Mottelson, 1953]: Conversely, the IBM-1 does not differ between the protons p bosons and the neutrons n Vibrator: R 0 when I→∞ (1) bosons. A development introduced to exhibit I the difference between the two kinds of bosons 2 2 2 Rotor: R (4 )4 when I→∞ (2) by introducing another model called the 2 I 2 interacting vector boson model (IVBM) E2 2 E2 [Ganev et al., 2004]. These two kinds of -soft: R 1 (1 ) 1 when I→∞ (3) 4 I 4 bosons interact with each other and constitute 23 Ahmed, I. and Mustafa, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 12-12
The ratio between the experimental energy Where a ,a ,a ,a and a are the strengths of 0 1 2 3 4 values of I+2 and I states as a function of I has the pairing, angular momentum, quadrupole, been constructed to define the symmetry for octupole and hexadecupole interaction terms the excited states of even-even nuclei respectively. The Hamiltonian in terms of [Bonatsos and Skoures,1991 and Khalaf and multipole expansion tends to reduce three Ismail 2013]. forms to meet the requirements of the three I 2 R(I 2) (I 2) I(I 1) r (4) symmetry limits, the vibrational U(5), I I I 2(I 2) exp. rotational SU(3) and -soft O(6). In the U(5) R(I 2) limit, the effective parameter is , in the O(6) Where exp. is the experimental I limit, the dominating parameter is ao and in energy values ratio between the I+2 and I the SU(3) limit, the effective parameter is a . states. The values of r have changed from 0.1 2 The eigenvalues for these three limits are given to 1.0 for yrast bands of even-even nuclei. The by [Iachello and Arima, 1987]: ratio of r for the vibrational, rotational and U(5): transitional nuclei is given by: E(,n ,,L) nˆ K n (n 4) 0.1 r 0.35 for vibrational nuclei d d 1 d d K ( 3) K L(L 1)...... (9) 0.4 r 0.6 for transitional nuclei 4 5 0.6 r 1.0 for rotational nuclei O(6): E(,,L) K [N(N 4) ( 4)] In BM model with small I, the energy E can be 3 K ( 3) K L(L 1)...... (10) expanded in power of I(I+1), the GSB and the 4 5 NPB levels are given by [Bohr and Mottelson, SU(3): 1998, Bonatsos et al., 2000]: E(,,L) K (2 2 2 3( ) ) K L(L 1)..(11) E(I)=AI(I+1)-BI2(I+1)2+CI3(I+1)3. (5) 5 Where K1, K2, K3, K4 and K5 are forms of the 2 2 3 3 strength of parameters. Many nuclei have a E(I)=E0+AI(I+1)-BI (I+1) +CI (I+1) . (6) transition property between two or three of the above limits and their eigenvalues for the yrast Where E0 is the band head energy of the NPB. The values of the coefficients A, B, and C can states are given by [Iachello et al, 1981]: be determined from a fit to the available energy U(5)-O(6): E(,n ,,L) nˆ K n (n 4) levels of the band. d d 1 d d K ( 3) K L(L 1)...... (12) In IBM-1 the general Hamiltonian is given by 4 5 [Scholten, 1978]: U(5)-SU(3): N N E(,,L) nˆ K (2 3( )) K L(L 1)....(13) H i Vij (7) d 2 5 i1 i j O(6)-SU(3): E(,,L) K (2 3( )) K ( 3) K L(L 1)..(14) Where i is the intrinsic boson energy and Vij 2 4 5 (14) is the interaction strength between bosons i and The eigenvalues for the GSB and NPB states in j; the multipole form the Hamiltonian is IVBM are given by [Ganev et al., 2004]: [Iachello et al, 1981]: E(I) I(I 1) I (15) H nˆ a PˆPˆ a Lˆ.Lˆ a Qˆ .Qˆ d 0 1 2 E(I) I(I 1) ( ) I (16) a Tˆ .Tˆ a Tˆ .Tˆ ...... (8) 3 3 3 4 4 4 The values of and can be determined from a fit to the positive GSB while and are 24 Ahmed, I. and Mustafa, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 12-12 estimated from the NPB. Analysing Eq. (15) from the first excited state, the ratios of the and (16), we can see that the eigenstates of the second to the first excited states R(4/2), the E- GSB and NPB states consist of rotational (I 2) GOS curve and the ratio r . The I(I+1) and vibrational I modes. Doma and El- I Gendy have derived a new formula of the experimental energy levels of the GSB, rotational energy levels that depends upon spin band and NPB of 146Nd 156Nd isotopes I and the nuclear moment of inertia by are taken from [ENSDF, 2009]. Table 1 shows analysing the well-known experimental the values of the first excited states and the rotational energy levels of the even-even ratios R(4/2) for these isotopes, which deformed nuclei in the high mass region in the primarily indicate the vibrational property of following simple form [Doma and EL-Gendy, the 146Nd nucleus, the -soft property for 2012]: 148Nd and the rotational property for the 150Nd– AI(I 1) 156 E(I) (17) Nd nucle i. The energy differences between D I(I 1) the states of the 146Nd nucleus is incompatible 1 1 C I(I 1) with standard differences for vibrational nuclei Where A is the reciprocal moment of inertia of (500 keV), which means that the vibrational calculation of this nucleus does not agree 2 the nucleus A . The values of D and C can completely with its experimental data. 2 be determined from a fit to the GSB. Figure 1 shows the E-GOS curve for 146- The odd-even staggering (or I=1 Table 1: Experimental values of E2 and the ratio staggering) can be measured by the quantity 1 [Bonatsos, 2000]: E4 1 146 156 E (I) 1 (6E (I)4E (I 1) R4 / 2 for Nd - Nd isotopes 1, 16 1, 1, E21 4E (I 1)E (I 2)E (I 2) ...... (18) 1, 1, 1, Isotope 146Nd 148Nd 150Nd 152Nd 154Nd 156Nd
Where the transition energies are: 453.77 301.7 130.2 72.4 70.8 67.2 E21 (keV) E (I) E(I 1) E(I)....(19) 1, R4/2 2.295 2.49 2.93 3.28 3.29 3.31
156 The calculated values of E1, (I) exhibit Nd isotopes. A comparison of these curves with the ideal limits of the vibrational, an alternating positive and negative signs over the extended region of the angular momentum. rotational and gamma-soft gives good Odd-even staggering starts from certain values information about the properties of the states of and then increases or decreases with increasing the isotopes. The high drop of the curve of the angular momentum, and it may reach a 146Nd gives this isotope the vibrational property. The slow drop of the curve for the vanishing value ( E1, (I) 0) for some first three excited states of 148Nd gives this nuclei, which means that a phase change isotope the gamma-soft property, but the curve occurs, and staggering starts rising and then applies with the standard vibrational one for dropping again. This gives an overall picture of the last three excited states, so this nucleus has beats [Bonatsos, 2000]. the O(6)-U(5) property. The slow rise for the
first excited states followed by a slow drop for 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the last excited states of the 150Nd isotope gives this nucleus the SU(3)-O(6) property. The Useful information about the shape 152-156 transition of even-even nuclei can be obtained curves of the Nd isotopes apply, with the 25 Ahmed, I. and Mustafa, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 12-12 standard rotational one giving these isotopes from the O(6) character to the SU(3) character, the SU (3) property. giving this nucleus the O(6)-SU(3) property. The ratio of the 152-156Nd nuclei is greater than Neither the first two excited states nor the E- 0.77, giving these nuclei the SU(3) property. GOS curve gives the exact property of each Figure 3 shows the staggering curves of isotope. For this reason, the relation between 146,148,152,156Nd. There is not enough measured I 2 150 154 r and I is plotted and compared with data of NPB for Nd and Nd. The I staggering E1, (I) is close to zero for the the behaviour of vibrational U(5), rotational 146,148Nd nuclei, which indicates that a change SU(3) and the γ-soft O(6) nuclei. Figure 2 in the characteristics of these two nuclei shows these curves, where the ratio for all occurs. The staggering of the other two nuclei values of I for 146Nd is smaller than 0.35, 152,156Nd did not come near to zero, which giving this nucleus the U(5) character. This indicates that there is no change in their ratio for 148Nd alternated within the limits of characteristics, and the calculations agree with U(5) nuclei gives this property for this nucleus, the experimental data. but the ratio of 150Nd is changed
Fig.1:E-GOS of the ground-state for 146-156Nd isotopes.
26 Ahmed, I. and Mustafa, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 12-12
Fig. 2 The ratio as a function of for 146-156Nd isotopes.
Fig. 3: The staggering of 146Nd, 148Nd, 152Nd, 156Nd isotopes.
146 148 From the investigation of Table 1, Fig. 1, Nd, the U(5)-O(6) property of Nd, the Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, one can get good information SU(3)-O(6) property of 150Nd and the SU(3) 152-156 about the properties of the nuclei under property of Nd. consideration, showing the U(5) property of
27 Ahmed, I. and Mustafa, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 12-12
Table 2: BM, IBM-1, IVBM and D-G parameters of GSB in keV for 146Nd - 156Nd isotopes. Isotopes BM IBM-1 IVBM D-G
A B* C* No. of K1 K2 K4 K5 β Γ A C* D* 10-2 10-4 bosons 10-2 10-1 146Nd 49.8 21.4 4.0 7 489.9 12.2 --- 9.2 -1.4 3.94 277.8 75.7 -0.4 0.27 148Nd 40.0 24.3 7.0 8 231.1 12.7 --- 12.2 2.1 8.33 153.07 50.3 -1.6 0.78 150Nd 18.4 4.1 1.0 9 ------0.31 74.1 -11.4 8.44 64.03 21.7 -3.6 2.45 152Nd 11.9 1.05 0.13 10 ------0.12 --- 9.97 8.9 20.16 12.1 -13.2 10.5 154Nd 11.8 0.75 0.068 11 ------0.09 --- 10.2 9.27 17.54 11.8 -16.0 12.5 156Nd 11.2 0.57 0.058 12 ------0.06 --- 10.05 9.38 12.58 11.2 -22.7 17.9
MATLAB 6.5 software is used to calculate isotopes and for all states with different
the energy levels of the GSB of the 146-156Nd, accuracies of the various models used, where the band of the 148-152Nd and the NPB for the calculations of the first two excited states of the 146Nd, 148Nd, 152Nd and 156Nd isotopes, 146,148Nd are not good enough since the BM
using suitable models for each. The number of model is a rotational one, and a study of the bosons and the best fitting values of the successive states of 146Nd shows that they do parameters of the above isotopes are shown in not apply to the standard vibrational nuclei as Table 2, in which the number of bosons has well as the occurrence of the values of r(I+2)/I been calculated from the sum of proton bosons 0.1, which is an undetermined value for any of the closed shell (50) and the neutron bosons nucleus. Finally, the closeness of E1, (I) to of the closed shell (82). Table 2 shows also that zero for 146,148Nd shows the phase change for the values of the parameter A of D-G formula 2 them, so the calculations of the first Eq. 17 is comparable with = E21 / 6 of the excited states are not good enough. Good BM 2 calculations are observed for the 152-156Nd 2 rotational energy relation E(I) I(I 1) isotopes since they are rotational nuclei and the 2 BM is suited to them. 146 156 state of the Nd- Nd isotopes, especially with the rotational isotopes 152-156Nd. The best 4. CONCLUSIONS fitting parameters of the band of IBM-1 and NPB states of BM and IVBM for the nuclei In conclusion, the measured values of the first that have enough data, are shown in Table 3. excited states E21 and the ratios of the second The calculated and experimental energies of to the first excited states E41 / E21 as well as for all isotopes and NPB of 146-152Nd and (I 2) 156Nd are shown in Table 4. the E-GOS, the ratio r and the I The calculated and experimental energies of staggering curves have been applied for a the band of IBM-1 and the NPB states of description of the GSB and NPB for the 146Nd- BM and IVBM for the nuclei that have enough 156Nd isotopes. These studies ensured that the data are shown in Table 5. It is obvious from 146Nd isotope is lined up alongside the U(5), Table 4 and Table 5 that the calculated energy 148Nd has a U(5)-O(6) property, 150Nd has a levels agree with the experimental ones for all O(6)-SU(3) property and the other isotopes, the
152-156Nd isotopes, have a SU(3) property. 28 Ahmed, I. and Mustafa, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 12-12
We have demonstrated that the GSB and the data indicate the quality of the fit presented in NPB in the studied isotopes exhibit I 1 this paper with some less than optimum results, staggering, the vanishing value of the especially for the first excited states of 146,148Nd 146 staggering E1, (I) =0 has not been reached, since the successive energy states of Nd did 146,148 not apply, with the vibrational nuclei and the but it was closed for Nd. The BM, IBM-1, 146,148 IVBM and D-G formula have been applied for staggering values of Nd close to zero, calculating the energy levels of the GSB, the which means a phase change occurred. The BM calculations for the rotational nuclei 152- NPB using the BM and IVBM models and the 156 -band using IBM-1. The calculated energy Nd are better than the other nuclei. levels in comparison with the experimental
Table 3. BM and IVBM parameters of NPB in keV for 146-152Nd and 156Nd isotopes and IBM-1 parameters in keV for 148-152Nd isotopes (No enough data for uncalculated nuclei.). Isotopes BM IVBM IBM-1
-2 3 A B*10 C*10 Ζ K1 K2 K4 K5 146Nd 10.8 -8.25 -0.25 -19.98 166.56
148Nd 6.53 -9.39 0.34 -64.4 587.34 335.3 19.33 --- -105.71 35.13
150Nd -6.49 -61.3 -6.0 -32.37 731.66 ------1.79 35.48 5.38
152Nd -17.1 -105.0 -8.0 104.19 697.9 ------2.36 --- 25.72
156Nd -1.01 -9.5 -0.28 -30.7 1247.1
29 Ahmed, I. and Mustafa, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 12-12
Table 4. The experimental and calculated energy levels of GSB in keV of 146-156Nd isotopes.
Isotope I1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141 161
146Nd E(exp.) 453.77 1042.22 1780.02 2593.53 3319.73 3993.73 4694.2 5460.53 BM 291.3 913.9 1743.3 2621.0 3403.2 4028.0 4599.7 5461.0
E(cal.). IBM-1 579.3 1190.0 1832.3 2506.0 3211.2 3948.0 4716.2 5515.9 IVBM 579.3 1190.0 1832.3 2506.0 3211.2 3948.0 4716.2 5515.9 D-G 462.2 1188.9 1903.9 2573.9 3238.5 3935.1 4688.1 5512.6
148Nd E(exp.) 301.7 752.29 1279.81 1856.2 2471.2 3106.2 ------BM 231.5 708.8 1305.8 1894.2 2436.7 3113.9 ------E(cal.) IBM-1 356.1 778.8 1268.1 1824.0 2446.6 3135.7 ------IVBM 356.1 778.8 1268.1 1824.0 2446.6 3135.7 ------D-G 376.1 822.4 1277.6 1800.9 2422.7 3156.0 ------150Nd E(exp.) 130.2 381.1 720.16 1129.6 1598.5 2118.7 2681.6 3279.6 BM 109.2 352.8 706.7 1138.7 1617.5 2123.4 2663.0 3286.4 E(cal.) IBM-1 111.4 396.0 737.4 1135.6 1590.6 2102.4 2671.1 3296.5 IVBM 178.7 424.8 738.5 1119.6 1568.2 2084.3 2667.8 3318.9 D-G 242.5 463.2 733.8 1083.9 1520.8 2046.8 2663.0 3369.7 152Nd E(exp.) 72.4 236.5 484.03 806.2 1196.2 1648.7 2159.0 2723.3 BM 71 233.8 481.9 805.3 1198.6 1649.7 2156.6 2723.8 E(cal.) IBM-1 119.3 258.9 478.1 777.1 1155.8 1614.2 2152.4 2770.2 IVBM 93.7 258.6 494.8 802.1 1180.6 1630.3 2151.2 2743.3 D-G 118.3 262.9 482.7 781.0 1158.5 1615.4 2151.5 2767.1 154Nd E(exp.) 70.8 233.2 481.9 810.1 1210.8 1677.3 2202.4 2779.0 BM 70.3 232.2 481.2 810.3 1211.7 1677.5 2201.1 2779.3 E(cal.) IBM-1 111.9 254.7 279.2 285.2 1172.9 1642.2 2193.1 2825.7 IVBM 90.7 255.5 494.5 807.7 1194.9 1656.4 2192.0 2802.7 D-G 111.3 257.8 482.6 788.2 1175.0 1643.1 2192.5 2823.3 156Nd E(exp.) 67.2 222.2 460.7 778.2 1169.0 1628.0 2151.6 2737.0 BM 66.9 221.9 4 60.3 778.2 1169.4 1628.4 2151.3 2737.2 E(cal.) IBM-1 96.7 237.4 458.4 759.9 1141.7 1603.9 2146.5 2769.5 IVBM 81.4 237.9 469.4 775.9 1157.5 1614.1 2145.7 2752.3 D-G 96.5 239.0 460.2 761.4 1142.8 1604.3 2146.2 2768.3
30 Ahmed, I. and Mustafa, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 12-12
Table 5. The experimental and calculated energy levels (keV) of band of IBM-1 for 148Nd-152Nd and NPB of BM and IVBM for 146-152Nd and 156Nd isotopes.
Isotopes NPB/ BM and IVBM cal. band/ , IBM-1 cal.
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 0 2 4 6 8
146Nd E(exp.) 1189.6 1517.5 2029.4 2706.2 3500.7 4295.0 5057.9
E(cal.) BM 1330.8 1580.9 2008.2 2644.5 3469.8 4362.2 5037.3
IVBM 982.3 1568.9 2186.9 2836.5 3517.6 4230.3 4974.4
148Nd E(exp.) 999.3 1242.3 1644.5 2131.8 2676.4 3264.4 916.9 1170.9 1604.3 2149.0 2726.1
E(cal.) BM 1090.3 1270.3 1599.6 2100.0 2717.0 3253.4 902.5 1199.7 1605.1 2118.9 2740.9
IVBM 9253.1 1673.9 2134.3 2661.4 3255.1
150Nd E(exp.) 934.5 1128.9 1432.8 675.9 850.8 1137.8 1540.9
E(cal.) BM 934.5 1128.9 1432.8 676.2 850.4 1138.6 1540.8
IVBM 922.9 1143.2 1425.9
152Nd E(exp.) 1239.0 1406.3 2243.2 2559.7 1139.0 1251.0 1474.6 2222.1
E(cal.) BM 1172.2 1464.7 2220.3 2563.5 1084.5 1238.8 1598.9 2164.7
IVBM 1177.6 1586.4 2066.4 2617.6
156Nd E(exp.) 1431.3 1649.4 1934.5 2286.2 2713.0
E(cal.) BM 1479.1 1624.6 1908.2 2312.4 2706.4
IVBM 1437.6 1645.2 1927.8 2285.4 2718.0
ENSDF, http:// www.nndc.bnl.gov/ensdf (Nuclear data REFERENCES sheet) (2009) Bohr, A. and Mottelson, B. R., Mat. Fys. Medd 27 Ganev, H. et al., Phys. Rev. C 69 014305-7 (2004) (1953) Greiner, W. and Maruhn, J. A., Nuclear Models( Bohr, A. and Mottelson, B. R., Nuclear Structure ( Springer-Verlag Heidelberg) World Scientific p 375 (1996) Publishing) Vol. II, p 748 (1998) Iachello, F., Abrahams, K., Allart, K. and Dieperink, A. Bonatsos, D. and Skoures, L. D., Phys. Rev. C 43 952R E., Nuclear Structure (Plenum Press, New York) (1991) (1981) Bonatsos, D. et al., Phys. Rev. C 62 024301-12 (2000) Iachello, F. and Arima, A., The Interacting Boson Model Doma, S. B. and EL-Gendy, H. S., Inter. Jour. Mode. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge) (1987) Phys. E 21 1250077 (2012) Iachello, F. and Talmi, I., Rev. Mod. Phys. 59 339 (1987) 31 Ahmed, I. and Mustafa, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 12-12
Iachello, F. and Arima, A., The Interacting Boson Model (Cambridge) (1987) Iachello, F., Phys. Rev. Lett. 85 17 (2000) Khalaf, A. M. and Ismail, A. M., Prog. Phys. 2 98 (2013)
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ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 23-04 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.5
238 232 137 40 An Investigation of Activity Concentration of U, Th, Cs and K Radionuclides in Drinking Water Resources in Iraqi Kurdistan Region-Erbil
1Saman K. Ezzulddin, 2Habeeb H. Mansour, 2Hiwa H. Aziz
1Department of Environmental Science, College of Science, University of Salahaddin -Erbil, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq 2Department of Physics, College of education Science, University of Salahaddin -Erbil, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: The radionuclide concentrations in the drinking water from two categories of Received: 26/05/2016 water resources, i.e., underground water (spring and well waters) and surface water Accepted: 23/08/2016 from Erbil-governorate(Kurdistan region-Iraq), were estimated by using well Published: 10/1/2017 calibrated NaI(Tl) gamma spectrometry. Drinking water samples were collected Keywords: during the dry seasons, from July to November 2015. The activity concentration due Radionuclides, Activity to 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 40K radionuclides in 25 drinking water samples were concentration, Annual dose, measured. The average activity concentration were found to be ranged from (ND to Drinking water, Gamma 2.95) Bq/l for 238U, (0.06 to 0.24) Bq/l for 232Th, (0.01 to 0.14) Bq/l for 137Cs, and spectrometry. (0.29 to 2.32) Bq/l for 40K respectively. The average annual effect dose for different *Corresponding Author: age groups were calculated and was found to be lower than the ICRP safe limit Saman K. Ezzulddin which is 1 mSv/y. The morbidity and mortality risk level were also calculated and Email: the average values were low compared to the acceptable limit of 1.0x10-3 [email protected]
1. INTRODUCTION Water is a global solvent on our planet, drinking water supplies due to the human whose main sources include rivers, springs, activities. Radionuclides can also enter the wells, boreholes and other freshwater bodies. food chain if the contaminated water is used for These sources provide water for drinking and drinking or irrigation purposes. domestic uses-including cooking. This will The existence and distribution of natural generally constitute an exposure pathway for radioactivity in water depend on the local contaminants to reach the population (Sharama geological characteristics of the soil or rocks. et al., 2011). Elevated levels of natural radioactivity in The environmental radiation originates from drinking water are associated with increasing a number of naturally occurring radioactivity the potential health hazards for the residents. and human-made sources. The radioactive Therefore, measuring the radioactivity in materials exist everywhere in the environment drinking water is of great interest to and the largest portion of human exposure to environmental studies (Ajayi and Owolabi radiation comes from natural sources 2008, Bituh et al., 2009). (Saghatchi, 2012 and WHO, 1993). Many The presence of radionuclides in water radioactive compounds may be released into poses a number of health hazards, especially the environment and hence into the 33 Ezzulddin S. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 23-04 when these radionuclides are deposited in the for drinking, washing clothes, cleaning of food, human body through drinking. Dissolved for irrigation, and for various domestic uses. radionuclides in water emit particles (alpha and The Erbil water resources include surface beta) and photons (gamma) which gradually water, such as Upper Zap, and lower Zap. The expose living tissues (Alam et al., 1999 and underground water could be described as water Gruber, Maringer and Landstetter, 2009). basins stored in the terrestrial stratums and structures. Erbil plains and the main springs Human and animal studies show that such as Howdian, Hiran, Jundian, Bekha and radiation exposure at low to moderate doses other, were the underwater wells in the area of may increase the long-term incidence of cancer study from which water was taken from. (Amrani and Cherouati, 1999). The radionuclide concentrations may be elevated in Generally the climate of Erbil governorate the different sources of water in these areas. extends similar to some other part of Kurdistan Ground water is particularly important as it region: it has been classified as semi-arid type accounts for about 88% of safe drinking water of climate, which is characterized by cold and in rural areas, where the population is widely wet in the winter season and dry hot summer dis-parsed and the infrastructure needed for season. While the spring and autumn seasons treatment and transportation of surface water are short comparing with winter and summer does not exist (Nnamdi et. al, 2010). season, the wet season extend from December to February. However, the hot and rainless The World Health Organizations’ guidelines months of late spring and summer season for drinking-water quality recommended the extend from May to October (Guest, 1966). determination of gross alpha and gross beta activity concentrations in drinking water as the first step of the radiological aspect of the drinking water quality (WHO, 2008). The aim of this work is to measure the activity concentration of some radionuclide in drinking water samples from Erbil governorate as continuity to previous work that has been done, where radon and radium activity concentration found in the same sample site.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS:
2.1 Study Area: Erbil Governorate lies at the latitude of 35˚ Figure 1 Location of drinking water samples 40′ and 36˚ 30′ N, and longitudes 43˚ 20′ and collected in Erbil governorate. 44˚ 20′ E as shown in Figure 1, covering a total area of 14,417 Km2. (3.5% of Iraq) (Haddad 2.2 Sample Preparation and Smoor, 1973). The study area was The drinking water samples were collected partitioned into 25 units in which 12 were well from 25 sites before rainy seasons in the water sample locations, 5 were spring water period, extending from July to October 2015. locations and 8 were surface water sample The sampling sites were selected to cover the locations. The water samples studied are used spatial distribution of different geological 34 Ezzulddin S. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 23-04 formation and population density within the the accuracy of the quantitative measurements study area (Fig.1). is depended on the calibration of the spectrometry system and adequate, the Water samples were taken from the cylindrical plastic containers holding the drinking water recourses which are routinely samples were put to sit on the high geometry used for water quality monitoring radioactive NaI(TI) detector. The energy, detector nuclides. The samples were put into 4.5 liter background measurement and efficiency polyathelin plastic bottles which had calibration of the system was made possible, previously been washed with distilled water. In using 137Cs standard source from IAEA, order to obtain fresh water from the wells, the Vienna, The detailed calibration procedures of tap water was allowed to run fully at least 10 the detector had been reported by (Amakom min before sampling. The plastic bottles with and Jibiri, 2010). It has a resolution Full Width screw caps were then filled with water at at Half Maximum (FWHM) of 7.36 % at minimum flow (Slow Flow Method). The energy of 0.662 MeV (137Cs) which is bottles were tightly sealed with a tape and considered adequate to distinguish the gamma transported to the laboratory in a container ray energies of interest in this study. The containing ice (Hajo, et al., 2011). For analysis, calibration was carried out by counting about 1 L of each sample was poured into a standard radionuclides such as, radium (226Ra) Marinellin beaker and sealed well to prevent with a known activity (1µci) and well-defined radon gas leakage. The samples were left for energies within the energy range of interest one month to ensure that radon and its from 186 keV to 1120 keV. daughters achieve a secular equilibrium. 2.4 Activity Measurement: 2.3 Experimental Setup: The activity concentrations of 238U and The experiment employed for the analysis 232Th were indirectly obtained from the γ-rays of the radionuclides in the water samples was emitted by their progenies which were in the gamma-ray spectroscopy and the standard secular equilibrium with them. The 238U procedure of this method has been described activity concentration was determined by elsewhere (Jibiri, et al., 2009).The detector gamma lines of 609.3 keV from (214Bi) system (3×3) inches of Sodium iodide however, the gamma lines of 911.1 keV from ( Thallium activator NaI (TI) scintillation 228Ac) and 583.1 keV from (212Pb) were used detector (SILENA-Mod352-S.N) coupled to to determine 232Th . Whereas that of 40K was CASSY(524 010) amplifier. The detector was estimated directly by its γ-line of 1460.8 keV. connected to a computer program (CASSY Each radionuclide activity per unit volume A, LAB) window that matched gamma energies to in each water sample was evaluated using the a library of possible isotopes used for the relation: Since the detection system gives only radioactivity measurements which has been the count rate that is proportional to the amount shielded by 10 cm thick of lead. Inside of the of radioactivity in the samples, the lead shield was provided with a 2 mm thick radioactivity concentration in the copper lining to absorb the X-rays from the environmental samples was obtained as follow lead shield which interfere with the low energy (Awudugba and Tchokossa, 2008) γ-rays of radionuclides in the spectrum. High (Santawamaitre, 2000): level shielding against the environmental background radiation was achieved by A (1) counting in the 100mm thick lead castle. Since 35 Ezzulddin S. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 23-04
Where N is net peak area of the radionuclide of average life expectance at birth in Iraqi interest, Ԑ is efficiency of the detector for the Kurdistan region is 70 years (WHO, 2008) and energy Eγ , Iγ is intensity per decay for the the water consumption rate for an individual is energy Eγ ,V is the volume of the water sample about 730 liters/yr. The cancer mortality and is tc total counting time of 21000 seconds. coefficients, Rcf for 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 40K were 1.13×10-9, 1.87×10-9, 5.66 ×10-9 and 2.5 The annual effective dose: 4.3×10-9 respectively and morbidity risk The annual effective dose to an individual coefficients were 1.73×10-9, 2.73×10-9, 8.22 intake of natural radionuclides from the ×10-10 and 6.68×10-10 respectively (EPA, 2002 drinking water was estimated using the and UNSCAR, 2000). following relationship (Jackson, 1996).
Dw = CW × I × Dcf (2) 3 . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Dw (Sv/y) is the annual effective dose due to The obtained values of the activity ingestion of radionuclides from the concentration for 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 40K in consumption of drinking water, Cw (Bq/l) is the spring, surface and well drinking water activity concentration of radionuclides in the samples over the 25 locations in Erbil ingested drinking water, I(l/y) is the annual governorate are shown in Tables (1, 2, and 3). intake of drinking water and, Dcf is the ingested In the spring drinking water samples the dose conversion factor for public (Sv/Bq). The activity concentration ranged from (0.274 to conversion factor varies with each radioisotope 1.03) Bq/l for 238U, from (0.0103 to 0.0708) and the age of the individual. The annual Bq/l for 232Th, from (0.144 to 0.0112) Bq/l for effective dose of the intake of radionuclides 137Cs, and from (0.477 to 1.223) Bq/l for 40K, from drinking water has been calculated for with a mean values (0.585, 0.0395, 0.0480 and different age groups from 1–5y, 6–10y, 11–15y 0.961)Bq/l for 238U, 232Th, 40K and 137Cs and >15 y. For this study, the annual average respectively. In the surface drinking water intake of drinking water is considered to be samples the activity concentration ranged from 328, 440, 512 and 730 liters for the age groups (N.D-1.178) Bq/l for 238U, from (0.0064-0.244) of 1-5y, 6-10y, 11–15y and adults of age >15y Bq/l for 232Th, from (N.D-0.0858) Bq/l for 137 respectively (UNSCEAR, 2000). Cs and from (N.D-1.447) Bq/l for 40K, with a mean values (0.647, 0.0618, 0.0477 and 2.6 Cancer mortality and morbidity risks: 0.694)Bq/l for 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 40K The lifetime cancer risks R, associated with respectively. From the well water samples, the the intake of a given radionuclide were activity concentration varied from (0.061- estimated from the product of the applicable 2.959) Bq/l for 238U, from (0.00676-0.244) Bq/l -1 232 137 risk coefficient Rcf (Bq ) and the per capita for Th, from (0.0131-0.0858) Bq/l for Cs, activity intake I of those radionuclides (l y-1). and from (ND- 2.327) Bq/l for 40K, with mean The risk factors recommended by (EPA, 2002) values (0.547, 0.0457, 0.0435 and 0.959)Bq/l were used to calculate the morbidity risks and for 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 40K respectively. cancer mortality, due to ingestion of 232Th, 238U, 137Cs and 40K radionuclides. The mortality Table 4 presents the calculated mean and morbidity cancer risks were determined activity concentration in the studied drinking using (Amakom and Jibiri, 2010). water which were ranged from (ND to 2.95) 238 R=Cw×Rcf×I×T (3) Bq/l for U, from (0.06 to 0.24) Bq/l for -1 137 Where Cw (Bql ) is the activity concentration; 232Th, from (0.01 to 0.14) Bq/l for Cs and and T (yr.) is the average life expectancy. The from (0.29 to 2.32) Bq/l for 40K, with mean 36 Ezzulddin S. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 23-04 values (0.57, 0.03, 0.84 and 0.04 Bq/l) for 238U, 1-5y, (0.005 to 0.094) mSv/y for 6-10y, (0.004- 232Th, 40K and 137Cs respectively. These values 0.108)mSv/y for 11–15y and (0.0569 to 0.103) equivalent to mass concentrations for drinking mSv/y for adults of age >15y, with mean value water are (10.47, 0.70, 15.19 and 0.72) µg/l for (0.0386, 0.0263, 0.0277, and 0.0288) mSv/y 238U, 232Th, 40K and 132Cs respectively. From respectively. The levels of radioactive Fig. (2) The maximum activity concentration compounds in water samples are significantly of 238U, 232Th, 132Cs and 40K were found in lower than the ICRP safe limit which is 1 samples (W12, W2, W9 and W3) respectively, mSv/y. W12 and W3 were well water, W9 was spring water and W2 was surface water. There is an Table 10 show the result of total cancer agreement between the measured maximum mortality risk associated with the ingestion of activity concentration of 238U for sample W12 the 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 40K for the three (Barcelen) and that reported of 222Rn and 226Rn sources of water supplies obtained vary from for the same sample in the previous work (2.07 x10-5 to 53.54 x10-5) with mean value of (Saman, 2014). 21.971 x10-5.On the other hand, the cancer morbidity risk presented in Table 11 ranged The 238U mean mass concentration values from (1.60x10-4 to 29.63 x10-4) with mean obtained from drinking water samples in the value of 8.30 x10-4. These values obtained for area of study were lower than when compared both morbidity and mortality risk level agreed to the maximum contamination level (MCL) totally with the values reported by (Amakom value 150 µg/l in drinking water were reported and Jibiril, 2010). These cancer risks at a factor by World Health Organization (WHO, 2003), of 10-4 are low compared to the acceptable the value of 20 µg/l recommended by both limit of 1.0x10-3 (Ye-Shin et al., 2004, (Health Australia, 1998 and Health Canada, Amakom and Jibiri, 2010) for radiological 1999) respectively and 30 µg/l were health risks. recommended by United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 2003) for safe 4. CONCLUSIONS drinking water. The 40K mass concentrations in The results of the present work indicate the drinking water in the study was that the locations of drinking water significantly lower than compared to the value samples had reported normal back of 2500 µg/l reported for United Kingdom ground, except location w12, w2, w9 Powell et al., 1987 and within the range from and w3 which showed relativity high (1000 to 8000) µg/l recommended by (WHO, concentration of 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 2009) in Canada. The difference in 40K respectively, but still in the safety concentrations of 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 40K is limit which recommended by both probably due to the distinct aquifer lithologies WHO and USEPA .The other results and consequent differences in radionuclides showed symmetrical distributions of all solubility and geochemical mobility (Salama et studied radionuclides. al., 2015). The results of the annual effective dose due to ingestion of radio nuclides in Tables (5, 6, 7, and 8) show the annual drinking water samples for four 238 effective dose due to the ingestion of U, different ages, show that ages between 232 137 40 Th, Cs and K in drinking water for (1-5) years old absorbed a higher dose deferent age groups. The total annual dose 238U radio nuclide than other ages. values varied from (0.007 to 0.130)mSv/y for While the adult intake was higher in 37 Ezzulddin S. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 23-04
40K, 137Cs, and 232Th than other ages The obtained values show that the respectively. This may be due to a resource of drinking waters in Erbil combination of changes in dose governorate are safe to use for drinking conversion factor and water intake with without exceeding the proposed age. radioactivity criterion level. The calculated results were found to be Conflict of Interest lower than the ICRP safe limit which is There is no conflict of interest. 1 mSv/y. Table 1 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 40K activity concentration (in Bq/l) in Erbil governorate Spring water amples.
S. No Sample Name 238U 232Th 137Cs 40K
W5 Jondian 0.274 0.0457 0.0112 1.074 W9 Alana 1.03 0.0708 0.144 0.477 W15 SH. Balakan 0.419 0.0263 0.0323 1.223 W17 Sedacan (M) 0.709 0.0103 0.0225 0.855 W18 Peran 0.495 0.0444 0.0301 1.178 Rang 0.274-1.03 0.0103-0.0708 0.0112-0.144 0.477-1.223 Mean 0.585 0.0395 0.0480 0.961
Table 2 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 40K activity concentration (in Bq/l) in Erbil governorate surface water samples
S. No Sample Name 238U 232Th 137Cs 40K
W2 Sultan Abdulla 1.106 0.244 0.0429 N.D W10 Bekhal N.D 0.0164 0.0534 0.537 W11 Rawndez 1.178 0.0235 0.0594 1.447 W13 Hafaze 0.339 0.0318 0.0459 0.298 W14 Choman 0.854 0.0746 0.0858 0.85 W16 Rezan 0.763 0.0418 N.D 0.447 W20 Koyea 0.137 0.0566 0.0301 1.253 W25 Efraz 0.152 0.00643 0.0165 0.0298 Rang N.D-1.178 0.0064-0.244 N.D-0.0858 N.D-1.447 Mean 0.647 0.0618 0.0477 0.694
Table 3 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 40K activity concentration (in Bq/l) in Erbil governorate well water samples
S. No Sample Name 238U 232Th 137Cs 40K W1 Gawara 1.106 0.244 0.0429 N.D W3 Debaga 0.141 0.0106 0.0519 2.327 W4 Banaman 0.305 0.0212 0.046 0.969 W6 Hojran 0.213 0.0254 0.0323 0.658 W7 Sarmedan 0.358 0.0218 0.0323 0.716 W8 SH. Mamodian 0.488 0.0399 0.0858 N.D W12 Barsaleen 2.959 0.00676 0.0542 0.925 W19 Sedacan (well) 0.061 0.0141 0.0496 0.358 W21 Krosh 0.137 0.0566 0.0301 1.253 W22 Bnaslawa 0.259 0.0412 0.0587 0.417 W23 Erbil City (Tank) 0.389 0.0457 0.0131 0.775 W24 Erbil City (well) 0.148 0.0213 0.0255 1.193 Rang 0.061-2.959 0.00676-0.244 0.0131-0.0858 ND- 2.327 Mean 0.547 0.0457 0.0435 0.959
38 Ezzulddin S. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 23-04
Table 4 Activity and mass concentrations of 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 40K in all water samples from the study area.
Activity Concentration (Bql-1) Mass Concentration(µgl-1) 238U 232Th 137Cs 40K 238U 232Th 137Cs 40K Range ND-2.95 0.06-0.24 0.01- 0.14 0.29- 2.32 ND-53.52 1.08-4.34 0.19-2.60 5.24-42.09 Mean 0.57 0.03 0.04 0.84 10.47 0.70 0.72 15.19 S.D 0.61 0.04 0.03 0.48 11.03 0.72 0.542 8.68
40 Table 7 the annual doses for difference age groups Table 5 Annual doses due in ingestion K in the due in ingestion 232Th in the drinking water. drinking water samples µSv/y µSv/y Age 1-5 y 6-10 y 11-15y Adult Age 1-5 y 6-10 y 11-15y adult Range 0.94 - 36.01 0.82 - 31.13 0.83 - 31.23 1.08 - 41.97 Range 0 - 32.15 0-13.34 0 - 9.05 0 - 10.52 mean 5.79 5.01 5.02 6.59 mean 10.71 4.44 3.02 3.51
Table 6 the annual doses for difference age groups 137 Table 8 the annual doses for difference age groups due in ingestion Cs in the drinking water samples. due in ingestion 238U in the drinking water. µSv/y µSv/y Age 1-5 y 6-10 y 11-15y Adult Age 1-5 y 6-10 y 11-15y Adult Range 0 – 0.56 0 - 0.63 0 - 0.95 0 - 1.37 Range 0-116.47 0 - 88.53 0 - 103.0 0-97.20 mean 0.18 0.20 0.3 0.43 mean 21.89 16.64 19.37 18.27
Table 9 Total annual dose due in ingestion radionuclides in the water µSv/y Age 1-5 y 6-10 y 11-15y Adult Range 7.41-130 5.40-94.9 4.54-108 5.69-103 mean 38.69 26.38 27.76 28.82
Table 10 the Cancer mortality due to ingestion 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 40K in the drinking water Cancer risk mortality (x10-5) Radionuclide 238U 323Th 137Cs 40K Total s Range 0.352 -17.08 0.61-2.33 3.23 – 41.64 0.65-51.13 2.07- 53.54 Mean 3.34 3.75 1.38 1.854 21.971
Table 11 the Cancer morbidity due to ingestion 238U, 232Th, 137Cs and 40Kin the Drinking water Cancer risk morbidity (x10-4) Radionuclide 238U 323Th 137Cs 40K Total s Range 0.53 -26.16 0.08-3.40 0.04 – 0.60 0.1-7.94 1.60-29.63 Mean 5.12 0.54 0.2 2.88 8.30
39 Ezzulddin S. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 23-04
Figure 2 Activity concentrations of 238U, 232Th, 137Cs, and 40K in the studied drinking water.
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ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 41-48 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.6
Chromosomal aberrations in peripheral blood lymphocytes of photocopy Machine workers in Erbil City/ Iraqi Kurdistan Region
Kazhal M. Sulaiman
Department of Biology, College of Education, University of Salahaddin -Erbil, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq.
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: Photocopiers are one of the most common machines in the market today. Received: 07/06/2016 They are a source of employment for a large number of people. The personnel Accepted: 22/08/2016 working with photocopiers are commonly exposed to possible hazards Published: 10/1/2017 associated with it .The objective of the present study is to know the frequency of Keywords: chromosomal aberrations (CA) in peripheral blood lymphocytes in a group of Chromosome aberrations, workers occupationally exposed to photocopying machines in Erbil City. Photocopying machines, Samples of blood were collected from 50 workers out of which 20 were smokers Smokers, and 30 were nonsmokers and 25 controls at different age groups range between Toner . (15-38) years. The results suggest that there were a significant increase in the chromosomal aberrations in the workers when compared to the controls. *Corresponding Author: Significant association was found between years of exposure and smoking .The Kazhal M.Sulaiman highest value of chromosomal aberrations were founded in workers who are Email: smoker and who exposed to photocopying machine for more than (5) years. [email protected]
Human exposure to hazardous substances in 1. INTRODUCTION the environment has been known to play an Photocopiers, laser printers and facsimile important role in the pathogenesis of some machines are essential pieces of equipment in diseases (Awodele et al., 2015). The persons the modern office. These hazards of who operate the machines are always exposed photocopying machines can come from to possible hazards associated with it. Toner breathing in the vapors, gases, and particles which is the main component of the emitted by these machines. In addition, some photocopying machine consists of carbon black of the chemicals used in photoduplication (17%), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons equipment (such as acrylates, styrene, and (PAH)(Vernier et al., 1987). Styrene, other off-gassing thermal degradation products) magnetite, nitropyrenes, benzene, toluene, can cause an allergic contact dermatitis, which other volatile substances and low melt polymer is a type of skin rash. Some of the volatile resins mixed with minute steel, silica or ferrite organic compounds (VOCs) that can be emitted bead (Rosenkranz et al., 1980). Besides those, by these machines include isodecane, xylene, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, volatile organic 2, 2, 4 trimethyl octane, alkanes, nitropyrene, compounds like 1-1, biphenyl-p- phthalates, and isocyanates. That creates dichlorobenzene pyrobenzene and tetra different health effects (Hetes ., 1995 ). chloroethylene aldehydes are also released in 42 Sulaiman K./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 41-48 to the atmosphere by the machine while duration of service, total working hours/day operating. Majority of those substances are and machine model, recent history of infection, mutagenic or genotoxic in either bacteria or vaccination and radiological examinations) mammalian systems (Kubika et al., 1999). were filled in through direct interviews with Chromosomal aberrations (CA) in them. peripheral blood lymphocytes is a reliable biomarker of genotoxic exposure to both 2.1 Blood sampling physical and chemical agents(Fenech, 1993), Five ml of blood were collected from (75) and an increase in CAfrequency indicates the individuals, using sterile disposable syringes. risk of exposure to clastogenic and/or Then, the blood was put in a special tube for aneugenic agents. In addition, cytogenetic end chromosomal study (Lithium Heparin tube). points in peripheral blood lymphocytes have been used as biomarkers which allow a 2.2 Blood culture and harvesting reasonable epidemiological evaluation of cancer predictability(Hagmar et al., 1998) . The present study was carried out at The photocopy machine workers with Research Center /Salahaddin University. smoking habits also shows more amount of Cytogenetic analysis was performed by using DNA damage was observed in smokers which the protocol of Iraqi center for cancer and shows cigarette smoking has synergistic effect medical genetic research (ICCMGR.About one on inducing DNA damage. cigarette smokers ml or 6 – 7 drops of heparinized blood was and its conductors have been shown to form cultured in 5 ml RPMI – 1640 culture medium, adducts with DNA protein and to induce then supplement 0.3 ml of PHA .Culture tubes chromosome aberrations. (Yaday et al.,2000). were incubated at 37 C° for 72 hours, after 71 The present study was performed to hours of incubation 0.2 ml of colchicines was determine the chromosomal aberration in added to the culture tube with mild shaking and individuals working with photocopying then incubated at 37 C° for next 1 hour. Then machines in Erbil City/ Iraqi Kurdistan Region. after many steps of centrifugation and adding of fixatives, 3 to 4 drops of cell suspension 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS were dropped evenly from appropriate distance (typically 30 cm) on to a wet chilled and grease The subjects were selected by random free slide, then the slide was dried at room sampling. They consists of 75 healthy temperature.The slide was stained with freshly individuals at different age groups range from prepared giemsa stain (Giemsa stain 1:4 (15-38) years, which include 20 individuals Sorensone buffer solution) for 2-3 minutes. working with photocopying machines with Then the slide was washed by Sorensone’s smoking habit, 30 individuals working with buffer and left to dry at room temperature. photocophing machines without smoking habit Excess buffer was removed by slanting the and 25 controls (non- workers/ non – smokers), slide on filter paper.(Yaseen et al., 1998). A special questionnaire was used in order to Microscopic examination was performed then record direct response of photocopying at least 20 metaphases were analysed to machine workers through several visits to identify structural chromosomal aberrations. office. Each worker was provided with a questionnaire form, which includes some fields of information to be filled about the workers that are (Name, Address, Age, smoking habit, 43 Sulaiman K./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 41-48
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure (1) shows the total number of obtained by random sampling (control –non subjects, the worker were categorized into two workers-non smokers), (worker –smoker) and groups based on smoking habit represent (25 (worker –non smoker) with their age groups control –non workers-non smokers), (20 range from (15-38) years. Figure (3) shows the worker –smoker) and (30 worker –non characteristic of population represent years of smoker),by random sampling, while figure (2) exposure for worker smoker and worker non- shows the characteristics of population smoker under study by random sampling. represent number of individuals in each group
Figure (1) Characteristics of population represent number of individuals in each group obtained by random sampling.
Figure (2) Characteristic of population represent age groups for control, worker smoker and worker
non- smoker under study by random sampling.
44 Sulaiman K./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 41-48
Figure (3) Characteristic of population represent years of exposure for worker smoker and worker non- Smoker under study by random sampling.
Table (1) shows frequencies of aberrations was centromeric gap( 5.88±0.13), chromosome aberrations which included ( while the lowest value of chromosomal Dicentric chromosome, centromeric gap, aberrations was found in workers without centromeric break and quadriradial), as shown smoking habit it was( 4.7±0.58) for less than 5 in figures(4,5,6). The highest value of years exposure. The various factors was chromosomal aberrations was founded in studied included duration of exposure, which workers with smoking habit (13.89±0.6) and showed significant effects and it has also for more than 5 years exposure to shows a positive effect on CA. photocopying machine and the most
Table (1) Chromosomal aberrations in photocopying machine worker and control groups. Groups Years of Chromosomal aberrations exposure Dicentric Quadriradial Centromeric Centromeric Total chromosome gap break
Control ---- 0.48±0.11 0.32±0.09 0.84±0.11 0.76±0.08 2.4±0.39
Worker < 5 yrs. Worker- 1.25±0.13 2.25±0.25 2.17±0.24 1.50±0.26 7.17±0.88 Smoker smoker
> 5 yrs. 1.63±0.18 4.13±0.13 5.88±0.13 2.25±0.16 13.89±0.6 Worker-
smoker 45 Sulaiman K./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 41-48
Worker < 5 yrs. 0.59±0.12 1.35±0.15 1.35±0.15 1.41±0.16 4.7±0.58 non- Worker- smoker non-smoker
> 5 yrs. 0.77±0.20 1.08±0.14 2.69±0.13 2.38±0.21 6.92±0.68 Worker- non- smoker
The results of the present study specially machine workers with smoking habits also chromosomal a aberrations are in good shows more amount of DNA damage was agreement with those obtained by Gadhia et al observed in smokers which shows cigarette smoking has synergistic effect on inducing ., 2005, where they demonstrated that there was DNA damage (Yaday and Thakur,2000; a significant increase in the percentage of Balachandar et al., 2008). aberrant cells, total aberrations as well as total On terms of biological activity, cigarette aberrations excluding chromatid gaps a.mong smokers and its conductors have been shown to photocopying machine operators when form adducts with DNA protein and to induce compared to controls. chromosome aberrations.Our present study The toxicants that enter into human body suggests that workers exposed to photocopy cause change the state and behavior of the machines are prone to genetic damage. chromosomes which in turn lead to reshuffling Nithya et al., 2003 revealed increased level of of hereditary material causing chromosomal oxidative stress in photocopier operators with aberrations and gene mutations in somatic and no significant change in haematological germ cells. Chromosomal aberrations represent parameters. Photocopiers emit high levels of damage to DNA that is visible in stained cells. particulate matter. Long term exposure to Usually, lymphocytes are obtained from emissions from photocopiers was not exposed populations and examined for various associated with decreased lung function, but types of chromosomal damage. resulted in high oxidative stress and systemic On the basis of chromosomal aberrations , inflammation leading to high risk of the workers may be considered a slight risk cardiovascular diseases. group, for the environment in which they work Epidemiological and laboratory studies is contaminated with volatile organic and suggest that exposure to extremely-low- inorganic compounds, components of toners , frequency electromagnetic fields LF-EMF may formaldehyde, ozone , nanoparticles and increase cancer risk therefore assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Besides, if chromosomal damage in various cell lines the machine is damaged there are a chance for might be of predictive value for future risk a workers to be exposed to UV radiation. estimation (Seyyedi et al., 2010). The photocopy machine workers with Toxic substances from cigarette smoke smoking habits shows more amount of DNA induce structural and numerical chromosomal damage was observed in smokers which shows aberrations in vitro and could potentially cigarette smoking has synergistic effect on increase levels of aneusomy in sperm. inducing DNA damage. Some previous Moreover, increased levels of aneusomy in findings reported similar results on bidi, sperm are correlated with low implantation smokeless tobacco users. The photocopy 46 Sulaiman K./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 41-48 rates, spontaneous abortions and fetal losses (Pereira et al., 2014).
Figure 4 : Normal human chromosomes(1000 X, Giemsa stain)
Centromeric break Dicentric
Centromeric gap
Quadriradial
Figure 5: Chromosome aberration observed from photocopying machine
Workers in Erbil City. (1000 X, Giemsa stain).
Dicentric
Quadriradial
Dicentric
Figure 6: Chromosome aberration observed from photocopying machine Workers
in Erbil City. (1000 X, Giemsa stain) 47 Sulaiman K./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 41-48
Conclusions carcinogenesis in human exposed to poly cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Mutat.Res.445: 175-80. From the results of the present study, concluded that chromosome aberrations was Kubika R., Belowskia J., Szczeklika J., Smolikb E.,Mielzynskab D. and Baja M. ( 1999) Biomarkers occurred in workers who were exposed to of carcinogenesis in humans exposed to polycyclic photocopying machine in Erbil City, aromatic hydrocarbons. Mutat Res; 445:175. included(Dicentric chromosome , Pitarque M., Vaglenov A., Nosko M., Hirvonen A., Quadriradial, centromeric gap and Norppa H., Creus A .and Marcos R. (1999). centromeric break). The highest value of Evaluation of DNA damage by the comet assay in chromosomal aberrations was founded in shoe workers exposed to toluene and other organic workers with smoking habit and for more solvents. Mutat Res, 441: 115-127. than 5 years exposure to photocopying Lofroth G., Hefner E., Alfhelm I.and Moller M .(1980) . machine, while the lowest value of Mutagenic activity in photocopies. Science, 209: 1037-1039. chromosomal aberrations was found in workers without smoking habit and for less Fenech M.(1993) Cytokinesis-block micronucleus than 5 years exposure. . There was a techniques: a detailed description of the method and its application to genotoxicity studies in human significant increase of chromosomal populations. Mutat Res, 161:193-8. aberrations in the smokers when compared Hagmar .L, Bonassi S., Stromberg U., Mikoczy Z ., to nonsmokers and controls. Lando C .and Hansteen I-L. (1998) Cancer predictive value of cytogenetic markers used in References occupational health surveillance programs: a report from an ongoing study by the European Study Group Photocopiers and Laser Printers Health Hazards: on Cytogenetic Biomarkers and Health.Mutat Produced by the Health and Safety Department, the Res, 405:171-8. University of Edinburgh 2010.
Hetes R., Moore M. and Northelm C. (1995) Office equipment: Design, indoor air emissions,and Yadav, J.S.and Thakur, S. (2000). Cytogenetic damage pollution prevention opportunities. US EPA Project in bidi smokers. Nicotine. Tobacco. Res. 2: 97–103. Summary, EPA/600/SR-95/045; Research Triangle Jayakumar R.and Sasikala K. (2008). Evaluation of Park, North Carolina. DNA damage in jewellery workers occupationally Awodele A.J.,Akindele G.O., Adebowale E. and exposed to nitric oxide. Environ Toxi pharmacol. Adeyemi A.(2015) Poly cyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, 26(2): 259-261. hematological and oxidative stress levels in Secretan B., Straif K., Baan R(2009). A review of human Commercial photocopier operators in Lagos, carcinogens—Part E: tobacco, areca nut, alcohol, coal Nigeria.Ghana Medical Journal.49:1. smoke, and salted fish. The Lancet Oncology, 10 (11) 1033-1034. Vernier P., Tecchio G., Clonfero E., Levis A.G.(1987) GadhiaP.K.PatelD.SolankiK.Ttamakuwal D.and Mutagenic activity of carbon black dyes used inthe PithawalaM(2005) Apreliminary cytogenetic and leather industry. Mutagenesis. 2: 19, 22 hematological study of photocopying machine operators. Indian journal of occupational and Rosenkranz H.S., Mccoy E..C, Sanders D.R., Butles M., environmental medicine.9 (1): 22-25. Kirnadez D.K.and Mermelestein R.(1980) Nitropyrenes isolation, identification and reduction of Bonassi A., Abbondandolo L., Dal Pra M., De Ferrari F. mutagenic impurities in carbon black and toners. ,Degrassi A., Forni L ., Lamberti C., Lando P., and Science . 209 :1039-1042. Padovani . ( 1995). Are chromosome aberrations in circulating lymphocytes predictive of future cancer Kubika R,Belowskia J., Szczeklika J.,Smolikb E., onset in human? Preliminary results of an Italian Mielzynskab D .and Baja M.(1999) Biomarkers of 48 Sulaiman K./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 41-48
cohort study . Cancer Genetics, Cytogenetic. 79:133- 8-oxoguanine formation in A549 cells. Environ Res. 135 93(3):279-84 Madhu K., Dhimiter B.Anoop K. Pal J. Cohen S Goswami H.K.(1986) Cytogenetic effects of methyl . Woskie T. Gassert J. , April Z. Gu D.e and Peter G isocyanate exposure in Bhopal. HumanGenetics . (2013) Evaluation of cytotoxic, genotoxic and 74:1. ,81-84 . inflammatory responses of nanoparticles from SeyyediS.,Mozdarani H., Rezaei M.and Heydari V photocopiers in three human cell lines. Particle and .(2010) Induction of chromosomal aberrations in Fibre Toxicology.10:42 human primary fibroblasts and immortalized cancer Fatima SK., Aruna P P.and Reddy PP,( 1995) cells exposed to extremely-low-frequency Frequencies of sister chromatid exchanges in electromagnetic fields. Radiat. Res., 8 (1): 25-29 . lymphocytes of portland cement factory workers. Pazymino C., Leone P.E., Chavez M., Bustamante G., Bull Environ Contam Toxicol,55(3):704-708. Cordova A., Gutierrez S., Penaherrera M..S. and Rupa DS., Reddy PP., Reddy OS.,(1989) Chromosomal Sanchez ME.(1995) Follow up study of chromosome aberrations in peripheral lymphocytes of cotton field aberrations in lymphocytes in hospital workers workers exposed to pesticides. Environ Res, 49(3): 1- occupationally exposed to low levels of ionizing 6. radiation. Mutat Res ;335:245-51. Yadav JS .and Thakur S., (2000) Genetic risk Yadav J.S.and Thakur S. (2000). Cytogenetic damage in assessment in hookah smokers ,Cytobios, 10:101–113. bidi smokers. Nicotine. Tobacco. Res. 2: 97–103. Balachandar V., Lakshman K. B., Suresh K.., Yadav J.S.and Thakur, S.(2000). Genetic risk Manikantan P, Sangeetha R.,Mohanadevi S .(2008) assessment in hookah smokers. Cytobios. 10: 101– Cytogenetic Damage in Khaini users of Tamilnadu, 113. Southern India. Braz J Oral Sci, 7(25):1559-156. Leanderson P. and Tagesson C.(2005) Cigarette smoke- Nithya E., Vallikkannu K., Bhuvaneswari V., and induced DNA damage in cultured human lung Jeyanthi G.(2003) Chronic exposure to emissions cells: role of hydroxyl radicals and endonuclease from photocopiers in copy shops causes oxidative activation . Chem Biol Interact. 81(1-2):197-208. stress and systematic inflammation among Pereira s., Maria S., Silvio A., Maria A., Cláudia C., photocopier operators in India. Environ Health. 12: Jeremy A., Squire, and Lucia M.( 2014) Smoking- 78. induced chromosomal segregation anomalies Cheng TJ., Kao HP., Chan CC.and Chang WP.(2003) identified by FISH analysis of sperm .Mol Effects of ozone on DNA single- strand breaks and Cytogenet. ; 7: 58.
ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 94-55 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.7
Evaluation of X-chromosome aneuploidy of azoospermic and severe oligospermic patients in Erbil city/ Iraqi Kurdistan Region
Mustafa S. Al -Attar University of salahaddin-Erbil, College of science, Environmental Science Department
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: Male Infertility is the inability of males to reproduce. Chromosome Received: 17/07/2016 abnormality including sex chromosomes abnormality is among the most important Accepted: 22/08/2016 causes of disordered sexual development and infertility. This study describes Published: 10/1/2017 cytogenetic findings of males with history of infertility that are suspected with Keywords: chromosome abnormalities. A total of sixty male individuals having history of Sex chromosomal infertility were enrolled for their chromosome study to rule out the chromosomal abnormalities, cause for their infertility. All the referred males were detected to be infertile Infertile males, initially from their semen analysis when majority of these males were found to be Aneuploidy oligospermia and others were azoospermic. Blood samples of 60 patients referred *Corresponding Author: to cytogenetic analysis were cultured for chromosome preparation. Karyotypes Mustafa S. Al-Attar were prepared for all samples and G-Banded chromosomes were analyzed using Email: x100 objective lens. Sex chromosome aneuploidy cases were analyzed. [email protected] The percentage of normal karyotype were 85 %, while the number of abnormal karyotypes constitute about 15%. In azoospermic patients, about 18.18% of patients stated to have abnormal karyotype comparing to 14.28% in oligospermic patients. On the other hand, sex chromosomal anomalies were detected in 2 patients with azoospermia. Meanwhile, 7 patients with sex chromosomal anomalies were recorded in oligospermic patients including 2 mosaics. No autosomal anomalies were found in both groups. Therefore, the value of cytogenetic screening is emphasized since this group of chromosomally abnormal patients can be excluded from conventional treatment.
always leads to the infertility among males. 1. INTRODUCTION (Hirsh, 2013). Male factor infertility is defined as the Approximately, about 15% of couples are failure to father children after one year of un infertile because of several reasons, out of protected sexual inter course with a normal which the male factor is responsible for mature female. Human male infertility needs a approximately 50% of the cases (Thangaraj et lot of concern because it is only a normal male al., 2003). It is estimated that globally, 60–80 who alone can reproduce. Normal male million couples suffer from infertility every requires integration of the hypothalamic- year, of which probably 15–20 million are in pituitary testis axis, with a functional penis, India alone (Poongothai et al., 2009). There are functional and descended testis and a normal two main ways by which chromosome 46, XY chromosome karyotype. If there is an disorders can influence infertility in men. abnormality in any of the above said factors, it Firstly, they can disturb the development of the 50 Al-Attar M. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 94-55 testis leading to a serious impairment of its /Salahaddin University. All samples for this normal function. Such disorders are usually study were collected from government, private caused by abnormalities of sex chromosomes hospitals, and infertility clinics, and informed (Chandley et al., 1975). Secondly, autosomal consent was taken up by referring doctors. The anomalies may result in disruption of the 60 infertile men with primary infertility, out of normal process of cell division that occurs which 11 men were azoospermic, 49 men were during the development of the gametes oligospermic. The 20 fertile males with at least (Dutrillaux et al., 1982). one child were taken as controls. The data were Chromosome abnormality (CA) including analyzed based on patient’s seminal Sex chromosomes abnormality (SCAs) is one parameters. of the most important causes of disordered Amount of 3ml of heparinised peripheral sexual development and infertility. SCAs blood samples from the patient were cultured formed by numerical or structural alteration in for 72h in RPMI-1640 medium supplemented X and Y chromosomes, are the most frequently with fetal bovine serum and CA encountered at both prenatal diagnosis and phytohemagglutinin. Cytogenetic analysis was at birth (Jouyan et al., 2012). Chromosomal performed in patients by using the GTG anomalies have been postulated to contribute as banding technique according to the protocol of one of the principal genetic factors in male Iraqi center for cancer and medical genetic infertility. It has been estimated that the research (ICCMGR)(Yaseen et al., 1998). At prevalence of chromosomal abnormalities in least 30 metaphases were analysed, images was infertile males have been found within the captured using cytovision software system range of 2.4-16.4% (Kosar et al., 2010) com- number 7.2 (by Leica microsystems/ U.S.A) of pared to the frequency in general male Medical research center/ College of Medicine/ population (0.3- 0.4%) (Lissitsina, 2011). In University of Duhok. men with azoospermia the incidence of chromosomal abnormalities is especially high, varying from 13.1% to 23.6%; in males with 3. RESULTS oligospermia, the incidence is 2.1-6.6% and in men with severe oligospermia it is 10.6% (Rao Out of a total of 60 infertile men, who were et al., 2004 and Nagvenkar, 2005). The subjected to karyotype analysis, only 9 patients incidence of autosomal chromosome revealed an obvious chromosomal aberration, abnormalities in infertile men is 1.1-7.2% which accounted to 15%. Table 1 shows that (Akgul et al., 2009) and sex chromosome out of 11 azoospermia, 2 patients had abnormal abnormalities are in a range of 0.4-12.3% (Rao karyotypes, which accounted to 18.18%. Only et al., 2004). 7 oligospermic patients (14.28%) showed Thus, the aim of this study is to evaluate of obvious chromosomal aberrations among the X-chromosome aneuploidy in a number of 49 oligospermic patients. The sex infertile male with primary infertility in Erbil chromosomal abnormalities which detected in city/ Iraqi Kurdistan region prior to assist both abnormal karyotype azoospermic patients, reproductive techniques (ART) treatment. while no autosomal abnormalities were associated with azoospermia in our results. Seven other oligospermic patients were found 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS to have sex chromosome anomalies constitutes The present study was carried out at 10.20%, while 2 patients (4.08%) showed Biology Department /College of Science mosaicism. 51 Al-Attar M. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 94-55
Table 1. Karyotype analysis of azoospermia and oligospermia infertile men in a group of patients from Erbil province.
Type of CA Patients with Sex Autosomal Mosaic CA chromosome anomaly Category of infertility Total anomaly patients
Azospermic patients 11 2 (18.18%) 2 (18.18%) 0 0
Oligospermicpatients 49 7 (14.28%) 5 (10.20%) 0 2 (4.08%) Total 60 9 (15%)
The majority of these patients in both Table 2. Chromosomal constitution of patients with groups did not have a typical Klinefelter chromosomal abnormalities. syndrome signs (e.g. small testes, Individual Age Seminal Fluid Chromosome Gynecomastia). Fifty-one infertile men number Analysis (SFA) constitution (azoospermia and oligospermia) revealed 46, XY males with no observable chromosomal 1 40 Azoospermia 47,XXY aberrations (Figure 1). 2 The chromosomal constitutions of 9 29 Azoospermia 47,XXY infertile men who showed obvious 3 44 Oligospermia 47,XXY chromosomal aberration are illustrated in Table 2. Karyotype investigation revealed that 2 4 44 Oligospermia 47,XXY azoospermia patients showed 47, XXY male 5 35 Oligospermia 47,XXY mitotic karyotype, which is associated with Klinefelter’s syndrome. No other abnormalities 6 27 Oligospermia 47,XXY were noticed. Five oligospermia patients 7 revealed a 47, XXY male mitotic karyotype, 43 Oligospermia 47,XXY which is associated with Klinefelter’s 8 39 Oligospermia 46,XY/47,XXY syndrome (Figure 2). Two oligospermic patients revealed a mosaic 46,XY/47,XXY 9 33 Oligospermia 46,XY/47,XXY male mitotic karyotype, which were associated with Klinefelter’s syndrome although the mosaic ratio seems to be different among them.
52 Al-Attar M. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 94-55
(A) (B)
Figure 1. Normal Male metaphase 46,XY (1000X), A- by G- banding. B- Giemsa stain.
(A) (B) Figure 2. Abnormal male metaphase, the 47,XXY karyotype associated with Klinefelter’s syndrome (1000X) A- by G- banding. B- Giemsa stain.
4. DISCUSSION have a child for a year or more is said to be Infertility primarily refers to the biological sub-fertile. The couple's fecund ability rate is inability of a man or a woman to contribute to approximately 3-5%. Many of its causes are the conception. There are many biological causes same as those of infertility. Such causes could of infertility, some which may be bypassed be endometriosis, or polycystic ovarian with medical intervention (Makar and Toth, syndrome (Makar and Toth, 2002). Infertility 2002). A couple that has tried unsuccessfully to affects an estimated 15% of couples globally, 53 Al-Attar M. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 94-55 amounting to 48.5 million couples. Males are found in seven (77.78 %) cases and Mosaic found to be solely responsible for 20-30% of Klinefelter syndrome (46, XY / 47, XXY) was infertility cases and contribute to 50% of cases found in two (22.2 %) cases. During the overall. However, this number does not present study, Klinefelter syndrome was found accurately represent all regions of the world. to be commonest chromosomal abnormality in Indeed, on a global level, there is a lack of the male with history of infertility. Similar accurate statistics on rates of male infertility finding were reported by Balwan (2008) who (Agarwal et al., 2015). reported Klinefelter syndrome in four In these patients, severe oligospermia or individuals out of eight male individuals with azoospermia are frequently observed and most history of infertility and found Klinefelter of them undergo some kind of assisted syndrome to be commonest chromosomal reproductive technique (ART). Direct injection abnormality among infertile males. of single spermatozoa into the cytoplasm of an Also these results are close to those oocyte (Intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection, reported in Iran who recorded (79%) as (47, ICSI) is the current standard technique. ICSI XXY) (Akbari et al., 1998). This results are has high success rates even in cases of severely similar to those reported in Tunisia by impaired spermatogenesis. Even though this Abdelmoula et al.,(1998) (66.6%) (47, XXY) , method allows infertile males to have their own (33.3%) (46, XY / 47, XXY) and Iran by child without knowing the cause of their Jouyan et al.,(2012) (56%) (47, XXY) , (34%) infertility, it also carries the potential risk of (46, XY / 47, XXY). The difference in the transmission of genetic aberrations to the frequencies of classic and mosaic form of descendants. The cause of alterations in sperm Klinefelter syndrome among mentioned studies production is unclear, and recent work is could reflect variations in the criteria for focusing on environmental and genetic causes. inclusion of patients; however, we should Among the genetic causes of male infertility consider the fact that reference of individuals that can be passed on to the offspring are to genetic labs can be different in various areas cytogenetic abnormalities, Y chromosome depending on people's information and the microdeletions and CAG repeats in the frequency of disease in the society based on androgen receptor (AR) gene (Gottlieb et al., genetic or environmental factors. In addition, 2005; Carrell et al., 2006). the number of patients investigated is so Specific sex chromosomal aneuploids are important, the more the individuals studied, the associated with male infertility; groups of men more the data are close to reality. attending infertility clinics usually screened by Shah et al., (1990) in their study reported cytogeneticists to determine the frequency of 47, XXY condition in two patients out of 144. abnormalities in selected or unselected These patients were referred as cases of populations (Yaseen et al., 2001). hypogonadism. These workers recorded the During the present work, chromosome incidence of 47, XXY condition to be 2/144 study has been carried out in every referred (1.38 %) and 2/57 (3.50%). Ozata et al., (1992) infertile male. Among sixty referred in a similar study on 29 cases of Klinefelter individuals with male infertility, chromosomal Syndrome reported 46, XY/47, XXY mosaic abnormalities were detected in nine (15 %) karyotypes in 24 cases. individuals and fifty one (85 %) individuals In another study, about 80% of patients were found to be normal (Table 1). Of the nine with 47, XXY bear a congenital numerical individuals with chromosomal abnormalities, chromosome aberration. The other 20% are Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY) condition was represented either by 47, XXY/46, XY mosaics 54 Al-Attar M. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 94-55 or higher-grade sex chromosomal aneuploidy above statement may explain to some extent or structurally abnormal X chromosomes (45) this higher frequency beside the other reasons (Vasu et al., 2008) . Also in cases with (e.g. race, environmental factor) which cannot Klinefelter syndrome, Jouyan et al.,(2012) be excluded (Yaseen et al., 2001). found 56% of classic form of Klinefelter syndrome (47 XXY) and 34% of mosaism. CONCLUSIONS Bojesen and Gravholt (2007) reported a Karyotyping of subfertile males is still an frequency of 40 cases per 1,00,000 men and important not only from a diagnostic point of found that 7% of these cases had mosaic view, but also for better understanding of the karyotype. Advanced maternal age was also gametogenic impairment, which is associated found to be a significant contributing factor. to chromosomal abnormalities. Moreover, the Klinefelter syndrome is usually value of cytogenetic screening is emphasizing underdiagnosed and less than 10% of cases get since this group of chromosomally abnormal diagnosed before puberty. Delay in treatment patients can then be excluded from may lead to decreased muscle and bone mass conventional treatment. with subsequent risk of osteoporosis. The varied expressivities of 47, XXY in Klinefelter REFERNCES Syndrome results in seminiferous tubule Abdelmoula, N.B. ; Amouri, A.; Portnoi, M.F.; Saad, A.; dysgenesis, androgen deficiency, neurological Boudawara, T. and Mhiri, M.N. (1998). Cytogenetics and fluore scence in situ hybridization and cognitive perturbations like language, assessment of sex-chromosome mosaicism in behaviour problems (Simpson et al., 2003). Klinefelter's syndrome Arch. Intern Med, 158: Studies on mosaic Klinefelter syndromes 1309-1314. reveals that the germ cells with sex Agarwal, A. ; Mulgund, A. ; Hamada, A. and Chyatte chromosomal abnormalities were capable of M.R. (2015). A unique view on male infertility around the globe. Reproductive Biology and completing meiosis (Mark and Sigma, 2000) Endocrinology. 13:37. and the individuals may reproduce with the aid Akbari, M.T. ; Behjati, F. and Ashtiani, Kh. M. (1998). of modern reproductive technology. The XXY Chromosomal abnormalities in a referred genotype is typically associated with population: a report of 383 Iranian. Acta Medica Klinefelter Syndrome (Balwan et al., 2014). Iranica. 36: 64-69. Akgul, M. ; Ozkinay, F. ;Ercal, D. ; Cogulu, O. ; Dogan, It has been proposed specific sex chromosomal O. and Altay, B. (2009). Cytogenetic abnormalities aneuploids are associated with male infertility in 179 cases with male infertility in Western (Ferguson-Smith et al., 1957). The results of Region of Turkey: Report and review. J Assist (Kjesseler, 1992) reported an overall incidence Reprod Genet. 26(2-3): 119–22. of 7%, whereas, (Chandley, 1979) reported an Balwan, W.K. (2008). A study of chromosomal aberrations in peoples suffering from genetic incidence of 2% in his cytogenetic screening of diseases, a Ph.D. thesis submitted to University of 2,372 men presenting with infertility. On Jammu. comparing, other investigators stated a high Balwan, w. K. ; Bhat, M. A. ; Saba, N. and Gupta, S. incidence of 13% (Croquette and Forlinie, (2014). Chromosome study of human male 1980). Also, a study registered an incidence of infertility in Jammu region of jammu and Kashmir. I.J.S.N. , vol. (5), No. (2) : 212-214. chromosomal abnormality to 13% (Kondoh et Bojesen, A. and Gravholt, C.H. (2007). Klinefelter al., 1992). Obviously, the present study dealt syndrome in clinical practice. Nat. Clin. Pract. with the infertile patients who were severely Urol., 4 (4):192-204. oligospermic. Previous studies have proposed a Carrell, D.T., De Jonge, C. and Lamb, D.J. (2006). The positive relationship between chromosomal genetics of male infertility: a field of study whose time is now. Arch. Androl., 52: 269-274. abnormality and sperm count. Accordingly, the 55 Al-Attar M. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 94-55
Chandley, A.C. (1979). The chromosomal basis of Ozata, M. ; Bolu, E. ; Gul, D. ; Azal, O. ; Coraky, A. and human infertility. Br Med Bull. 35: 181-186. Beyhan,Z. (1992). The evaluation of male patients Chandley, A.C. ; Edmond, P. ; Christie, S.H.; Gowans, with primary hypogonadism who had been referred L. ; Fletcher, J. ; Frackiewicz, A. and Newton, M. to our clinic. Gata Bulteni: 34:759-768. (1975). Cytogenetics and infertility in man. I. Poongothai, J.; Gopenath, T.S.; Manonayaki, S.(2009). Karyotype and seminal analysis. Results of a five – Genetics of human male infertility. Singapore Med year survey of men attending a subfertility clinic. J., 50(4):336-47. Ann Hum Genet Lond. 39: 231-252. Rao, K.L. ; Babu, K.A. ; Kanakavallim, M.K. ; Croquette, M.F. and Fourlinie, J.C. (1980). Intérét du Padmalatha, V.V. ; Singh, A. and Singh, P.K. caryotype dans les azoospermtes et les oligo- (2004). Chromosomal Abnormalities and Y asthenospermies severees. J Gyn Biol Reprod. 9: Chromosome Microdeletions in Infertile Men With 177. Varicocele and Idiopathic Infertility of South Dutrillaux, B. ; Rotman, G. ; Gueguen, J. In: De vere Indian Origin. Journal of Andrology. 25(1):147-53. White R Editor (1982). Aspects of male infertility. Shah, V.C. ; Krishna Murthy, D.S. and Sabina K. Chromosomal factors in the infertile male. Murthy (1990). Cytogenetic studies in a population International perspectives in urology. Williams and suspected to have chromosomal abnormalities. Wilkin: Baltimore. p. 89-102. Indian. J. Pediatr., 57: 235-243. Ferguson-Smith, M.A. ; Lenexa, B. ; Mack, W.S. and Simpson, J.L. ;De La Cruz, F. ; Swerdloff, R.S. ; Stewart, J.S.S. (1957). Klinefelrt’s syndrome: Samango- Sprouse, C. ; Skakkbaek, N.E. ; Graham, Frequency and testicular morphology in relation to J.M. Jr. ; Hassold, T. ;Aylstock, M. ; Meyer- nuclear sex. Lancet . ii: 167-160. Bahlburg, H.F. ; Willard, H.F. ; Hall,J.G. ; Gottlieb, B., Lombroso, R., Beitel, L.K. and Trifiro, Salameh,W. ; Boone, K. ; Staessen, A . ; M.A. (2005). Molecular pathology of the androgen Geschwind, D. ; Giedd, J. ; Dobs, A.S. ; Rogol, A. ; receptor in male infertility. Reprod. Biomed., 10: Brinton, B. and Paulsen, C.A. (2003). Klinefelter 42-48. syndrome: Expanding the phenotype and Hirsh, A. (2003). Male subfertility. British Medical identifying new research directions. Genet. Med., Journal, 327(7416): 669-72. 5(6): 460- 468. Jouyan, N. ; Dehaghani, E.D. ; Senemar, S. ; Shojaee, A. Thangaraj, K. ; Gupta, N.J. ; Pavani, K. ; Reddy, A.G. ; and Mozdarani, H. (2012). Sex chromosome Subramainan, S. and Rani, D.S. (2003). Y aneuploidy in cytogenetic findings of referral chromosome deletions in azoospermic men in patients from south of Iran. Iran J Reprod Med. India. J Androl.,24:588-97. Vol.10, No.2, pp:141-148. Vasu, V. ; Chandra, N. ; Jayashankar, M. and Santhiya, Kjessler, B. (1992). Facteurs genetiques dans la S.T. (2008). Klinefelter variant mosaic with a subfertilite male humaine. In: Fecondite et sterilite reciprocal translocation t (1;7). Fertil Steril. 90: du male. Acquisitions Recentes. Masson: Paris. p. 2017:15-17. 202-225. Yaseen, A.A. ; Aunuiz, A. and Al-Musawi, M.N. (2001). Kondoh, N. ; Megvro, N. ; Kiyohara, H. ; Namiki, M. Chromosome studies in male patients suffering and Okuyama, A. (1992). Chromosomal from infertility. Saudi Medical Journal. Vol. 22 (3): aberrations in cases of male infertility. Nippon 223-226. Hinyokika Gakkai Zasshi. 83: 1992-1997. Yaseen, N.Y. ;Humadi,A.A. ;Tawfiq, M.S. and Estivan, Kosar, P.A. ; Ozcelik, N. and Kosar, A. ( 2010). A.G. (1998).Cytogenetic studies on patients with Cytogenetic abnormalities detected in patients with chronic Myelocytic leukemia. Med. J. Tikrit non-obstructive azoospermia and severe Univ.,4:5-9. oligozoospermia. J Assist Reprod Genet. 27:17–21. Lissitsina, J. (2011). Cytogenetic causes of male infertility [PhD Thesis]. Tartu Estonia: University of Tartu. Makar, R.S. and Toth, T.L. (2002).The evaluation of infertility. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 117 (Suppl) : 95–103. Nagvenkar, P. ; Desai, K. ; Hinduja, I. and Zaveri, K. (2005). Chromosome studies in infertile men with oligospermia and non-obstructive azoospermia. Indian J Med Res. 122:34-42. ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 65-56 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.7
Punching Strength of GFRP Reinforced Concrete Slab-Column Connections with Openings by the Finite Element Method
Ali R. Yousif 1, Akram S. Mahmoud 2, Mohanad T. Abduljaleel 3
1 Civil Engineering Department-College of Eng.-University of Salahaddin-Erbil-Iraq 2 Civil Engineering Department-College of Eng.-University of Anbar-Iraq 3 Master Student, Civil Engineering Department-College of Eng.-University of Anbar-Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: In flat slabs, a brittle failure mode can rise due to poor transfer capacity of Received: 06/ 04/2016 shearing force and unsymmetrical moment. Existing of the opening around the Accepted: 23/08/2016 vicinity of column increase the possibility of punching failure, in this case Published:10/1 /2017 numerical analysis is necessary to understanding the structural behavior of such Keywords: complex case. This study presents nonlinear finite element analysis of the slab- Finite Element, column connections reinforced with GFRP bars by using the ANSYS15 software, Opening, in addition, the summary of experimental test result. Solid 65 was used for GFRP bars, modeling concrete element and GFRP bars were inputted by using link 180. Link Flat Plate Slab, 10 was used to overcome the rigidity of supporting which gave a good rotation in Punching Shear the both sides. For simplicity of analysis, only quarter-size have inputted. Only *Corresponding Author: discrete model have considered to modeling reinforcement bars. Numerical result Mohanad T. Abduljaleel showed punching shear mode due to crashing of the concrete element before Email: yielding the reinforcement bar. The numerical results were compared with the [email protected] experimental data which obtained from testing four interior slab-column connections and gave a good agreement. Depending on the numerical and experimental result, existing of the openings reduced the punching shear capacity and increased the deflection of the specimens. Increasing of the reinforcement ratio improved punching capacity. Different stiffness have been observed between experimental and numerical model but have a liner behavior before first cracking.
have a brittle failure with limited deflection 1. INTRODUCTION and the forces and loads transfer from slab to Corrosion of steel reinforcement is a the column, which creates a critical zone problem which faces the engineering in the around the column lead to failure which called hard condition situation and marine building. punching shear. Flat plate slabs reinforced with Researchers proposed more than one solution GFRP and with openings are a new subject to overcome the corroding problem, for which was not studied before according to our instance, increasing of concrete cover, epoxy knowledge. Therefore the experimental and coating, and using stainless steel bars. All those numerical investigation are required to solutions do not provide the effective solution understand the behavior of such slabs. This and at the same time, they are expensive. paper presents the numerical modeling of four GFRPs bars are good alternative reinforcement slab-column connections reinforced with GFRP and have significant properties that can be used bars with and without openings by using in hard condition. Slab-column connections ANSYS software. 57 Yousif, A. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 65-56
2. Experimental Data A total of four (1100×1100×90) mm interior slab-column connections were reinforced with GFRP bars with reinforcement ratio ranged (1.3-2.2)%. All specimens were simply supported on the four edges and tested under axial load acting on the column from top to down. The column stub extended 200 mm from the top, and 100 mm from the bottom. Symmetrical opening (150×150) mm system was applied to avoid the effects of force and moment, which may appear due to the asymmetry of the opening. Figure (1) shows the details of the specimen.
(b) Slab-column connection fabrication and test Fig. (1) Slab-column connection details
2.1. Materials and Tools
The specimens were cast using normal
strength concrete. Ordinary Portland cement,
water, fine aggregate, and coarse aggregate
were used. All these materials were compared
with (ASTM C33, 1999) specification as
shown in the Figures (2, 3). The target
compressive strength of NSC was 30 MPa. The
slump of fresh concrete was measured before
casting, and was approximately equal to 20
mm.
(a) Slab-column connection dimension
Fig. (2) Fine aggregate sieve analysis
58 Yousif, A. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 65-56
2.3 Strain Gauge There are several methods for measuring strain; the most common is with metallic strain
gauge. TML strain gauges were used to determine the strain in the reinforcement bar. Each specimen was provided with two strain
gauges. The gauge type was FLA-6-11, which Fig. (3) Coarse aggregate sieve analysis can be used for general purpose and applicable for metal, glass, and ceramic. Strain gauges 2.2. Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer were connected to Quarter Bridge and two-wire (GFRP) Bars system. Figure (4) reveals the strain gauge after applied. Deformed surface GFRP bars of size No. 13 (12.7 mm) was used as flexural reinforcement of the two-way flat plate slabs.
The modulus of elasticity (Ef) was 45 GPa. Ultimate tensile strength of the GFRP bars 800MPa. Table (1) demonstrates the physical properties of the GFRP bar.
Table (1) Physical properties of GFRP bar Fig. (4) Strain gauge fixed on the GFRP bar
Strain Stress MPa 2.4. Experimental Result mm/mm Simply support and monotonic load 0 0 techniques were used for specimens test. 0.006 200 Mechanical dial gauge at the mid span of 0.008 288 specimen was used for measuring the 0.01 411 deflection. As mentioned in previous Data logger was used to predict the strain of 0.012 550 reinforcement bar. Table (2) displays the 0.014 660 summary of the experimental result. 0.016 775 0.017 802
Table (2) Summary of experimental test results
Specimen X Strain at Slab's opening cone kN mm Ultimate Load MPa location SG1 2.2 136.2 16.20 3.6d 7120 29.8 N/A SGO1 1.3 67.7 14 2.4d 7935 37.3 At column face SGO3 2.2 80 17.70 4.0d 7757 30.5 At column face SGO4 2.2 100 11.30 3.4d 4691 35.4 2d from column face
Note: X cone is distance from column face to observed failure, calculated by average around the column, and Ԑ is strain at ultimate load, ∆u is deflection at mid span.
59 Yousif, A. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 65-56
3. Simulation of Finite Element Model
ANSYS software has many finite element Control point for loading analysis capabilities, simple static analysis as well as complex non-linear dynamic analysis.
In general, a finite element solution passes through three main stages as follow (Alberta University, 2001). 1. Preprocessing
Define keypoints, lines, areas, and volumes Define element type, material, and
geometric properties 75×75 mm mesh lines, areas, volumes 2. Solution
Assigning loads Constraints Solving Fig. (5) ANSYS numerical model representation of 3. Results review (post processing). experimental specimen The ANSYS software is capable of Quarter-Size of specimen have been used due to the analyzing (numerically) nonlinear response of symmetrical case and reduce of the time inputting. RC concrete under static and dynamic loading. In addition, it was found the modeling with Any model can be created using the command Quarter-Size gives more flexible and accurate result prompt line input or the Graphical User compared with whole size. Interface (GUI) (Saber, M., 2013). ANSYS 3.1. Concrete Element (Solid65) software version 15 was used for modeling quarter-size specimen. Three-dimensional Solid 65 which is an eight nodes element element solid 65 which is capable of cracking was used to model the concrete element with and crushing along with the GFRP bar three degrees of freedom at each node, modeling were adopted to describe the behavior translations in the x, y, and z directions (Zhang, of the composite reinforced concrete material (concrete with GFRP bars). The construction of Q., 2004). The element is capable of plastic model using ANSYS is shown in Figure (5). deformation, cracking in three orthogonal directions, and crushing. Figure (6) presents the
solid 65 elements (ANSYS User’s Manual Revision 15, 2015).
550×550×90 mm Fig. (6) Solid 65 element 60 Yousif, A. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 65-56
The mechanical properties of the element 3.3. Supporting Element (link10) (Solide 65) have been inputted depending on Link 10 is a 3-D spar element having the the experimental result Figure (7) demonstrates unique feature of bilinear stiffness matrix the test of compression strength. resulting in tension only (or compression only) element. Link10 element is special nonlinear spring element in the transverse direction, which was employed along edges of slabs in the numerical model. The stiffness of spring
elements is numerically set to be significantly high in compression and zero in tension, respectively (Zhang, Q., 2004).
3.4. Real Constants The real constants for this model are shown in Table (3).
Table (3) Real constants RC Element Material Value Set No. Type mm2
1 Solid65 Concrete N/A 2 Link180 Steel Bar 113 3 Link10* Spring Sup. 2000
4 Link180 Stirrups 50 5 Link180 GFRP Bar 126 ** 6 Link180 GFRP Bar 126/2 Fig. (7) Compression strength test *link10 was given by command line 3.2. Reinforcement Bars (link180) **half-area of bar at plane of symmetry Link180 is a three-dimensional spar used to 3.5. Materials Properties model the GFRP and steel bars reinforcement. 3.5.1. Concrete Material The element is uniaxial tension-compression, the geometry, and nodes location are shown in Concrete is a heterogeneous material Figure (8). Two nodes are required for this consists of cement, mortar and aggregate. Its element. Each node has three degrees of mechanical properties scatter widely and freedom, translation in the nodal x, y, and z cannot be defined easily (Zhang, Q., 2004). For directions. The plastic deformation is included the convenience of analysis and design, in this element (ANSYS User’s Manual however, concrete is often considered as a Revision 15, 2015). homogeneous material in the macroscopic sense. Figure (9) reveals the nonlinear response of the concrete material (Bangash, M., 1989).
Fig. (8) Geometry of link180
61 Yousif, A. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 65-56
Numerical expression equations were proposed by (Desayi and Krishnan, 1964); equations (1)
and (2), were used along with equation (3) which was proposed by (Gere and Timoshenko, 1997).
Fig. (9) Typical uniaxial compressive and tensile stress- strain of the concrete
This curve can be divided into three stages, the uncracked elastic stage, the crack propagation stage, and the plastic stage. Development of a model for concrete behavior is not easy. The curve shows linear elastic behavior at about 30% of maximum compressive strength, and above this point crack takes place. After it reaches the maximum compressive strength, the curve descends into softening region, and crushing failure occurs at ultimate strain. For tension zone stress-strain curve shows linear behavior response, after this point concrete cracks and the strength decreases to zero (Bangash, M., 1989). ANSYS software requires some important data to construct stress-strain curve Fig. (11) Simplified uniaxial compressive stress-strain for the concrete. curve (Qi Zhang, 2004) investigated two stress- Nonlinear stress-strain curves created by strain curves, linear and nonlinear, as shown in Figure (10). It was found that elastic-perfectly these equations were used in the solution of the plastic model gives good convergence solution nonlinear models of flat plate slabs; Figure (12) demonstrates both curves. and reasonable results for load-deflection relationship.
Fig. (10) Typical stress-strain relationship for normal Fig. (12) Stress-strain curves concrete
62 Yousif, A. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 65-56
3.5.2. GFRP and Steel Reinforcement Bars GFRP bar was defined as linear elastic behavior with an elastic modulus of 45 GPa and Poisson`s ratio (0.3). The steel bar was defined as nonlinear behavior (bilinear) with elastic modulus 200 GPa, Poisson`s ratio (0.3), and yielding stress 530 MPa as shown in Figure (13).
(a) smeared model
SIG
EPS (b) discrete model
Fig. (13) Idealized stress-strain curve of steel reinforcement bar
3.6. Geometry and FE Modeling Due to the symmetry, only quarter of the specimen was used to simulate the flat plate slab; this approach reduced the computational (c) embedded model time and effort. The model was built first by defining the nodes with careful numbering Fig. (14) Reinforcement modeling types because the numbering is important to create an element. The nodes of a concrete element The smeared model (a) assumes that the were created by copy process. Elements of the reinforcement is uniformly spread through the steel were built by the same way. This concrete element in a defined region of the FE technique does not need any meshing. mesh. The discrete model (b) uses bar or beam Modeling of bar reinforcement can be elements that are connected to the concrete classified into three different techniques element nodes. The concrete and reinforcement (Tavarez, F.A., 2001); as shown in Figure (14). elements share the same nodes. The discrete model was used in this study. a. The smeared model The discrete model was used to model the reinforcement using link180 element with b. The discrete model perfect bond between the concrete and the c. The embedded model reinforcement. The dimensions of the model represent the same dimensions of the experimental specimen. The local failure of the supports will be avoided by using the spring elements. 63 Yousif, A. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 65-56
3.7. Load and Boundary Conditions Figures from (15) to (18) show the contour plot Automatic time stepping was used to solve of numerical analysis of specimen SGO3. the FE model with a specific number of substeps depending on the material properties, the value of loads, and element density. In this study, for reinforced concrete solid elements, convergence criteria were based on force only with the value of (0.05) to help the convergence of the solution. The constant load was applied on the top of the column in Y direction. Because a quarter of the slab was used for the model, planes of symmetry were required at the internal faces. At a plane of symmetry, the displacement in the direction perpendicular to the plane was held at zero Fig. (15) Deformed shape of SGO3 (Kachlakev et al., 2001). All degrees of freedom (DOF) of support spring nodes were constrained to prevent the rotation and displacement.
4. Result of FE Analysis The ANSYS15 software was used to simulate four specimens SG1, SGO1, SGO3, and SGO4. The details of these specimens were shown in Figure (1) and Table (2). Numerical analysis was used to study the details of the slab-column connection behavior, and the following items were studied. 1. Load-deflection curves Fig. (16) Shear stress of SGO3 2. Principal stresses 3. Shear stresses
4. Crack patterns 5. Load-strain curves Numerical analysis is different from the experimental results due to the assumptions made in the FE (ANSYS) modeling. The following are a number of such assumptions: 1. The concrete material is assumed to be homogenous. 2. The perfect bond between concrete and reinforcement. 3. The reinforcement is assumed to carry stress along its longitudinal axis. Fig. (17) 1st principal stress of SGO3 64 Yousif, A. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 65-56
with experimental behavior specially at cracks initiation.
(a) Specimen of SG1 without opening
Fig. (18) GFRP stress of SGO3
5. Discussions
Openings located near the column face lead to stress concentration due to the cutoff which decreased the punching perimeter and at the same time increased the deflection. Figure (16) showed that high stresses were concentrated near the opening sides which lead to splitting of the concrete, the fact which was seen experimentally. Depending on the experimental (b) Specimen of SGO3 with opening and FEM (ANSYS) results, the reinforcement Fig. (19) Cracks at 28% from ultimate load did not reach yielding, and that explain the facts that all specimens failed by punching shear. In ANSYS software, cracking is shown with a circle outline in the plane of the crack, and crushing is shown with an octahedron outline.
If the crack has opened and then closed, the circle outline will have an X through it. Each integration point can crack in up to three different planes. The first crack at an integration point is shown with a red circle outline, the second crack with a green outline, and the third crack with a blue outline (ANSYS User’s Manual Revision 15, 2015). Cracks pattern of FEM (ANSYS) are shown in Figures (19) to (21). Specimen SGO3 showed Fig. (20) Element crushed around column of the cracks that concentrated at the opening's edges. SGO3 specimen Cracks pattern showed reasonable agreement 65 Yousif, A. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 65-56
Flat plate slabs reinforced with GFRP and
with openings are new subject which was not studied before (according to our knowledge). The comparison between the FE (ANSYS) and experimental results is a good tool to check the accuracy of the numerical analysis of flat plate slabs. Table (3) shows the results of such comparisons.
Fig. (21) Cracks initiation from opening's edges of SGO3
Table (3) Comparison of FE analysis and experimental results Finite Element/ Slab No. Experimental Results Finite Element Results Experimental
Pu ∆u* Ԑ* Pu ∆u Ԑ Pu ∆u Ԑ (kN) (mm) (Micro) (kN) (mm) (Micro) SG1 136.2 16.2 7120 135.1 18.2 6915 0.99 1.12 0.97 SGO1 67.7 14 7935 69 14 7200 1.01 1 0.90 SGO3 80 17.7 7757 85.3 19.1 7200 1.06 1.07 0.92 SGO4 100 11.3 4691 93.2 10.8 5300 0.93 0.95 1.12 *deflection and strain at ultimate load only. Figures (23) to (26) show the comparison The following figures show the load-deflection responses of FE ANSYS results. between the numerical and experiential load- deflection relationships.
Fig. (23) Load-deflection relationships of SG1 Fig. (22) Load-deflection relationships of FE models
Figure (22) shows that the load deflection of numerical analysis of all models is exactly the same (linear) before cracking, and the behavior changed after the first cracks. The specimens which reinforced with GFRP and with openings showed a more ductile behavior, because existing of the openings. Fig. (24) Load-deflection relationships of SGO1 66 Yousif, A. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 65-56
results showed good agreement with the experimental results.
2. In general, the numerical load-deflections
curves were somewhat stiffer than the companion experimental curves. This can be attributed, to some extent, to the assumed Fig. (25) Load-deflection relationships of SGO3 perfect bond between the concrete and the reinforcement, and also due to disregarding of the micro cracks that exist in the concrete.
Notations The following symbols are used in this study: d = Average effective depth (mm) h = Slab thickness (mm)
Ec = Modulus of elasticity of the concrete (MPa)
(E =4700 ) c Fig. (26) Load-deflection relationships of FE SGO4 Ef = Modulus of elasticity of GFRP reinforcing bars (MPa) In general, numerical models give lower Es = Modulus of elasticity of steel reinforcing bars (MPa) deflection due to the perfect bond of the 2 Af = Area of the reinforcing bars (mm ) reinforcement. The best results of numerical fc Cylinders concrete compressive strength (MPa) model was that of the SGO4 specimen, which fy = Yield strength of steel bars (MPa) showed good agreement with experimental fu = Ultimate tensile strength of steel bars (MPa) f = Ultimate tensile strength of FRP bars (MPa) results. fu Vu = Ultimate punching shear load (kN) Figure (27) shows the reinforcement strains ∆u = Deflection at ultimate load (mm) of the numerical models. = Reinforcement ratio
X cone = Distance from column face to observed failure surface (mm)
Ԑ = Strain at the ultimate compressive strength o
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank staff of the civil engineering department of Salahaddin university-Erbil and concrete laboratory for their facilities and patient throughout investigating of the experimental part of the manuscript of this paper. Fig. (27) Load-strain response of numerical model
6. Conclusion REFERENCES
The main conclusions derived from this study ANSYS, (2015) ANSYS User’s Manual Revision 15, may be summarized as follows: ANSYS, Inc., United States. AlbertaUniversity“ANSYSTutorials,”http://www.mece.u 1. The numerical investigation by ANSYS alberta.ca/tutorials/ansys/AU/ Intro/Intro.html, software provided a good tool for analyzing the copyright 2001. GFRP reinforced slab specimens, and the 67 Yousif, A. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 65-56
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ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 86-47 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.9
Factor V Leiden G1691A mutation in patients with cerebral infarction
1Sazgar Anwar Hameed and 2Salar Adnan Ahmed
1Central laboratory - Jamhuri Teaching Hospital, Erbil- Iraq 2Department of Clinical Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Hawler Medical University, Erbil- Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: Cerebral infarction is a serious neurological disease with the sudden loss of Received:14/06/2016 blood circulation to an area of the brain, resulting in a damage to the brain tissue Accepted: 25/08/2016 and corresponding loss of neurologic function, which caused by a clot blocking of Published: 10/1 /2017 Keywords: blood vessel and the subsequent shortage of oxygen and nutrients to the brain Cerebral infarction, tissue. This retrospective study was done to assess the influence of Factor V Leiden Factor V Leiden, (G1691A) mutation on the hypercoagulability, thrombosis and ischemic stroke. Gene mutation, Polymorphism, The present case-control study was carried out on 50 patients with ischemic stroke. PCR. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism *Corresponding Author: (RFLP) analysis were used to identify the FV Leiden G1691A mutation. The Assist. Prof. Dr. Salar A. Ahmed results of the present study showed that the incidence of blood clotting factor V Email: Leiden mutation was found in 8 (16%) patients, from which 7 (14%) patients had [email protected] heterozygous mutant and 1 (2%) had homozygous mutant for FV, the remaining
patients (84%) were don't have FV Leiden (G1691A) mutation. In the frame of this work we delineate that the FV G1691A mutation play a significant role in the pathogenesis of cerebral infarction.
prothrombin to thrombin by activated blood 1. INTRODUCTION clotting FXa, the generated thrombin, in turn Cerebral infarction is focal brain necrosis acts as a serine protease that converts soluble due to complete and prolonged ischemia fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin clot resulting from a blockage in the blood vessels (Emirogullari et al., 2010; Kjellberg , 2009). supplying blood to the brain, that affects all Activated protein C (APC) is a natural tissue elements and vessels which causing a anticoagulant that acts to limit the extent of persistent focal neurologic deficit in the area clotting by cleaving and degrading Factor V. affected (Sarti et al., 2000). Blood clotting FV deficiency leads to
Factor V (FV) is an essential blood clotting predisposition for hemorrhage, while some factor of the coagulation system, which plays a mutations in the FV gene like factor V Leiden prominent role in hemostasis. In contrast to G1691A predispose for thrombosis most other factors, FV act as the essential non- (Sahasrabudhe et al., 2012). enzymatic cofactor for conversion of 69 Hameed, S. and Ahmed. S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28 (6): 86-47
In recent years the blood clotting FV 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS Leiden polymorphism has been considered as 2.1. Subjects an established risk factor for ischemic stroke (Sobol et al., 2007). The gene coding FV is 80 The present study was carried out from kb in length which located on chromosome 1 at August 2015 to May 2016 by collaboration q21-25 and contains 25 exons, the domain between Research center and Biochemistry structure of FV is organized with triplicated A Department, College of Medicine, Hawler domains, B domain and duplicated C domains Medical University. (Kolfschoten and van der, 2005). Fifty patients with ischemic stroke (29 male Factor V Leiden mutation has been and 21 female) who admitted in the neurology recognized to be the most prevalent genetic department of Rizgary Teaching Hospital with risk factor for venous thrombosis (Lalouschek the mean age 66 years, ranging from (35-93) et al., 2005). There are two copies for factor V years of age were enrolled in this study. gene, which are passed down from parents, during factor V Leiden mutation either one of them can be affected (heterozygous carrier) or 2.2. Collection of blood samples both are affected (homozygous carrier) (Sahasrabudhe et al., 2012). Venous blood samples (3ml) were collected
During mutation, the nucleotide Guanine is via atraumatic antecubital venipuncture into substituted at position 1691 to Adenine in vacutainer tubes containing EDTA (0.109 M). exon10 (G1691 A), this mutation results in an The samples were either used immediately for amino acid substitution of Arginine to study of blood clotting FV Leiden (G1691A) Glutamine at position R 506. The Arginine mutation or kept at about -20 C until further molecule is a normal cleavage site for APC, so analysis. Glutamine substitution slows or prevents cleavage of the FV molecule, and it prevents 2.3. Molecular assay protocol (Detection of FV from being inactivated by activated protein FV Leiden (G1691A) mutation) C, which is called resistance to activated protein C and this mutation is called Factor V The DNA was isolated from whole blood Leiden (Page et al., 2005). In comparison with by using GeNet Bio kit (Korea) (Gharesi-Fard non-carriers, heterozygous carriers of factor V et al., 2014). Then, the isolated human DNA Leiden have a three-fold to five-fold increased was used as a template to amplify the interested risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) region of blood clotting FV gene (267 bp throughout life. Those who are homozygous fragment in exon 10 of FV ) by polymerase for factor V Leiden are at a 10-fold or greater chain reaction with forward primer (5'- risk of VTE than non-carriers (MacCallum et TGCCCAGTGCTTAACAAGACCA-3') and al., 2014). reverse primer (5'-TG The present case-control study was TTATCACACTGGTGCTAA-3') (ALPHA undertaken to identify the Factor V Leiden DNA, Canada) (Arsov et al., 2006). The PCR G1691Α mutation and its association with was performed using approximately 60 ng of ischemic stroke. genomic DNA. Amplification conditions were: 94 °C for 5 min followed by 25 cycles of 94 °C
for 30 sec, 55 °C for 1 min, 72 °C for 2 min, with a final extension period of 5 min at 72 °C 70 Hameed, S. and Ahmed. S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28 (6): 86-47
Then, the PCR products were confirmed by 1% hypertension with diabetic mellitus and stroke (w/v) agarose gel (Abdullah et al., 2010). were 84% and 32% respectively. Additionally, Identification of factor V Leiden G1691A 38% of the ischemic stroke patients were mutation was done by Restriction fragment smokers and 34% were had hyperlipidemia. Length Polymorphism analysis (RFLP). The host information of ischemic stroke Briefly, ten µl of the amplified PCR product patients are given in Table 1. were treated with 1 units of Mnl I restriction Table 1: The host information of ischemic stroke enzyme solution (Thermo scientific, EU. patients Lithuania), according to manufacturer 2 recommendations and digested at 37○C for 3 h No. of Age (year) BMI (Kg/m ) in a total volume of 30 µl. Subsequently, the subjects Group Mean Range Mean Range digestion products were separated according to ± SE size on a 1 % (w/v) agarose gel at 120 v ± SE current for 75 min, and the separated bands Ischemic 50 66±1.4 35-93 27±0.6 18-60 were visualized by ethidium bromide staining stroke under ultraviolet light. In normal individuals, the 267 bp fragment is digested by the Mnl I restriction enzyme to 3.2. Results of molecular methods three fragments (163, 67, and 37 bp). The G to A) Whole blood DNA isolation and DNA A mutation abolishes a restriction site, and produces only two fragments of 200 and 67 bp photometry (Sahasrabudhe et al., 2012). With the rapid development of molecular biology and the life sciences, human blood is 2.4. Ethical consideration an ideal source of human genomic DNA. In the present study genomic DNA was isolated from This study was approved by the Research various types of blood samples with purity (1.7-2.2). The mean value of isolated genomic Ethics Committee of the College of Medicine DNA was 25.8 ng/2µl with a range of of Hawler Medical University. An informed variation 7.2- 55.2 ng/2µl. consent was obtained from each participant to B) Polymerase chain reaction analysis for blood collection and DNA extraction. amplification of a 267 bp sequences of exon 10 of the blood clotting factor V gene
3. RESULTS Detection of the single base pair mutation (G1691A) at position R506 of the FV gene is 3.1. Characteristics of the study population important for the prenatal diagnosis of stroke. A 267 bp fragment of the FV gene containing This retrospectives study was carried out on position R 506 among 50 randomly patients 50 subjects with ischemic stroke; there were 29 was amplified. Fig (1) shows the agarose gel males, 21 females. The age range was 35 to 93 electrophoresis of the successfully amplified years. The incidence of family history with DNA fragment with the specific primers ischemic heart disease and stroke there were containing Mn1I restriction sites. 30.5% and 42.5% respectively. Regarding 71 Hameed, S. and Ahmed. S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28 (6): 86-47
The mutation in its' homozygous and heterozygous forms was found in (8) patients out of (50) patients for an overall prevalence of 16%. Heterozygous FV Leiden mutation was found in (7) cases, among the (50) participants with a prevalence rate (14%). Fig.(2), while homozygous factor V Leiden mutation was found in (1) cases among the (50) ischemic stroke patients with a prevalence rate (2%) Fig.(3). The remaining patients (84%) were Figure 1: Agarose gel analysis of PCR products negative for mutation and don't have FV Leiden (G1691A) mutation Fig (4). corresponding to 267(bp) segment of FV gene. DNA markers are shown on the right (Kb).Whereas lines from 1 to 9 correspond to PCR products of the amplified DNA from (9) different samples of ischemic stroke patients.
C) Restriction fragment length polymorphism
The frequency of factor V Leiden mutation Figure 2: Agarose gel electrophoresis pattern of some in patients and its' association with stroke is RFLP products of FV gene and FV Leiden (G1691A) indicated in Table (2). mutation. Line 10 (M) indicates DNA markers with a Table 2: The prevalence of blood clotting FV Leiden 100 bp. Lanes (6, 7 ,8 and 9) is (G/A) and is mutation heterozygous for the mutation. The other Lanes ( 1, 2, Genotype Case No. (50) 3 , 4, and 5) are negative(G/G) and don’t have the G→A mutation. G/G * 42(84%)
G/A* 7(14%)
A/A* 1(2%)
Total mutant 8(16%)
*GG: homozygous wild type, *GA: heterozygous mutant, *AA: homozygous mutant 72 Hameed, S. and Ahmed. S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28 (6): 86-47
acquired defects. Acquired defects associated with hemostatic disorders have been known and studied for centuries (Ajem et al., 2009).
In contrast, inherited defects causing thrombosis have been recognized more recently, the most common one are factor V Leiden and prothrombin G20210A mutation (MacCallum et al., 2014).
In the frame of this work we investigated the potential function of FV Leiden mutation Figure 3: Agarose gel electrophoresis pattern of some in the natural process of hemostasis , in order RFLP products of FV gene and FV Leiden (G1691A) to fully understand its particular role in mutation. Line 10 (M) indicates DNA markers with a ischemic stroke. 100 bp. Lane (8) is (A/A) and is homozygous for the No comprehensive information and studies mutation. Lanes (4, 5 and 6) are (G/A) and are have been observed about FV Leiden mutation heterozygous for the mutation. The other lanes ( 1, 2, of ischemic stroke in Kurdistan region. We 3 , 7, and 9) are negative(G/G) and don’t have the have established the technical condition for the detecting of FV Leiden mutation using PCR G→A mutation. assay technology, this methodology permitted us to identify the normal controls, the homozygote and heterozygote ischemic stroke patients. In the current study, we found that the nature process of thrombosis in ischemic stroke is strongly depend on the presence of FV Leiden mutation, among the (50) ischemic stroke patients (8) cases of FV Leiden mutation was detected, giving a prevalence rate of (16%). This finding is in agreement with Figure 4: Agarose gel electrophoresis pattern of some results of a study conducted on 40 patients in RFLP products of FV gene. Line 10 (M) indicates Algeria, Chalal et al., (2015) found that the FV DNA markers with a 100 bp. The other lanes are Leiden mutation was (12.5%). Whereas in a negative and don’t have the FV leiden G→A study on 92 patients in Germany, FV Leiden mutation. mutation was found in 28 patients with a prevalence rate (30.4%) (Stephan et al., 2012). In another study done by Hamedani et a.l. (2010) on 2045 patients with cerebral 4. DISCUSSION infarction, FV gene mutation was detected in 154 samples (7.5%). In Vienna, a study done Normal hemostasis requires delicate by Lalouschek et al., (2005) on 468 ischemic balance between the natural procoagulant and stroke patients, the FV Leiden mutation was anticoagulant system. Both of these systems (7%). are subject to disruption by either congenital or 73 Hameed, S. and Ahmed. S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28 (6): 86-47
Furthermore, FV Leiden mutation was mutation abolishes a protein C cleavage site detected in 7 patients (5.3%) according to a and prevent efficient inactivation of FV, when study done on 132 ischemic stroke patients in FV remains active, it facilitates over Italy (Madonna et al., 2002). While Tatarskyy production of thrombin leading to generation of et al., (2010) found that the FV Leiden excess fibrin and excess clotting which leading mutation of 183 ischemic stroke patients in to thrombosis (Keohane et al., 2016). Ukraine was (3.3%). The heterozygous form was the most predominant type in our study, seven cases out of (50) patients which 5. CONCLUSIONS accounting (14%) of the total ischemic stroke patients. This is consistent with most of the We concluded from current study that the previous studies which have been done before. FV G1691A mutation play a significant role in Chalal et al., (2015) found that the FV Leiden the pathogenesis of cerebral infarction. The mutation (Heterozygous form) was detected in results of the present study also confirmed the 5 patients (12.5%). Furthermore, Madonna et fact that among the patients with ischemic al., (2002) found that in their study the stroke in Erbil population, 14% were heterozygous form was (5.3%) while in the heterozygous mutant, 2% were homozygous research done by Tatarskyy et al. (2010) the mutant and 84% were homozygous wild type heterozygous form of FV Leiden was (3.3%). and don't FV Leiden (G1691A) mutation. Our The FV Leiden-Homozygous form which findings therefore confirmed that the early followed by heterozygous form was (1) case screening of FV Leiden mutation is very out of (50) patients, which accounting (2%) of important to prevent the hypercoagulability and total ischemic stroke patients, our finding is its' complications. So the results of such quite similar to that found by Salem-Berrabah investigation should consistently be included et al., (2011). It is clear from the above studies into the preventive and therapeutic strategies. that there is marked variation between the numbers and prevalence of FV mutation in ischemic stroke patients. This variation may be REFERENCES due to lifestyle, environmental factors such as sunlight, radiation, smoking and air pollution. Abdullah, W.Z., Kumaraguru, S., Ghazali, S., Yusoff, The recent studies also found that the N.M. 2010. Factor V Leiden and Prothrombin frequency of the FV Leiden mutation varies G20210A Mutations Among Healthy Indians in according to the ethnicity (Salem-Berrabah et Malaysia, Lab Med, 41(5), 284-287. al., 2011). Our finding revealed that there is a Ajem, A., Slama, A., Slama, F.B., Mehjoub, T. 2009. significant influence of FV mutation on Prevalence of factor V Leiden mutation in patients ischemic stroke and its complications. with thrombosis in Tunisia, East Mediterr Health J, 15(6), 1483-88. The exact mechanism responsible for Arsov, T., Miladinova, D., Spiroski, M. 2006. Factor V hypercoagulability in patients with FV Leiden Leiden is Associated with Higher Risk of Deep mutation is due to a single nucleotide Venous Thrombosis of Large Blood Vessels, Croat polymorphism, as a missense substitution of a Med J, 47, 433-439. base G to base A, it changes the protein's Chalal, N., Demmouche, A., Cherif touil, S. 2015. amino acid from Arginine to Glutamine at Frequency of Factor II G20210A and Factor V position R 506, since this amino acid is Leiden Mutations in Algerian Patients with Venous Thromboembolism, J Blood Disorders Transf, 6(1), normally the cleavage site for a protein C, this 240-247. 74 Hameed, S. and Ahmed. S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28 (6): 86-47
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ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 57-08 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.10
Estimation of Anemia parameters in chronic renal failure patients on hemodialysis
in Erbil Governorate
Musher Ismail Salih Kakey1, Kamaran Kaiani Abdoulrahman2 1 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science & Health, Koya University, Erbil, Koya, Kurdistan Region-Iraq.
2 Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Salahaddin University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region-Iraq.
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Article History: Anemia is common in renal failure and iron deficiency plays a Received: 28 / 07/2016 vital role as a cause. The present study aims to evaluate iron related Accepted: 25/ 08/2016 parameters in chronic renal failure patients on hemodialysis. The study Published: 10 /1 /2017 was carried out in Kidney Dialysis Center of Hawler Teaching Keywords: Hospital in Erbil governorate. This study comprised (76) patients with Hemodialysis chronic renal failure on hemodialysis and 41 healthy subjects as a CRF control group of same ages. All hemodialysis patients were taking erythropoietin. The blood samples were taken from the patients before Anemic parameters and after the process of hemodialysis for anemic parameters estimation Iron deficiency. by using full automatic chemical analyzer (Cobas C311). The results *Corresponding Author: of this study showed that the anemic related parameters, serum iron, Musher I. Salih unsaturated iron binding capacity, total iron binding capacity and [email protected] transferrin saturation percent, decreased in the pre hemodialysis chronic renal failure patients, while increased after hemodialysis by taking erythropoietin, whereas ferritin level increased in the pre hemodialysis chronic renal failure patients, and decreased by hemodialysis in the post hemodialysis.
1. INTRODUCTION uremia that can affect the production and Renal anemia has a significant impact on survival of red blood cells (Golper et al., the quality of life of chronic renal failure 2003). (CRF) patient. Anemia has also been identified Functional iron deficiency is defined as the as an important etiologic factor of mortality in presence of adequate bone marrow iron stores, hemodialysis patients (Golper et al., 2003). but an impaired ability to mobilize these stores The major cause of renal anemia in CRF is an for erythropoiesis in the presence of the stimulating effect of an Erythropoiesis inadequate production of the glycoprotein hormone erythropoietin (EPO) because of a Stimulating Agents (ESA); it is typically reduction in functional kidney parenchyma diagnosed when transferrin saturation is < 20% (Santoro, 2002). There are numerous other but serum ferritin levels are normal or elevated. metabolic derangements associated with Chronic kidney disease is usually associated with anemia and the level of anemia correlates 76 Kakey, M. and Abdoulrahman, K. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 57-08
with the severity of renal failure (Fishbane et taking erythropoietin (EPO). The study al., 1995). included (41) healthy subjects as control group. The anemia of renal failure has been Blood samples were collected from chronic attributed to a relative deficiency of renal failure patients before and after erythropoietin, but absolute deficiencies of iron hemodialysis session in a vacutainer tubes to or folate may also play a role. Other measured serum iron, UIBC, TIBC, % contributing factors include heavy- metal transferrin saturation and ferritin. Full toxicity, blood loss, and a reduction in red cell automatic chemical analyzer (Cobas C311) was survival induced by toxic radicals. The used to determine the iron profile parameters. treatment of the anemia of renal disease has advanced with the development of recombinant human erythropoietin (Mojdehkar et al., 2004). 2.1 Statistical analysis The markers of anemia are hematocrit and hemoglobin, serum ferritin, serum iron, total The data of the current study was expressed iron-binding capacity (TIBC) and transferrin as mean, standard error of mean (Mean ± saturation (TSAT). S.E.M) and the SPSS (statistical package for There is no ideal test for monitoring iron social science) (IBM version 20) using samples storage. Most commonly, iron status is T-test for data analysis. Probably level of P evaluated by serum ferritin and transferrin value (P<0.05) level of significant was saturation (TSAT). However, ferritin is an considered to be statistically significant. acute-phase reactant and can be elevated for reasons other than sufficient or excessive iron stores. Absolute iron deficiency is defined as a 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION serum ferritin concentration < 100 ng/ml in The characteristics of subject populations non–dialysis-dependent CRF and in patients were showed in table (1). The mean age of men treated by peritoneal dialysis and a serum and women patients was 53.44±13.45 years ferritin concentration of < 200 ng/ml in and 50.46±12.94 years respectively, and an hemodialysis patients. For all patients with overall mean age of both sexes enrolled CRF regardless of whether they are receiving patients population was 53.5±13.41 years. The dialysis, TSAT concentrations < 20% indicates time period of dialysis treatment for these iron deficiency. patients was varied from 72 to 120 months in 13 patients (15.79%), 12 to 60 months in 55 patients (72.37%) and less than 12 months in 8 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS patients (11.84%). The study was carried out in Kidney
Dialysis Center of Hawler Teaching Hospital in Erbil governorate. This study comprised (76) chronic renal failure patients on hemodialysis, and 41 healthy subjects as a control group. The age of the patients in the range of 20-73 years.
The patients received hemodialysis thrice a week for 3-4 hours per session at blood flow rates of 250-350 ml/min using polyflux hollow- fiber filter. All hemodialysis patients were 77 Kakey, M. and Abdoulrahman, K. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 57-08
Table 1: Characteristics of the studied population erythropoietin, shortened red blood cell subjects survival, iron deficiency, and chronic
Variables Patients group (n=76) Control group (n=41) inflammation (El shinnawy et al., 2012). It has been previously reported that the iron Mean± SE Men Wome Over Men Wom Overall n all en mean deficiency which may occur when iron stores age/year mean age are depleted as a result of loss or decreased age intake, however, functional deficiency occurs 53.44± 50.46± 53.5± 43.2± 45.9± 44.56± when there is a need for a greater amount of 13.45 12.94 13.41 14.44 13.98 14.11 iron to support hemoglobin synthesis than can Number 37 39 76 21 20 41 be released from iron stores (Koshy and Geary, Time (72-120) month (12-60) (3-12) month 2008). EPO deficiency and iron deficiency are period on month dialysis the leading causes regardless of dialysis status. 13 patients 55 patients 8 patients Other causes contributing to anemia in CRF (15.79%) (72.37%) (11.84%) patients are inflammation, chronic blood loss, hyperparathyroidism, shortened red cell life span, aluminum toxicity, hemoglobinopathies, The result of iron profile in men and women vitamin deficiencies, hemolysis and adverse renal failure patients of both age groups ≤40 effects of cytotoxic or immunosuppressive and 40 year were shown in the tables (2 and 3). drugs and angiotensin converting enzyme The results showed a significant (p<0.05) inhibitors, the uremic milieu, erythropoietin decrease in serum iron level, UIBC, TIBC and deficiency, iron deficiency, and inflammation, %TS of the pre hemodialysis patients of both patients with chronic kidney disease are at risk sexes in both age groups ≤40, >40 years, as of blood loss due to platelet dysfunction, compared to its levels in normal controls of hemodialysis is also a main cause of blood same age groups. The hemodialysis led to a loss, and the lost results in absolute iron significant (p<0.05) increase of the serum iron deficiency, hemodialysis patients may lose 3 to level UIBC, TIBC and %TS in post 5 g of iron per year (Tong and Nissenson, hemodialysis samples of both sexes CRF 2001). Hemodialysis caused a significant patients in both age groups ≤40, >40 year, as increase in transferrin level in the post compared to its level in pre hemodialysis hemodialysis patient samples, as compared to samples of same patients. The results showed a its level in pre hemodialysis samples of same significant (p<0.05) increase in serum ferritin patients. Therefore, iron supplementation is a in pre hemodialysis samples of CRF of both mainstay of anemia management in CRF sexes patients in both age group ≤40, >40 year, patients. Transferrin level in CRF is highly as compared to its level in normal controls of lower, diminishing the capacity of the iron- same age groups. Hemodialysis caused a transporting system in this case (Besarab et al., significant decrease in ferritin level in the post 1999). This situation is then aggravated by the hemodialysis patients samples in both sexes of well-known inability to release stored iron both age group ≤40 and >40 year, as compared from macrophages and hepatocytes in CRF, to its level in pre hemodialysis samples of same clinically, diminished iron transport and patients. accumulated iron stores are manifested as low The cause of anemia in CRF is multi- transferrin saturation and elevated serum factorial and includes, erythropoietin ferritin level. These characteristics suggest that deficiency, decreased responsiveness to the inter organ iron transport pathways may be 78 Kakey, M. and Abdoulrahman, K. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 57-08
rate-limiting factors in erythropoiesis in these ferritin rise independent of the marrow iron patients (Goodnough et al., 2000). EPO store (Nadeem et al., 2011). Hyperferritinemia deficiency is considered the most important is commonly found in patients with chronic cause of anemia in CRF. Researchers postulate kidney disease regardless of their hemoglobin that the specialized peritubular cells that level, and is often considered to be related to produce EPO are partially or completely chronic inflammatory status or neoplasias. depleted or injured as renal disease progresses, Serum ferritin levels are elevated in patients so that EPO production is inappropriately low with overt proteinuria. The independent relative to the degree of anemia. EPO negative relationship between serum ferritin deficiency in chronic kidney disease could be a and transferrin points to a specific process and functional response to a decreased glomerular suggests that increased production of ferritin filtration rate (GFR) (Saul, 2006). These results may compensate for the loss of the iron- are in consistence with other studies, which binding protein transferrin, thus reducing the showed significant lowering of unsaturated amount of free iron (Amanda et al., 2004). A iron binding capacity (UIBC), transferrin routine monitoring of ferritin status in patients saturation and total iron binding capacity on hemodialysis is of vital importance in order (TIBC) in CRF patients before hemodialysis, to prevent the occurrence of iron deficiency and significant increase of the levels of these and to avoid constantly increased value in parameters after hemodialysis with lowering assessing ferritin status. Insufficient iron the ferritin level (Jelic et al., 2013; Bojana et supplies may lead to anemia as a result of iron al., 2014). The decrease of serum transferrin deficiency. The serum ferritin may be elevated may be caused by three factors, high iron in this setting because of functional iron requirements as a result of an enhanced deficiency causing high serum ferritin erythropoiesis, an insufficient release of iron concentrations in patients with CRF (Bojana et from the body iron stores, and insufficient iron al., 2014). Long-term hemodialysis treatment absorption. The first factor, a high demand for of CRF patients, renal anemia caused by iron, exists when erythropoiesis is enhanced by erythropoietin deficiency (Grabe, 2007). Iron EPO treatment. The second factor, a disturbed supplementation as treatment can have adverse release of iron from ferritin and haemosiderin effects when the binding capacity of transferrin molecules in the mono nuclear phagocytic is overcome and when the concentration of system and from hepatocytes, is known to potentially reactive, non-transferrin bound iron occur in patients with the anemia of in plasma is increased (Kooistra et al., 2002). inflammation (Brock, 1994). Serum ferritin is often referred to as the intracellular protein that stores iron and releases it in a controlled fashion. In patients with renal failure, serum ferritin levels increase and do not reflect serum iron levels (Mavromatidis et al., 1998). Serum ferritin and iron both show acute phase responses to inflammation, so iron may fall and
79 Kakey, M. and Abdoulrahman, K. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 57-08
Table 2: Iron related parameters in pre and post hemodialysis of men chronic renal failure patients
Groups Age Control Pre-HD Post-HD P value Parameters (A) (B) (C) A vs. B B vs. C ≤40 119.7±5.812 54.25±2.658 72.25±3.705 0.0001 0.049 Iron (ug/dl) >40 108.6±10.36 45.44±4.261 55.88±4.385 0.0001 0.045 ≤40 283.6±9.660 234.3±4.905 250.1±4.248 0.004 0.037 UIBC (ug/dl) >40 275.6±12.89 195.4±12.54 214.5±14.67 0.002 0.042 ≤40 402.6±6.266 278.3±10.14 303.6±11.92 0.0001 0.023 TIBC (ug/dl) >40 358.5±29.07 254.3±14.20 299.6±12.56 0.005 0.042 ≤40 30.80±0.889 18.00±0.890 23.00±1.154 0.0001 0.038 %Transferrin >40 34.12±3.842 19.13±1.148 22.93±0.772 0.006 0.027 ≤40 110.4±11.78 690.0±51.96 553.3±41.77 0.0001 0.042 Ferritin (ng/ml) >40 212.8±11.91 431.3±23.75 349.0±29.70 0.0001 0.045 Results expressed as Mean ±S.E.
Table 3: Iron related parameters in pre and post hemodialysis of women chronic renal failure patients
Groups Age Control Pre- HD Post- HD P value Parameters (A) (B) (C) A vs. B B vs. C Iron (ug/dl) ≤40 76.50±1.708 40.00±4.472 57.20±4.872 0.0001 0.001 >40 73.13±5.266 44.35±3.001 56.30±3.818 0.0001 0.025 UIBC (ug/dl) ≤40 263.5±12.36 121.2±4.409 149.0±6.656 0.0001 0.045 >40 256.0±10.19 122.6±6.718 152.9±7.561 0.0001 0.048 TIBC (ug/dl) ≤40 345.7±15.63 147.4±7.979 181.0±4.347 0.0001 0.007 >40 353.9±15.97 176.9±11.78 267.8±21.45 0.0001 0.010 %Transferrin ≤40 29.00±2.887 16.76±2.498 24.82±3.001 0.018 0.018 >40 26.16±2.535 18.39±1.076 22.73±1.409 0.022 0.005 Ferritin (ng/ml) ≤40 188.3±14.24 775.7±52.52 623.3±37.12 0.0001 0.012 >40 94.00±7.832 746.7±27.28 628.3±28.04 0.0001 0.014 Results expressed as Mean ±S.E.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The anemic parameters showed significant Santoro A., 2002. Anaemia in renal insufficiency. Rev decrease in iron, UIBC, TIBC and %TS and Clin Exp Hematology, 2(1), 12-20. significant increase in serum ferritin in CRF Mojdehkar SA., Lutzky B. Schanfter R Strum B. and Goldenberg H., 2004. Non–transferrin-bound iron in patients before hemodialysis, and hemodialysis the serum of hemodialysis patients who receive ferric cause significant increase in iron, UIBC, TIBC saccharate: no correlation to peroxide generation. J. and % TS and significant decrease in serum Am. Soc. Nephrol., 15(6), 1648-1655. ferritin. El shinnawy H.A, Baki A.H, Musa N.I. and Kamel C.R., 2012. Iron deficiency among anemic pre-dialysis chronic kidney disease patients. Life Science J., 9(1), REFERENCES 127-132. Koshy, S.M. and Geary, D.F., 2008. Anemia in children Golper T., Goral S., Becker B. and Langman C., 2003. with chronic kidney disease. Pediatric L-carnitine treatment of anaemia. American Journal Nephrology, 23(2), 209-219. of Kidney Diseases, 41 (4), 27-34. Tong EM. and Nissenson AR., 2001. Erythropoietin and anaemia. Semin. Nephrol., 21, 190–203. 80 Kakey, M. and Abdoulrahman, K. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 57-08
Besarab, A., Frinak, S. and Yee, J., 1999. An Indistinct Kooistra, M.P., Kersting, S., Gosriwatana, I., Lu, S., Balance: The Safety and Efficacy of Parenteral Iron Nijhoff‐Schutte, J., Hider, R.C. and Marx, J.J.M., Therapy. Journal of the American Society of 2002. Nontransferrin‐bound iron in the plasma of Nephrology, 10(9), 2029-2043. hemodialysis patients after intravenous iron saccharate infusion. European journal of clinical Goodnough, L.T., Skikne, B. and Brugnara, C., 2000. investigation, 32(1), 36-41. Erythropoietin, iron, and erythropoiesis. Blood, 96(3), 823-833. Fishbane, S., Frei, G.L. and Maesaka, J., 1995. Reduction in recombinant human erythropoietin Saul N., 2006. Anaemia in chronic kidney disease: doses by the use of chronic intravenous iron Causes, diagnosis and treatment. Cleveland Clin. J. supplementation. American Journal of Kidney Med., 73 (3), 289- 297. Diseases, 26(1), 41-46. Jelic M., Cvetkovi T., Djordjevi V., Damnjanovi G., Vlahovi P., Koci G., Djindji N, Jovovi B. and Anti A., 2013. Hepcidin and iron metabolism disorders in patients with chronic kidney disease. Vojnosanitetski pregled, 70(4), 368–373.
Bojana K., Dijana M., Radojica S., Aleksandra I., Julijana R., Mirjana M. and Ilija D., 2014. Investigation of lipid peroxidation products and antioxidant enzyme activities in end-stage renal disease patients. Advances in Chemical Engineering and Sci.; 4(1): 73-80. Brock, J.H., 1994. Iron in infection, immunity, inflammation and neoplasia. Iron metabolism in health and disease, 353. Mavromatidis K., Fytil C., Kynigopoulou P., Fragia T. and Sombolos K., 1998. Serum ferritin levels are increased in patients with acute renal failure. Clinical nephrology, 49(5), 296-298. Nadeem S., Shah S., Touqueer I., Zafar I. and Ejaz H., 2011. Serum transferrin receptor, serum ferritin and serum transferrin receptor-ferritin index in adults with irondeficiency anaemia. J. Ayub Med. Coll Abbottabad, 23(3), 44-46. Amanda J. W. B., Dorine W. S., Ina S. K. and Jack F. M. W., 2004. Serum ferritin levels are increased in patients with glomerular diseases and proteinuria. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 19 (11), 2754- 2760. Grabe D.W., 2007. Update on clinical practice recommendations and new therapeutic modalities for treating anaemia in patients with chronic kidney disease. American journal of health-system pharmacy, 64(13), 8-14.
ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 81-89 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.11
Isolation and Identification of Fungi from Different Types of Vegetables in Erbil Local Markets
Nareen Q. Faqi Abdulla, Hero F. Gafur, Shrehan R. Muhamad
Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Salahaddin -Erbil, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: This study was conducted to the isolation and identification of vegetables- Received: 14/06/2016 borne fungi at different areas in local markets in Erbil city. Fungi were isolated Accepted: 05/09/2016 from vegetables during this study's period by directly method and indirectly Published: 10/01/2017 method. Directly method by taking a part of the tissue a round infected zone about Keywords: 1cm, the samples is transfer to a Petri dish or beaker then cuts into small cube Fungi, pieces, after washing it by SDW, and then the pieces transfer to a Petri dish Rhizopus spp., contains potato dextrose agar (PDA), and indirectly the samples is submerged in Vegetables, sodium hypochlorite 6% for 1-2 minutes, then washed by sterilized distilled water Trichoderma harzianum (SDW) three times each for 1-2 minutes, then the pieces transfer to a Petri dish contains PDA. Seven different genera of fungi were isolated in both methods. The *Corresponding Author: most frequently isolated fungi were Rhizopus spp. and Fusarium spp. While the Nareen Q. Faqi Abdulla least frequently isolated fungal genera were Rhizoctonia sp. and yeasts. The study Email: of antagonistic phenomenon show that the antagonistic genus (Trichoderma [email protected] harzianum) was significantly inhibited the radial growth of the vegetables borne fungi tested, (Rhizopus sp., Fusarium sp. and Aspergillus sp.) with different ratios.
fungi may generate different mycotoxins, toxic 1. INTRODUCTION to humans and animals that consume them. Vegetables are vital sources of nutrient to During recent decades a variety of vegetables human beings. They are the fresh and edible that form part of our daily diet have been added portions of herbaceous plants. They are to the list of products exposed to mycotoxin important food and highly beneficial for the contamination. Since Aspergillus, Penicillium maintenance of health and prevention of and Alternaria species are the major diseases. They are valued mainly for their high mycotoxigenic fungi that attack harvested carbohydrate, vitamin and mineral contents. vegetables, a variety of mycotoxins produced There are different kinds of vegetables; they by these fungal genera during pathogenesis may be edible roots, stems, leaves, fruits or may contaminate the vegetable tissues (Barkai- seeds. Each group contributes to diet in its own Golan and Paster 2008 ). way (Hanif et al., 2006). There has been an increase in the need to Fungi play a substantial role in the spoilage identify and isolate the fungi associated with of vegetables, because of their pathogenicity to their spoilage of vegetables. Spoilage refers to the harvested products. However, during the any change in the condition of food in which various stages of pathogenesis, some of these the food becomes less palatable, or even toxic; 82 Faqi, N. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 81-89 these changes may be accompanied by defense system are typical bio control actions alterations in taste, smell, appearance or of these fungi (Ijato James Yeni et al., 2010). texture. Numerous microbial defects of The aim of the present study the isolation agricultural crops are characterized by the and identification of fungi from different types types of microorganism responsible for the of vegetables at different locations of local deterioration; the process of infection in the market in Erbil city and their management by case at fungal invasion follows the biological control method. development of fungal penetrating structure (appresorium). Colonization of fungi is a critical phase in the microbial spoilage of post harvested vegetable. The colonization process 2. Materials and methods involves the ability of the microorganism 2.1. Sample collection and preparation: (fungi) to establish itself within the (host). The The Vegetables Tomato (Lycopersicon contamination of vegetables by fungi could esculentum), Potato (Solanum tuberosum), also be as a result of poor handling practices in Cucumbers (Cucumis sativus), Egg plant food supply chain, storage conditions, (Solanum melogena), pepper (Capsicum distribution, marketing practices and annuum), onion (Allium cepa) and Squash transportation (Ijato James Yeni, et al., 2010). (Cucurbita pepo), all with symptoms of rot Fungi belong to kingdom Mycetae. The were randomly collected from the local market distinguishing characteristics of this group as a in Erbil city. Softness of tissues were collected whole are that, they are eukaryotic, non and packed into a sterile polythene bag and photosynthesis, lack tissue differentiation, have taken to the laboratory for further studies. cell wall of chitin and glucan or other 2.2. Isolation of spoilage fungi from rotten polysaccharides and propagate by spores Vegetables (sexual and /or Asexual spores) (Benson, 2.2.1. Outside infected tissue (Directly): Non 2002). Fungi are main important on earth as Disinfected agents of decay. This is particularly true in forest ecosystem where fungi are the principle The samples which are apparently diseased agents that decompose cellulose and lignin the were cut from the advancing edges of lesion primary component of wood. (Alexopoulos et with a sterilized knife, plant pathogenic fungi al., 1996). can be isolated from infected tissue by taking a Fungi with antagonistic activity toward part of the tissue a round infected zone by 1cm plant pathogens play an essential role in plant because the fungi are usually found in the growth and health. Trichoderma spp. has been healthy tissue near the infected zone. The widely used as antagonistic fungal agents sample is transfer to a Petri dish or beaker then against several pests and soil pathogens as well cuts into small cube pieces, after washing it by as plant growth enhancers. Faster metabolic sterilized distilled water (SDW), and then the rates, anti-microbial metabolites, and pieces transfer to a Petri dish contains potato physiological conformation are key factors dextrose agar (PDA) by using forceps then o which chiefly contribute to antagonism of these incubates for 5-7 days at 25 C (Ahmed et al., fungi. Mycoparasitism, spatial and nutrient 1991). competition, antibiosis by enzymes and secondary metabolites, and induction of plant 83 Faqi, N. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 81-89
2.2.2. Inside infected tissue (Indirectly): 2.3.2. Slide culture Disinfected The slide culture is the best method for The infected parts was put in the sodium preserving and observing the actual structure of hypochlorite solution 6% for 1-2 minutes, a fungus. It is not a rapid technique, but it is rinsed twice in sterilized water to removing the unsurpassed as a routine means of studying the toxic activity of chemical agent on the tissue, fine points of microscopic morphology of fungi and then the pieces transfer by using forceps to (Larone, 1995). a Petri dish contains solidified potato dextrose 2.4. Keys used for identification of the agar containing Chloramphenicol (50mg/ml) to fungal isolates prevent the growth of bacteria, then incubates for 5-7 days at 25ºC., Pure cultures of the fungi The references used for identification of were obtained by hyphal tip technique and vegetables fungi, depending on their taxonomic these were maintained in agar slant in keys are as follows; Barnett and Hunter, 1972; refrigerator at 4ºC . The isolates were identified Beneke, et al., 1984; Guarro, et al., 1999; under microscope, using dissecting microscope Howard, 2002; Moubasher, 1993 and (Fatima, 2009). Watanabe, 2002).
2.5. Antagonism
2.3. Diagnosis (Trichoderma harzianum) was used as antagonists in vitro against the following plant 2.3.1. Identification of isolated fungi pathogenic fungi: (Rhizopus sp., Fusarium sp. The identification of isolated fungi was done and Aspergillus sp.). according to the method of Fawole and Oso Plant pathogenic fungi were compared (1995). A drop of Lactophenol cotton blue against antagonists, and all inoculated plates stain was placed on a clean slide and with the were three times replicated, with control plate aid of a mounted needle; a small portion of the and incubated at 25ºC for 7 days. mycelium from the fungal cultures was removed and placed in the drop of the stain. A cover slip was gently lowered on it, and 3. RESULTS excess liquid was wiped by putting the slide between two folds of filter paper and applying The results presented in Table (1) show a gentle pressure around the cover slip. The identification of fungi isolated from non slide was then examined under the microscope disinfectant method on PDA medium. Twenty (XI0 and X40) (Olympus model). two different species representing seven different genera of fungi were isolated; the Morphological characteristics of the fungi most frequently isolated fungi were Rhizopus such as type of hyphae (whether septate or spp., followed by Fusarium spp., Aspergillus nonseptate), asexual reproductive structure spp., Penicillium sp. and Alternaria sp. while (whether borne sporangia or conidia, in chain the least frequently isolated fungal genera were or single) were observed and recorded (Bukar Rhizoctonia sp. in addition to yeasts. Table (2) et al., 2009). shows the identification of fungi isolated from disinfectant method on PDA medium. Thirteen different species representing six genera of fungi were isolated which including: Rhizopus 84 Faqi, N. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 81-89 spp., Fusarium spp., Aspergillus spp., prefectures of Kigali, Butare, Gikongoro and Penicillium sp. and Alternaria sp. and yeasts. Cynagugu soil. The results presented in Table (3) found that Our result also in agreement with those antagonistic fungus Trichoderma harzianum found by Hassan and Hassan (2008) who significantly inhibited the radial growth of the investigated the occurrence of fungi in diseased plant pathogenic fungi, with different ratios. trees resulted in the specification of the fungal There was a significant difference of genera of Alternaria sp., and Fusarium sp. pathogen reacted to antagonistic genera, and Our result are in agreement with those found with all pathogens (Rhizopus sp., Fusarium sp. by Askun (2006) who isolated fungi from and Aspergillus sp.) were significant difference non-disinfected maize kernels and found that in susceptibility to Trichoderma harzianum. T. Rhizopus and Aspergillus were the most harzianum showed a wide range of inhibitory frequent genera isolated. Aspergillus was the effect on plant pathogenic fungi. second most frequent genus isolated from non- scored for degree of antagonism on a scale disinfected maize kernels. Fusarium spp., of classes 1-5: class 1= Antagonisms Rhizopus spp. and Penicillium spp. were completely overgrew the pathogen and covered commonly isolated. the entire medium surface, class 2= Hashem (1990) who isolated twenty-nine Antagonisms over grew at least two-thirds of species of fungi from normal and discolored the medium surface, class 3= Antagonisms and seeds of barley. The most common genera pathogens each colonized approximately one- found were Ulocladium (4 species); Alternaria, half of the medium surface (more than one Aspergillus, and Drechslera (3 species): third and less than two-thirds) and neither Curvularia, Fusarium, Mucor, Penicillium and organisms appeared to dominate the other, Syncephalastrum (2 species). class 4= the pathogens colonized at least two- Ismael (2010) show the fungal species thirds of the medium surface and appeared to isolated from solanaceous seeds in Sulaimania withstand encroachment by pathogens, and region from tomato seeds the following fungi class 5= the pathogens completely overgrew were detected: Aspergillus clavatus, A. flavus, the antagonisms and occupied the entire A.niger, Penicillium spp., Pythium sp. and medium surface. (Bell et al., 1982). Rhizopus spp., Whereas the fungi detected were: A.clavatus, A.niger, Cladosporium sp., Penicillium spp., Pythium sp., Rhizopus sp., 4. Discussion Alternaria alternata, Fusarium oxysporum and Our result was in well agreement with Rhizoctonia sp. with from eggplant seeds. Al- those found by Djamel et al., (2009), who Kassim and Monawar (2000), thirty fungal isolated Penicillium from decomposing debris. isolates were found to be associated with seeds Askun (2007) who examined 15 retail and bulk of five different vegetable crops when plated wheat and 7 animal feed samples from feed on moist blotter and agar plate. The isolates factory yielded from Balikesir region and belong to following nineteen genera; revealed three principal genera of filamentous Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botrytis, fungi, namely, Aspergillus, Penicillium and Cladosporium, Curvularia, Drechslera, Fusarium. Rusuku et al., (1997) who isolated Epicoccum, Fusarium, Humicola, Pythium spp., and Fusarium sp. from Macrophomina, Penicillium, Phoma, 85 Faqi, N. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 81-89
Phomopsis, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Septoria, Trichoderma have potential as natural agents Stemphylium, Trichoderma and Verticillium. for biological control of wood decay fungi. Srinon et al., (2006) who isolated Fusarium oxysporum, isolated from wilt of cucumber and Antagonisms tomato and antagonistic fungus; T. harzianum, isolated from forest soil. Bi-culture test’s result This study shows that results close to Ortiz shown that T. harzianum was inhibited highest and Orduz (2001) who investigated the against spore production of F. oxysporum. The antagonistic activity of Trichoderma and results obtained shown that most of Gliocladium isolates against Attamyces sp., a antagonistic fungi were effectively inhibited symbiotic fungus of the leaf-cutting ant the spore production of the plant pathogen F. (Attamyces cephalotes), A. cephalotes cultures oxysporum, this was happen due to the activity this fungus as the primary food source. Most of of extracellular enzymes produced by the the Trichodema and Gliocladium isolates tested antagonistic fungi. Nikam et al., (2007) who in vitro (82.6%) inhibited the Attamyces sp. findings in vitro evaluation of Trichoderma sp. mycelial growth. Faqi Abdulla (2010) who against F. oxysporium, revealed the positive found that all the four antagonistic isolates of cumulative effect of Trichoderma viride and fungi which isolate from soil of Erbil Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma Governorates, (Chaetomium gracile, hamatum in respect to the percent inhibition of Emericella nidulans, Gliocladium virens and the test fungus. Pot culture studies revealed that Trichoderma harzianum) significantly the soil applications of T. viride, as the most inhibited the radial growth of the soil borne effective in reducing the incidence of chickpea pathogenic fungi (Fusarium oxysporum, wilt. Abou-Zeid et al., (2008) who collected Rhizoctonia solani, Alternaria alternata and twenty two plants from Taif Governorate, Verticillium dahliae), with different ratios. Pathogenic fungi were isolated from some of Soytong et al., (2001) show that Chaetomium these plants, four antagonistic isolates were degrade cellulose and other organic material tested, 2 from Gliocladium fungus and 2 from and act as antagonist against plant fungal Trichoderma fungus, found that all the pathogens. Highley and Ricard (1988) who antagonistic isolates (G. deliquescens, G. tested the ability of Trichoderma spp. and virens, T. viride and T. hamatum) significantly Gliocladium virens to inhibit growth and inhibited the radial growth of the pathogenic overgrow colonies of white-rot and brown-rot fungi tested, with different ratios. The results decay fungi in a malt-agar medium, and indicated that the antibiotics produced by the prevent decay and arrest decay fungi in wood antagonists were most effective than the fungus blocks. G. virens and the Trichoderma spp. itself and differs with different fungi. Kukuk overgrew the decay fungi cultured on the malt- and Kivanc (2003) isolated Trichoderma spp. agar medium and in most cases killed them. In from 31 different Eskisehir (Turkey) soil soil-block tests, pretreatment of southern pine sample, the biocontrol and antifungal effects of blocks with G. virens prevented brown-rot these isolates against various plant pathogen decay but was ineffective against the white-rot fungi were determined, found that all filtrates fungi. Similarly, Trichoderma spp. generally of Trichoderma harzianum were effective prevented or reduced decay by the brown-rot against plant pathogens Fusarium oxysporum fungi, except for G. trabeum, but also was and Rhizoctonia solani. Among these isolates, generally ineffective against the white-rot T. harzianum showed a wide range of fungi. Our work suggests that Gliocladium and inhibitory effect on plant pathogens. Al-Jaafri 86 Faqi, N. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 81-89
(2006) studied the interaction treatments potent disease control efficacy against tomato between pathogenic fungi, Fusarium solani, late blight. Dreshlera oryzae and biocontrol fungus Trichoderma harzianum growth promoting 5. Conclusion fungi, Chaetomium elatum and Emericella Different genus of fungi were isolated and nidulans, showed that biocontrol and growth identified from different types of rotten promoting fungi increased the seed vegetables in Erbil Local Markets. During germinations and protected the seedlings from antagonism method, antagonistic fungus the infection and improved the growth Trichoderma harzianum significantly inhibited parameters in inoculated soil with pathogenic the radial growth of the plant pathogenic fungi, fungi. The filtrated exudates of biocontrol with different ratios. fungus and growth promoting fungi inhibited the radial growth of the pathogenic fungi F. Acknowledgment solani and D. oryzae. Kim et al., (2007), a total We would like to thank Biology of 152 isolates were obtained from 66 healthy department/college of Science-University of tissue samples of cucumber, red pepper, Salahaddin/Erbil for helping us and providing tomato, pumpkin and Chinese cabbage. The space and laboratory facilities to carry out Fusarium oxysporum strain, which was isolated the research work in Mycology research from roots of red pepper, showed the most laboratory
Table (1): The Identification of fungi on PDA medium (Directly)
Samples 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Fungi Alternaria sp. _ _ _ _ _ + _ 1
Aspergillus sp. + _ + _ + + _ 4
Fusarium sp. + _ _ + + + _ 4
Pencillium sp. _ + _ + _ + _ 3
Rhizoctonia sp. + _ _ _ _ + _ 2
Rhizopus sp. + + + + + + + 7
Yeast _ _ _ _ _ + _ 1
Total 4 2 2 3 3 7 1 22
87 Faqi, N. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 81-89
Table (2): Identification of fungi on PDA medium (Indirectly)
Samples * 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Fungi
Alternaria sp. _ _ _ + _ _ + 2
Aspergillus sp. _ _ _ _ _ + _ 1
Fusarium sp. + _ _ + + _ _ 3
Pencillium sp. _ + _ _ _ _ _ 1
Rhizopus sp. + _ + _ + _ + 4
Yeast _ _ _ _ _ + + 2
Total 2 1 1 2 2 2 3 13
*Samples Cucurbita pepo Sample 4
Solanum tuberosum Sample 1 Allium cepa Sample 5
Cucumis sativus Sample 2 Lycopersicon esculentum Sample 6
Solanum melogena Sample 3 Capsicum annuum Sample 7
Table (3): Antagonistic reaction of Trichoderma harzianum with plant pathogenic genera of fungi
Aspergillus sp. Fusarium sp. Rhizopus sp. Pathogens
Control 9cm 9cm 9cm
Trichoderma harzianum Class 2 Class 2 Class 2
88 Faqi, N. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 81-89
Figure (1): Antagonistic phenomenon against plant pathogenic plant fungi
(Trichoderma harzianum with Fusarium sp.)
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ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 90-105 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.12
Construction of a Structural Model for Harir Anticline within Zagros Fold-Thrust belt, Kurdistan of Iraq
Abdulla Amir Omar and Soran Hasan Syan Department of Geology, College of Science, Salahaddin University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq.
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: The study area is considered to be a part of Arabian plate, located within Received: 10/04/2016 High Folded Zone of the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region. Accepted: 06/09/2016 This area consists of a major anticline called Harir anticline. The study of this Published: 10/01/2017 structure was conducted along five traversal sections through 57 field stations in Keywords: order to understand the geometry and elucidate structural model for generation balancing, and propagation of this fold. Thirteen formations were exposed covering this cross-sections, anticline, ranging in age from Early Cretaceous up to the Pleistocene. Geometrical analysis of Harir fold indicates that this fold is asymmetrical detachment, double plunging anticline, gentle to open and non-cylindrical, curvi-planar strike-slip fault, structural anticlinal structure. Due to presence of three strike slip-faults cross cutting this model anticline, it segmented into four transversal blocks which are namely Batas, Harir, *Corresponding Author: Sheikh-Mamudian and Ashkafta blocks. Each block has its own structural, sedimentlogical, and morphological properties making it different from the other Abdulla Amir omar blocks. Detailed balanced and retro-deformable cross sections in the studied area [email protected] reveal that the shortening increases gradually from northwest toward middle part and decreases towards southeastern part of Harir Anticline. The calculated
shortening consecutively is 6.76%, 14.30% and 14.31 % 10.52%, 5.48% from northwestern plunging area to the southeastern plunge. The depth to detachment surface has been calculated, ranging between 10-10.5km below the regional level of Bekhme Formation. This depth coincides with surface of the Upper Paleozoic Ora shale formation, which indicates this anticline is generated from this depth and propagated upwards. Structural model is constructed for this anticline taking into consideration the two mechanisms informing this structure; one is the occurrence of slipping along detachment surface and second is the effect of the strike-slip faults (Tear faults) cross cutting Harir structure. These two mechanisms acted synchronously and beginning at least from Late Cretaceous to the end of the Tertiary.
and promising area in the Middle East. The 1. INTRODUCTION geometry and evolution of the most Oil-bearing The Zagros Fold-Thrust belt is the home of structures within Iraqi part of the Zagros fold- one of the largest petroleum producing thrust belt are still ambiguous; this led many reservoirs in the world. The giant oil and gas workers to take this span of land as the target to fields discovered in the Kurdistan Region in solve and elucidate structural cryptic of the the last decade have drawn attention to a new folded structures within this area. A thousand 91 Omar, A. and Syan, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 90-105 miles starts with a step, accordingly, this study cross middle part of this structure, this section is considered to be a clue for understanding the comprises12 field stations that start from st.31 geometry and evolution of the one of the folded to st.43 (Figure3). Cross section (C-C¯) extends structures in the Zagros folded zone of Iraqi about 7.2 Km. The total field stations located territories. The study area lies between within the route of this cross section are11 longitudes 44° 16′ and 44° 30′ East and stations and start from station no. 61 to 72 latitudes 36° 22′ and 36° 38′ North, within the (Figure 3). Iraqi Kurdistan Region, the area covers around 250 km2;it ranges in elevation from 550m up to 2400 m above sea level (Figure1).This work intends the clarification of the structural styles and prediction of shortening ratios along different sections across Harir anticline which is one of the major anticlinal structures in Zagros fold-thrust belt within Kurdistan Region of Iraq. The Zagros mountain belt is divided into five parallel structural domains, separated by thrusting boundaries from NE to SW (Jassim and Goff,2006): (1) the Zagros suture zone of Mawat- ophiolite and a continuation of the metamorphic and magmatic Sanandaj–Sirjanzone,(2) an imbricated zone(3) high folded thrust zone(HFTZ)(Jurassic andCretaceoussequencespredominate),(4)lowfo ldthrustzone(LFTZ)(tertiarysequencespredomin ate),and(5)theMesopotamiazone,mostcoveredb utwithoccasionalMiocene-Pliocene exposures. This anticline considered to be one of the major structure located within High folded-thrust Figure 1: A): Landsat Satellite image with the zone of Iraqi tectonic division (Figure 2). location of the study area and B): Enlarged map show the studied structures. 2-MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY In this study, a geological map was constructed based on extensive fieldwork and observations within the 250 km2 survey area. Five cross sections were drawn across this anticlinal structure with a total of 57 field stations (Figure 3). The cross section A–A¯ is about 10 km in length, seventeen field stations are located within this cross section start from station no. 1 to 17, this section is located in northwestern plunge area of the fold (Figure 3).Cross section (B-B¯) has a length of 9 Km, this cross section Figure 2: Tectonic division of Iraq showing the location of the study area (black polygon area). starts from northeast limb of Harir Anticline a 92 Omar, A. and Syan, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 90-105
Cross section (D-D¯)is about 5.2 Km, it (Urumqieh-Dokhtar), on the margin of the comprises ten stations that start from station northern continental margins of the northern number 96 to 105, while Cross section (E-E¯) oceanic tract. length is about 3.1 km, it crosses Harir Anticline within southeastern plunge area. It 3-2: General Lithostratigrahy: comprises seven stations that start from station The sedimentary rocks of the High Folded numbers 106 to 112(Figure 3).The cross zone consist of Infracambrian section, section profiles were constructed depending up Palaeozoic (1.5-5 km), Triassic (1.5-2 km), on topographic maps of scale 1:20,000, field Jurassic(1.1 km), Lower Cretaceous (0.25-1.2 data, geological map and exploration well km), Upper Cretaceous (0.8 km) and using Kink method in cross section Palaeogene (1 -1.5 km) sediments, Neogene construction. The arrangement of letters in sediments are found only locally in some sections are not in a proper way, this is because synclines (Jassim and Goff, 2006). The fold the sections A-A¯, B-B¯ and C-C¯ are a part of trains in the investigated area from the Early regional cross sections passing through this Cretaceous up to the Pliocene consisting anticline, while the two sections D-D¯ and E-E¯ mainly of limestone, dolomite, sandstone, are local and related to this anticline. siltstone, claystone and conglomerate. They are represented by 13 formations, and their distributions are shown in geological map of 3-GEOLOGICAL SETTING: the study area (Figure 3). The stratigraphy of the area (Figure 4) is 3-1: Tectonic Setting of the Area: characteristic of the whole Iraqi Simply and The Zagros forms a major mountain system high Folded Zagros. The bulk of the succession in the Middle East, ranging from Southern was deposited on the southern shelf of Tethys Turkey through the Kurdistan region of Iraq to Ocean, from the Permian to Eocene. The whole Iran. It has direct links to the Oman Mountains sedimentary succession is possibly more than of the Arabian Peninsula and hosts one of the 10 km thick and quite probably begins with a richest petroleum provinces of the world. The ductile Late Precambrian series. This is topped mountain chain consists of a southern foreland by several thousand meters thick Paleozoic – (Simply Folded Zone), two parallel ophiolite Lower Mesozoic succession, of which the belts, the Sanandaj-Sirjan zone in between shallow water carbonates of Chia Zairi these belts and the Urumqieh-Dokhtar (Permian) and Kurra Chine (Triassic) form magmatic belt in the north, on top of various thicker, more rigid units with locally Internal Iranian blocks, forming the northern anhydrites. Jurassic begins by a several edge of Zagros.The southern foreland is the NE hundred meters thick neritic carbonate. In the edge to the Arabian Platform, with stratigraphy Middle Jurassic this dolomitic platform passes and structures very similar to Iran and Arabia. laterally to evaporate (Alan, Adaiyah This is the hub of the major petroleum Formations). In the higher Middle Jurassic, deposits. The southern, Late Cretaceous Upper Jurassic, they are widespread, yet thin ophiolite belt was obducted in the Late basin facies, divided into Sargelu and Cretaceous and is the direct equivalence of the Naokelekan Formations, which are black shales Oman ophiolite. The Sanandaj-Sirjan zone is a and limestones. In the Late Jurassic this basin complex nappe, often composed of passes either to neritic dolomites (BarsarinFm) metamorphic Mesozoic sediments and volcano or to evaporites (GotniaFm).In the Early sediments, and stands for an internal Cretaceous and other basinal black shale, marl, continent/volcanic arc between the two the Chia Gara Formation was deposited.It ophiolite belts/oceanic tracts (Blanc et passes upwards into the Sarmord/Balambo al.,2003; Ghasemi, 2006). The northern marl and into the Qamchuqa neritic carbonate. ophiolite belt was obducted in Paleocene. After a notreally marked unconformity in the Collision probably occurred only in Eocene, mid-Cretaceous, an Upper Cretaceous platform testified by sample volcanics of a magmatic arc 93 Omar, A. and Syan, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 90-105
carbonate, the Aqra-Bekhme carbonate was characteristic brick red Eocene clay forming a deposited. This platform passes laterally into detachment horizon (Gercus Formation) and by basinal sediments (Shiranish and Tanjero a thin and chalky dolomitic Eocene carbonate marls). The upper part of the deep marine marl (PilaSpi Formation). Neogene is represented by may be also Paleocene in age (Kholosh the sometimes evaporitic, variegated Lower Formation;)(Bellenetal.,2005). The Cretaceous Fars Formation (Middle Miocene), the mostly neritic carbonates (Qamchuqa, Bekhme and sandy, fluviatile Upper Fars (Middle-Upper Aqra) form a stiff, ca. 600 m thick resistant Miocene) and the conglomeratic Bakhtiari structural level of the area. Most fold cores are Formation (Upper Miocene-Pliocene). All formed of the Qamchuqa-Bekhme Formations these formations are rarely and poorly dated in the region. In the Paleogene carbonates bar (Jassim and Goff, 2006) and have a cumulative (Khurmala/Sinjar Formation) is followed by a thickness >1,500 m.
Figure 3: Geological map of the study area 94 Omar, A. and Syan, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 90-105
Figure 4: Stratigraphic column with thickness of the formations, lithological description with tectono-stratigraphic megasequences within study area.
4- GEOMETRICAL ANALYSIS OF subdivided into different groups of data HARIR ANTICLINE ALONG distribution as follow: DIFFERENT CROSS SECTION: In this study, Harir Anticline was analyzed -Data from Lower Cretaceous succession (i.e. geometrically along five cross sections using QamchuqaFormation). stereographic projection of bedding planes, in -Data from Upper Cretaceous successions (i.e. order to elucidate the variation between Bekhme,Shiranish,TanjeroFormations). different fold elements. A total of 469 bedding -Tertiary data (Kolosh,Sinjar, PilaSpi, Lower planes measurements were taken along all Fars, and Upper Fars Formations) have been cross sections and plotted on stereographic pi- analyzed. diagrams. To simplify the analysis, the data are segregated into two main groups: In order to understand the structural Data from Cretaceous succession and Data variation between Cretaceous and Tertiary - from Tertiary succession, each data set was formations along cross section (A-A ), analysis of the pi-diagrams was done (Figure 5) ,which 95 Omar, A. and Syan, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 90-105 shows that the mean attitude of the Upper 138°/71°, the fold axis trends Cretaceous bedding successions in the NE limb 319°/02°,theinterlimb angle is 101° which is119°/28°,while in the SW limb is 316°/19° and indicates that the fold is classified as open the interlimb angle is about 134°.Thisindicate (Fleuty, 1964). It is worth mentioning that the that the northeast limb of this structure within stereographic pi-diagram reveals the presence Upper Cretaceous formations is steeper than of two different pole concentrations from the southwestern limb so the vergency of the bedding planes of the Upper Cretaceous anticline is toward northeast, but in contrast the Formation (Bekhme Formation) at the mean attitude of Tertiary formations bedding southwestern limb (Figure 6). This pattern of indicate that the NE limb is 107°/25°,while the pole distribution indicates that there are two SW limb is 322°/40° and the interlimb angle dip domains. This could be interpreted as a is119°.accordingly, this shows the vergency of kink fold style. As well as, the presence of this fold in this section sometimes steeper major thrust fault in this segment of the fold towards NE direction and sometimes towards (see geological map (Figure3) confidently state SW direction, while the synoptic stereographic that the Harir Anticline act and forms as a projection for all data in cretaceous and tertiary Fault-propagation fold mechanism. bedding indicate that this anticline in this section is asymmetrical, with NE limb is steeper so the vergengcy towards NE direction (Figure 5).As well as, the fold axis between Upper Cretaceous (Bekhme, Shiranish&Tanjero Formations) has a307°trend ,while in lower Tertiary (Kolosh and Sinjar Formations)have319°trend, this indicates that there is 13°declination between the two successions fold trends. This variations in the vergency, interlimb angle and fold axis direction of this fold in this section lead to the conclusion that two folding phases are with co- axial stress direction but difference in intensity amount of stress is responsible at least for the formation of this fold, one folding phase happened during Late Cretaceous which acted on Cretaceous successions, and second phase Figure 5: Stereographic pi-diagrams for bedding planes with fold parameters within different of the folding happened in Late Tertiary has formations in the Harir anticline along cross section affected Cretaceous succession as extra stress (A–A-). and on the tertiary formations for the first time. Cross section (B-B-) which passes through middle part of Harir structure was taken and (82) bedding planes data were analyzed stereographically (Figure 6) which shows that the mean attitude of the NE limb is 137°/31° ,while the SW limb is321°/70°. This indicates that the anticline vergency is towards southwest. The attitude of the axial plane is 96 Omar, A. and Syan, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 90-105
interlimb angle which is 124°, subsequently this indicates gentle fold according to Fleuty (1964). This is a good indication that toward older formations the interlimb angle decrease which is most important criteria for parallel folds, leads to forming detachment surface at the end. On the other hand, the mean attitude of the northeastern and southwestern limbs are 141°/26°and 335°/28° which means symmetrical fold style. This decrease in the northeastern limb dips angle related to the intensity of the fault that decreases toward the plunging area. Figure (9) shows synoptic stereographic
plots of the 83 bedding planes measurement for Figure 6: Stereographic pi-diagrams for bedding the Cretaceous Formation strata in the Harir planes with fold parameters within different - formations in the Harir anticline along cross section Anticline along cross section (E-E ). - (B–B ).
A total of 101 and 91 bedding planes measurements were taken along the cross sections (C–C-) and (D-D-) respectively (Figures 7and 8). Pi-diagrams of these two cross sections show that the fold geometries of the anticline of the upper Cretaceous (i.e. Bekhme Formation) are nearly identical to each other. Figures (7and8) reveal that the Cretaceous succession in the southwestern limb of Harir Anticline also has two different dip domains similar to the situation in the cross section (B-B-). Moreover, The Qamchuqa Formation in section (D-D-) like Bekhme Formation also has two dip domains which indicate kink style and fault-propagation fold. Pi-diagrams for Harir fold structure along cross - - sections (C–C ) and (D-D ) show steeply- dipping forelimbs, gently-dipping backlimb Figure 7: Stereographic pi-diagrams for bedding and the vergency of the anticline is to the planes with fold parameters of the different southwest (Figure 7 and 8). The interlimb angle formations in the Harir anticline along cross section of the anticline from Upper Cretaceous (C–C-). succession are 97°and 102°, so is open according to Fleuty (1964)fold classification. But in contrast the stereographic pi-diagram of the Lower Cretaceous Qamchuqa Formation from cross section (C-C-) shows the high 97 Omar, A. and Syan, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 90-105
Figure 9: Stereographic pi-diagrams for bedding Figure 8: Stereographic pi-diagrams for bedding planes with fold parameters of the different planes with fold parameters of the different formations in the Harir anticline along cross section formations in the Harir anticline along cross section (E–E-). (D–D-). The mean attitude of Lower Cretaceous Generally, the conclusion obtained from succession is304°/10° in the southwestern limb. analyzing of pi-diagrams for Harir anticline Whereas the mean attitudes of the northeastern along five cross sections can be summarized as and southwestern limbs of Upper Cretaceous follows: succession are164°/13° and 307°/12° 1 - The fold axis plunged within different cross respectively (Figure 9). These data show that sections in different amounts, this indicates that the dips of the two limbs are mostly equal and the Harir fold axis is not a straight hinge line, the axial plane is vertical, subsequently it is but it is curved not occurring in a plane considered asymmetrical fold (Billings, 1972). forming different saddle structures within the In this section the synoptic stereographic hinge area. As well as the vergency of axial projection of all data shows that the fold axis surface towards NE in some place and in other directed toward 151°with plunging 4°, with part towards SW indicates that the Harir interlimb angle reach to 156° and the fold is anticlinal fold is non-cylindrically curvi-planar considered to be gentle fold according to fold (Ragan, 1985). Fleuty (1964).Here in this section the 2- The fold is symmetrical in cross section (E- - properties differ from the other sections in that E ), and asymmetrical in the other sections. In - here there is no difference in dip concentration, cross section (A-A ) it is verging towards this may be related to low intensity of the faults northeast, while in the other sections its effects that influenced the southeastern part of vergencyis directed towards southwest. The the anticline. variation in the vergency is related to the effect of three strike-slip faults cross cutting this anticline and trending as a fault from NE to SW. 98 Omar, A. and Syan, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 90-105
3- The kink style fold has been concluded from shortening of Harir anticline along these the presence of two different dip domains in sections range from 5.48% to 14.31 % and the the southeastern part (Figures 7and 8)which total average shortening of Harir is about indicates fault propagation fold or fault bend 11.77%. fold. 4-According to Fleuty,(1964) interlimb angle The shortening due to folding decreases, classification, Harir Anticline is a gentle fold in while due to faulting in Harir anticline cross section (A-A-) and (E-E-) while it is open increases with depth, (Figures 10-14 and fold in the other sections towards southeastern Table). While, the amount of shortening in this part. anticline increases laterally from northwestern part towards the central and southeastern parts, this is possible due to effect of the faulting and 5-PARTIAL SHORTENING ALONG large intensity of the folding towards central CROSS-SECTIONS IN DIFFERENT SPACES AND TIMES: and southeastern parts of this anticline. The variations in amounts of shortening laterally Partial shortening for this structure was and vertically happen within Harir anticline calculated in order to compare shortening this produce due to variation in displacement percentage between different spaces(i.e. along different strike-slip faults cross-cutting different sections) and times (i.e. different the anticlinal structure laterally. Shaw et al., geological succession), which arranged from (1999) indicated that variation in deformation northeast to southwest respectively (Figures and shortening in Jura Mountains related to the 10-14). The amounts of shortening were segmenting of the fold by generally north to calculated along five cross sections (Table 1). northwest trending strike-slip faults. The The average shortening calculated without amount of total shortening in the study area is Tertiary succession because it doesn’t appear in generally in agreement with the other studies all cross sections in Harir structure. The carried in nearby to this area or in different average shortening in percentage in this areas of folded zone of Iraq. Falcon (1969) anticline ranging from 6.76% along cross during his work on the folded zone of Iraq, section (A-A-) to14.30% through cross section estimated shortening percentage by 6.5-1.5%. (B-B-) to 14.31 % along cross section (D-D-) Al-Shali (1992), calculated9% shortening in and decreasing to 10.52% and 5.48% along one section passing near to this structure. cross sections (C-C-) and (E-E-) respectively Marouf (1999) measured the total shortening (Figures10-14). This indicates that the plunge giving its range between 16%-27% in another area of Harir Anticline has lesser amounts of section within area. Omer (2005) measured shortening, while in the center and mid parts of partial shortening of Harir and neighboring southeastern segment has greater magnitude of Khatibain anticline17.6% and shortening. Harir anticline along cross sections 9.9%respectively.Al-Hakari (2011) calculated (B-B-& D-D-) shows the maximum shortening, 9.8% to 12.5% shortening in part of his study which is attributed to the large displacement that located in high folded zone of ZFTB of along the faults and high fold intensity Iraqi territories. Frehner et al., (2012) (Figures11and 13). In contrast, the cross estimated 11% to 15% shortening in high section (E-E-) reveals the minimum shortening folded zone of Iraq. Zebari (2013) measured due to the shorter wavelength and amplitude of the shortening of 12 % along the section that the fold but with small displacement along the passes through the northwestern part of Harir major faults in the plunge area(Figure 14).The fold. 99 Omar, A. and Syan, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 90-105
6-DEPTH TO DETACHMENT: variations in geometry of the lower detachment The detachment depth was calculated resulted mainly from the geometry variations using excess area method (Mitra and Namson, of the underlying duplexes that affected upper 1989). In this method, the depth to detachment Crust and Lower Paleozoic succession. below any datum is equal to the excess area of Generally, this depth is consistent with Marouf the folded strata above that raised strata above (1999) who had calculated depth to detachment the datum divided by the amount of shortening. surface between 5 to 10 km, while Al-Azzawi The calculated depth to detachment ranges et al., (201 4) estimated depth to detachment of between (8 to 12 km) under the regional the study area to be 8.5to 13.3km.Balaki (2004) horizontal datum of Lower Bekhme Formation proposed three units of shale that play as a and indicates that the detachment surface and detachment surface. Triassic sequence (shales sedimentary cover dips towards northeast, of Geli-Khana and Beduh Formations), Upper which is related to the basement surface. The Paleozoic (Ora shales Formation.) and Lower variation in the calculated depth to detachment Paleozoic ( shales of Khabour and Akkas is related to the basement blocks that are Formation). Consequently, deformation on segmented by transversal strike-slip faults. multi-detachments has been proposed by (De Moreover, Marouf (1999) suppose these Vera et al., 2009; Aqrawi et al., 2010).
Table (1): Amount of shortening (due to folding and faulting), with average shorting percentage in different format
FORMATION PERIOD Total Shortening Shortening Shortening Average ions S Shortening due to due to in Shortening and (Km) Faulting in Folding in Percentage in differe (Km) (Km) Percentage
nt TREVERSES section - A-A PilaSpi Tertiary 0.52 - 0.52 9.5% 6.76% s in Bekhme Cretaceous 0.96 - 0.96 7.41% the Sehkanian Jurassic 0.92 - 0.92 7.09% KurraChine Triassic 0.86 - 0.86 6.72% ChiaZaire Upper- 0.74 - 0.74 5.81%
Paleozoic B-B- PilaSpi Tertiary 1.43 - 1.43 43.95% 14.30% Bekhme Cretaceous 1.45 0.28 1.17 13.31% Sehkanian Jurassic 1.35 0.37 0.98 12.48% KurraChine Triassic 1.72 0.75 0.97 15.37% ChiaZaire Upper- 1.80 1.03 0.77 16.05% Paleozoic D-D- Bekhme Cretaceous 0.45 0.03 0.42 10.25% 14.31% Sehkanian Jurassic 0.44 0.22 0.22 9.84% KurraChine Triassic 0.48 0.04 0.44 10.93% ChiaZiri Upper- 1.13 0.53 0.60 26.22% Paleozoic C-C- Bekhme Cretaceous 0.67 0.16 0.51 10.74% 10.52% Sehkanian Jurassic 0.64 0.19 0.45 10.20% KurraChine Triassic 0.71 0.36 0.35 11.28% ChiaZaire Upper- 0.61 0.60 0.01 9.85% Paleozoic E-E- Bekhme Cretaceous 0.08 0.01 0.07 2.95% 5.48% Sehkanian Jurassic 0.11 0.01 0.10 3.78% KurraChine Triassic 0.20 0.06 0.14 7.02% ChiaZaire Upper- 0.24 0.12 0.12 8.16% Paleozoic Average 0.80 0.30 0.58 11.77% 100 Omar, A. and Syan, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 90-105
Figure(10): Balanced and restored cross section Figure(11): Balanced and restored cross section (A-A) along Harir anticline (B-B) along Harir anticline
Figure(12): Balanced and restored cross section (C-C) along Harir anticline
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Figure (13):Balanced and restored cross section Figure(14): Balanced and restored cross (E-E) (D-D)along Harir anticline along Harir anticline
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However, precisely defining these levels of strike slip faults. Doski (2002) divided the detachments requires high resolution seismic neighboring Safin anticline into four traversal section to the lower Paleozoic level. It is blocks. Omar(2011) divided Mirawa syncline believed that the faults was originated and (located toward southwest of this structure) reactivated as a detachment surfaces within the into two segments, and he indicated that their Upper Paleozoic Ora shale Formation and this deflection in fold axis and difference in formation plays asa decoupling surface. vergency of this syncline is attributed to the Therefore, the constructed cross sections were major strike slip fault that passes through drawn down to the Ora shale Formation. middle part and it reflect deep seated fault.
As previously indicated, there are differences in fold axis orientation, limbs 7-DISCUSSION AND CONSTRUCTION attitude, interlimb angle, symmetry, OF STRUCTURAL MODEL FOR HARIR sedimentary cover, morphology as well as ANTICLINE: shortening amount within each of these blocks. The differences in field observation and Harir anticline in Batas block characterized by data analysis indicate that this structure is northeastern vergency of Upper Cretaceous divided into four segments or blocks, each succession, no evidence of faulting within each being characterized by its own structural, limb appears in this part, and low amount of sedimentological and morphological properties fold shortening calculated here. While in Harir that differ from the other segments, these and Sheikh- Mamudyan blocks, this anticline is blocks are named according to their asymmetrical and its vergencyis towards geographical localities from northwest to southwest and is affected by faulting. Due to southeast (Figure15): Batas Block or segment the effect of faulting and high intensity of ,Harir/ Alana block , Sheikh Mamudian folding in these two segments, they are (Bnawi) block, Ashkafta block. Each block is characterized by high amount of shortening. bounded by strike slip fault that trends Moreover, Harir in Ashkafta block is northeast southwest direction (Figure characterized by symmetrical fold (no- 16).These faults offset the anticlinal axis and vergencey) in this block. This implies that there change the fold element properties laterally. is a difference in vergency between these They trend northwest to south east and are blocks which are bounded by different strike- named Julamerg, Bawyan and Tarawa strike slip faults that may be related to subsurface slip faults respectively. Two of them are deep seated faults forming laterally ramp and dextral (Julamerg and Bawyan strike slip fault), flat structures. This consideration agreeswith while the third one is sinistral type (Tarawa Al-Azzawi (2003),Numan and Al-Azzawi, strike slip fault). This fragmentation into (1993); which they described these lateral flip- blocks or segments are common in this area, flop vergency phenomena along the axis of many authors’ referred to such cases in the individual folds in the Foreland Fold Belt of northern Iraqi territories such as Buday et al., Iraq are due to the presence of some active (1973), Ameen (1979), Numan (1984), Ibrahim strike-slip faults which are related to basement (1985), Doski (2002)and Jassim and Goff activity. (2006). Numan (1984) recognized Kirkuk and Mosul major blocks anddivided them into a number of minor blocks which are bounded by 103 Omar, A. and Syan, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 90-105
mainly from the geometry variations of the underlying duplexes that affected upper Crust and Lower Paleozoic succession. Marouf(1999) and Balaki (2004) proposed three units of shale that may play as a detachment surface; Triassic sequence (shales of Geli- Khana and Beduh Formation), Upper
Paleozoic (Ora shales Formation) and Lower Figure (15): Landsat satellite image shows the four Paleozoic(shales of Khabour and Akkas proposed blocks in Harir anticline forming due to Formation). Precisely defining these presence of three strike- slip faults cross cutting this structure formations as a detachment surface requires high resolution seismic exploration to depth of Balanced cross sections along this structure the lower Paleozoic level. According to the within different blocks indicate that the calculated depth to detachment surface from decrease in shortening amount within the time sections here in this study, it is believed that (depth) is related to two things; one faulting the Upper Paleozoic-Early Carboniferous Ora and the second folding, the decreasing of fold shale Formation reacts as a detachment surface shortening with depth is attributed to the and the main listric reverse fault beneath south decrease of folding downward (Figures10- western limb of this anticline has originated 14.and table-1), While the fault shortening from this surface and propagated upward to increased downward due to the increasing of surface cutting different sedimentary cover. the displacement with the depth and downward Therefore the constructed cross sections were dip decreasing of the listric thrust faults. These drawn down to the Ora shale Formation. listric faults increased the shortening amount in From previous data construction of structural the central and southeastern parts of Harir model for this anticline is proposed, through Anticline relative to northwestern and south two mechanisms which are responsible for that eastern segment of the structure. The (Figure 16). shortening in plunge area is low (Batas and Ashkafta blocks) due to low fold intensity. But 1-Since the depth to detachment is about (10- low amount in Ashkafta is related to 10.5) km below the regional level of Bekhme association with low fold intensity. Formation, it coincides with the Paleozoic Ora shale Formation of Early Carboniferous age, so The calculated depth to detachment ranges that the first process (slipping along this between(10 to 10.5km) under the regional detachment surface) occurs, which acts as a horizontal datum of Bekhme Formation decoupling surface and causes thrust fault (Campanian-Mastrichtian).In this anticline, the propagated upwards through different variation in depth indicates that the detachment lithological formations causing different surface and sedimentary cover dips northeast, displacement and leading to form Harir which is related to the topographic relief shape anticline as a typical fault-propagation fold of the basement surface. As well as, the especially in two the middle blocks(i.e. Harir variation in the depth to detachment is also and Sheikh- Mamudian blocks) (Figure16), as may be related to the basement blocks that well as, due to intense shortening within the segmented by transversal strike-slip faults. folded strata back thrust fault occurs which Marouf (1999) supposed that these variations appears obviously in middle part. These faults in geometry of the lower detachment resulted are supposed to be formed in the same time, 104 Omar, A. and Syan, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 90-105 while the fold is generated. The shortening in REFERENCES different blocks was estimated from northwest to southeast area in Harir Anticline as AL-AZZWI, N.K .2003. The structural development of folds shape in the Foreland Belt of Iraq and its (6.76,14.30,14.31 and 5.48%), so the increase tectonic implication.,PhD thesis, University of in shortening especially in middle part means Mosul (in Arabic with an abstract in English) 163p. increasing in the displacement in the two blocks(Harir and Sheikh-Mamudian blocks) so AL-AZZWI, N.K, Al-KHATONI,S.E, AlsSUMAIDI, M. high amplitude fold occurs here. A .2014. Detachment Surface Morphology and Shortening Distribution in the Foreland Folds of 2- Effect of three strike-slip faults (Julamerg Iraq. Iraqi National Journal of Earth strike slip fault(dextral), Bawyan strike slip Sciences,Vol.14, No.1, pp.39–58. fault(dextral type) and Tarawa strike slip AL-HAKARI,S.H. 2011. Geometric Analysis and faults(sinistral type) cause Harir structure to be Structural Evolution of NW Sulaimani Area, divided into four blocks, the amount of Kurdistan Region, Iraq. PhD, University of shortening within each block are Sulaimani, 309p. 6.76%,14.30%,14.31% and 5.48%, respectively AL-SHALI, R.A. 1992. Balancing of selected geological from northwestern to south eastern blocks,so cross-sections in the simple folded zone, Northern increasing in shortening in middle part means Iraq and its tectonic implications.MSc., University increasing in the displacement in two of Mosul, Iraq, (in Arabic with an abstract in blocks(Harir block and Sheikh-Mamudian English) , 164 P. block), which are maximum in the middle part AMEEN,M.S,1979.Regional investigation of and minimum in the two plunging areas, this geoflexures and tectonics analysis in the simple means that the shortening is due to tectonic folded zone of Iraq.MSc, University of Mosul.Iraq, stress on this anticline differs from one place to 155 p. another. AQRAWI, A.M, GOFF,J.C, HORBURY, A.D and The above two mechanisms may occur SADOONI,F.N, (2010). The Petroleum Geology of during the end of Cretaceous and activated to Iraq: Beaconsfield, UK, Scientific Press Ltd. the end of Tertiary Orogeny, as well as all BALAKI,H.G. 2004.Geometry and structural history of structural criteria indicate that two mechanisms Zozik-Rola and Spi Balies –Mama Ruta structures happened simultaneously at the same time (i.e. of the Zagros fold thrust belt in NE Iraqi Kurdistan. fold formation and strike-slip faulting). MSc.,University of Salahadin, Iraq.193 p.
BELLENVAN,,R.C, DUNNINGTON, H.V.,WETZEL, R.D. 2005 . Stratigraphic Lexicon of Iraq. Reprinted by Gulf Petrolink, p: 239.
BILLINGS,M.P. 1972. Structural geology.3rd ed. Prentice-Hall, USA. 606p.
BLANC,E.J, ALLEN, M.B,INGER,S., and HASSANI, H.,2003, Structural styles in the Zagros Simple Folded Zone, Iran: Journal of the Geol. Society,London, v.160,pp :40– 412.
BUDAY, T.,1980 .The regional geology of Iraq, Stratigraphy and paleogeography, Dar AL-Kuttib Figure (16): Three dimensional proposed structural Pub.House. University of Mosul, Iraq. 445p. model in Harir Anticline. 105 Omar, A. and Syan, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 90-105
DEVERA, J., GINES, J., OEHLERS, M, Mc CLAY, K., formation, migration and entrapment.Ph.D, and DOSKI, J., 2009, Structure of the Zagros fold University of Baghdad, Iraq. 266P. and thrust belt in the Kurdistan Region, northern Iraq: Trabajos de Geologia, Universidad de MITRA, S., and NAMSON, J.,1989, Equal-area Oviedo,v,29,pp.213-217. balancing, American Journal of Science, 289,pp: 563-599. DOSKY,J., 2002. Structural study along selected NUMAN, N.M. and AL-AZAWI, N.K.1993.Structural sections across Safin Anticline (Kurdistan– and geotectonic interpretation of vergence Iraq).MSc., University of salahaddin, Iraq 129p. directions of the anticlines in the Foreland Folds of Iraq. Abhath,AL-Yarmouk(Pure Science FALCON, N.L.,1969.Problems of the relationship &Eng),Yarmouk University, Jordan, 2(2),pp.57-73. between surface structure and deep displacements illustrated by the Zagros Range, in: Time and place NUMAN, N.M .1984. Basement controls of stratigraphic in orogeny.Geol.Soc. London, Spec. Pub. 3, pp. 9- sequences and structural patterns in Iraq. Jour. 22. Geol. Soc. Of Iraq, 16, pp.8-28.
FLEUTY,M.J., 1964. The description of folds. Geol. OMAR, AA.2005. An integrated structural and tectonic Assoc. Lond. Proc.75,pp.461-492. study of the BinaBawi- Safin Bradost Region ,PhD,SalahaddinUniversity,Erbil-Iraq.300p. FREHENER, M, REIF, D., and GRASEMANN, B., 2012, Mechanical versus kinematical shortening OMAR, A. A.2011. Abnormal deflection in the some reconstructions of the Zagros High Folded Zone folded axes within Zagros fold and Thrust Belt, (Kurdistan region of Iraq): Tectonics , 31, TC3002. Northern Iraq, Mirawa- Mawaran synclinal axis as a case Study.in: Recent Researches in Geography, GHASEMI, A , TALBOT, C.J.,2006. A new tectonic Geology, Energy, Environment , proceeding of 2nd scenario for the Sanandaj–Sirjan Zone international conference on geography and (Iran),Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 26, pp ;683– geology, World Geo II, pp.17-30 693. RAGAN,D.M. 1985.Structural Geology :An introduction IBRAHIM,A.O.,2009. Tectonic Style and Evolution of to geometrical Techniques, JohnWiley&Sons, the NW Segment of the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt, NewYork,393p. Sulaimani Governorate, Kurdistan Region, NE Iraq,PhD,University of Sulaimani, Iraq. SHAW, J, BILOTTI, F,BRENNAN, P.A.1999. Patterns of imbricate thrusting, GSA Bulletin, 111(8), pp: JASSIM, S.Z, and GOFF, J.C., 2006, Geology of Iraq: 1140-1154. Dolin, Prague and Moravian Museum, Brno, ZEBARI,M,2013.Geometry and evolution of folded Czech Republic.566 P. structures within the high folded zone: Zagros Fold-Thrust belt, Kurdistan Region- Iraq, MSc, MAROUF,N.Z.,1999. Dynamic evolution of University of Nebraska-Linc.USA.175 p. sedimentary basin in northern Iraq and hydrocarbon
ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 601-626 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.13
Histological Changes of Liver, Kidney and Brain in Uninephrectomized Male Rats Exposed to Fluoxetine
Khder Hussein Rasul1, Nazar Mohammed Shareef Mahmood2, Sarkawt H. Hamad3, Dlshad
Hussein Hassan3 1- Department of Biology, College of Science, Salahaddin University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. 2- Bjeel Preparatory School, Directorate of Education - Akre, General Directorate of Education – Duhok, Ministry of Education- KRG- Iraq. 3- Biology Department, Faculty of Science, Soran University, Soran, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq.
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: Kidney is the organ of humans and animals body which responsible for Received: 10/08/2016 purification of blood from waste substances, the process of removing kidney or Accepted: 08/09/2016 part of the kidney called nephrectomy. The depression disease mostly occurs in Published: 10 /01/2017 unhealthy person; it is commonly treated with fluoxetine. The purpose of this Keywords: investigation to determine the histological effects of fluoxetine on liver, kidney, Nephrectomy; cerebrum and cerebellum of uninephrectomized male rats; rats were divided Fluoxetine; randomly into two groups, uninephrectomized control group and Liver; uninephrectomized fluoxetine treated group. After one month administration of Kidney; fluoxetine, histological alteration observed in liver such as a little hydropic Brain. degeneration of the hepatocytes and inflammatory leucocyte infiltration. *Corresponding Author: Hemorrhagic area and shrinking of glomerulus appeared in the cortex region of Khder Hussein Rasul kidney, degeneration of kidney tubule epithelial cells and dilation in some kidney Email: tubules were detected in medulla region as a result of exposing uninephrectomized rats to fluoxetine. Histological slides of cerebrum and cerebellum [email protected] uninephrectomized rats which exposed to fluoxetine showed dead pyramidal and purkinje cells respectively. In conclusion, light microscopic examinations showed that fluoxetine had a little effect on the liver, kidney, cerebrum and cerebellum.
symptoms (Balogun et al., 2012, Palmer et al., 1. INTRODUCTION 2013). Patients with glomerular filtration rate The prevalence of kidney problems are problem revealed a 2-fold higher risk of increasing around the world; renal failure depressive symptoms in comparison to the affects around 10 percent of the global population with normal renal function population (Coresh et al., 2005), common and (Campbell et al., 2013). rose in those countries which they have Organ donation is the operation of developed industry (Coresh et al., 2007). surgically getting an organ from donor and Patients with chronic kidney disease showed a transplants it into recipient; nephrectomy is a large number of neuropsychiatric alterations, process of removing kidney from healthy including depression and behavioral changes person which carries out to improve the (Kielstein et al., 2015); also more than a recipient life or removing all or part of kidney quarter of them have elevated depression 107 Rasul, K. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 601-626
to treat kidney disease and leaves healthy tissue kidney, cerebrum and cerebellum of (Salazar et al., 2005, Wilson et al., 2011). uninephrectomized male rats. Increasing depression was significantly noted after the process of nephrectomy (Minz et al., 2005). 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS Depression is a medical condition which 2.1 Animals and housing recognized by low mood, loss of interest, The current study was carrying out on hopeless, feeling sad, disfavor to do activity sixteen male adult uninephrectomized rats, and often is unable to live in a normal weighing about 200 – 270 gm and 8-10 weeks way; depressive symptoms are common in old at the time when the experiment started. patients with end-stage renal disease (Palmer et Animals were obtained from animal house of al., 2013) and associated with mortality (Fan et Biology department, Faculty of Science, Soran al., 2014, Farrokhi et al., 2014). Developing of University; under supervision and approval of depression over eleven years period of local scientific committee and animal care nephrectomy were significantly reported rules. Rats housed at room temperature (22 ± 2 (Liounis et al., 1988); after recipient death, oC); regular 12 hours light and 12 hours dark donors had extreme depression (Indudhara et by using an automated light-switching device. al., 1998). Review article reported that more than 5,000 living donors estimated that 2.2 Experimental design depression affects 5 to 23% of donors at an average of four years after nephrectomy Rats were divided randomly into two groups (Clemens et al., 2006). and each group consisted of eight rats per plastic cage; group 1: uninephrectomized Like other diseases, depression needs control group, which take normal diet (Krinke, medication, one of the main drugs which used 2000) and drink water ad libitum; group 2: to treat depression is fluoxetine which it is a uninephrectomized group rats were selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor administrated with fluoxetine (10 mg/kg body (Wernicke, 2004, Cipriani et al., 2005), one of weight/day) within drinking water for one the most common treatments for major month. depression, affects mood through changes in immune function and the effect of it depend on the quality of the living environment (Alboni et 2.3 Nephrectomy al., 2016). In the aseptic condition, rats were Rising agreement of living organ anesthetized by injection intraperitonial (80 transplantation and growing numbers of organ mg/Kg) ketamine (GmbH, Germany)/ donors become serious to look for any opposite (12mg/Kg) Xilazine (Over SRL, Argentina). outcomes in the population (Minz et al., 2005). The right upper abdomen of rats was cleaned In the last few years, using of medications and shaved; then 2-3 cm incisions was made; among them fluoxetine increased to treat pull out kidney gently by forceps, the renal depression which caused by kidney failure, artery and ureter tied by absorbable thread organ donation especially kidney and industry (Doğsan,Turkey) then cut the kidney and grew in Kurdistan region – Iraq. So that, the removed. Suture muscular layer by an purpose of current research to assess the absorbable (22mm ½ tapernTrocar Point) histological effects of fluoxetine on liver, 108 Rasul, K. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 601-626
thread and skin layer closed by non-absorbable rats caused presence of some histological (25mm ½round) thread ( B. Braun, German). changes in liver such as presence of hydropic degeneration of hepatocytes which agreed with 2.4 Anesthesia, dissection and removal of the the findings of (Özden et al., 2014) and organs inflammatory leucocyte infiltration which also At the end of the experiment, all rats were noted in the results of (Zlatković et al., 2014) anesthetized with intraperitoneal injection of a when compared with the liver sections of non- mixture of Ketamine Hydrochloride (80 mg / administrated fluoxetine uninephrectomized Kg) and Xylazine (12 mg / Kg), sacrificed, and rats which showed normal appearance of then liver, kidneys, cerebrum and cerebellum hepatocytes architecture which polyhedral in were removed, cut into smaller pieces shape, normal shape nucleus and clearly (approximately 0.5cm in thickness) in petri defined plasma membrane as well as presence dish which contained a fixative (Bouin’s fluid) of normal blood sinusoids and central vein and then put in Bouin’s fluid for fixation. (Fig. 3.1 and Fig. 3.2). These histological changes in liver may be due to toxic effects of 2.5 Histological preparation (Paraffin fluoxetine (Souza et al., 1994); previous method) studies showed that fluoxetine dropt antioxidant levels and elevated oxidant stress Tissue samples (liver, kidneys, cerebrum by increasing superoxide anion levels, and and cerebellum) of all uninephrectomized rats producing oxidative stress (Park et al., 2011). removed from Bouin’s fluid and transferred into dehydrating solution (using a series of graded ethanol in ascending concentrations), then immersed in xylene for clearing, 3.2 Effect of fluoxetine on kidney infiltrated with paraffin wax and the tissues uninephrectomized rats were embedded in paraffin wax. Four to six The outer region of the kidney is cortex, in micrometer thick paraffin sections were uninephrectomized rats showed normal obtained by using rotary microtome (Bright, composition and structure such as glomeruli, MIC, England) and stained by hematoxylin and kidney tubules (proximal convoluted tubule eosin (H&E) (Bancroft et al., 1977). The and distal convoluted tubule) and cells of the specimens were examined and photographed kidney tubules (Fig. 3.3). The kidney tubules under light microscope (digital binocular (nephrons) extended into the medullary region compound microscope 40x-2000x, built-in of the kidney; uninephrectomized rats showed 3MP USB camera). normal cells of the kidney tubules and normal diameter of the lumen of kidney tubules in the sections through the medullary region of 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS kidney (Fig. 3.4). Histological alterations would be observed in the exposed fluoxetine 3.1 Effect of fluoxetine on liver cortex of uninephrectomized rats which include uninephrectomized rats hemorrhage, widening of the lumen of kidney Liver is the organ of body animals which tubules, degeneration of some epithelial cells have many functions; one of the main functions of kidney tubules and shrinking of glomeruli of liver is detoxify the drugs; administration of (Fig. 3.5). Other research showed that fluoxetine for one month in uninephrectomized hemorrhage would happen due to antiplatelet 109 Rasul, K. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 601-626
activity of serotonin reuptake drugs (Chan et 4. CONCLUSIONS al., 2011). As a result of administration of The administration of fluoxetine (10 mg / fluoxetine, degeneration of epithelial cells of kg body weight / day) within drinking water for kidney tubules and dilation in some kidney one month had a minor alteration of the tubules were observed in the medullary region histological structure on liver, kidney, of uninephrectomized rats (Fig. 3.6). cerebrum, and cerebellum. Fluoxetine can promote acute kidney disease (Carrero and Stenvinkel, 2010). (Herbet et al., 2016) findings showed that fluoxetine Conflict of Interest administration doesn’t change renal functions. There is no conflict of interest.
3.3 Effect of fluoxetine on brain uninephrectomized rats
One of the parts of brain is cerebrum, cerebrum paraffin sections of uninephrectomized rats showed normal architecture of grey matter with different layers, normal pyramidal cells and normal glial cells (Fig. 3.7); but the cerebrum of uninephrectomized rats which exposed to fluoxetine showed abnormality such as presence of dead neuronal and non-neuronal cells in the second and third layers of cerebral cortex (Fig. 3.8). Light Microscopic view examinations showed normal healthy structure of molecular layer, granular layer and purkinje cells in the cerebellum of uninephrectomized rats (Fig. 3.9), while in treated rats with fluoxetine, dead purkinje cells were clear in the cerebellum of uninephrectomized rats (Fig. 3.10). Experimental studies indicated that fluoxetine decreased antioxidant levels, increased oxidant levels by elevating superoxide anion levels, and induced oxidative stress (Chen et al., 2015, Sakr et al., 2015) and these consequences may be cause of neuronal damage of the brain. On the other hand, the neuroprotective of fluoxetine were reported by other findings (Jin et al., 2009, Vizi et al., 2013).
110 Rasul, K. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 601-626
A
S
CV
B
Figure 3.1: Photomicrograph of liver sections of uninephrectomized rats showed normal appearance of hepatocytes architecture which polyhedral in shape, round or ovoid shape nucleus well known and clearly defined plasma membrane (Black arrow). Blood sinusoids (S) and central vein are normal (CV). A) H&E. 100X. B) H&E. 400X.
111 Rasul, K. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 601-626
A
D
I D B
Figure 3.2: Histological sections of liver uninephrectomized rats which exposed to fluoxetine showing a little hydropic degeneration of the hepatocytes (D) and infiltration of inflammatory cells (I). A) H&E. 100X. B) H&E. 400X.
112 Rasul, K. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 601-626
G
A
G
T T B
Figure 3.3: Cortex slides of kidney of uninephrectomized rats. Glomeruli (G), kidney tubules (T) (proximal convoluted tubule and distal convoluted tubule) and cells of the kidney tubules appeared normal. A) H&E. 100X. B) H&E. 400X.
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A
L
B
Figure 3.4: Sections of medullary regions of uninephrectomized rat’s kidney in which the cells of kidney tubules and the diameter of the lumen of tubules (L) were appeared normal. A) H&E. 100X. B) H&E. 400X.
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H
B
Figure 3.5: Hemorrhagic area (H), a few increases in the diameter of lumen of kidney tubules, degeneration of some epithelial cells of kidney tubules and shrinking of glomeruli (Black arrow) were appeared in the cortex region of kidney due to exposing uninephrectomized rats to fluoxetine. A) H&E. 100X. B) H&E. 400X.
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A
T
T
B Figure 3.6: Paraffin sections of the medullary regions of uninephrectomized rat’s kidney which exposed to fluoxetine showed degeneration of epithelial cells (Black arrow) of kidney tubules and dilation in some kidney tubules (T). A) H&E. 100X. B) H&E. 400X. 116 Rasul, K. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 601-626
A BB
C
Figure 3.7: Slides of cerebrum of uninephrectomized rats showing the normal architecture of grey matter of cerebrum with different layers in low power magnification, while in higher power magnifications, normal pyramidal cells (black arrow) and glial cells (white arrow) were observed in cerebral cortex layer. A) H&E. 100X. B) H&E. 400X. C) H&E. 1000X.
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A B
C
Figure 3.8: Light microscopic views of cerebrum uninephrectomized rats exposed to fluoxetine, the cortex region of cerebrum with different layers and a few dead (black arrow) cells were observed in second and third layers of cerebral cortex. A) H&E. 100X. B) H&E. 400X. C) H&E. 1000X.
118 Rasul, K. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 601-626
A
B
Figure 3.9: Cerebellum of uninephrectomized rats show the normal healthy structure of molecular layer, granular layer and purkinje cells (black arrow). A) H&E. 100X. B) H&E. 400X.
119 Rasul, K. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 601-626
A
B
Figure 3.10: Dead purkinje cells (black arrow) observed in cerebellum of uninephrectomized rats as a result of fluoxetine administration. A) H&E. 100X. B) H&E. 400X.
120 Rasul, K. et al./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 601-626
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BODE-BOGER, S. M. & KIELSTEIN, J. T. 2015. SAKR, H., ABBAS, A., ELSAMANOUDY, A. & Role of the endogenous nitric oxide inhibitor GHONEIM, F. 2015. Effect of fluoxetine and asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) and brain- resveratrol on testicular functions and oxidative derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in depression stress in a rat model of chronic mild stress-induced and behavioural changes: clinical and preclinical depression. Journal of Physiology and data in chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Pharmacology, 66, 515-527. Transplant, 30, 1699-705. SALAZAR, A., PELLETIER, R., YILMAZ, S., KRINKE, G. J. 2000. The Handbook of Experimental MONROY-CUADROS, M., TIBBLES, L. A., Animals. The Laboratory Rat, Acad. Press, San MCLAUGHLIN, K. & SEPANDJ, F. 2005. Use of Diego. . a minimally invasive donor nephrectomy program to select technique for live donor nephrectomy. Am LIOUNIS, B., ROY, L. P., THOMPSON, J. F., MAY, J. J Surg, 189, 558-62; discussion 562-3. & SHEIL, A. G. 1988. The living, related kidney donor: a follow-up study. Med J Aust, 148, 436- SOUZA, M. E. J., POLIZELLO, A. C. M., UYEMURA, 7,440-4. S. A., CASTRO-SILVA, O. & CURTI, C. 1994. Effect of fluoxetine on rat liver mitochondria. MINZ, M., UDGIRI, N., SHARMA, A., HEER, M. K., Biochemical pharmacology, 48, 535-541. KASHYAP, R., NEHRA, R. & SAKHUJA, V. 2005. Prospective psychosocial evaluation of VIZI, E. S., KISFALI, M. & LORINCZ, T. 2013. Role related kidney donors: Indian perspective. of nonsynaptic GluN2B-containing NMDA Transplant Proc, 37, 2001-3. receptors in excitotoxicity: evidence that fluoxetine selectively inhibits these receptors and may have ÖZDEN, H., BILDIRICI, K., ÜSTÜNER, D., neuroprotective effects. Brain Res Bull, 93, 32-8. ÜSTÜNER, C., CENGIZ, B. P., TÜLAY, A. & YıLMAZ, V. 2014. Histopathologic examination of WERNICKE, J. F. 2004. Safety and side effect profile of rat liver after experimental application of fluoxetine. Expert Opin Drug Saf, 3, 495-504. fluoxetine. Türkiye Ekopatoloji Dergisi, 11. WILSON, C. H., SANNI, A., RIX, D. A. & SOOMRO, PALMER, S., VECCHIO, M., CRAIG, J. C., TONELLI, N. A. 2011. Laparoscopic versus open nephrectomy M., JOHNSON, D. W., NICOLUCCI, A., for live kidney donors. Cochrane Database Syst PELLEGRINI, F., SAGLIMBENE, V., Rev, Cd006124. LOGROSCINO, G., FISHBANE, S. & ZLATKOVIĆ, J., TODOROVIĆ, N., TOMANOVIĆ, STRIPPOLI, G. F. 2013. Prevalence of depression N., BOŠKOVIĆ, M., DJORDJEVIĆ, S., in chronic kidney disease: systematic review and LAZAREVIĆ-PAŠTI, T., BERNARDI, R. E., meta-analysis of observational studies. Kidney Int, DJURDJEVIĆ, A. & FILIPOVIĆ, D. 2014. Chronic 84, 179-91. administration of fluoxetine or clozapine induces PARK, S. W., CHEN, S. W., KIM, M., BROWN, K. M., oxidative stress in rat liver: a histopathological KOLLS, J. K., D'AGATI, V. D. & LEE, H. T. 2011. study. European Journal of Pharmaceutical Cytokines induce small intestine and liver injury Sciences, 59, 20-30. after renal ischemia or nephrectomy. Lab Invest, 91,
63-84.
ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 211-232 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.14
Identification of some Chemical Constituents and Antibacterial Activity of Uriginea maritima (L.) Extracts from Kurdistan Region, Bozan area, Alqosh
1* 1 1 1 Zahraa A. Jarjes , Arsalan M. Mahmood Alhan K. Sallo , Huda A. Ibrahim 1 Department of Chemistry, College of Science, University of Duhok, Duhok, Kurdistan Region-Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: Chemical constituents of ethanol and hexane extracts of Uriginea maritima Received: 15/08/2016 (L.) (liliaceae Family) were detected by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry Accepted: 24/09/2016 and their relative concentrations were determined. Both extracts contained 14 Published: 10/01/2017 compounds. There were twelve compounds in hexane extract namely: palmitate Keywords: Ethyl (10.28%), Ethyldocosanoat (2.46%), Ethyl Oleate (28.10%), Methyl- 2- Uriginea maritima, methylundecanoate (1.27%), 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (8.75%), Tridecanol, 2- Liliaceae, ethyl-2-methyl (5.13%), 2,2,3,3-Tetramethylbutanoic acid (1.53%), Heptadecane (8.38%), Eicosane (22.52%), 2,6,10,15-Tetra methylheptadecane (6.74%), 2,6- GC-mass analysis, dimethyl-1,5-heptadiene (0.82%), 2,2-Dimethylbutane (4.2%). While two Antibacterial activity compounds were found in ethanol extract namely: 5-Ethyl-4-methyl-3-heptanone *Corresponding Author: (92.30%), methyl pentyl carbonate (7.70%). Diffusion method was employed to investigate the antibacterial activities of the plant extract against three pathogenic Zahraa A. Jarjes bacteria. Significant differences in the antibacterial activity of plant extracts were [email protected] noticed depending on the used bacterial strain and the concentration of plant extracts.
1. INTRODUCTION Two types of Urginea maritima have been found depending to their bulbs, namely; white The species maritima belongs to the and red squill bulbs. The white squill bulbs of Urginea genus (Liliaceae family) (Figure 1). (Urginea maritima) have long been used as a The plant is distributed in all North African source of natural products with pharmaceutical countries, Mediterranean region and the Canary (cardiotonic) and biomedical (rodenticide) Islands Urginea maritima grows in winter and applications. The White squill (Urginea continues to the spring season, Perennial bulb maritima) has been used as a medicinal plant with large, dark green leaves that can get up to through centuries over the world, believed to 1 foot long by 4 inches wide. The leaf canopy have certain traditional actions. It was used by will reach about 2-3 feet tall by 2-3 feet across. herbalists traditionally for the treatment of The bulb itself reaches 6-8 inches in dimeter cardiac failure, chronic bronchitis, rodenticides and weight 6-8 pounds. The roots are few and and asthma (Hadibarata et al., 2007; Dizaye quite succulent (Aasim et al., 2009; Benbacer and Badr-Aldin, 2010 ; Kopp et al., 1996). et al., 2012; Dafni et al., 1981).
123 Jarjes, Z.. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 211-232
Figure 1: Uriginea maritima (L.) Baker liliaceae
Recent studies of such medicinal plants 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS have been reported that natural antioxidants obtained from white squill bulb protect human 2.1. Plant material beings against toxic and harmful effects of free The bulbs of Urginea maritima (L.), 1872 radicals and have a wide range of (Liliaceae) were collected in spring 2012 from antimicrobial, antimutagenic, antiallergic, the cemetery of Bozan area in Alqush, antioxidant, radical scavenging activity and Nenawa, Kurdistan, Iraq. The plant identified anticarcenogenic effects; based on all of these by Dr. Salim Shahbaz, college of Agriculture, facts, a lot of researches related to the plant University of Duhok, Duhok. extracts have been done ( Celik et al., 2010;
Krenn et al., 2000, Mammadov et al., 2009). 2.2. Chemicals and equipments Urginea maritima contains 1-3% cardiac The following analytical grade chemicals glycosides. The original cardiac glycosides were used: Ethanol, Dichloromethane, n- which have been isolated from squill known as Hexane Ethylacetate all are obtained from bufodienolides such as glucoscillarene A, (UNI-Chem, china) and distilled water. The proscillaridine A, scillarene A, scilliglaucoside tools used in this study are as follows: a set of and scilliphaeoside, anthocyanins, and laboratory glassware, a set series of polysaccharides (Dizaye and Badraldin, 2010). fractionation under reduced pressure Scilliroside, the main toxic glycoside, founds in distillation apparatus. all plant parts especially the roots and the core of the bulbous part (Sharaf et al., 2006). The Bacterial Strains used in this study are Therefore, the bulb extract is used as a strong Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus insecticide (Paolo et al., 2005). pyogenes and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were isolated from clinical samples obtained from The objective of this study is to investigate patients attending Government Hospital Azadi, the chemical constituents of Uriginea maritima Kurdistan region. The organisms were isolated (L.) using solvent extraction in several polar in nutrient agar medium and selectively and non-polar solvents. The GC-Mass has been cultured at 37°C for 24 h. The bacterial strains used to identify the extracted chemical were identified by biochemical and standard constituents. The biological activity of the two antibiogram tests as per the directions from extracts has been investigated against three Bergy’s manual for determinative bacteriology. pathogenic bacteria. 124 Jarjes, Z.. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 211-232
2.3. Extraction method the rate of 5°C/min. Helium of 99.9995% purity was used as the carrier gas at The extraction was performed as described 1.51ml/min. The sample (1μl) was injected in elsewhere (Pascual-Villalobos and Fernández, the split mode of 10:1. The total GC running 1999). The bulbs were cleaned, dried and time was 32 min with ion source and interface pulverized to powder by a mechanical grinder. temperatures maintained at 200°C and 240°C 2Kg of powder was weighed and transferred to respectively. The mass spectra were taken with Stoppard flask, and treated with ethanol until scan range of 40 –1000 m/z of 0.5 seconds the powder is fully immersed. For the intervals at 70eV ionization. The relative extraction, the solvents ratio used was 1:1. The percentage area of each component was flask was being shaken from time to time for calculated by comparing it to the total area. one week. The plant was filtered; the filtrate has been evaporated by a vacuum rotary 2.5. Antibacterial activity evaporator. 12g of the extract was dissolved in Antibacterial activity of all prepared 10% ethanol and partitioned individually with (hexane and ethanol extract) were tested hexane, Dichloromethane (DCM), and finally against three clinical isolates of Gram positive with ethyl acetate to get four extracts; (2.5g) and Gram negative pathogenic bacteria which hexane extract, (0.5g) DCM extract, (0.7g) are Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus ethyl acetate extract and the residue (7.5g) pyogenes and Pseudomonas aeruginosa as ethanol extracts. Hexane extract and ethanol described elsewhere (Swenson et al., 2004). extract were performed to gas chromatography- Circular disc of 6 mm diameter were made mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) technique from the Whatman number 1 filter paper. Discs [SHIMADZUQP2010] (see scheme1). were impregnated with equal volume (100 μl) of each complex. The discs were aseptically placed over plates of Muller Hinton agar 2.4. Gas chromatography- Mass seeded with each of the test pathogens. The spectrophotometric analysis (GC-MS) antibacterial assay plates were incubated at GC-MS technique was used, in 36°C for 24-48 hour and the zone of inhibition Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, was measured (in mm diameter). Inhibition University of Malaya UM, Kuala Lumpur, zones with diameter less than 10 mm were Malaysia, to identify the expected components considered as having low antibacterial activity. of the plant extracts, using the Thermo Diameters between 10 and 14 mm were Scientific GC-MS [SHIMADZU QP2010] gas considered moderately active, and these with chromatograph with Software: GCMS solution >16 mm were considered highly active (Indu et ver.2.53. The gas chromatograph was al., 2006). The control experiment was carried interfaced to a Mass Spectrometer equipped out to compare the diameter zone of clearing with Elite-1 fused silica capillary column of from the extracts and already standardized Length: 30.0 m, Diameter: 0.25mm, Film antibiotics. The antibiotics used were thickness: 0.25 and composed of 100% Tetracycline and Kanamycin. The standard Dimethyl polysiloxane. The column oven discs of the antibiotics tetracycline (10 μg per temperature was maintained at 40°C and disc) and kanamycin (10 μg per disc) served as injector temperature at 240°C. The oven positive antibacterial control. The diameter of temperature was programmed as follows: 40°C the zones of inhibition around each of the discs for 2 minutes raised to 280°C for 7 minutes at (disc diameter included) was taken as a 125 Jarjes, Z.. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 211-232
measure of the antibacterial activity. The standard antibiotic disc used. Four different diameters of the zones of inhibition by the concentrations were prepared for hexane and samples were then compared with the diameter ethanol plant extract (10, 20, 30 and 40) of the zone of inhibition produced by the mg/ml. All tests were duplicated.
2Kg of Dried & Ground squill bulbsUriginea maritima
Cold Extraction in high polar solventethanol for one week
Dry by rotary-evaporator
12g of ethanol extract
Dissolve in 10% CH3CH2OH(aqueous)
partitionation with
1st with low with more polar solvent, polar solvent, more polar
n-Hexane Dichloromethane solvent, EtOAc n
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a uo e u u d q r s e aq a u
t
d p e i
x d h o
i u e a f
u s t
q e h i
d
q l i e
i
- l
u
-
d i
q
d
i
i
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-
u
q i
d
q l
i
i
l
u
q
i
l
Drying the organic phase Drying the organic phase Drying the organic phase Drying the aqueous phase by rotary-evaporator by rotary-evaporator by rotary-evaporator by rotary-evaporator
n-Hexane Dichloromethane EtOAc ethanol extract extract extract extract
weigh 2.5g weigh 0.5g weigh 0.7g weigh7.5g
GC-MS GC-MS GC-MS GC-MS
results in table 1 No results No results results in table 1
Scheme 1 : General extraction methods of bulb of Uriginea maritime
126 Jarjes, Z.. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 211-232
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Twelve compounds were identified in main fragment ions were formed at m/z hexane extract and two compounds were 264(M-C2H5OH), 222 (M-C4H8O2), 180 (M- identified in ethanol extracts of Uriginea C7H14O2) and the base peak is 55(M-C4H7). At maritima. The report peak of the total ion Rt 38.938 the second major compound was current chromatogram obtained with details of shown fragment peaks at m/z 282 (M), 183, compound number, retention time, peak area, 127, 85, 57. structures of expected compounds, names of the identified components, their molecular Figure 5 which concur with the pattern of formula and molecular weight are shown in mass spectrum indicated by ( Pfosser and (Table 1). The relative percentage amount of Speta, 2004). In which the main fragment ions each component was calculated by comparing were formed as m/z 183 (M–C7H15), 127 (M– its average peak area to the total areas. C11H23), 85(M-C14H29) and the base peak Interpretation on mass-spectrum GC-MS was 57(M-C16H33). Two compounds were found in conducted using the database of National the ethanol extract, as presented in (Table1). Institute Standard and Technology (NIST) The major chemical constituent at the Rt having more than 62,000 patterns. The (21.608) in the ethanol extract was shown spectrum of the unknown components was fragment peaks at m/z 156 (M ), 99, 86, 57. compared with the spectrum of known components stored in the NIST library. The Figure 6 coincides with the pattern of mass name, molecular weight, and structure of the spectrum of 5-Ethyl-4-methyl-3-heptanone components of the test materials were indicated by (Pilli et al., 1991). In which the ascertained. main fragment ions were formed as m/z 99 (M–
C4H9), 86 (M–C5H10) and the base peak was The GC-MS chromatograms of hexane and 57(M-C7H14). ethanol extracts are shown in (Figure 2 and 3). Twelve expected compounds were identified in Table 2 shows the results for the the hexane extract (Table 1): palmitate Ethyl antibacterial activity of hexane and ethanol (10.28%), Ethyl docosanoat (2.46%), Ethyl extracts indicating considerable differences in Oleate (28.10%), methyl 2-methylundecanoa the antibacterial activities among extracts (1.27%), 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (8.75%), depending on the bacterial strain and the Tridecanol, 2-ethyl-2-methyl (5.13%), 2,2,3,3- concentration of extracts used. The ability of Tetramethyl butanoic acid (1.53%), the extracts to inhibit the growth of these Heptadecane (8.38%), Eicosane (22.52%), bacterial species is an indication of the broad 2,6,10,15-Tetra methyl heptadecane (6.74%), spectrum antimicrobial potential of Uriginea 2,6-dimethyl-1,5-hepta diene (0.82%), 2,2- maritima which makes it a potential candidate Dimethylbutane (4.2%). The major chemical for a prospective antimicrobial drug. The constituents in the hexane extract at Rt 36.744 differences in antibacterial activity of the were shown fragment peaks at m/z 310 (M), Uriginea maritima extracts could be linked to 264, 222, 180, 152, 137, 123, 55. their different composition of bioactive compounds. The plant extract shown more Figure 4 shows the mass spectrum of ethyl potent activity against gram positive than oleate which harmonized with the pattern of negative bacteria. Generally, plant extract are mass spectrum of Li et al (Li et al., 2002). The usually more active against gram positive 127 Jarjes, Z.. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 211-232
bacteria than gram negative bacteria (Biswas et bacteria have an outer membrane composed of al., 2013). These variations in inhibition may a phospholipid bilayer, which may made a due to the differences in the composition and protective barrier against these compounds structure surface between Gram positive and (Kandler, 1992). Gram negative bacteria. In addition to the cell wall and cell membrane, Gram negative
Table 1: Expected identified Compounds in the hexane and ethanol extract of Urginea maritima bulbs
Comp. Rt Molecular M. Peak Structures of expected Name No. Formula Wt. Area compounds %
O 1 33.568 C18H36O2 284 10.28 Ethyl palmitate O
O 2 40.542 C24H48O2 368 2.46 Ethyldocosanoat O
3 36.744 C20H38O2 310 28.10 O Ethyl Oleate O
O 4 37.194 C13H26O2 214 1.27 Methyl 2- O methylundecanoate
5 36.658 C18H32O2 280 8.75 O 9,12-Octadecadienoic OH acid
HO 6 45.083 C16H34O 242 5.13 Tridecanol, 2-ethyl-2- methyl
HO 7 43.617 C8H16O2 144 1.53 2,2,3,3- O Tetramethylbutanoic acid
8 42.129 C17H36 240 8.38 Heptadecane
9 38.938 C20H42 282 22.52 Eicosane
10 35.483 C21H44 296 6.74 2,6,10,15-Tetra methylheptadecane
46.983 C9H16 124 0.82 2,6-dimethyl-1,5- 11 heptadiene
12 50.900 C6H14 86 4.2 2,2-Dimethylbutane
O 13 21.608 C10H20O 156 92.30 5-Ethyl-4-methyl-3- heptanone
14 21.683 C7H14O3 146 7.70 O Carbonic acid, methyl O O pentyl ester 128 Jarjes, Z.. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 211-232
Figure 2: GC-MS chromatogram of the hexane extract of Uriginea maritime
Figure 3: GC-MS chromatogram of the ethanol extract of Uriginea maritime
Figure 4: Mass spectrum of ethyl oleate
129 Jarjes, Z.. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 211-232
Figure 5: Mass spectrum of eicosane
Figure 6: Mass spectrum of 5-ethyl-4-methyl-3-heptanon
Table 2: Antibacterial activity (inhibition zone/mm) of n-hexane and ethanol extracts against Gram positive and Gram negative pathogenic bacteria. Extract mg/ml Test organism
S. aureus S.pyogenes P. aeruginosa
Hexane 10 10mm 9 mm 8 mm
20 12mm 10 mm 8 mm
30 12mm 10 mm 9 mm
40 15mm 11 mm 10 mm
Ethanol 10 13mm 10 mm 9 mm
20 13mm 11mm 9 mm
30 14mm 12 mm 10 mm
40 15mm 12 mm 10 mm
Tetracycline 10 μg 10 mm R R
Kanamycine 10 μg 5 mm 10 mm 6 mm
R= Resistant, mm= Milmeter 130 Jarjes, Z.. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 211-232
4. CONCLUSION Davis., Natural Product Research, 24 (16), 1568- 1577. The analysis of the phytochemicals in the Dafni, A., Shmida, A., and Avishai, M. 1981. Leafless hexane extract of Uriginea maritima bulbs autumnal-flowering geophytes in the Mediterranean region — phytogeographical, parts revealed twelve compounds namely: ecological and evolutionary aspects. [journal palmitate Ethyl (10.28%), Ethyldocosanoat article]. Plant Systematics and Evolution, 137(3), (2.46%), Ethyl Oleate (28.10%), Methyl- 2- 181-193. methylundecanoate (1.27%), 9,12- Hadibarata, T., Tachibana, S., and Itoh, K. 2007. Octadecadienoic acid (8.75%), Tridecanol, 2- Biodegradation of n-eicosane by fungi screened from nature. Pakistan journal of biological ethyl-2-methyl (5.13%), 2,2,3,3- sciences, 10(11), 1804-1810. Tetramethylbutanoic acid (1.53%), Dizaye, K., and Badr-Aldin, K. 2010. Cardiovascular Heptadecane (8.38%), Eicosane (22.52%), studies of White squill (Urginea Maritima) Extract. 2,6,10,15-Tetra methylheptadecane (6.74%), Zanco Journal of Medical Sciences, 14(1), 20-27. 2,6-dimethyl-1,5-heptadiene (0.82%), 2,2- Indu, M., Hatha, A., Abirosh, C., Harsha, U., and Vivekanandan, G. 2006. Antimicrobial Activity of Dimethylbutane (4.2%). While two compounds Some of The SouthIndian Spices Against Serotypes were found in ethanol extract namely: 5-Ethyl- of Escherichia Coli, Salmonella, Listeria 4-methyl-3-heptanone (92.30%), methyl pentyl Monocytogenes and Aeromonas Hydrophila. carbonate (7.70%). These compounds are Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 37(2), 153-158. probably the major players in the antibacterial Kandler, O. 1992. Cell wall structure and their phylogenetic implications. A concise overview of responses evoked by the plant. Further studies the various kinds of bacterial walls and their are needed to be conducted to understand the chemical composition, including the structural features of the compounds predicted archaebacteria. Systematic and Applied from the phytochemical analysis. Microbiology, 3, 149-160 Kopp, B., Krenn, L., Draxler, M., Hoyer, A., Terkola, R., Vallaster, P., and Robien, W. 1996. Bufadienolides REFERENCES from Urginea maritima from Egypt. Phytochemistry, 42(2), 513-522. Aasim, M., Khawar, K., and Özcan, S. 2009. In vitro Krenn, L., Jelovina, M., and Kopp, B. 2000. New micropropagation from plumular apices of Turkish bufadienolides from Urginea maritima sensu cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) cultivar Akkiz. strictu. Fitoterapia, 71(2), 126-129. Scientia horticulturae, 122(3), 468-471. Li, H., Ding, M., and Yu, J. 2002. Separation and Benbacer, L., El Btaouri, H., Gmouh, S., Attaleb, M., identification of the phthalic anhydride derivatives Morjani, H., Amzazi, S.and El Mzibri, M. 2012. of Liqusticum Chuanxiong Hort by GC-MS, TLC, Antiproliferative Effect and Induction of Apoptosis HPLC-DAD, and HPLC-MS. Journal of by Inula viscosa L and Retama monosperma L chromatographic science, 40(3), 156-161. Extracts in Human Cervical Cancer Cells. Topics Mammadov, R., Düsen, O., Uysal, D., and Kse, E. 2009. on Cervical Cancer With an Advocacy for Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities of Prevention (Vol. 267). Extracts from Tubers and Leaves of Colchicum Biswas, B., McLaughlin, F., Daniels, D., and Yadav, A. Balansae Planchon, Journal of Medicinal Plants 2013. Antimicrobial Activities of Leaf Extracts of Research, 3(10), 767-770. Guava (Psidium guajava L.) on Two Gram- Paolo, M., Guarrera, S., and Giulia, C. 2005. Folk Negative and Gram-Positive Bacteria. International phytotherapeutical plants from Maratea area Journal of Microbiology, 2013, 1-7. (Basilicata, Italy). Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Celik, A., Herken, N., Arslan, I., Ozel, Z., and Mercan 99, 367-378. N. 2010. Screening of the Constituents, Pascual-Villalobos, M., and Fernández, M. 1999. Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of Endemic Insecticidal activity of ethanolic extracts of Urginea Origanum hypericifolium O. Schwartz & P.H. maritima (L.) Baker bulbs. Industrial Crops and Products, 10(2), 115-120. 131 Jarjes, Z.. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 211-232
Sharaf, A., Sawidis, T., Diannelidis, B., and Pilli, R., Murta, M., Russowsk, D., and Boeckelmann, Delivopoulos, S. 2006. Anatomical studies on the M. 1991.Total Synthesis of (4SR, 5RS)-5- adventitious roots of the geophyte Urginea Hydroxy-4-Methyl-3-Heptanone, the Racemic maritima (L.) Baker. Journal of Biological Form of the Aggregation Pheromone of S. orizae Research, 5, 61-70. and S. zeamais. Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Swenson, J., Killgore, G., and Tenover, F. 2004. Society, 2, 121-125. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Pfosser, M. and Speta, F. 2004. From Scilla to Acinetobacter spp. by NCCLS broth microdilution Charybdis–is our voyage safer now Plant and disk diffusion methods. Journal of Clinical Systematics and Evolution. Plant Systematics and Microbiology, 42(11), 5102-5108. Evolution, 246, 245-263.
ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 132-139 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.15
Derivation of steady-state specific capacity equation for pumping test data analysis
1Dana Khider Mawlood, 2Jwan Sabah Mustafa
1Department of Civil, College of Engineering, University of Salahaddin -Erbil, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq 2 General Directorate of Dams and Reservoirs, Ministry of Agricultural and Water Resources, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: The specific capacity of the well is often obtained by dividing pumping rate (Q) Received: 07/05/2016 over the drawdown in the pumping well (∆s). A simple equation is derived for well Accepted: 19/09/2016 located near to the stream, and the derivation starts through Cooper-Jacob (1946) Published: 10/01/2017 method. The aim of this paper is to describe the new equation which can be Keywords: applicable for any wells located in confined aquifer near to the stream, for steady- boundary condition , state condition. For this purpose the specific capacity is derived for a well of simple derivation of specific confined aquifer type, the equivalent boundary theory is applied, which involved capacity equation , an image well to be assume to the opposite site of the stream, by the same amount pumping well , of water equal to the real well, the interacting of the well with the stream causes well hydraulics , well to reach to steady-state condition. The data is of confined aquifer, which groundwater. located in KASNAZAN area related to Erbil province, Kurdistan region of Iraq. *Corresponding Author: The pumping test data analyzed to estimate the specific capacity of the aquifer, and Dana Khider Mawlood the results are compared with the conservative method of estimating specific Email: capacity. [email protected]
equation of superimposing for a well near to a 1. INTRODUCTION stream or impervious boundary condition ,or Globally groundwater is the major source for multiple well system, later the of water supply, because most of the countries superimposing drawdown and residual depend on the groundwater for their purposes drawdown equation of recovery test data, but such as: irrigation, drinking water, and the equation for specific capacity of a well near industrial. One of the main purpose of pumping to stream is not observed. There are many test is to estimate the specific capacity of the papers that are proposed a relationship between well, it is the ratio of pumping rate to specific capacity and the aquifer drawdown in the well ,also it is the correlated Transmissivity such as; (Jacob et al.,1946) who with the hydraulic flow properties, the specific developed a method for specific capacity of the capacity of the well is very valuable number well, also (Theis,1935), (Brown et al.,1963), that can be used to estimate the amount of (Hurr et al.,1966), all of the previous described water abstracted in the well, and it has a major that the estimating aquifer Transmissivity from role for design of well and estimating radius of specific capacity equation, accordingly the influence. The application of specific capacity others (Delhomme et al.,1979), for estimating Transmissivity is widespread Aboufirassi,1984), and also (M.Razack,1991). ,are many practitioners which were derived the their papers discussed the relation between 133 Mawlood, D. and Mustafa, J./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 132-139 specific capacity and the Transmissivity, each 2.1. Simple Derivation of the equation equation derived on the basis of this condition The method is known as equipotential that the pumping test were conducted, the aim boundary according to (Neven. Kresic, 2006.), is derive the equation of specific capacity for a which is simulated with an imaginary shallow well located in confined aquifer near to recharging well, in case of discharging well stream, the interacting of the well with the near a perennial river, the river (or stream) is stream causes well to reach to steady-state considering an equipotential boundary which is conditions, Figure 1, by assuming an imaginary equivalent to a line source having a constant well at the opposite site of the well with the head (Neven. Kresic, 2006.) This boundary is same distance between pumping well to the simulated with an imaginary well , this stream, Figure 2, and injected the same amount imaginary well is exact image of the real of pumped water into the image well, then by extracting well but opposite ( negative) sign of superimposing the drawdown equations of each flow rate. The image well operates of pumping and imaginary well, thus the total simultaneously with the real well , which is amount of the drawdown at the existing well placed at the other side of the river by the same can be obtained. The pumping test data of the distance form of the real well with the well and the test results were analyzed to boundary. For more explain, see Figure 1; estimate the values of Transmissivity and Storativity through cooper-Jacob's straight line equation(Willis D. Weight., 2008). The derived equation can be used for providing the specific capacity of the well, whereas the calculated value compared with the common way of specific capacity in order to satisfy the method.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS The materials required during pumping test including: flow meter, stopwatch, data logger Figure 1. Cross-section of the result of the or any water level recorders and pump device , drawdown, the equipotential boundary near the a basket or barrel of water used at site to extraction well is simulated with the imaginary measuring flow rate at a certain time, Figure 7. recharge well of the same flow rate [Note that the The method is used to deriving the specific drawdown is correctly zero at the boundary, as a capacity equation is started from the transient result of this substitution of the real river with an imaginary hydraulic boundary (Neven. Kresic, groundwater flow equations of Theis(1935) 2006.). analytical solutions then later simplified the equation by cooper-Jacob(1946) , although an image well supposed at the opposite site of the pumping well at the other side of the stream, Figure 2 then the drawdown of each well has written in the cooper-Jacob equation of drawdown, thus by superimposing the two drawdown equations of both pumped and image well, the total drawdown of the well can be obtained. 134 Mawlood, D. and Mustafa, J./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 132-139
discharging water to the aquifer (Neven. Kresic, 2006.), the equation is;
(1) Jacob (1946) simplified Theis(1935) equation ,who developed that as the time of pumping test increases (t) and the radial distance(r) decrease, so the values of u is <0.01 ,so it is possible to take the only first two terms of series expansion (Michael Kasenow, 1997) : Theis(1935) equation is:
( ) (2)
Figure 2. Calculating the drawdown at the where: extraction well, at point A on its perimeter, and at ɣ : Euler number= -0.5772 any point(B) in the aquifer influenced by the (3) equipotential boundary[23] modified by Jacob(1946) to: The cooper-Jacob(1946) approximation of (4) Theis(1935) equation is proposed to derive the specific capacity equation for Kasnazan then rearranging the equation and changing - shallow well in confined aquifer in near to 0.5772 to ln 1.78: stream, Figure3, the interacting of the well with ( ) (5) the stream causes well to reach to steady-state ( ( )) (6) condition.
( ( )) (7)
or
( ) (8)
( ) (9)
changing r in terms of x and y; so ( r2=x2+y2)
( ) (10) Figure 3. Well and image well location The resulting drawdown is the algebraic sum of an image well is assumed for the opposite of the drawdown of the real well and drawdown the well, Figure 4: of the image well(negative) drawdown, it is important to explain the rule of image well theory, which is change the character of the well at the other side of the well according to the condition of the well. If the real well is discharging water, its image is recharging water to the aquifer, in this case the same flow rate as the real well but having opposite direction(negative sign), and if the If the real well is recharging water, its image is Figure 4. assuming the image well 135 Mawlood, D. and Mustafa, J./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 132-139 the drawdown equation for image well: ( ) (16)
( ) (11)
( ) (17)
(The negative sign indicated that the image well injecting water into a well by amount The above equation is the equation of the equal to pumping rate,( Neven. Kresic., 2006 ). drawdown of the well in confined aquifer ,and superimposing the two equations of both it can be written in terms of specific capacity as pumping and image well to get the total follow: drawdown equation of the well, Figure 5: (18) ( )
(19) ( )
the above equation is for steady-state specific capacity equation of shallow well in confined aquifer near to stream . where: Sc: is the specific capacity of the well (m3/min/ m drawdown) or (m2/min). Figure 5. pumping and image well Q: is discharge of the well (m3/min). ∆s: is the drawdown in the well (m)
( ) ( ) (12) 2 T: is Transmissivity (m /min) d:is the distance from pumped well to the Simplify the above equation and using the log stream (m) rule to get: rw: is the well radius (m)
( ) (13)
2.2 Study area location The value of X and y are substituted in the The selected well located at KASNAZAN above equation region, near the lake, it is about 12 km far from Erbil city, with the coordinate of (36.212306, ( ) (14) 44.149056) longitude and latitude respectively, that value of rw is radius of the well and it is Figure 6; much smaller than the value of 2d, so it affect is so minor and it can be neglect (Neven. Kresic, 2006), also the values of the y is also zero, because of having the same elevation and height, so that simplified the equation to get the following :
Figure 6. Study area location [Satellite image from ( ) (15) Google Map]. According to mathematical rule of ln;[Ln Xa = a Ln X], so that: 136 Mawlood, D. and Mustafa, J./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 132-139
2.3 Application of the equation Therefore; applying Jacob's time-drawdown The pumping test data of a confined aquifer straight line method, Figure 8, to estimate the well near to the stream (or lake), the test result Transmissivity and Storativity: is obtained from field data from directorate of the Erbil groundwater, which is presented in the Table 1.
Table 1. Pumping test data field work
Time Drawdown
(min) (m)
1 0 10 0.7531 50 2.4211 100 3.2701 Figure 8. Cooper-Jacob (1946) straight line method. 200 4.1401 500 5.3171 Transmissivity equation: 1000 6.2161
Pumping rate (Q) =0.198m³/min.
Radial distance to monitoring well(r)=15m ∆s= 2.8m (determined in Figure 8) Aquifer thickness (b)=7.6m [ The thickness of so: the aquifer is determined according to the lithology of the well, for confined aquifer the thickness is the depth between two clay layer, Figures 7 and 9] to estimate the Storativity (S); the extend of the line at zero drawdown tₒ=9min, Figure 8;
And to find out the specific capacity of the well, use equation (9):
Figure 7. Cross-section of the well.
Distance to stream(lake)(d)=46m if it is compare with the conservative way of radius of the well(rw)=0.07m. estimating the specific capacity is The observed drawdown of the specific capacity (Sc)= pumping rate 2 well(∆s)=27.44m at time t=1000min. /drawdown = Q/sw=0.198/27.44=0.01m /min 137 Mawlood, D. and Mustafa, J./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 132-139
Notation where: Sc: is the specific capacity of the well 3 2 s: is drawdown(m). (m /min/m drawdown) or (m /min). Q: discharge of the well (m3/min). Q: is the constant pumping rate (m3/min) ∆s: total drawdown in the well(m) 2 T: is Transmissivity(m /min). T: Transmissivity(m2/min) t: is the time during observed drawdown d: the distance from pumping well to the measurement (min). stream(m) rw: well radius (m) rw: is well radius(m). r: is radial distance from pumping well to sw: is drawdown in the pumping well(m) monitoring well(m) S: is Storativity (unitless). s: is drawdown(m) t: is the time of pumping (min). 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION tₒ: the initial time of pumping test (the extend of straight line at zero drawdown)(min). The values of calculated specific capacity of Kasnazan well, Figure 8, through derived ∆s: slope of the line per one log cycle equation is equal to (0.01m2/min), and if the (difference between two drawdown)(m). result is compared with the conservative way S: Storativity (unitless). of estimating the specific capacity, which it is easy calculated by dividing pumping rate over u: is Theis's constant. the drawdown in the well(Q/∆s), the value is ɣ: Euler number=-0.5772 also equal to (0.01m2/min), so the results of both specific capacity satisfied that the derived equation is applicable for any shallow confined aquifer wells, located near the stream and having the similar conditions.
4. DISCUSSION
The presented study successfully derived the specific capacity equation for a shallow well near to the stream, the reliability of this equation proved by comparing it with the usual method of estimating the specific capacity of the well (pumping rate over drawdown), the equation can be used as a based model for the other shallow confined aquifer wells having the same situations. Figure 9. Lithology of the well[obtained during well
drilling samples]
138 Mawlood, D. and Mustafa, J./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 132-139
Djaouida Chenaf and Robert P. Chapures .(2002).Methods to Determine Storativity of Infinite Confined Aquifers from A Recovery Test. GROUNDWATER. Vol.40, No. 4. David K. Todd, and Larry W. Mays.2000.Groundwater Hydrology. John Wiley& Sons. 200. Driscoll. F.G.( 1986).Groundwater and wells . 2nd ed.: Transactions. V. 27, p. 526–534St. Paul. Minn. Johnson Filtration Systems. Inc. 1,089 p Ferris, J.G. (1959). Groundwater. In: C.O. Wisler and E.F. Brater (Editors), Hydrology. John Wiley and Sons. New York. Freeze. R.A. and Cherry. J.A. (1979). Groundwater. Prentice-Hall. New Jersey. G.P. Kruseman, and N .A.de Ridder.(1991). Analysis and evaluation of pumping test data. 2nd edition, Figure 10. discharge measurement during the test. International institute for land reclamation and Improvement/ILRI, no.11, 2000 Hurr, R. T .(1966). a new approach for estimating Transmissivity from the specific capacity. Water REFERENCES Resources Research.V.2. No.4. pp.657-664. Aboufirassi, M. and M. A. Marino.(1984). Cokriging of Hantush Mahdi S.(1964). Advances in Hydro science. aquifer Transmissivity from field measurements of chapter Hydraulics of Wells. pp 281–442. Transmissivity and specific capacity. Math. Geol. Academic Press. V. 16. No 1.pp.19-35. Jacob, C. E.(1946). Drawdown test to determine A. I. Johnson.(1967). Specific Yield -Compilation of effective radius of artesian well. Trans. Amer. specific yields for various materials. united stated Society Civil engrs. v.112,pp.1047-1070. government printing office. Washington, J. Boonstra and R.A.L .Kselik.(2001). STAEM Bierschenk, William H.( 1963). Determining well 2002:software for Aquifer Test Evaluation.57,ILRI. efficiency by multiple step-drawdown tests. International Association of Scientific Jonathan Peter Reed.(1997). Inverse Solution Hydrology. 64:493-507. Techniques for Determining Aquifer Parameters from Pump Test Data. University of Durham. Batu. V. (1998). Aquifer Hydraulics: A Comprehensive Guide to Hydrogeologic Data Kasenow, M. (2001). Applied Groundwater Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Hydrology and Well Hydraulics. Second Edition, Water Resources Publications, Highlands Ranch, Brown, R. H.(1963). Estimating the Transmissivity of an Colorado. artesian aquifer from the specific capacity of a well, U. S, Geological survey water supply paper 15336- Michael Kasenow.(2006). AQUIFER TEST DATA: I. pp. 336-338. ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION. Water resources publications. Cooper. H.H. and Jacob. C.E.( 1946) .A generalized graphical method for evaluating formation constants Michael Kasenow.(1997). INTRODUCTION TO and summarizing well field history. American AQUIFER ANALYSIS. 4th Edition. Water Geophysical Union resources publications. C. W. Fetter.( 1952). Applied Hydrology. 4th Edition. M. Razack and David Huntley.(1991).assessing Prentice Hall. Transmissivity from specific capacity in a large and Heterogeneous Alluvial Aquifer. GROUNDWATER. V.29. No.6. 139 Mawlood, D. and Mustafa, J./ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 132-139
Neven. Kresic.(2006). Hydrogeology and groundwater modeling,2nd edition, CRC Press, p192-194. Roscoe moss company.(1990). Handbook of groundwater development, John Wiley and sons. Robert J. sterrett.(2007).Groundwater and wells. 3rd Edition. Johnson screen. Rorabaugh. M.I. (1953). Graphical and theoretical analysis of step-drawdown test of artesian wells. Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers. 79(separate 362).1-23 S. W. LOHMAN.( 1972 ).Groundwater Hydraulics. united states government printing office. Washington. Theis, C.V.(1963).Estimating the Transmissivity of a water-table aquifer from the specific capacity of a well, U. S., Geological survey water supply paper1536-I. pp.332-336. Willis D. Weight. (2008).Hydrogeology Field manual.2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill companied, 2001.
ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 041-041 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.16
Synthesis, Characterization and Antimicrobial Activity of Some New Azo- Flavones and Azo-Flavanone Derived From o-Hydroxyacetophenone
Farouq E. Hawaiz
Department of Chemistry, College of Education, University of Salahaddin- Hawler, Erbil-Kurdistan –Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: Some new azo-flavones of 2-ary-6-(p-tolyldiazenyl)-4H-chromen-4-ones, Received: 07/03/2016 have been synthesized in three consecutive main steps. 4-toluidine was used as a Accepted: 21/09/2016 diazotizing agent and subjected to coupling reaction with 2-hydroxyacetophenone Published: 10 /01/2017 forming 2'-hydroxy-5'-(p-tolyl) azo acetophenone as a key substrate. The prepared Keywords: starting material reacted with different substituted benzaldehydes affording new 2`- Azo-Chalcone , hydroxy azo-chalcones derivatives which were cyclized by DMSO/I2 giving the Azo-Flavone , target biological active azo-flavone derivatives. The structures of the newly Antibaterial activity, synthesized products were elucidated by using FT-IR, 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR and Flavonoide, DEPT-135 spectra. The synthesized flavones were screened with two types of *Corresponding Author: bacteria Escherichia coli gram negative and Staphylococcus aurous gram positive. Farouq E. Hawiaz The results observed a significant effect against gram negative bacteria. E-Mail: [email protected] red wine. It was noted that the high level 1. INTRODUCTION amount of flavonoids in dietary foods has Due to concerns of human health and to beneficial response with no side effects (Saraf minimize the impact of pathological et al., 2007). Chemically Flavonoid structure microorganisms, researchers encouraged to incudes a flavone, flavanone, chalcone and develop and produce new biologically active their derivatives. These naturally and synthetic heterocyclic compounds and became one of the compounds have attracted great considerable necessities of the scientific research attention due to their significant biological specifications. From the search for new activity such as antimalarial (Lim et al., 2007, compounds with useful physiological p.2495), antioxidants (Vidyasagar and .Nanda, effectiveness, numerous studies on flavonoids 2012), antifungal (Furuta et al., 2004), anti- along with different methods for their inflammatory (González Gallego et al., preparation have emerged. The term 2007)and other antimicrobial activity(Adib et “flavonoid” covers a wide range of natural al., 2008),(Sarda et al., 2009) and (Vatkar et products that contain a C6-C3-C6 carbon al., 2010). Different methods and techniques skeleton consisting of two aromatic rings have been reported for the preparation of joined via three carbons or precisely a flavones includes Baker Venkatraman phenylbenzopyran group(Grotewold, 2006). rearrangement(Baker, 1933) One-Pot They are prominent plant secondary Sonogashira”Carbonylation(Awuah and metabolite, which is found in food ingredients, Capretta, 2009), Wittig reaction(Das and including fruits, vegetables, olive oil, tea, and 141 Hawaiz, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 041-041
Ghosh, 2011), A novel route from 2.3. Synthesis of azo-chalcones (2a-f): salicylaldehyde and acetophenone derivatives (Sashidhara et al., 2012), microwave technique Compound (1) (1.27gm, 0.005mol) was (Belsare and Aasim, 2013), and the most mixed with appropriate substituted common one that was utilized in this work is a benzaldehydes (0.005mol) and (0.015mol) of Claisen Schmidt condensation reaction ethanolic sodium hydroxide. The mixture was followed by oxidative cyclization with refluxed for 1 hour with stirring, until all starting materials had reacted, the solution was DMSO/I2 (Husain et al., 2013). kept overnight and acidified with conc. HCl to obtain the precipitate of chalcone compounds, then filtered off and washed with cold ethanol,
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS and recrystallized in toluene giving a yellow 2.1. Experimental Note crystals of chalcones (2a-f) (Menezes et al., Melting points were determined using an 2009). Electrothermal melting point apparatus. IR 3 1 2 4 spectra were recorded on IR Affinity-1 O 11 14 16 1 5 N Spectrophotometer, using KBr disc. H-NMR, 3` 6 10 15 N 12 17 13 13 13 4` R C-NMR and C-DEPT-135 spectra were 9 7 20 18 recorded on a Bruker (300 & 400MHz) OH 8 19 (Solvent CDCl3) with TMS as internal reference. 2.4. Synthesis of azo-flavones (3a-f):
A mixture of (0.002mol) chalcones, 2.2. Preparation of starting material 1-(5-(2- (0.0004mmol, 0.1g) of iodine and DMSO (20 p-tolyldiazenyl)-2-hydroxyphenyl) mL) was refluxed for about 45 min. at 110-120 ethanone (1) oC with stirring. The cooled mixture was The starting material (1) was synthesized poured into (20g) of crushed ice to obtain the by two steps (diazotization and coupling solid products and diluted with water to reaction) as described in the literature recover the maximum amount of dissolved procedures (Hawaiz and Samad ,2012). The flavones. The obtained solid products washed solid azo-acetophenone compound was with aqueous 20% sodium thiosulphate (50mL) collected by vacuum filtrations, washed several and ethanol. Finally the products were times with water, dried and recrystallized from recrystallized from toluene (Doshi et al., 1986, ethanol to obtain yellow crystals of 1-(5-(2-p- p.759). tolyldiazenyl)-2-hydroxyphenyl)ethanone (1). 1 3 2 4 O 11 5 12 3` N 6 10 H N 4` 13 9 14 20 O 7 O 19 8 15
11 10 16 18 17 R 3 4 6 9 N OH 1 2 5 N 7 8 3` 4` 142 Hawaiz, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 041-041
3. RESULTS 119.04: C8, 121.89: C13, 122.19:C4,4`, 126.50: C , `126.6: C , 127.61: C , 128.52: C , Physical properties and spectral data of the 10 11 19 20 129.32: C , 129.76: C , 129.99: C , synthesized compounds 17 18 3,3` 131.28:C7, 132. 38:C16, 135.48: C15, 141.20: 3.1 1-(5-(2-p-tolyldiazenyl)-2-hydroxyphe- C2, 144.65:C14, 145.32: C6, 150.14: C5, 165.44: nyl) ethanone (1) (C15H14N2O2), m.p. (131- C9, 193.01: C12- C=O. 132 oC), yield (14gm, 91 %); IR (cm-1) str., 3442 (-OH), 1637 (C=O), 1618 (C=C), 1598 (- 3.4 3-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1-(2-hydroxy-5-(p- 1 tolyldiazenyl)phenyl)prop-2-en-1-one(2c): N=N-), 1211 & 1168 (C-O). H-NMR(CDCl3): o (C23H20 N2O3), m.p. (116-118 C), yield (86 2.48(s, 3H, CH3), 2.78(s, 3H, COCH3), 7.11- -1 13 %). IR (cm ) str., 3446 (-OH), 1635 (C=O), 8.38 (m, 7H, 2Ar-H). 12.60(s, 1H, OH); C- 1 1604, 1566(C=C). H-NMR: 2.45(s, 3H, CH3), NMR(CDCl3): 21.45:C1, 28.78: COCH3,: 3.8(s, 3H, OCH3), 6.98-8.52 (m, 13H, 119.25: C8, 122.67: C10, 122.84:C11, 128.19: 3Aromatic ring protons+ Hα, Hβ), 13.40(s, 1H, C4,4`, 128.32: C7, 130.4: C3,3`, 142.78: C2, 13 OH). C-NMR: 21.58:C1, 55.58: OCH3, 145.01: C6, 150.44: C5, 163.2: C9, 205: C=O. 13 114.69: C17,19, 119.55: C8, 119.86: C13,122.76: C-DEPT-135(CDCl3): 21.45:C1, 28.78: C4,4`, 125.41: C10, 127.18: C11, 127.34: C15, COCH3,: 119.25: C8, 122.84:C11, 128.19: C4,4`, 128.42: C16,20, 129.91: C3,3`, 130.96:C7, , 128.32: C7, 130.4: C3,3`. 141.42:C2, 144.13:C14, 145.13: C6, 150.73: C5, 3.2 2-phenyl-6-(p-tolyldiazenyl)-4H chrom 162.38: C18, 166.07: C9, 193.68: C12- C=O. 13 en-4-one (2a): unexpected product C-DEPT-135:21.58:C1, 55.58: OCH3, 114.69:
o C17,19, 119.55: C8, 119.86: C13,122.76: C4,4`, (C22H18N2O2), m.p. (120-122 C), yield (95 %); 127.18: C11, 128.42: C16,20, 129.91: C3,3`, IR (cm-1) str., 3433 (-OH), 1643 (C=O), 1 130.96:C7. 1602(C=C). H-NMR(CDCl3): 2.35(s, 3H, CH3), 3.10(dd, 1H, H13a), 3.20(dd, 1H, H13b), 3.5 3-(4-bromophenyl)-1-(2-hydroxy-5-(p- 5.5(dd, 1H, H14), 7.08-8.50 (m, 13H, tolyldiazenyl)phenyl)prop-2-en-1one(2d): o 3Aromatic ring protons), 13.14(s, 1H, OH). (C22H17Br N2O2 ), m.p. (180-182 C), yield (84 13 -1 C-NMR: 21.46:C1, 44.36: C13, 79.91:C14, %). IR (cm ) str., 3457 (-OH), 1639(C=O), 1 118.733:C8, 119.68:C10, 122.65:C11, 1560(C=C). H-NMR: 2.47(s, 3H, CH3), 7.07- 123.17:C4,4`, 127.53:C16,20, 128.56:C18, 8.54 (m, 13H, 3Aromatic ring protons + Hα, 13 128.95:C7, 129.59:C17,19, 129.78:C3,3`, Hβ), 13.2(s, 1H, OH). C-NMR: 21.5:C1, 141.31:C15, 145.11:C2, 147.28:C6, 150.68:C5, 119.53: C8, 119.47: C13, 120.37:C18, 13 165.93:C9, 193.01: C12- C=O. C-DEPT-135: 122.67:C4,4` ,125. 59:C10, 127.02: C11, 128.85: 21.46:C1, 44.36: C13, 79.91:C14, 118.733:C8, C16,20, 129.83: C3,3`, 130.19:C7, 132.17:C17,19, 122.65:C11, 123.17:C4,4`, 127.53:C16,20, 132.40:C15, 141.44:C2, 144.82: C14, 145.14:C6, 13 128.56:C18, 128.95:C7, 129.59:C17,19, 150.62: C5, 165.95: C9, 193.45: C12- C=O. C- 129.78:C3,3`, 165.93:C9. DEPT-135: 21.5:C1, 119.53: C8, 119.47: C13, 122.67:C4,4`, 127.02: C11, 128.85: C16,20, 3.3 3-(2-chlorophenyl)-1-(2-hydroxy-5-(p- 129.83: C3,3`, 130.19:C7, 132.17:C17,19. tolyldiazenyl)phenyl)prop-2-en-1-one(2b): o (C22H17Cl N2O2) , m.p. (160-162 C), yield (92 3.6 3-(3-nitrophenyl)-1-(2-hydroxy-5-(p- %). IR (cm-1) str., 3456 (-OH), 1641 (C=O), tolyldiazenyl)phenyl)prop-2-en-1-one(2e): 1 o 1564(C=C). H-NMR: 2.40(s, 3H, CH3), 7.1- (C22H17N3 O4), m.p. (199-201 C), yield (85 -1 8.52 (m, 13H, 3Aromatic ring protons+ Hα, %). IR (cm ) str., 3458 (-OH), 1643(C=O), 13 1 Hβ), 13.14(s, 1H, OH). C-NMR: 21.01:C1, 1575(C=C), 1527, 1355(NO2). H-NMR: 143 Hawaiz, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 041-041
2.39(s, 3H, CH3), 7.15-8.75 (m, 13H, 3.10 2-(4-methoxy phenyl)-6-(p- 3Aromatic ring protons+ Hα, Hβ), 12.64(s, 1H, tolyldiazenyl)-4H-chromen-4-one (3c): o OH). (C23H18N2O3), m.p. (202-205 C), yield (56 %); IR (cm-1) str., 1653 (C=O), 1602(C=C). 1H- 3.7 3-(4-flurophenyl)-1-(2-hydroxy-5-(p- NMR: 2.44(s, 3H, CH3), 3.89(s, 3H, C1-OCH3), tolyldiazenyl)phenyl)prop-2-en-1-one(2f): o 6.71(s, 1H, H13-α),7.02-8.74 (m, 11H, 3- (C22H17FN2 O2), m.p. (116-118 C), yield (84 13 Aromatic ring protons). C-NMR: 21.65:C1, %). IR (cm-1) str., 3431 (-OH), 1641 (C=O), 1 55.62: OCH3, 106.30:C13-α, 114.69: C17,19, 1602, 1570(C=C). H-NMR: 2.46(s, 3H, CH3), 119.07: C8,121.76: C4,4`, 123.33: C15, 124.49: 6.97-8.55 (m, 13H, 3Aromatic ring protons+ 13 C10, 126.51: C11, 128.60: C16,20, 129.92: C3,3`, Hα, Hβ), 13.40(s, 1H, OH). C-NMR: 129.98:C7, 142.19:C2 , 149.60: C6, 150.89: C5, 21.01:C1, 114.59: C17,19, 115.97: C8, 119.06: 157.74: C18, 162.40: C9, 163.62: C14-β, 178.24: C13,122.18: C4,4`,10, 126.63: C11, , 128.35: C12- C=O.13C-DEPT-135: 21.65:C1, 55.62: C16,20, 129.33: C3,3`, 130.36:C7, 130.44: C15 , OCH3, 106.30:C13-α, 114.69: C17,19, 119.07: 140.95:C2, 144.47:C14, 144.65: C6, 150.73: C5, C8,121.76: C4,4`, 126.51: C11, 128.60: C16,20, 162.38: C18, 165.46: C9, 193.04: C12- C=O. 129.92: C3,3`, 129.98:C7.
3.8 2-(phenyl)-6-(p-tolyldiazenyl)-4H- 3.11 2-(4-bromo phenyl)-6-(p-tolyldiazenyl)- chromen-4-one(3a): C22H16N2O2, m.p. (207- o -1 4H-chromen-4-one (3d): C22H15BrN2O2, m.p. 208 C), yield (75 %); IR (cm ) str., 1656 o -1 1 (239-241 C), yield (51 %); IR (cm ) str., 1641 (C=O), 1608, 1566(C=C). H-NMR: 2.47(s, (C=O), 1615(C=C). 1H-NMR: 2.46(s, 3H, 3H, CH3), 6.85(s, 1H, H13-α), 7.28-8.78 (m, 13 CH3), 6.85(s, 1H, H13-α), 7.27-8.78 (m, 11H, 3- 12H, 3-Aromatic ring protons). C-NMR: Aromatic ring protons). 21.10:C1, 107.18:C13-α 119.67:C8, 121.25:C4,4`, 122.64: C11, 123.96:C10 , 125.88: C16, 3.12 2-(3-nitro phenyl)-6-(p-tolyldiazenyl)- 126.15:C20, 128.58: C18,128.65 C17,19, 129.38: 4H-chromen-4-one (3e): C22H15N3O4, m.p. o -1 C3,3`, 131.08:C7, 131.32:C15, 141.73:C2, (227-229 C), yield (45 %); IR (cm ) str., 1643 1 149.11:C6, 150.08: C5, 156.85: C9, 163.04:C14- (C=O), 1615(C=C), 1529, 1346 (NO2). H- 13 β,177.80: C12- C=O. C-DEPT-135: 21.10:C1, NMR: 2.43(s, 3H, CH3), 6.61(s, 1H, H13-α),
107.18:C13-α 119.67:C8, 121.25:C4,4`, 122.64: 7.24-8.88 (m, 11H, 3-Aromatic ring protons). C11, 125.88: C16, 126.15:C20, 128.58: 3.13 2-(4-fluoro phenyl)-6-(p-tolyldiazenyl)- C18,128.65 C17,19, 129.38: C3,3`, 131.08:C7. 4H-chromen-4-one (3f): (C22H15FN2O2), m.p. 3.9 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-6-(p-tolyldiazenyl)- (211-213 oC), yield (47 %); IR (cm-1) str., 1647 1 4H-chromen-4-one (3b): (C22H15ClN2O2), (C=O), 1600(C=C). H-NMR: 2.45(s, 3H, o -1 m.p. (208-210 C), yield (53 %); IR (cm ) str., CH3), 6.78(s, 1H, H13-α), 7.01-8.74 (m, 11H, 3- 1 13 1654 (C=O), 1612,1560(C=C). H-NMR: Aromatic ring protons). C-NMR: 21.07:C1, 2.45(s, 3H, C1-CH3), 6.72(s, 1H, H13-α),7.06- 105.6:C13-α, 114.50: C17,19, 115.79: C8,122.62: 13 8.78 (m, 11H, 3-Aromatic ring protons). C- C4,4`, 125.9:C10, 126.16: C11, 127.55: C15, NMR: 21.09:C1, 112.61:C13-α, 118.72: C8, 128.03: C16,20, 128.12: C3,3`, 129.34:C7, , 122.05:C4,4`, 126.67: C11, 126.72: C10, 141.74:C2, 149.2: C6, 150.06: C5,156.69: C9, 126.76:C19, 129.37: C20, 129.37: C17, 129.80: 161.99: C18, 163.51:C14, 177.56: C12- C=O. C18, 130.20: C3,3`, 130.42:C7, 132. 53:C16,
132.62: C15, 141.74: C2, 149.19: C6, 150.10: C5, 157.15: C9, 162.21: C14-β, 177.47:C12- C=O.
144 Hawaiz, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 041-041
4. DISCUSSION compound may tautomerize with its enol form Scheme (2). 4.1 Synthesis and characterization This work was designed to synthesize and O HO characterization of some new azo-flavone Azo Ha Azo H derivatives along with biological evaluation Hb against two types of bacteria Escherichia coli gram negative and Staphylococcus aurous O Tautomerization Hc O gram positive. The preparation processes were achieved in three main consecutive steps: 2a: R:H diazotization-coupling reaction, Claisen- Scheme(2): Keto-enol tautomerization of flavanone(2a) Schmidt condensation and oxidative-cylization which outlined in Scheme (1). O The most important evidence for flavanone Step1a: Diazonium salt formation b: Coupling raection formation (2a) is come from the appearance of 1 NH + 2 N2 three (dd) signals in the H-NMR spectrum for OH two vicinal and one geminal protons(ABX spin N HCl, NaNO2 2`-hydrxyacetopenone system) and two distinct picks of C13& C14 at 0oC N 13 NaOH (1) ( 44.36 & 79.9 )ppm in C-NMR data respectively (Hawaiz et al., 2014).
Sstep2: 2-hydrxy chalcone synthesis The strong evidence for the formation of O CHO other chalcones (2b-f) is the shifting of -1 N R carbonyl group band to ≈1640cm in IR and N 13 (1) + NaOH ≈195ppm in C-NMR spectra. In third step all EtOH, Reflux OH chalcones and flavanone (2a) were converted to R (2a-f) flavone derivatives (3a-f) through treatment O Step3: Flavone synthesis H with DMSO/I2via oxidative cyclization reaction and confirmed by the disappearance of I2 1 (2a-f) N DMSO OH band in both IR Figure (1) and H-NMR N O spectra Figure (2). R (3a-f) R: a:H, b:2-Cl, c:4-OMe, d:4-Br, e:3-NO, f:4-F Further support comes from the further Scheme (1): Stepwize preparation of azo-flavones(3a-f) -1 shifting of carbonyl group band to ≈1650cm in IR and ≈178ppm in 13C-NMR spectra Figure The prepared key substrate 1-(5-(2-p- (3) and the proton of C13-α of flavone ring to tolyldiazenyl)-2-hydroxyphenyl)ethanone (1) 6.7ppm in 1H-NMR and 114ppm in 13C-NMR reacted with different substituted and DEPT-135 Figure (4) along with the benzaldehydes in the hope to get new change of C14 pick to higher chemical shift chalcones as a precursor or a bridge for the ≈165ppm (Ghodile et al., 2012). preparation of the target molecule azo-flavone compounds(3a-f). The process succeeded with 4.2 Biological activity all substituted benzaldehydes, while in the case Most of the synthesized flavones have been of unsubstituted benzaldehyde (R=H) the screened to in vitro anti-bacterial activities results showed unexpected flavanone product against two types of bacteria Gram-positive instead of chalcone and the flavanone (Staphylococcus aurous) and Gram negative bacteria (Escherichia coli) as KBr discs in a 145 Hawaiz, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 041-041 sterilized Muller Hinton agar medium. The 5. CONCLUSSIONS prepared discs placed on the surface of the The introduction and merging of an cultured media was incubated at 37 ºC for 24 azophenyl group stepwise to chromen-4-ones hours. The Zone of inhibition produced by obtained new colored flavone compounds. each compound was measured in mm; most of Based on the spectral data interpretations the them recorded a high order of anti-bacterial reaction of benzaldehyde with the starting activity against Gram negative bacteria material (1) gives flavanone compound with its (Escherichia coli) [3a: 30, 3b: 32, 3c: 24, 3d: enol form instead of chalcone in high yields, 35, 3e: 25, 3f: 31mm]and lower activity which was converted consequently to flavone against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus as chalcones by treatment with cyclizing agent aurous)[3a: 14, 3b: 16, 3c: 15, 3d: 14, 3e: 16, DMSO/I . The results of the in vitro biological 3f: 22mm] , means that S. aurous is more 2 activity indicate that the synthesized flavones resistance against flavone compounds while E- are more sensitive to gram negative bacteria coli type of bacteria was more sensitive. (mm: (Escherichia coli) than gram-positive millimeter). (Staphylococcus aurous).
Conflict of Interest There is no conflict of interest.
Figure (1): IR spectrum of flavone (3a) 146 Hawaiz, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 041-041
Figure (2): 1H-NMR spectrum of flavone (3a)
Figure (3): 13C-NMR spectrum of flavone (3a)
Figure (4): 13C-DEPT-135 spectrum of flavone (3a)
147 Hawaiz, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 041-041
REFERENCES some new azo-pyrazoline derivatives. European ADIB, A. M., AHMAD, F. & IDRIS, M. S. (2008) Journal of Chemistry, 5 (2). pp., 233-236. Synthesis and antimicrobial activity of 4′, 5, 7- HAWAIZ , F. E. & SAMAD , M. K. (2012) Synthesis trihydroxy-3′-prenylflavanone. Journal of and Spectroscopic Characterization of Some chemical sciences, 120 (5). pp., 469-473. New Biological Active Azo–Pyrazoline AWUAH, E. & CAPRETTA, A. (2009) Access to Derivatives. Journal of Chemistry, 9 (3). pp., Flavones via a Microwave-Assisted, One-Pot 1613-1622. Sonogashira− Carbonylation− Annulation HUSAIN, A., RASHID, M., MISHRA, R. & KUMAR, Reaction. Organic letters, 11 (15). pp., 3210- D. (2013) Bis-chalcones and Flavones: 3213. Synthesis and antimicrobial activity. Acta BAKER, W. (1933) Molecular rearrangement of some o- Poloniae Pharmaceutica (Drug Research), 70 acyloxyacetophenones and the mechanism of (3). pp., 443-449. the production of 3-acylchromones. Journal of LIM, S. S., KIM, H. & LEE, D. (2007) In vitro the Chemical Society 322 pp., 1381-1389. antimalarial activity of flavonoids and BELSARE, D. & AASIM, K. (2013) Microwave- chalcones. BULLETIN-KOREAN CHEMICAL Assisted Synthesis of Flavones and their SOCIETY, 28 (12). pp., 2495-2497. Comparative Study with Conventational MENEZES, M., MANJREKAR, S., PAI, V., PATRE, R. Method. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy, 3 (4). pp., & TILVE, S. (2009) A facile microwave 23-27. assisted synthesis of flavones. Indian journal of DAS, J. & GHOSH, S. (2011) A new synthesis of chemistry. Section B, Organic including flavones and pyranoflavone by intramolecular medicinal, 48 (9). pp., 1311-1314. photochemical Wittig reaction in water. SARAF, S., ASHAWAT, M. S. & SARAF, S. (2007) Tetrahedron Letters, 52 (52). pp., 7189-7194. Flavonoids: A nutritional protection against DOSHI, A., SONI, P. & GHIYA, B. (1986) Oxidation oxidative and UV induced cellular damages. of 2′‐Hydroxychalcones. Chemischer Pharmacognosy Reviews, 1 (1). pp., 30-40 Informationsdienst, 17(47). p. 759. SARDA, S. R., JADHAV, W. N. & PAWAR, R. P. FURUTA, T., KIMURA, T., KONDO, S., MIHARA, (2009) I2-Al2O3: A suitable heterogeneous H., WAKIMOTO, T., NUKAYA, H., TSUJI, catalyst for the synthesis of flavones under K. & TANAKA, K. (2004) Concise total microwave irradiation. Int. J. Chem. Tech. Res, synthesis of flavone C-glycoside having potent 1 (3). pp., 539-543. anti-inflammatory activity. Tetrahedron, 60 SASHIDHARA, K. V., KUMAR, M. & KUMAR, A. (42). pp., 9375-9379. (2012) A novel route to synthesis of flavones GHODILE, N. G., RAJPUT, P., BANEWAR, V. & from salicylaldehyde and acetophenone RAUT, A. (2012) Synthesis and Antimicrobial derivatives. Tetrahedron Letters, 53 (18). pp., activity of some Chalcones and Flavones 2355-2359. having 2-hydroxyacetophenone moiety. Int. J. VATKAR, B., PRATAPWAR, A., TAPAS, A., BUTLE, Pharm. Bio Sci, 3 (3). pp., 389-395. S. & TIWARI, B. (2010) Synthesis and GONZÁLEZ GALLEGO, J., SÁNCHEZ CAMPOS, S. antimicrobial activity of some flavanone & TUNON, M. (2007) Anti-inflammatory derivatives. International Journal of ChemTech properties of dietary flavonoids. Nutricion Research, 2 (1). pp., 504-508. Hospitalaria, 22 (3).pp., 287-293. VIDYASAGAR, N. C. & .NANDA, R. K. (2012) GROTEWOLD, E. 2006. The science of flavonoids, Synthesis of some flavonoid derivatives and Springer pp.1-274. study of their antioxidant and vivo antibacterial HAWAIZ, F. E., HUSSEIN, A. J. & SAMAD, M. K. activity. Contmporary Invetigation and (2014) One-pot three-component synthesis of observation in pharmacy 119 pp., 9-18.
ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 841-851 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.81
Synthesis, Characterization and dying performance studies of some azo dyes derived from m-phenylenediamine
1 1 1 Diler D.Kurda, Darya J. Raheem*, Mohammed K. Samad
1 Department of Chemistry , College of Education, University of Salahaddin -Erbil, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: A number of azo dyes(2a-h) were prepared by the reaction of 4- Received: 03/00/2016 aminoacetophenone with sodium nitrite to produce the corresponding diazonium Accepted: 18/30/2016 salts then allowed to react with m-phenylenediamine to produce the appropriate Published: 10 /01/2017 azo dye(1), The prepared starting material (1) has been reacted with different Keywords: substituted benzaldehydes to give a new series of chalcone derivatives (2a-h) Azo-dyes, . Additionally, the structures of the newly synthesized compounds were confirmed chalcones, by FT-IR, 1H-NMR spectral data. All the azo compounds are used for dyeing Fastness, performance on multi-fiber strip of acetate, cotton, nylon, wool, acrylic and dying performance polyester fibers are acid and dispersed dyes. All the synthesized dyes gave moderate to excellent fastness properties on each fiber. *Corresponding Author: Darya J. Raheem Email: [email protected]
economy, versatility, relative ease of 1. INTRODUCTION production and good dying performance. Now a day the most common kind of (Christie, 2014).They have been studied widely synthetic dyes for dyeing fabrics and textiles because of their excellent optical and thermal are the azo- dyes. They are usually strongly properties in the applications such as optical coloured compounds which can be intensely recording medium (Fozooni et al., 2008), oil- yellow, red, orange, blue or even green, soluble light fast dyes, ink-jet printing, and depending on the exact structure of the toner. Recently, azo compounds as organic molecule and п-delocalization. Subsequently, dyes are applicable in nonlinear optical the colors intensity and interaction the dyes elements, molecular memory storage and with fibers is depend on the structure and the organic photoconductors due to their chemical formula for both the compound that interesting electronic features in connection. used as a dyes and the textile. (Parekh and (Otutu, 2013) Maheria, 2011).In Azo-dyes the structural Our aim in this study is to synthesize and to formula, that confer colour is the azo (–N=N–) test the ability to directly stain of new dyes group, and attachment of dye to the fiber is due with a variety of fibers that have been woven to salt formation between the ionic groups of into a piece of Multi-fiber fabric or introduce both the dye and the fiber. (Patel et al., the azo-chalcone system to see the 2007)The importance of azo-dyes is due to its 149 Kurda D. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 841-851 improvement in dyeing techniques. The slowly to the diazonium salt solution(step1). synthesis of some new azo-chalcone The mixture allowed stirring for 15 min. until compounds derived from 4- precipitation is completed. The solid azo dye aminoacetophenone via Azo coupling of was collected by vacuum filtration, washed aromatic rings, that involves an electro -philic several times with cold water, dried and substitution reaction where an aryl diazonium recrystallized from ethanol to give deep red cation is attacked by another aryl ring, crystals of compound(1) (Samad et al., 2015): especially those substituted with electron- o C14H14N4O m.p.168-170 C, yield (95%), donating groups (Farouq et al., 2010).It can be IR(cm-1): 3130&3329 NH2 Str., 1660.71 C=O used for the preparation of azobenzene Str., 1635 NH def., 1589 C=C ring, 1255 C-O derivatives containing active functional 1 Str. ( H-NMR) (ppm): 2.56(s, 3H, CH3), 5.9 (s groups as a precursor for additional synthesis 2H, NH2 of C8), 6.54 (s 2H, NH2 of C10), 7.97- to give different organic molecules such as : 8.17(m 7H Ar-H). azo-amide(Hamzacebi et al., 2008), azo- imine(Clarke and Kirner, 1941) and azo- 2.3. Synthesis of Chalcones 1- chalcone (Al-Asiri, 2000) with estimation their [2,4diaminopheyazo)-phenyl]-3- dying performance. (Bhuiyan et al., 2013). (substitutedphenyl)prop-2-en-1-one (2a-h): [1] A mixture of compound (1) (1.27gm, 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 0.005mol), alcoholic sodium hydroxide 4% 2.1. Experimental (5mL), and substituted benzaldehydes Melting points were determined using (0.005mol) in ethanol (30ml) was stirred under an Electro-thermal melting point apparatus , reflux for (30-70 minutes) until all starting IR spectra were recorded on a Shimatzu FT-IR materials had reacted , the cooled mixture was spectroscopy, using KBr disc. 1H-NMR solidified and filtered off, dried and spectra were recorded on a Bruker (400MHz) recrystallized from ethanol to give red colored with TMS as internal reference in Mangdli products.(Hawaiz and Samad, 2012), Table (1) Pharmaceutical and chemical center, Wuhan (China). 2.4. Dyeing applications
2.2. Synthesis of 4-(2, 4- diaminophenylazo) Dissolve (2 gm.) of the azo dye and (1 –acetophenone (1): p-Aminoacetophenone gm.) of an electrolyte (sodium chloride NaCl) (20.2gm, 0.15mol) was dissolved by heating in 100 ml of distilled water. Add (5 ml) of (1 M gently in a (120 mL) of 3M HCl. After the HCl) and stir to dissolve. Put a piece of the entire solid has dissolved the solution was multi-fiber strip (the offer of using of multi- cooled in an ice bath to (0-5) oC. While fiber strip will reduce the number of testing stirring, added slowly (150 mL) of freshly experiments to examine the dyeing results.) in the solution. Boil the solution to near boiling prepared HNO2 (1M of sodium nitrite solution), in which the temperature remains below 10oC. on a hot plate for 15 minutes making sure the The solution was kept in the ice bath and strip is immersed throughout. immediately preceded to the next step. Use tweezers to remove the strip, allow it to cool, and rinse it with tap water. Pat dry the m-phenylenediamine (16.2 gm., 0.15mol) dyed fiber with a paper towel and leave to dry. was dissolved in (30mL) of methanol, then The SDC multi- fiber test fabric is made up of cooled with stirring in the ice bath and added 150 Kurda D. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 841-851
6 different fibers: each is a band of about 15 at 1660.71cm-1 and 1635.65cm-1 referring to mm. The fibers are: secondary cellulose acetate C=O Str.; and N-H def., a characteristic N=N (Dicel); bleached cotton; nylon 6.6; polyester band was assigned at (1558) cm-1 (Samad and (Terylene); acrylic (Courtelle); and wool Hawaiz, 2011). The1H-NMR spectrum of worsted. (Hawaiz et al., 2016). compound (1) (fig. 5) shows three singlet signals at (2.61, 5. 93 and 6. 54) ppm belongs to the three protons of (-CH ) attached to the 3. RESULTS 3 carbonyl group and four protons of two (-NH2- Our study include synthesis, characterization ) groups respectively, multiplet at (7.41- 8.17) and dyeing applications of a new series of azo- chalcone derivatives on multi-fiber strips textile. for seven protons of the two phenyl rings. The reaction is began from starting material (1) and azo-chalcone derivatives (2a-h) are shown in bands Scheme 1. The IR spectrum of compound (1) showed 1 O O NH2 two strong bands at (3130&3329) cm- NH C CH3 2 C CH3 9 8 3 2 attributed to (NH2) group, two combined strong O HNO2 NH2 10 7 4 1 H2N N N C CH3 The FT-IR spectra of all chalcones (2a-h) 0-5oC 11 12 (1) 5 6 showed the characteristic peaks that proved the
NH2 N N Cl O presence of particular carbonyl functional C H Etanol, NaOH groups. The destined band in the region of (1656 - 1647) cm-1 indicates the (C=O) group,
X lowering of normal (C=O) frequency was
O observed due to the presence of (C=C) 2 14 stretching conjugated to carbonyl group 9 3 1 13 NH 15 H2N 8 2 (conjugated enones) (Hussein et al., 2013) 10 4 6 16 1 N 18 11 5 17 X The H-NMR spectra of chalcones (2 c, d, 7 N (2a-h) 12 e, g and h) in Table (2), show characteristic doublet signals for α, β- protons at (7–8) ppm, This numbering, used particularly for the which coalesced with aromatic protons 1 interpretation of H-NMR spectra. (Hussein, 2014). Obviously, in all cases the
Scheme (1) Where X= 4-F, 2-Cl, 4-Cl, 4-OCH3, 4- doublet for (CHβ) appear around (8.20-8.25) CH3, 4-Br, 3-Cl-Bz, 4-Cl-Bz ppm this deshielding refers to the effect of The formation of the starting materials and resonance of the phenyl rings that bonded to β- the target molecule chalcones derivatives were carbon atom, but the (CHα) completely confirmed via structure elucidations on the emerged with aromatic protons, it is hard to basis of their spectral data IR, 1H-NMR, The distinguish it at a certain number. Furthermore; 1 existence of azo-linkage, carbonyl and amino the H-NMR spectra of chalcones (2 d, e, g and groups in compound (1) and the disappearance h) introduced new singlet signals for each of of the indicated methyl group (methyl ketone) them at (3.83, 2.58, 5.20 and 5.18) ppm related and shifting the carbonyl group in the to the protons of (OCH3, CH3 and two -O-CH2) compound (2) are characterized and proved groups respectively, were considered as a good according to the obtained spectral data's. (Field marked to produce a series of chalcone et al., 2005). derivatives.
151 Kurda D. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 841-851
Figure (1): IR spectrum of compound (1).
Figure (2): IR spectrum of compound (2a).
. Figure (3): IR spectrum of compound (2f).
152 Kurda D. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 841-851
.
Figure (4): IR spectrum of compound (2h).
Figure (5): 1H-NMR spectrum of compound (1).
Figure (6): 1H-NMR spectrum of compound (2d). 153 Kurda D. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 841-851
Figure (7): 1H-NMR spectrum of compound (2e).
Figure (8): 1H-NMR spectrum of compound (2g).
Table1: Some physical properties and IR data for the prepared Azo- Chalcones (2a-h) o Prod. R Molecular M.wt NH2 str. NH C=O C=C M.P./ C Yield formula def. str. str. % cm-1 cm-1 cm-1 2 a 4-F C21H17FN4O 360 3352,3448 1616 1655 1600 182-184 95 2 b 2-Cl C21H17ClN4O 376.5 3361,3454 1622 1647 1589 173-175 90 2 c 4-Cl C21H17ClN4O 376.5 3361,3441 1629 1654 1597 195-197 88 2 d 4- C22H20N4O2 372 3360,3442 1624 1653 1594 193-195 93 OCH3 2 e 4-CH3 C22H20N4O 356 3340,3446 1633 1653 1591 188-190 94 2 f 4-Br C21H17BrN4O 421 3385,3446 1622 1656 1595 199-201 97 2 g 3-(p- C28H23ClN4O2 482.5 3346,3427 1624 1653 1593 175-177 98 Cl-Bz) 2 h 4-(p- C28H23ClN4O2 482.5 3369,3441 1624 1653 1598 186-188 96 Cl-Bz)
Bz = OCH2C6H4
154 Kurda D. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 841-851
Table2: The 1H-NMR data for the prepared Azo-Chalcones (2c, d, e, g & h) Product δ / ppm Multiplicity Intensity Assignment
2c 5.86 (s 2H, NH2 ofC8), 6.22 (s 2H, NH2 of C10), 7.02-8.23 (m 11H Ar-H 4-Cl and 2H of CH-α and CH-β).
2d 3.83 (s 3H –Ar-OCH3-C19), 5.87 (s 2H, NH2 ofC8), 6.21 (s 2H, NH2 of 4-OCH3 C10), 7.02-8.29 (m 11H Ar-H and 2H of CH-α and CH-β).
2e 2.58 (s 3H -Ar-CH3-C19), 5.86 (s 2H, NH2 ofC8), 6.20 (s 2H, NH2 of C10), 4-CH3 7.38-8.24 (m 11H Ar-H and 2H of CH-α and CH-β).
2g 5.20 (s 2H -O-CH2-C19), 5.87 (s 2H, NH2 ofC8), 6.23 (s 2H, NH2 of C10), 3-Cl-Bz 7.10-8.25 (m 15H Ar-H and 2H of CH-α and CH-β).
2h 5.18 (s 2H -O-CH2-C19), 5.87 (s 2H, NH2 ofC8), 6.24 (s 2H, NH2 of C10), 4-Cl-Bz 7.08-8.22 (m 15H Ar-H and 2H of CH-α and CH-β).
Dyes(2b,2c,2d,2f and 2g) were applied of the dye molecule with the structure of the on acetate, wool, acrylic and nylon fabrics but fabrics.(Tehrani-Bagha and Holmberg, 2013) they didn’t applied on cotton and polyester 4. Fastness properties fabrics Dyeing process was carried out at (pH 2 - 4.7) it was adjusted to 1 M HCl. All the data of fastness properties of light, and wash are shown in Table (3). The fastness We note that there is a variations in the properties of light were assessed in accordance hues of the dyed fabric which is results from with BS: 1006-1378 (Sultana and Uddin, 2007) the modification in the coupling components. (Cristea and Vilarem, 2006), and the wash All the dyes gave a wide range of colors fastness test in accordance with IS: 765-1979 change from light yellow to dark red with good (Zarkogianni et al., 2011).The light fastness levelness, brightness and depth on the fabrics ( was tested using Xenon Arc Test with a Zollinger, 2003). The changes in the shades of Window Glass Filter and The results were the dye fabric was caused by the nature and compared to with two outdoor exposure sun position of the substituent present on the light .The results was moderate to good for diazotized compound. The dyeing compounds acetate, nylon, wool, and acrylic while wash showed fair to good fastness to light, and and rubbing fastness was good to excellent for washing fastness. A noticeable smoothness nylon, wool, acetate, acrylic and polyester but after washing was observed. This may be due it’s bad with cotton. to the good penetration and the attractive force
155 Kurda D. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 841-851
Table (3) Illustrate dyeing color for Azo-Chalcones &fastness properties of the dyes. Name Name of Dye Type of Dyeing color Fastness properties of azo textile sample Change of shade comp. Xenon Sun light Washing light15W 40 hr 60c°- -40 hr 30min 4-Br Orange GS Acetate 2 3 5 Ecru Cotton 2 3 3 Red GW Nylon 6 6 4-5
Tan Polyester 2 4 4-5 YellowA4R Acrylic 7 7 4 Orange 3G Wool 6 6 4 2-Cl Scarlet F3GL Acetate 2 3 4
Ecru Cotton 2 3 3-4 Red E-BM Nylon 5 4 3-4
Peach Polyester 3 4 3-4
Orange GS Acrylic 6 4 4-5 Orange 3G Wool 6 4 4 3-Benz YellowRXL Acetate 2 4 5 ChromYellow Cotton 2 2 4 Orange TGLL Nylon 5 7 4-5 Ecru Polyester 2 3 4-5 CrysophinineH/c Acrylic 7 8 5 Orange 3G Wool 4 5 5 4-OCH3 Orange GS Acetate 7 6 4
Peach Cotton 4 7 2-3 Floxine NX Nylon 6 8 4-5 Peach Polyester 4 4 5 Orange GS Acrylic 7 8 5 Orange AGT Wool 5 7 4-5 4-Cl Red BL Acetate 6 7 4 Peach Cotton 4 5 2
Rubine 5BL Nylon 8 8 4-5 Orange GS Polyester 4 4 5 Red GW Acrylic 8 8 4-5 Orange AGT Wool 7 6 4 Light fastness: (Grading: 1- poor, 2- slight, 3- moderate, 4- fair, 5- good, 6- very good, 7&8-excellent ). Wash fastness: (Grading: 1- poor, 2- fair, 3- good, 4- very good, 5- excellent).
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5. Conclusion This study describes the synthesis and FOZOONI, S., TIKDARI, A. M., HAMIDIAN, H. & application of azo- chalcone compounds KHABAZZADEHA, H. (2008) A synthesis of some new 4-arylidene-5 (4H)-oxazolone azo dyes and an derived from 4-(2, 4- diaminophenylazo) – evaluation of their solvatochromic behavior. Arkivoc, acetophenone on Multi-fiber fabric. The 14, 115-123. introduction of the chalcone group to the HAMZACEBI, M. C., ROLLAS, S., KUCUKGUZEL, synthesized azo compound will increases the S. & KAYMAKCıOĞLU, B. (2008) Synthesis and conjugation and gave brighter hues on acetate, structure elucidation of hydrazones derived from N- nylon, wool, acrylic and polyester fibers but (2, 4-dimethylphenyl)-3-oxobutanamide. Arkivoc, 12, they didn’t applicable on cotton fiber. The 188-94. prepared azo- chalcone dyes in this study are HAWAIZ, F.E., ESSA, I. & MOHANAD, H. (2010) exhibited good to excellent dyeing properties Synthesis and Spectroscopic Investigation of Some on acetate, nylon, wool, acrylic and polyester NewChalcone–Derived Azo Dyes and Their Use in Dyeing Processes. Zanco, 22, 78-82. fabrics. The results of the fastness properties and change of shade, suggests that the dyes HAWAIZ, F. E., RAHEEM, D. J. & SAMAD, M. K. (2016) Synthesis and Characterization of Some New have no affinity for the cotton fiber and a good Azoimine Dyes and their Applications,. Synthesis to excellent affinity to nylon, wool, and acrylic and Characterization of Some New Azoimine Dyes fibers. and their Applications,, 18. HAWAIZ, F. E. & SAMAD, M. K. (2012) Synthesis and Acknowledgement Spectroscopic Characterization of Some New The authors are thankful to Chemistry Biological Active Azo–Pyrazoline Derivatives. Department, College of Education, Salahaddin Journal of Chemistry, 9, 1613-1622. University‐Hawler, for support of this research HUSSEIN, A. J. (2014) Synthesis and Characterization and providing all chemical substances. of Some New Pyrazoline Compounds Derived from Azo-Benzaldehyde. ZANCO Journal of Pure and
Applied Sciences, 27, 51-58. References HUSSEIN, F. H., HAWAIZ, F. E. & AZEEZ, H. J. AL-ASIRI, A. M. (2000) The Synthesis & Spectroscoic (2013) Synthesis and characterization of some new Properties of Chalcone-derived Dyes Prepared by the pyrazoline derivatives derived from 2, 4- Aldol Condensation of 4-Acetyl-4,-dimethylamino- dihydroxybenzaldehyde. International Journal, 4. azobenzene & Benzaldehydes. Science, 12. OTUTU, J. (2013) Synthesis and application of azo dyes BHUIYAN, M. R., SHAID, A., BASHAR, M., HAQUE, derived from 2-amino-1, 3, 4-thiadiazole-2-thiol on P. & HANNAN, M. (2013) A Novel Approach of polyester fibre. IJRRAS, 15, 292-296. Dyeing Jute Fiber with Reactive Dye after Treating with Chitosan. Open Journal of Organic Polymer PAREKH, N. & MAHERIA, K. (2011) Dyeing Materials, 2013. performance of heterocyclic monoazo dyes based on 3-amino 1H-pyrazolone [3, 4-b] quinoline derivatives CHRISTIE, R. 2014. Colour chemistry, Royal Society of on various fibers. Archives of Applied Science Chemistry. Research, 3, 359-365. CLARKE, H. & KIRNER, W. (1941) Methyl Red. PATEL, R., PATEL, N. & PATEL, K. (2007) Synthesis Organic Syntheses, 47-47. and Properties of Acid Dyes Derived from 4, 4'- CRISTEA, D. & VILAREM, G. (2006) Improving light Methylene bis (2, 5-dichloro aniline). Asian Journal fastness of natural dyes on cotton yarn. Dyes and of Chemistry, 19, 149. pigments, 70, 238-245. SAMAD, M. K., CHAWISHLI, L. H. & HUSSEIN, A. FIELD, L. D., S., S. H. & R, K. J. 2005. Organic J. (2015) Synthesis and Spectroscopic Structures from Spectra, John Wiley and Sons. Characterization of Some Diazodibenzyloxy Pyrazolines from Some Diazodibenzyloxy 157 Kurda D. et al. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 841-851
Chalcones. ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied ZARKOGIANNI, M., MIKROPOULOU, E., Sciences, 27, 53-60. VARELLA, E. & TSATSARONI, E. (2011) Colour and fastness of natural dyes: revival of traditional SAMAD, M. K. & HAWAIZ, F. E. 2011. Synthesis and dyeing techniques. Coloration Technology, 127, 18- Spectroscopic Investigation of Some New Azo- 27. Pyrazoline Derivatives. The 4th International Scientific Conference of Salahaddin University-Erbil. ZOLLINGER, H. 2003. Color chemistry: syntheses, properties, and applications of organic dyes and SULTANA, R. & UDDIN, M. Z. (2007) Compatibility pigments, John Wiley & Sons. testing of reactive dyes. Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 38, 61-64. TEHRANI-BAGHA, A. R. & HOLMBERG, K. (2013) Solubilization of hydrophobic dyes in surfactant solutions. Materials, 6, 580-608.
ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 851-865 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.18
Comparison Between Forecasting ARIMA and ARIMAX Method
Sameera Abdulsalam Othman
Department of Mathematic, College of Basic Education, University of Dohuk, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: The aim of this paper is Comparison between ARIMA and ARIMAX method Received: 15/04 /2016 includes the application of some statistical techniques for studying the time series Accepted: 21/ 09 /2016 of the average monthly discharge balinda river - duhok governorate which is Published: 10 /01/2017 measured at the General Directorate of irrigation in Duhok. The techniques used Keywords: forecast, are the modeling by an (ARIMA), ARIMAX model to check a goodness of fit we ARIMA, use mean square error, AIC, t, p to test the best mode significant . The result show ARIMAX, that ARIMAX method is better than ARIMA method in accuracy level of testing, discharge, and next time forecasting processes. There are minimum fourteen variables have to result, include in ARIMAX model in order to make accuracy level is not decrease. significant. *Corresponding Author: Sameera Abdulsalam Othman Email: [email protected]
place to start with any time series forecasting 1. INTRODUCTION analysis is to graph sequence plots of the time The series of the discharge volume series to be forecasted. This visual impression (M3/Sec.) balinda river - duhok governorate should suggest to the analyst whether there are examined and determined that the stationary in certain behavioral components present within the mean and the variance, also both the the time series. The absence of such autocorrelation and partial autocorrelation components can help the analyst in selecting a function and determined from order ARIMA model, the next step is its specification. The (0,2,2)(1,1,0)12 , we choose the best model that process of specifying a forecasting model has small value AIC =803.6, MSE =4549, and involves selecting the variables to be included, ARIMAX (2,1,0)(1,1,0)12, MSE =3304, selecting the form of the relationship, and AIC=748.687, used to obtain the most suitable estimating the values of the parameters in that ARIMAX ,MSE =796.4721 models to estimate equation. the discharge volume and next time forecasting processes. The analyst’s next step is to select a model for forecasting. Various 2. ARIMA AND ARIMAX statistical and graphic techniques may be useful Frank (1993) devide Arima models were to the analyst in the selection process. The best into 4 groups: autoregressive model (AR), 159 Othman, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 851-865 moving average(MA), autoregressive moving Zt=C+at-θ1at-1-θ2at-2-...-θqat-q (2) average (ARMA), and autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA). Where
θj: jth moving average parameter. a. Autoregressive (AR) model:
Zt ,C and at are as defined above Model autoregression is a form of regression, but instead of the variable to be MA (q) must be invertible, that is mean j <1 forecast being related to other explanatory [4, p.605] & [5, p. 51]. variables, it is related to past values of itself at varying time lags. Thus an autoregressive c. Autoregressive Moving Average (ARMA) model would express the forecast as a function These two components together form of previous values of that time series. Suppose autoregressive moving average (ARMA) that {at} is a purely random process with mean models. ARMA model assumes data set is zero and variance σ2 then the process {Zt} is a stationer. Moving Average Autoregresive said to be an autoregressive process of order p, process for AR (1) and MA (1) candianyatakan AR(p), if it satisfies the difference equation: as follows: Z = C + Z + Z + . . .+ Z + a t 1 t-1 2 t-2 p t-p t Zt= θ1 zt-1+zt – θ1 zt-1 (3) (1) d. Autoregressive integrated moving average Where (ARIMA) model:
Zt: The value of time series at time t. This type of time series forecasting model can be autoregressive (AR) in form, moving C : Constant. average (MA) in form or a combination of the
j : jth autoregressive parameter. two (ARMA). In an ARMA model, the series to be forecast is expressed as a function of both at : White noise previous value of the series (autoregressive terms) and previous error values from the necessary condition that the AR(p) be forecasting (the moving average terms). An stationary is j <1 [4, p. 591] & [5, p.32] abbreviation for (AR) Integrated (MA), a time series which, when differenced, follows an b. Moving average (MA) model: ARMA model is known as an ARIMA model. It There are two distinct meanings to this is a very broad class of time series, models [4, term, first a time series we can define the p.590] & [5, p.71]. In practice most time series moving average of order (q) as the average are non-stationary if {Zt} be non stationary (mean) value (q) consecutive observations. process we can transform it to stationary one by This can be used for smoothing or forecasting. taking the difference of order (d) as:
And second means that the value of the time d Yt = Z = 1-B series for at time (t) is influenced by a current t error term and possibly weighted error terms in Where B is backward shift operator we have the past. {Zt} is said to be a moving average ARMA model as: process of order (q) (MA (q)) if it satisfies the difference equation: ()()Bd Z B a tt (4) 160 Othman, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 851-865
The general form of seasonal Autoregressive number of active days in a week.The calendar Integrated Moving average effect is called trading day effects. The second
SARIMA(p,d,q)(P,D,Q)s can be expressed in the effect is day off effect due to religious holidays following form: and traditional festivals which called holidays effects. Time series modeling which done by ( (5) adding some variables are considered have a significant impact on the data. It is done to Where increase the accuracy of forecasting. Arimax models is a modification of seasonal Arima. This modification is done by add predictor = variables. Variations calendar effects is one of the predictor variables that are often used in the = modeling. Generally, Arimax model with variations calendar effects is denoted ( =
= (6) =
: Average of recorded time series. 3. APPLICATION
: coefficient of Autoregressive (AR). 3.1 Data collection
: coefficient of Moving average (MA). The data was taken directly from management of irrigation in Dohuk for the p: order of Autoregressive. period (November – 2005)to(November -2013) q: order of Moving average average monthly discharge volume (M3/Sec.) balinda river - Duhok governorate. coefficient of seasonal Autoregressive 3.2 ARIMA model coefficient of seasonal Moving average The figure (1), that represents the series P : order of seasonal Autoregressive. average monthly discharge volume (M3/Sec.) balinda river - Duhok governorate, we show Q : order of seasonal Moving average that the series is not stationary in mean and S : season length. variance when we plot (Autocorrelation function) ACF and (partial Autocorrelation d: order of deseasonality difference.
D: order of seasonality difference.
Wei (2006) and Liu (1986) mentions that a lot of business and economic data is monthly data time series and yearly likely be the subject of two types effects of calendar variations. The first calendar effect is the change of economic activity and businesses that depend on the 161 Othman, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 851-865
1.0 0.8 function) PACF for the series 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8
-1.0 Partial Partial Autocorrelation
2 12 22
T
450 400 Figure (6): PACF for differenced time series 350
300
1.0 250 0.8 0.6
0.4 C1 0.2 200 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 150 -0.6
Autocorrelation -0.8 -1.0
100 1 11 21
50
0
Index 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Figure (7): ACF for seasonality differenced
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0
Figure (1): the time series plot of average monthly Partial Autocorrelation 1 11 21 discharge Figure (8): PACF for seasonality differenced
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 We plots residual ACF and PACF for -0.2 -0.4 -0.6
Autocorrelation -0.8 -1.0 seasonality to test the randomness of residual
2 12 22 in figure (9): Figure (2): ACF plot of average monthly discharge
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0
2 12 22 Partial Partial Autocorrelation Figure (3): PACF plot of average monthly discharge
We take first difference and difference seasonality for the data as shown in the figures (4), and plot ACF again for the differenced and difference seasonality time series and PACF in figure (5,6,7,8). We show the series became stationary in the mean and variance Figure (9): residual ACF and PACF for seasonality differenced
300 by using (AIC(p,q) =N.Ln( )+2M) , we 200
100 suggest that the tentative model for the C5 0 differenced series is ARIMA (0,2,2)(1,1,0) -100 12
-200 the next step we find parameter estimation and Index 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 testing after we find the fit model table(1) show . Figure (4): the plot for differenced time series testing parameter estimation model
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6
Autocorrelation -0.8 -1.0 2 12 22
Figure (5): ACF for differenced time series 162 Othman, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 851-865
Table (1): ARIMA Model Parameters (Difference M12),month to forecast (MIF), month after to data) forecast (MIFA), two month before to forecast Model Parameters Estimate SE T sig. (MIFB1, MIFB2).“month in year”(M1, M2, …, Constant 0.825 0.161 0.376 0.708 M12),month to forecast (MIF), month after to forecast (MIFA), two month before to forecast MA Log 1 1.501 0.296 5.061 0.00 (MIFB1, MIFB2). Log 2 -0.508 0.148 -3.436 0.016 MIF = ARIMA(0,2,2)(1,1,0)12 Difference 2 (7) AR
Seasonal Log 1 -0.269 0.121 -2.823 0.029 It means that
Seasonal Difference 1 = log(64.534 jan + 108.847 feb + 142.712 mar + 222.214 apr + 260.565 may +
Table (2): ARIMA Model Parameters (seasonality 134.459jun + 88.213jul + 63.651aug + 53.819 differenced data) sep + 49.001oct + 48.085nov + 95.578dec +
Model Parameters Estimate SE T sig. 64.534 jan + 108.847 feb - 59.471dec2006 - Constant -0.109 0.244 -0.45 0.655 160.592 nov2006 / 108.847 feb)* 64.534 jan
MA Log 1 1.545 0.255 6.058 0.00 Autocorrellation function and partial Log 2 -0.553 0.135 -4.087 0.016 Autocorrellation function of regression process residual data is not stationary , so we need ARIMA(0,2,2)(1,1,0) Difference 2 12 differencing process to make it stationary. We AR show that in a figure (10,11) Seasonal Log 1 -0.416 0.125 -3.314 0.001
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4 Seasonal Difference 1 0.2 0.0
-0.2
Autocorrelation -0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
3 6 9 12 15 18 In the table (1) and table(2) we show all the Lag parameters of series discharge significant Figure (10): ACF of residual after difference because p- value in log 1 and log 2 are less than 0.05 (p-value ), level of 1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4 significance is 95% 0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
Partial Autocorrelation Partial -0.6
-0.8 -1.0 3 6 9 12 15 18 Lag 3.3 ARIMAX Model Figure (11): PACF of residual after difference In this research we blading ARIMAX we need an additional independent variable represent average monthly discharge volume (M3/Sec.) balinda river - Duhok governorate next step forecast monthly average discharge by using equation ( 7) the researcher find this equation to forecast monthly average . Namely variable “month in year”(M1, M2, …,
163 Othman, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 851-865
Table (3): ARIMA Model Parameters Table (5): Forecast ARIMA and ARIMAX Model Parameters Estimate SE T sig. Data Actual Forecast Forecast Constant 0.052 2.746 0.019 0.984
MA Log 1 -0.677 0.108 -6.256 0.000 ARIMA ARIMAX
Log 2 -0.320 0.108 -2.951 0.004 NOV 2012 57.060 49.799 97.89 DEC 2012 80.842 57.061 111.47 ARIMA (2,1,0)(1,1,0)12 Difference 1 JAN 2013 98.860 47.476 90.55 Seasonal Difference 1 FEB 2013 111.311 42.064 191.75 AR MAR 2013 245.531 42.901 246.75 Seasonal Log 1 -0.414 0.114 -3.622 0.000 APR 2013 288.988 53.737 218.77 Seasonal Difference 1 MAY 2013 220.279 62.522 142.38 We show in the table (3) all the parameter JUN 2013 125.138 317.890 104.28 ARIMA are significant of series discharge JUL 2013 81.411 297.323 88.43 significant because p- value in log 1 and log 2 AUG 2013 63.939 179.540 78.10 are less than 0.05 (p-value ), level of significance is 95% SEP 2013 55.202 114.145 67.60 OCT 2013 53.242 77.050 72.65 Table (4): comparison between ARIMA and ARIMAX
Model AIC MSE RMSE MAPE We plot The result comparison time
ARIMA0,2,2)(1,1,0)12 803.4 4544 63.73 46.70 series of average monthly discharge and Difference forecast ARIMAX, forecast of ARIMA and ARIMA(0,2,2)(1,1,0)12 758.4 8653 105.73 656.62 Seasonal Difference forecast ARIMAX and Actual ,forecast of
ARIMA(2,1,0)(1,1,0)12 748.69 3304 57.48 46.08 ARIMA and forecast ARIMAX we show in a ARIMAX 633.9 796.47 28.22 25.75 figure (12,13,14) respectively In the table (4) we show the results Akaike Information Criterion (AIC),Mean Square Error (MSE), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), and mean absolute percentage error(MAPE). can be analyzed which best method between ARIMA and ARIMAX that Figure (12): time series of average monthly can be used to forecast the volume of average monthly discharge. We show the ARIMAX discharge and forecast ARIMAX more accurate, because AIC , MSE, RMSE and MAPE has smaller value than ARIMA method
164 Othman, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 851-865
Figure (13): forecast of ARIMA and forecast Liu, L.M. 1986. Identification of Time Series Models in the Presence of Calendar Variation. International ARIMAX Journal of Forecasting, 2, 357-372 Liu, L. –M. (2006).Time series Analysis and Forecasting. 2nd edit, Scientific computing Associates U. S. A. Makridakis, S, Wheelwright, S. C. and Hyndman, R. (1998). Forecasting methods and Applications, Wiley, New York. Wei, W.W.S. (1990). Time Series Analysis. Redwood City, CA. Addison-Wesley America. Figure (14): Actual forecast of ARIMA and forecast ARIMAX Wei, William, W. S., (2006), Time Series Analysis Univariate and Multivariate Methods. Addison Wesley Publishing Company, Inc, America. 4. CONCLUSION 1. ACF for the average monthly discharge APPENDIX(A): monthly average of the series , we show that the seasonality period discharge volume (M3/Sec.) balinda river - Duhok (12) months, we suggest that the tentative governorate the period(NOV 2005 to NOV 2013) model for the differenced series and Seasonal data Actual Difference Difference Difference ARIMA (0,2,2)(1,1,0)12 and non Seasonal Seasonal ARIMAX (2,1,0)(1,1,0)12 NOV 2005 42.014 * * 2. all the parameters of series discharge DEC 2005 36.946 -5.068 * significant because p- value in log 1 and log 2 are less than 0.05 (p-value ), level of JAN 2006 47.837 10.891 * significance is 95% FEB 2006 88.653 40.816 * MAR 2006 196.517 107.864 * 3. the results Akaike Information Criterion (AIC),Mean Square Error (MSE), Root Mean APR 2006 397.667 201.150 * Square Error (RMSE), and mean absolute MAY 2006 222.425 -175.242 * percentage error(MAPE). can be analyzed JUN 2006 174.253 -48.172 * which best method between ARIMA and JUL 2006 91.571 -82.682 * ARIMAX that can be used to forecast the volume of average monthly discharge. We AUG 2006 62.436 -29.135 * show the ARIMAX more accurate, because SEP 2006 44.488 -17.948 * AIC , MSE, RMSE and MAPE has smaller OCT 2006 106.432 61.944 * value than ARIMA method. NOV 2006 160.592 54.160 118.578
DEC 2006 59.471 -101.121 22.525
JAN 2007 64.534 5.063 16.697 REFERENCES FEB 2007 108.847 44.313 20.194 Lee, M. H., Suhartono, dan Hamzah, N.A. (2010). Calendar variation model based on ARIMAX for MAR 2007 142.712 33.865 -53.805 forecasting sales data with Ramadhan effect.Proc. APR 2007 222.214 79.502 -175.453 RCSS’10, Malaysia, 349-361. MAY 2007 260.565 38.351 38.140 165 Othman, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 851-865
JUN 2007 134.459 -126.106 -39.794 JUL 2010 92.296 -105.029 6.796
JUL 2007 88.213 -46.246 -3.358 AUG 2010 63.835 -28.461 23.517
AUG 2007 63.651 -24.562 1.215 SEP 2010 46.255 -17.580 -39.093
SEP 2007 53.819 -9.832 9.331 OCT 2010 37.251 -9.004 1.027
OCT 2007 49.001 -4.818 -57.431 NOV 2010 31.117 -6.134 -132.018
NOV 2007 48.085 -0.916 -112.507 DEC 2010 31.576 0.459 -61.935
DEC 2007 95.578 47.493 36.107 JAN 2011 32.299 0.723 -91.985 45.460 13.161 -81.731 JAN 2008 49.693 -45.885 -14.841 FEB 2011 108.936 63.476 -68.140 FEB 2008 53.893 4.200 -54.954 MAR 2011 397.756 288.820 202.326 MAR 2008 164.077 110.184 21.365 APR 2011 294.672 -103.084 43.012 APR 2008 243.340 79.263 21.126 MAY 2011 196.718 -97.954 -0.607 MAY 2008 180.270 -63.070 -80.295 JUN 2011 120.353 -76.365 28.057 JUN 2008 93.737 -86.533 -40.722 JUL 2011 68.018 -52.335 4.183 JUL 2008 49.755 -43.982 -38.458 AUG 2011 40.827 -27.191 -5.428 AUG 2008 41.558 -8.197 -22.093 SEP 2011 61.104 20.277 23.853 SEP 2008 37.026 -4.532 -16.793 OCT 2011 50.421 -10.683 19.304 OCT 2008 51.154 14.128 2.153 NOV 2011 45.213 -5.208 13.637 NOV 2008 33.162 -17.992 -14.923 DEC 2011 52.122 6.909 19.823 DEC 2008 65.135 31.973 -30.443 JAN 2012 76.589 24.467 31.129 JAN 2009 40.198 -24.937 -9.495 FEB 2012 123.067 46.478 14.131 FEB 2009 68.019 27.821 14.126 MAR 2012 442.931 319.864 45.175 MAR 2009 149.426 81.407 -14.651 APR 2012 395.269 -47.662 100.597 APR 2009 193.603 44.177 -49.737 MAY 2012
MAY 2009 182.595 -11.008 2.325 JUN 2012 180.032 -215.237 -16.686
JUN 2009 145.797 -36.798 52.060 JUL 2012 78.911 -101.121 -41.442
JUL 2009 85.500 -60.297 35.745 AUG 2012 52.785 -26.126 -15.233
AUG 2009 40.318 -45.182 -1.240 SEP 2012 43.224 -9.561 2.397
SEP 2009 85.348 45.030 48.322 OCT 2012 38.700 -4.524 -22.404
OCT 2009 36.224 -49.124 -14.930 NOV 2012 57.060 18.360 6.639
NOV 2009 163.135 126.911 129.973 DEC 2012 80.842 23.782 35.629
DEC 2009 93.511 -69.624 28.376 JAN 2013 98.860 18.018 46.738
JAN 2010 124.284 30.773 84.086 FEB 2013 111.311 12.451 34.722
FEB 2010 127.191 2.907 59.172 MAR 2013 245.531 134.220 122.464
MAR 2010 177.076 49.885 27.650 APR 2013 288.988 43.457 -153.943
APR 2010 195.430 18.354 1.827 MAY 2013 220.279 -68.709 -174.990
MAY 2010 251.660 56.230 69.065 JUN 2013 125.138 -95.141 -54.894 JUN 2010 197.325 -54.335 51.528 166 Othman, S. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 851-865
JUL 2013 81.411 -43.727 2.500
AUG 2013 63.939 -17.472 11.154
SEP 2013 55.202 -8.737 11.978
OCT 2013 53.242 -1.960 14.542
NOV 2013 76.948 23.706 19.888
ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 28 (6); 611-671 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.18
Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Helminthes in Sheep from Bardarash District, Duhok Province
1 Mohammed G. Mohammedameen
1Department of Nursing, Bardarash Technical Institute, Duhok Polytechnic University, Duhok, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: A parasitological study was conducted to determine the prevalence of Received: 28 /05 /2016 gastrointestinal (GI) helminthes in sheep in different localities at Bardarash Accepted: 27/ 09/2016 district, Duhok province, Kurdistan Region- Iraq, from October 2014 to May Published: 10 /01/2017 2015. A total of 160 faecal samples were collected for fecal examination. The Keywords: study revealed that 96 (60%) of examined sheep were found infected with one Gastrointestinal helminthes, or more species of helminth parasites. From examined animals 11 species of prevalence, parasitic helminthes were identified, namely: Marshallagia marshalli, Bardarash, Nematodirus spp., Haemonchus contortus, Fasciola hepatica, Moniezia Duhok, benedeni , Trichuris ovis, Moniezia expanza, Chabertia ovina, Bunostomum *Corresponding Author: trigonocephalum, Teladorsagia circuntcincta, and Cooperia spp. Mohammed G. Mohammedameen Email: [email protected]
of the host animal to absorb nutrients, causing 1. INTRODUCTION poor body condition (thinness), poor growth In Kurdistan Region of Iraq, the sheep rates, low milk production, and/or poor hair breeding makes a major contribution to the coat or fleece growth, and some parasites cause agrarian economy. It is considered as the most a reduction in appetite by the host animal important farm animal, for its contribution to (Metre, 2014).The economic impact of the production of meat, milk, wool and leather helminth diseases on livestock encompasses (Khan et al., 2013). Helminth parasites are a morbidity losses, mortality losses, enhanced major cause of economic loss in ruminants susceptibility to bacterial and viral diseases and throughout the world (Ferre et al., 1995). Most losses from high cost of drugs and veterinary losses are associated with gastrointestinal care (Khan et al., 2015). Diagnosis and infections (Parkins and Holmes 1989). Damage assessment of the level of parasite infection is to the host occurs when the parasites attach to essential in order to decide the appropriate the lining of the gastrointestinal tract and ingest treatment and control measures. There are few blood creating anemia from blood loss. studies available on parasitic diseases of sheep Damage can also occur from other parasites in Kurdistan Region- Iraq, and numerous when they either attach to the lining of the geographical regions needs to be screened for gastrointestinal tract and cause it to become the presence of gastrointestinal helminthes in inflamed, or they live in the lumen of view of their high economic significance, and gastrointestinal tract and have access to no report is available on prevalence of ingested feed nutrients before the host can gastrointestinal helminthes in the Bardarash digest them. This can result in impaired ability District of Kurdistan. Therefore, the present 167 Mohammedameen, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 611-671 study was conducted to find out the prevalence of the animal and date of sample collection of gastrointestinal helminthes in sheep of this were noted, and then the samples kept in cool region which would provide a basis for the box until arrival to Microbiology Laboratory of understanding of different helminth parasites of Nursing Department, Bardarash Technical sheep in formulating the control measures of Institute, Duhok Polytechnic University. Those the parasitic diseases. samples which were not examined within 24 hours of arrival at laboratory were stored in the refrigerator at 4°C until processing within few 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS days. 2.1. Study area 2.3 Fecal examination The present study was conducted across the The collected fecal specimens were different localities around the Bardarash processed and examined for qualitative district, namely; Center of Bardarash, Kanilan, investigation of GIT helminth eggs by Zamzamuk, Amian, Mamuzin, Qadisiyah, sedimentation and modified Wisconsin sugar Grdapan, Kalak. Bardarash is a district of the flotation techniques following the standard Duhok governorate of Kurdistan Region- Iraq. procedures described by (Hansen and Perry It is located about 61 Km southeast of Duhok 1994; Bliss and Kvasnicka 2004). In this study City, at 36.50 N latitude and 43.58 E the flotation fluid used was a saturated sugar longitudes. The altitude of the area is 700 solution with a specific gravity of 1.27 (Dryden m.a.s.l. et al., 2005). The climate is warm and temperate; the An ocular micrometer is used for taking the winter months are much rainier than the measurements of parasite eggs in fecal summer months in Bardarash. The study area is samples. Eggs of the different helminthes were classified as a semi-arid to dry sub-humid identified on the basis of morphological region according to the aridity index; the mean appearance and size with the help of keys annual rainfall is 650 mm during the period developed by (Soulsby 1982; Urquhart et al., from October to April (Jassas and Merkel 1996; Indre et al., 2010; Taylor, Coop and 2015). Wall 2007). 2.2. Sample collection A total of 160 sheep from 16 pastoral flocks 3. RESULTS were randomly selected for gastrointestinal helminthes examination from October 2014 to A total of 160 fecal samples were May 2015. One fresh fecal sample of investigated for parasites, out of all 96 positive (approximately 10 - 15 g) from either sex of samples were recorded. The overall prevalence sheep was collected directly from the rectum of of infection by gastrointestinal helminthes was each animal by using disposable plastic gloves 60 %. Cases of single and multiple infections for coprological investigation. The fecal (infection with helminthes of different genera) samples were placed in a separate screw were observed, most of the samples were diagnosed as single infection than multiple capped bottles. Information regarding the locality, household ID, pregnancy, age and sex infection (Table1).
168 Mohammedameen, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 611-671
Table 1. Overall, single and mixed prevalence of infections
Number of Number of Total number Overall Total number single Prevalence mixed Prevalence of positive prevalence of samples positive % positive % samples % samples samples
160 77 48.13 19 11.88 96 60
Nematode infections were the commonest Cestodes 4.38%, and Trematodes 2.5%. There helminth class infecting the sheep reaching were some mixed infections with more than 55% of the examined animals followed by one helminth classes (Table 2). Table 2. Prevalence of infection with different helminth classes
Classes of helminthes Number of positive cases Prevalence %
Nematoda 88 55
Cestoda 7 4.38
Trematoda 4 2.5
The prevalence of each helminth species Nematodirus spp. (16.88%) and Haemonchus was also recorded independently accordingly; contortus (15.63%). Other identified one trematode species, the Fasciola hepatica, nematodes were Trichuris ovis, Chabertia two species of cestodes, Monezia benedeni and ovina, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Monezia expanza, with eight species of Teladorsagia circuntcincta and Cooperia spp. nematodes were identified. (Table 3). Marshallagia marshalli was the Eggs of various helminth species identified predominant helminth species with a in this study shown in the (Figure. 1). prevalence of (27.5%) followed by
169 Mohammedameen, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 611-671
Table 3. Prevalence of each individual helminth species
Prevalence Classes Species No. of Infected hosts %
Trematoda Fasciola hepatica 4 2.5
Moniezia benedeni 4 2.5 Cestoda Moniezia expanza 3 1.88
Marshallagia marshalli 44 27.5
Nematodirus spp 27 16.88
Haemonchus contortus 25 15.63
Trichuris ovis 3 1.88
Nematoda Chabertia ovina 2 1.25
Bunostomum 2 1.25 trigonocephalum.
Teladorsagia circuntcincta 2 1.25
Cooperia spp. 1 0.63
170 Mohammedameen, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 611-671
Figure 1. Photomicrographs of helminth eggs (100X). (A) Monezea expanza, (B) Monezea benedeni, (C) Fasciola hepatica, (D) Chabertia ovina, (E) Bunostomum trigonocephalum, (F) Teladorsagia circuntcincta, (G) Nematodirus spathiger, (H) Nematodirus battus, (I) Marshallagia marshalli, (J) Trichuris ovis (K) Haemonchus contortus, (L) Cooperia spp.
4. DISCUSSION the pastures, overcrowding, anthelmintic The prevalence of infection in the present resistance of the parasites, malnutrition, and the bad flock managements (Metre, 2014). Higher study was 60%. The reported percentage was higher than other findings reported by some incidence of helminthes were also reported by researchers in other places in the north of Iraq many researchers in different study areas (Nassrullah, 2011; Ahmed et al., 2015), they throughout the world, (Ijaz et al., 2009; Sultan report a prevalence of 34.3% and 40.46% in et al., 2010; Sangma et al., 2012; Raza et al., Sulamani and Erbil provinces respectively. 2014; Varadharajan and Vijayalakshmi 2015). However, the results obtained by another This difference in prevalence rate might be authors were slightly lower than the current attributed to the variation in agro climatic and management systems applied in different study, in Mosul, Iraq (Al-Bayati and Arsalan, 2009), northern Ethiopia (Negasi, et al., 2012), countries. Pakistan (Gadahi et al., 2009). The high Among the submitted samples most of the helminth prevalence in the present study may samples were found with single infection than be attributed to many factors like; overgrazing mixed infections, this finding agrees with that 171 Mohammedameen, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 611-671 reported by (Kumsa et al., 2011; Nassrullah, and H. contortus 15.63%. These species has 2011), although, these results are not been reported as a predominant helmintes in coincided with the results of another sheep by many authors in different places of researchers in many part of the world, (Gadahi Iraq (Al-Bayati and Arsalan 2009; Nassrullah, et al., 2009; Negasi et al., 2012). The 2011; Ahmed et al., 2015), and adjacent abundance of single infection might be due to countries, in Syria (Nishikawa et al., 1995), in the exposure of hosts only to single than to Turkey (Umur and Yukari, 2005). The High multiple helminth species. prevalence of M. Marshalli may be due to Nematode infection was the most prevalent climatic conditions of the area, since it is 55%. This finding corresponds with the appeared to predominate in the driest zones observations of (Ijaz et al., 2009; Jan et al., according to (Nishikawa et al., 1995). The high 2015) in Pakistan and (Kumsa et al., 2011) in incidence of Nematodirus spp. may be due to Ethiopia, but contrasts with findings of (Sultan the capacity of the eggs to survive on pasture et al., 2010) in Egypt, where they reported for up to 2 years (Urquhart et al., 1996). H. higher prevalence of cestodes than nematodes contortus is one of the most fecund strongylid in sheep. The High prevalence with nematodes nematodes, and can lead to rapid larval pasture in the present study can be attributed to the contamination, while females of the species climatic effect on the development of infective Teladorsagia circumcincta are less fecund and larvae because the short periods of rainfall or the severity of the infection depends on irrigation can transform the environment concurrent infections and nutritional state of rapidly into a favorable one for the nematode the host (Roeber et al., 2013). Chabertia ovina larvae, particularly the highly pathogenic widely occurs in sheep, cattle and goats, Haemonchus (Hansen and Perry 1994). The usually in low numbers, Cooperia spp. are incidence of cestode infection in the present widespread but relatively uncommon and non- study was 4.38%, this is likely due to the pathogenic parasites in sheep (Hutchinson, limited distribution of the intermediate host; 2009), this confirmed by the low percent of the Oribatid mites. these helminthes in the present study . Trematode Prevalence was the lowest among the recorded helminthes 2.5% and also 5. CONCLUSIONS lower than other studies carried out in another According to the findings of the present countries, in Poland (Gorski et al., 2004), in study it is concluded that the prevalence of GI Egypt (Sultan et al., 2010), in northern helminth infection in sheep in the studied area Ethiopia (Negasi et al., 2012), but agrees with was high and there were various dangerous the results obtained from Pakistan (Gadahi et helminth species parasitizing the sheep which al., 2009). This marked decrease in trematode may cause diseases, low production, and infection may be attributed to unavailability of mortality for them. Therefore, appropriate suitable habitats and species of snails (the treatment with effective anthelmintics and intermediate hosts) in all study areas, because practicing the good management systems are the distribution of F. hepatica is determined by essential to get rid of helminthes. its lymnaeid snail intermediate host (Love and Hutchinson 2003). The most prevalent helminth species Acknowledgements recovered in the present study was M. The author would like to thank all the sheep marshalli 27.5%, Nematodirus spp. 16.88% farmers who helped him to make this study 172 Mohammedameen, M. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 611-671 possible. Special thanks go to Mr. Kasim and Ijaz, M., Khan, M. S., Avais, M., Ashraf, K., Ali, M. M. Mr. Sabah from Kasim Company for and Khan, M. Z. U. 2009. Infection Rate and Chemotherapy of Various Helminthes in Diarrhoeic laboratory and scientific instruments, and to Sheep in and Around Lahore, The Journal of Animal my colleague Dr. Zahir Babaca the head of & Plant Sciences, 19 (1), 13-16. nursing department for their invaluable Indre, D., Dărăbuş, G. H., Oprescu, I., Morariu, S., assistance. Mederle, N., Ilie, M. S., Imre, H., Balint, A., Sorescu, D. and Imre, M. 2010. Morphometrical Studies on Some Eggs of Gastrointestinal Nematodes REFERENCES from Sheep, Lucrări Ştiinłifice Medicină Veterinară, 1, 30-35. 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Around Mekelle Town, Northern Ethiopia, European Journal of Biological Sciences, 4 (3), 91-95. Nishikawa, N., Gruner, L., Giangaspero, M. and Tabbaa, D. 1995. Parasite nematode infections in Awassi adult sheep: distribution through Syrian farm flocks, Veterinary Research, BioMed Central, 26 (3), 162- 167. Parkins, J. J. and Holmes, P. H. 1989. Effects of gastrointestinal helminth parasites on ruminant nutrition, Nurririon Reseurch Review, 2, 227-246. Raza, M. A., Younas, M. and Schlecht, E. 2014. Prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths in pastoral sheep and goat flocks in the Cholistan desert of Pakistan, The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 24 (1), 127-134. Roeber, F., Jex, A.R. and Gasser, R. B. 2013. Impact of gastrointestinal parasitic nematodes of sheep, and the role of advanced molecular tools for exploring epidemiology and drug resistance - an Australian perspective, Parasites & Vectors, 6, 153. doi: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-153 Sangma, A., Begum, N., Roy, B. C. and Gani, M. O. 2012. Prevalence of helminth parasites in sheep (Ovis aries) in Tangail district, Bangladesh, Journal of the Bangladesh Agricultural University, 10 (2), 235–244. Soulsby, E. J. W. 1982, Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domesticated Animals', Seventh Edition, Bailliere Tindall, London: Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, pp. 212-258. Sultan, K., Desoukey, A. Y., Elsiefy, M. A. and Elbahy, N. M. 2010. An Abattoir Study on the Prevalence of Some Gastrointestinal Helminths of Sheep in Gharbia Governorate, Egypt, Global Veterinaria, 5 (2), 84-87. Taylor, M. A., Coop, R. L. and Wall, R. L. 2007, Veterinary Parasitology, 3rd Ed., Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK, pp. 1838-1844. Umur, Ş. and Yukari, B. A. 2005. An Abattoir Survey of Gastro-Intestinal Nematodes in Sheep in the Burdur Region, Turkey, Turkish Journal Of Veterinary And Animal Sciences, 29, 1195-1201. Urquhart, G., Armour, M. J., Duncan, J. L., Dunn, A. M. and Jennings, F. W. 1996, Veterinary Parasitology, Second Edition, Blackwell Science. Varadharajan, A. and Vijayalakshmi, R. 2015. Prevalence and seasonal occurrence of gastrointestinal parasites in small ruminants of coastal areas of TamilNadu, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 5 (2), 1-6.
ZANCO Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences
The official scientific journal of Salahaddin University-Erbil ZJPAS (2016), 82 (6); 471-428 http://doi.org/10.21271/ZJPAS.28.6.20
First record of two Scolopendromorph centipedes; Scolopendra subspinipes Leach,
(1815) and Scolopendra polymorpha Wood, (1861) with additional notes on Scolopendra cingulata Latreille, (1829) in Iraq
Sherwan T. Ahmed 1, Fenik Sh. Hussen1 4- Department of Biology, College of Science, Salahaddin University, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq.
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article History: The present paper provides the first study of the morphology, description and Received: 31/05/2016 distribution preferences of the Scolopendromorpha centipede fauna of Accepted: 47/10/2016 Kurdistan/Iraq. Three species belong to the genus Scolopendra have been reported Published: 10 /01/2017 from the country. After a study of significant amount of new material collected in Keywords: the period 2013-2014, three species namely Scolopendra subspinipes Leach Centipedes (1815), Scolopendra polymorpha Wood (1861) and Scolopendra cingulata Chilopoda Latreille (1829) were found. New illustrations and, where appropriate, brief descriptions of the species are given, along with an identification key for the Iraqi Scolopendromorpha Scolopendromorphs. Scolopendra. *Corresponding Author: Fenik Sh. Hussen [email protected]
1. INTRODUCTION and semi cultivated land (Sureshan et al., Centipedes are tracheate arthropods have 2003). dorsoventrally flatted body which consists of There are nearly 700 species of 15 to 173 segments, each of which bears one Scolopendromorpha centipedes worldwide pair of legs except the last two and the one just (Chilobase, 2006). The Scolopendromorpha, back of the head which bear no leg. Their body including approximately 10% of the world’s is divided into a head and a trunk. Centipedes centipede diversity (Menon et al., 2003). are an economically important group of Species of Scolopendra Linnaeus, 1758 are arthropods playing valuable role in the control widespread in all tropical, subtropical and the of noxious pests in the terrestrial ecosystem structure of the terminal legs (legs of the (Yadav, 1994). They are often treated as ultimate body segment) is of considerable creatures of annoyance value owing to their taxonomic importance in the order poisonous nature and painful bite, particularly Scolopendromorpha. Commonly the terminal the members of the family Scolopendridae. leg consists of 5 podomeres (prefemur, femur, They are cryptic animals found under stones, tibia, tarsus 1, tarsus 2) and pretarsus. The first flower pots, trees, bark of trees, gardens, in fourpodomeres are always present, when tarsus rotten wood, damp soil, forest, in cultivated 175 Ahmed, Sh. and Hussen, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 471-428
2 and the pretarsus may both be absent (Jangi, provided to facilitate the identification of the 1959). species. However, more recent studies have concentrated on the systematics and distribution of certain Scolopendra species 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS (Shelley, 2002, 2006; Shelley et al., 2005). 2.1. Sample collection Simaiakis and Mylonas (2008) have shown that there are nine species distributed in the Between April 2013 and September 2014, Mediterranean region; among them centipede specimens were collected in six Scolopendra cingulate (Latreille, 1829) is the localities (Shaqlawa, Harir, Qushtapa, most widely distributed species, and it also Rawanduz, Mergasur and Koya). The majority occurs in western Asia. Scolopendra of them were taken from damp areas by subspinipes is a common centipede in the overturning decaying logs, leaf litter, and whole Asian subtropics and tropical area and is stones. At each locale, specimens were placed also introduced in many other countries and in individually labeled vials containing 70% areas around the world. Within the species, the ethanol and returned to the laboratory for taxonomical characters show a wide range of preliminary processing and sorting. Voucher variety, which makes the determination of specimens were deposited in the Kurdistan several subspecies impossible (Kronmüller, Museum of Natural History Erbil/Iraq. All 2012). examinations are made with an Olympus A few works if any has been done in this binocular stereomicroscope. Photo group of arthropods in Iraq, however in the documentary are made with a Sony digital neighboring countries(e.g. Iran, Turkey and camera connected to the binocular. other parts of the world (Kaltsas and Simaiakis,2012; Vazirianzadeh et al., 2007), a 2.2. Study area considerable amount of research has been carried out on different aspects e.g. taxonomy, The present study is based on the species morphology, anatomy, life history, physiology, which were collected from the Erbil behavior and ecology (Schileyko and Minelli, province/Iraq (figure 1). Erbil (36° 11′ 0″ N, 1998; Shelley and Kiser, 2000; Chagas-Jr, 44° 2′ 0″ E) 1780m above the sea level, 2001; Shelley, 2002, 2006; Shelley et al., maximum temperature in summer is 50oC and 2005). minimum temperature in winter is -12oC (Joint Scolopendra polymorpha is native to Humanitarian information Center 2004) Northern Mexico, the American Southwest and Pacific Coast of North America, although referred to as a desert centipede (Cooper, et al., 2014)
The aim of present study is to put on record the results of the identification of our collection and to provide information on the taxonomy, distribution and also the morphology of isolated species in Iraq. New illustrations based on the freshly collected material and a key are A 176 Ahmed, Sh. and Hussen, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 471-428
5- 1st tergite without ring furrow………….…6 1st tergite with ring furrow..……………………………………....7
6- Head plate and tergite 21 without sutures ………….………… Scolopendra cingulata
7- Antenna with 25-31 segments in total and 8- 12 sparsely hirsute
20th leg pair with tarsal spine each…………. Scolopendra polymorpha
All legs with two accessory spurs, 20th pair of B legs mostly with tarsal spur ………………... 8 Figure (1): A, Iraq map showing Erbil governorate, B, sample collection sites. 8- Head without anterior transverse sulcus,
Para median sulci start on tergite 3…………. 3. RESULTS Scolopendra subspinipes
Three species of centipedes, representing Scolopendromorpha Pocock, 1895 genus Scolopendra, family Scolopendridae, order Scolopendromorpha, were identified Scolopendridae Newport, 1844 during this study. The Scolopendra collected in Erbil province can be easily identified by the Scolopendra Linnaeus, 1758 following key. Scolopendra subspinipes Leach, 1815 Key to the order Scolopendromorpha of the family Scolopendridae and genus Scolopendra polymorpha Wood, 1861 Scolopendra of Iraq: Scolopendra cingulata Latreille, 1829 1- Ocelli absent or present with 21 to 23 pair of legs and pedal segments ………………...….. 2 Scolopendra subspinipes Leach, 1815 (fig. 2)
2- Ocelli present, tarsi of legs 2 jointed ……. A General: Length up to 11. cm, they are black in colour. A- Family Scolopendridae .………….…. 3 Head: No anterior transverse sulcus, from 4 to 3- 21 pedal segments, spiracles valves divided 9 (mostly 5-6) coxosternal teeth, antennomere ………………………………………………..4 with more than 19 articles and they possess ocelli. 4- Head plate overlapping 1st tergite main teeth of coxosternaite on a short base ……………. B Tergites: Para median sulci start on tergite 3(sometimes tergite 2 or more caudal), B- Genus Scolopendra …….…………... 5 margination starts from tergite 5 to 16. 177 Ahmed, Sh. and Hussen, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 471-428
Sternites: Sternite 2 to 19 with two Tergites: usually first (second) tergite dark- paramedian furrows (very weak at sternite 16 bluish colored and contrasted to the yellowish to 19). rest of the body with 21 body segmented, tergites 7 to 18 marginated. Coxopleural process: 2 coxopleural spines (seldom only 1 or up to 3). Sternites: paramedian suture complete.
Locomotory legs: All legs with two accessory Locomotory legs: The first pair of light- spurs, 20th pair of legs mostly with tarsal spurs. yellowish legs has two tarsal spines and all of the 20 pair legs have only one spine. Prefemur of terminal legs: Ventral-lateral of prefemur of terminal legs with 2 (rarely 1 or 3) Spiracles: The spiracles opening is often spines, while medial with 1 or 2 spines and triangle in shape with the apex of the triangle dorsal-medial with 1 to 3 spines; prefemoral pointing forwards the spiracles of Scolopendra process with usually 2, rarely with 1 or 3-5 cingulate are laterally and found on segment tips. (2-4-9-11-13=15-17-19).
Distribution: foundation in Russia, India, Sri Prefemur of terminal legs: preformal process Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, Laos, Vietnam, usually with 4 spines. Thailand, China, Hong Kong, Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, São Tomé, Príncipe, Distribution: The common desert centipede is Ivory Coast, Liberia, Zanzibar, South Africa, native to Northern Mexico, the American Seychelles, Reunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues, Southwest and Pacific Coast of North America. Madagascar, Andaman Islands, Nicobar Islands, Pacific Islands, Bermuda, Central Scolopendra cingulata Latreille, 1829 (fig. 4) America, aribbean Islands, Colombia, Guyana, French Guyana, Surinam, Brazil, Islands, General: Known as Megarian banded Colombia, Guyana, French Guyana, Surinam, centipede and the Mediterranean banded Brazil, as well as in Kurdistan region north of centipede which has altering bands of black Iraq. and yellow –gold body length about 11-12 cm.
Scolopendra polymorpha Wood, 1861 (fig. 3) Head: Yellowish, anterior region of the head and a transverse band on the posterior border of General: the adult length about 18-19 cm, it is tergites 2 to 20 dark olive green .with two commonly known as Tiger centipedes because yellow Antennae that have 19 articles the first of dark bands on it is tergites and coloration is 6 nearly glabrous., and four Ocelli on each typically light brown to brick but may rang side. even more widely. Tergite: 1st tergite without ring furrow, Head: head was dark-bluish colored, and the Cephalic shield and tergite 21 without sutures. head is finely punctuated with two faint sulci or Tergite 1 without a curved anterior transverse grooves with two yellow Antennae that have sulcus; tergites 18 to 21 marginated. 20 articles and four ocelli on each side. Sternite: Para median suture complete. 178 Ahmed, Sh. and Hussen, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 471-428
Locomotory legs: The legs are yellow –orange regions) Simaiakis et al., (2011) suggested that with a total 21 pairs usually has four S. cingulata originated in the east and dorsolateral spines and an equal number of colonized south European area from two spines on the prefemur process in each leg. different geographic routes and the west–east morphological trend of S. cingulata is related Last legs: Coxopleural processes protruding either to the prominent palaeogeographic beyond the posterior border of the coxopleura, events of the area or to the competition with S. with 3 spines; prefemur with 2 spines ventrally, oraniensis Lucas, 1846 in the western all spines on a swollen base, the dorsal Mediterranean. prefemoral process with 3 -4 spines Tarsus without spurs and tarsus of terminal legs Scolopendra subspinipes is a common without spine. centipede in the whole Asian subtropics and tropical area and is also introduced in many Spiracles: the spiracles opening is often other countries and areas around the world. triangle in shape with the apex of the triangle Within the species, the taxonomical characters pointing forwards the spiracles of Scolopendra show a wide range of variety, which makes the cingulate are laterally and found on segment determination of several subspecies impossible. (2-4-9-11-13=15-17-19). As there are neither geographical factors nor taxonomical details to distinguish the Distribution: widely distributed which can be individual subspecies, it is useful to abolish the found in southern Europe and around the subspecies according to the latest taxonomical Mediterranean sea, also in each countries and geographical knowledge. Kronmüller Portugal, spin, France, Italy, Greek, Iran, Iraq, (2012) suggested that the shape of the genital Turkey and North African. Previous records in organs is should be regarded as an important Iraq: Tal Afar area. West of Mosul taxonomical character. As this character is [Chamberlin, 1944]. Cucklauva, Gcli Alibck more stable than the spinulation of the terminal [Chamberlin, 1958] (Cited by Lewis, 2001). legs, the coxopleural process or the number of the coxosternal teeth or segments of antennomere, the genital organs of Scolopendra centipedes should be checked and described in 5. DISCUSSION taxonomic papers.
The scolopendrid species investigated here Chamberlin (1958) examined a collection are all common in Meddle east but there are no of chilopods made in Iraq in April of the same enough studies focused on them in Iraq. year by Prof. Dr. C. Kosswig, two of them Scolopendra cingulata Latreille, 1829 is the belonging to the genus Scolopendra, they are commonest Scolopendromorpha species in the Scolopendra cingulate and Scolopendra Mediterranean area. No significant morsitans, with no any information or morphological variation was discovered description of their morphology, in this study between the sexes of S. cingulata apart from we identified Scolopendra cingulate and here cephalic width and distance between the two we present detailed information about this th th paramedian sulci of the 7 and 8 tergite. In species for the first time in Iraq. their study (based on certain morphometric differences among the three geographic 179 Ahmed, Sh. and Hussen, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 471-428
F
B
C G
D H
A 1cm E I
Figure 2: Scolopendra subspinipes; A (fixed specimen), B (the head), C (teeth), D (locomotor leg with spur), E (coxsoternal process of terminal leg), F (male genital organ), G (female genital organ), H (prefemur of terminal leg), I (coxsoternal process with spine).
180 Ahmed, Sh. and Hussen, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 471-428
B G
C
H
D
I
E
A 1cm F J
Figure 3: Scolopendra polymorpha; A (alive specimen), B (the head), C (teeth), D (spur of locomotors leg), E (coxosternal process of terminal leg 4spines), F (coxosternal process of terminal leg 3 spines), G (male genital organ), H (female genital organ), I (dorsal view of prefemur of terminal leg), J (ventral view of prefemur of terminal leg).
181 Ahmed, Sh. and Hussen, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 471-428
F
B
C
G
D H
A 1cm E I
Figure 4: Scolopendra cingulate; A (fixed specimen), B (the head), C (teeth), D (tip corner spur), E (coxosternal process), F (male genital organ), G (female genital organ), H (prefemur of terminal leg), I (coxosternal process of terminal leg).
182 Ahmed, Sh. and Hussen, F. /ZJPAS: 2016, 28(6): 471-428
5. Conclusions of previous records. Arthropoda Selecta, 10(2): 151-154. Scolopendra centipedes which observed in Menon, F., Penney, D., Selden, P.A. and Martill, D.M., Erbil province identified based on 2003. A new fossil Scolopendromorpha centipede morphological characters as Scolopendra from the Crato formation of Brazil. Bull. Brit. Myriap. Isop. Group, 19:62-66. Schileyko, A. and subspinipes, Scolopendra polymorpha, and Minelli, A., 1998. On the genus Newportia Gervais, Scolopendra cingulate, the first two were 1847 (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha: recorded for the first time in Iraq. Newportiidae). Arthropoda Selecta, 7(4):265-299. Shelley, R.M., 2002. A synopsis of the North American 6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT centipedes of the order Scolopendromorpha (Chilopoda). Virginia Museum of Natural History. We would like to thank Biology Shelley, R.M., 2006. Nomenclator generum et department/college of Science-University of familiarum Chilopodorum II: A list of the genus- Salahaddin/Erbil for helping us and providing and family-group names in the Class Chilopoda from 1958 through 2005. – Zootaxa, 1198: 1–20. space and laboratory facilities to carry out Shelley, R.M., Edwards, G.B. and Chagas, A., 2005. the research work in Zoology research Introduction of the centipede Scolopendra laboratory. morsitans L., 1758, into northeastern Florida, the first authentic North American record, and a review REFERENCES of its global occurrences (Scolopendromorpha: Chagas-Junior, A., 2000. A catalogue of the type Scolopendridae: Scolopendridae). Entomological specimens of Scolopendromorpha in the Brazilian news, 116(1): 39-58. myriapodological collections (Chilopoda, Shelley, R.M. and Kiser, S.B., 2000. Neotype Arthropoda). Fragmenta Faunistica, 43: 259-271. designation and a diagnostic account for the Chamberlin, R.V., 1944. Some chilopods from the Indo- centipede, Scolopendra gigantea L. 1758, with an Australian Archipelago: Notulae Naturae, account of S. galapagoensis Bollman 1889 Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 147: (Chilopoda Scolopendromorpha Scolopendridae). 1–14.Chamberlin, V., 1958. On chilopoda of Tropical Zoology, 13(1): 159-170. IRAQ. Entomologische Mitteilungen,18:1-4. Simaiakis, S.M., Giokas, S. and Korsós, Z., 2011. Cooper, A.M., Fox, G.A., Nelsen, D.R. and Hayes, Morphometric and meristic diversity of the species W.K., 2014. Variation in venom yield and protein Scolopendra cingulata Latreille, 1829 (Chilopoda: concentration of the centipedes Scolopendra Scolopendridae) in the Mediterranean region. polymorpha and Scolopendra subspinipes. Toxicon, Zoologischer Anzeiger-A. Journal of Comparative 82, 30-51. Zoology, 250(1): 67-79. Jangi, B.S., 1959. Further notes on the taxonomy of the Simaiakis, S. and Mylonas, M., 2008. The Scolopendra centipede Scolopendra morsitans Linnaeus species“(Chilopoda: (Scolopendridae). Entomological News, 70: 253- Scolopendromorpha:scolopendrae)ofGreece(E- 257. MediterraneAN):A theoretical approach on the Kaltsas D. and Simaiakis S.M. 2012. Seasonal patterns effect of geography and palaeogeography on their of activity of S. cretica and S. cingulata distribution. Zootaxa, 1792,39- 53. (Chilopoda:Scolopendromorpha) in East Sureshan, P.M., Yadav, B.E. and Radhakrishnan, C., Mediterranean maquis ecosystems. International 2003. An illustrated key to the identification of Journal of Myriapodology, 7: 1–1413. centipedes (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha) of Kronmüller, C., 2012. Review of the subspecies of Kerala. Zoos Print Journal, 19:1401-1407. Scolopendra subspinipes Leach, 1815 with the new Vazirianzadeh, B., Rahmanei, A. H. and Moravvej, S. description of the South Chinese member of the A., 2007. Two cases of chilopoda (centipede) biting genus Scolopendra Linnaeus, 1758 named in human from Ahwaz, Iran. Pakistan Journal of Scolopendra hainanum spec. nov. Spixiana, 35(1): Medical Sciences, 23(6), 956. 19-27. Yadav, B.E., 1994. The scolopendrid centipedes. - Lewis, J.G.E., 2001. Scolopendromorph centipedes Science and Culture, 60 (7-12): 77-79. (Chilopoda:Scolopendromorpha) collected in northern Iraq by Dr. Hywel Roberts with a review