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Did the Sophists Aim to Persuade? Author(S): Michael Gagarin Source: Rhetorica: a Journal of the History of Rhetoric, Vol

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Did the Sophists Aim to Persuade? Author(S): Michael Gagarin Source: Rhetorica: a Journal of the History of Rhetoric, Vol Did the Sophists Aim to Persuade? Author(s): Michael Gagarin Source: Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Summer 2001), pp. 275-291 Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the International Society for the History of Rhetoric Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/rh.2001.19.3.275 . Accessed: 04/03/2014 06:46 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. University of California Press and International Society for the History of Rhetoric are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 147.52.233.137 on Tue, 4 Mar 2014 06:46:40 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions MichaelGagarin Didthe Sophists Aim to Persuade? Abstract: Ever since Plato,the Sophists have been seen asteaching “the artof persuasion”, particularlythe art(or skill) ofpersuasive speaking in the lawcourtsand the assembly on which success in life depended. Iargue thatthis view is mistaken. Although Gorgias describes logos asworking topersuade Helen, he does not present persuasion asthe goalof his own work, nor does any other Sophist see persuasion asthe primary aim ofhis logoi.Most sophistic discourse wascomposed in the form ofantilogies (pairsof opposed logoi),in which category Iinclude works like Helen where the other side—the poetictradition Gorgias explicitly cites ashis opponent— is implicitly present. The purpose ofthese works is primarily to display skill in intellectual argument, aswell astogive pleasure. Persuasion may beagoalof some sophistic works, butit is not their primary goal;and teaching the artof persuasion wasnot amajor concern ofthe Sophists. eallknow that for the Greeks rhetoricwas the artof W persuasion.Indeed, thisis so well knownthat George Kennedy’s standardhandbook is entitled not“ Rhetoricin Greece”, but TheArt ofPersuasion in Greece .1 Wecantrace the idea backto Aristotle’ s Rhetoric,where atthe beginning of 1.2we read (in Kennedy’s translation)“ Letrhetoric be [dened as]an ability , in each[particular] case, to see the availablemeans of persuasion”, 2 andwe canalso nd itin the earlier analysisof rhetoricin Plato’s Gorgias,where Gorgiasidenti es his techneˆ—his“ craft”or “ art”— as heˆrheˆtorikeˆtechneˆ (“the rhetoricalart” ) andde nes itas follows:“ Isay itis the power topersuade by speech ( peitheintois logois )jurorsin the 1 GeorgeA. Kennedy, TheArt of Persuasion inGreece (Princeton: Princeton Uni- versity Press, 1963). 2 Aristotle, Aristotle on Rhetoric:A Theoryof CivicDiscourse ,transGeorge A. Kennedy(New York:Oxford University Press, 1991)p. 36. ©TheInternational Society for the Historyof Rhetoric, Rhetorica, Volume XIX,Number 3 (Summer2001). Send requests forpermission to reprint to: Rights andPermissions, University of CaliforniaPress, JournalsDivision, 2000Center St, Ste 303,Berkeley ,CA94704-1223,USA 275 This content downloaded from 147.52.233.137 on Tue, 4 Mar 2014 06:46:40 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 276 R H E T O R I C A jury-court, councilorsin the council,assemblymen in the assembly, andin every othergathering” (452e). From this Socrates concludes thatrhetoric is a “craftsmanof persuasion”( peithous deˆmiourgos) and thatits power is “ toproduce persuasionin the mind ( psycheˆ) of the audience”(453a). Thus, for Aristotle and Plato, and even (it appears) forGorgias, and by extensionfor the Sophistsin general, rhetoricis the artof persuading others,especially largegroups of people in the lawcourts or political forums. Onthe otherhand, given Plato’s well knownhostility to the Sophistsand to rhetoric in general, we maylegitimately wonder whether he isaccurately representing Gorgias’s views.So we must alsoexamine whatGorgias says in hisown words. He doesnot use the word“ rhetoric”( rhe ˆtorikeˆ)—indeed, noone doesbefore the fourth century (or,tobe moreprecise, the word rheˆtorikeˆ doesnot occur in anysurviving text before the fourthcentury andmost likely wasnot coined until then). 3 ButGorgias does include afamousdiscussion of logos (“word, speech, argument”) in his Encomium to Helen . Here we nd thatthe power of logos,which overwhelmed anypersonal will Helen mayhave had, comes directly from its association with persuasion,which isadded to logos (13).The persuasivenessof logos is alsolinked tomagic,which enchantsand persuades (10), to falsehood (11),to compulsion(12), to pleasure which isachieved throughskill (techneˆ),notthrough truth (13), to belief (13),and nally todrugs(14). In otherwords, Gorgias portrays logos asusing anarrayof toolsto persuade othersto do its bidding, andthe view thatrhetoric, or at least logos,isthe artof persuasionseems to be conrmed even by Gorgias’s ownwords. Since thisis the only sophisticdiscussion of logos thatsurvives, it iscommonto infer fromit that for the Sophistsin general, asforPlato andAristotle, rhetoric was primarily concerned withpersuasion. If further conrmation is needed, itcan be found in the widely acceptedtradition that rhetoric was invented by Coraxand Tisias afterthe overthrowof the tyrannyin Syracuse in 467,when the riseof democraticinstitutions including the assemblyand especially the lawcourts made it important to be able tospeak well—that is,to be able topersuade jurorsand assemblymen to accept one’ s arguments.T omeet thisneed Coraxand Tisias invented the art of rhetoric,wrote the rsthandbook or techneˆ onthe subject, and 3 See EdwardSchiappa, “ Did Plato Coin Rheˆtorikeˆ?”, American Journal of Philology 111(1990)pp. 457–70; Thomas Cole, TheOrigins of Rhetoricin Ancient Greece (Baltimore: JohnsHopkins University Press, 1991). This content downloaded from 147.52.233.137 on Tue, 4 Mar 2014 06:46:40 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Did the Sophists Aim toPersuade? 277 hadsuccessful careers teaching rhetoric to those seeking justice in courtor aspiring to political careers. And following their example the Sophistsbecame richand famous by teachingothers how to speak persuasively.In otherwords, not only wasrhetoric the art of persuasionfrom its very beginning but itcame into existence in responseto the need tospeak persuasively,andthe Sophists,teachers ofrhetoric, continued toserve thisneed. Thisaccount of sophistic rhetoric as the artof persuasionis ac- cepted, asSchiappa hasrecently noted,by virtuallyall scholars since Blass,more than a century ago. 4 And even recent scholarslike Cole, Poulakosand Swearingen, whoapproach sophistic rhetoric from new perspectives thatdownplay its connection to persuasion, have not di- rectlyquestioned the connectionbetween rhetoricand persuasion. 5 Explicitly orimplicitly mostscholars agree thatfor the Sophists,to speak well meantto speak persuasively andto teachrhetoric was to teachthe artof persuasion.Scholarly consensus is always comforting, but (asthe readermay suspect) my aimin thispaper isnot to reafrm the consensusbut ratherto reconsiderthe whole issue andask, did the Sophistsreally aimto persuade? The answer,Iwill suggest,is thatpersuasion was only one goalof sophistic logoi,andnot the most important.I will begin by consideringGorgias’ s Helen; I will then setthis work in the contextof sophistic Antilogiai,andwill conclude witha brief lookat whatother Sophists say about persuasion. Helen hasattracted considerable scholarly attention in recent years,especially since CharlesSegal’ s groundbreaking studyalmost fortyyears ago. 6 Accordingto Segal, “the Helen expressesa view of literatureand oratory which touchesclosely Gorgias’ s ownpractice andprobably hisown beliefs. Hence the speech mayeven have 4 EdwardSchiappa, TheBeginnings of RhetoricalTheory in Classical Greece (New Haven:Y ale University Press, 1999);cf. Friedrich Blass, Die attischeBeredsamkeit , vol. I, Von Gorgias biszu Lysias (Leipzig:Strauss & Cramer,1887). 5 Cole, Originsof Rhetoric ;JohnPoulakos, SophisticalRhetoric in Classical Greece (Columbia,SC: University of SouthCarolina Press, 1995);C. JanSwearingen, Rhetoric andIrony: Western Literacyand Western Lies (New York:Oxford University Press, 1991). Amore direct challenge to the role of persuasion is posed byJames Porter, “The Seductions of Gorgias”, Classical Antiquity 12(1993) pp. 267–99), though his picture of Gorgiasas “ seducing”is quite different frommine. 6 CharlesP .Segal,“ Gorgiasand the Psychologyof the Logos”, Harvard Studiesin Classical Philology 66(1962)pp. 99–155. The most scholarly edition of Helen is Thomas Buccheim ed., Gorgias vonLeontinoi: Reden, Fragmente undT estimonien (Hamburg:Felix Meiner, 1989),but MacDowell’s text, translationand commentary are ne forthe purpose of this paper (Douglas M.MacDowell ed., Gorgias, Encomiumof Helen (Bristol: Bristol Classical Press, 1982)). This content downloaded from 147.52.233.137 on Tue, 4 Mar 2014 06:46:40 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 278 R H E T O R I C A served asa kind of formalprofession of the aimsand methods of hisart” (Segal, p. 102).Segal’ s conclusion,that the descriptionof logos in Helen represents Gorgias’s ownview of logos,isnow widely accepted.But is it correct?
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