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A University of Sussex DPhil thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details A Case Study of the Development of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy at the Higher Education Level in Ghana Matthew Karikari-Ababio Submitted to the University of Sussex for the degree of Doctor of Education October 2013 1 I hereby declare that this thesis has not been and will not be submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree Signature 2 UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX Matthew Karikari-Ababio Doctor of Education A Case Study of the Development of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy at the Higher Education Level in Ghana Summary It has been nearly fifty-four years since Ghana nursed the dream of rapid social and economic development through science, technology and innovation. Ghana is yet to experience technological transformation to the level of other countries with which she was at par at the time of her independence. Gaps in understanding still remain in the Ghanaian experience in the development of Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) policy. As such, a radical reform of the systems to help in the restructuring and transforming the economy is still lacking. In 2010 the government of Ghana developed an STI policy. The aim of this policy is to address all sectors of the economy in order to achieve growth and economic transformation. Analytically, the thesis takes a critical perspective to situate Ghana’s socio-economic and political history in the discourses of the dependency theory framework and to examine how the STI policy at the higher education level in Ghana was formulated and how this had privileged different interests and what the implications are for the country. Mindful of the gaps and historic policy flows, the study took advantage of the researcher’s insider position as an education expert and experience as the government policy developer. With this position and experience, the researcher orientation from the perspectives of policy-makers in Ghana was qualitative research methodology that focused on a case study approach, documentary analysis linked to a critical discourse analysis, observations, semi-structured and informal interviews and the use of a research diary to collect field data. The field data collected for the empirical analysis were documentary data, interview transcripts, interview notes, observation data and field notes. In a constructivist analysis, the interpretive paradigm approach, the notion of triangulation and reflexivity helped not only to privilege the multiple perspectives but to also illuminate the complexity and differences among the participants and other data sources to improve the quality of the data analysis. The research found that in Ghana’s trajectory to modernity through education, the country was marginalised in technology by the advanced capitalist nations to produce low-skilled personnel to be exploited by corporations. Further, the government subcontracted the World Bank and UNCTAD to produce the 2010 STI policy to the neglect of its established institutions. This makes it difficult for the country to pursue an independent reflationary STI policy. Moreover, the documentary analysis of the policy revealed that the government of Ghana had focused mostly on basic education to the 3 detriment of higher education and STI policy to further marginalise the country in technology to produce a low-skilled Ghana to be exploited by corporations. The implication is Ghana to restructure the content of education to build a solid foundation for the development of the STI policy in the country. The study, therefore, provides a solid critique of the country’s economic policy and international commitments that perpetuate a dependent model of development to the neglect of STI policy in Ghana. In the wake of the new STI policy development paradigms, the study suggests the need for a shift in paradigm from poor interactive learning space to rich interactive learning space, an interactionist model approach underpinned by a rich interactive learning space as an analytical tool and a guide for STI policy formation in Ghana. 4 Acknowledgement As a policy developer for the Ghana Government, to reflect back and critique our own practice has not been an easy task for me. With the support of lecturers and professors at the Centre for International Education at Sussex, I now see myself as a critical social scientist and a researcher and in a more reflective way, the research has helped me to provide a critical and reflective account of the development of the Science, Technology and Innovation policy at the higher education level in Ghana for my doctorate degree. It is in this regard that I wish to express my very sincere thanks to the staff of the Centre for International Education at Sussex particularly Professor Mario Novelli and Dr. Barbara Crossouard who supervised my work and for their continuous support and guidance throughout the study. I also thank all those who contributed data to this study especially the key stakeholders and actors involved in the development of the policy who painstakingly shared their experiences and insights with me, as well as those who spent sleepless nights to read through the scripts. Finally, I thank my wife, Pamela, children and other family members in particular Mr. Richard Owusu-Karikari for their invaluable support. 5 Table of Contents Summary 3 Acknowledgement 5 List of Tables 12 List of Figures 13 List of Photographs 13 List of Appendices 14 List of Abbreviations and Acronyms 14 Chapter One Introduction 19 1.1 Introduction 19 1.2 Rationale for the Study 20 1.2.1My Professional Responsibility 20 1.3 Purpose of the Study and Research Questions 21 1.4 Analytical Approach 22 1.5 Thesis Organisation 23 Chapter Two: Background to STI Policy Debates and Discussions 24 2.1 Introduction 24 2.2 The Enlightenment Thought and Aspirations 24 2.2.1 The New Imperialism 26 2.3 The Modernisation Theory 27 2.3.1 Education 28 6 2.3.1.1 The Rates of Return Analysis 29 2.3.1.1.1 The Critical Weaknesses and Absences in the Rates of Return Analysis 29 2.3.2 The Learning Divide Concept 30 2.3.2.1 The STI Policy and Economic Growth and Development 31 2.3.2.1.1 The East Asian Experiences in Growth and Development Policies 32 2.3.2.1.1.1 The East Asian Development Model 34 2.4 The Dependency Theory 35 2.4.1 Historical Development of Africa 38 2.4.1.1 Ghana’s Experience from the Perspective of the Dependency Theory 40 2.4.1.1.1 External Exploitation of Gold Coast/ Ghana 40 2.4.1.1.2 European Colonialisation and Chattel Slavery 40 2.4.1.1.3 The Indoctrination of Ghanaian 41 2.4.1.1.4 Childhood Memories 42 2.4.1.1.5 The Ideology of the Country 43 2.5 The STI Policy 45 2.5.1 Introduction 45 2.5.2 Conceptual Framework developed (1945-2005) 45 2.5.3 How STI Policy is understood to Work 46 2.6 Theoretical Gap 48 2.7 The Methodological Framework 49 2.7.1 Introduction 49 2.7.2 The Concept of Modernity 49 7 2.7.3 The Ghanaian Context 50 2.7.4 The Mechanisms 51 2.7.4.1 The Traditional Models 51 2.7.4.2 The Globalisation Models 52 2.7.5 Educational Governance 55 2.7.6 The Actors 55 Chapter Three: Research Approach 56 3.1Introduction 56 3.2 Rationale for using a Case Study Approach 57 3.3 Ethical Issues 58 3.4 Research Methods 60 3.4.1 Documentary Analysis 60 3.4.1.1Documentary Analysis linked with Critical Discourse Analysis 61 3.4.2 Observation 63 3.4.3 Interview 64 3.4.3.1 Introduction 64 3.4.3.2 Preliminary Pilot Phase 64 3.4.3.3 Semi-Structured Interview 64 3.4.3.4 Informal Interview 65 3.4.4 Research Diary 66 3.4.5 Purposeful Sampling Techniques 67 8 3.4.5.1 Introduction 67 3.4.5.2 Rationale for Choosing the Organisations 67 3.4.5.3 Criteria for the Selection of Participants 68 3.4.5.4 Participants Identified and Interviewed 69 3.4.6 Data Handling and Data Analysis 69 3.4.6.1 Introduction 69 3.4.6.2 Data Analysis 70 3.4.6.3 Intrepretive Paradigm Approach 70 3.4.7 Reliability and Validity 71 3.4.8 Limitations of the Study 72 Chapter Four: Background to the History of Education and STI Policy in Ghana 73 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 The Indigenous Education in the Gold Coast/Ghana prior to 1800 73 4.2.1 Analysis of Traditional Values and Social Structures in Gold Coast/Ghana 74 4.3 The Growth of Formal Education in Gold Coast/Ghana (1800-1950) 76 4.3.1 Development of Higher Education in Gold Coast/Ghana 77 4.3.2 The Science, Technology and Innovation Policy in the Colonial Era 79 4.4 Ghana at Independence (1951-1966) 80 4.4.1 The Establishment of Scientific and Technological Institutions in Ghana 81 4.4.2 Ghana’s Achievement at Independence 81 9 4.5 The Post-Independence Era (1967-2002) 83 4.5.1 The Trend of Ghana’s Economic Growth 86 4.5.2 Demographic Trend of STI Policy at the Higher Education level in Ghana 87 4.5.3 Technology Achievement Index 88 4.5.4 Manufacturing Value Added Per Capita 90 4.5.5 Agriculture Value Added Per Worker 90 4.5.6 Debt Sustainability Analysis 91 4.5.7 The Structure of the Economy 92 4.5.8 The Existing Structure in the STI Policy Environment 93 4.5.9 The Limitations of the STI Policy 95 4.5.9.1 The STI Policy and Contending Theories 96 4.6 The Development of the National STI Policy in Ghana in 2010 97 Chapter Five: Mechanisms through which STI Policy is Formulated 98 5.1 Introduction 98 5.2 The Locus of the Development of the STI 99 5.3 Funding of the STI Policy 100 5.4 Dale’s Mechanisms 107 5.5 Ownership of STI policy Developments 110 5.6.

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