Teaching Phonological Awareness with Deaf and Hard-Of-Hearing Students

Teaching Phonological Awareness With Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Students

Rachel A. Friedman Narr

Developing phonological awareness skills with students who are DHH is a possibility. Unequivocally recognized as a critical dimension for reading success with hearing students, phonological awareness skills are now receiving more attention for students who are DHH. Researchers in deafness and the education of students who are DHH are exploring issues related to accessibility, coding, and storage of phonological information (e.g., Dyer, MacSweeney, Szczerbinski, Green, & Campbell, 2003; Harris & Moreno, 2004; LaSasso, Crain, Mikela is a deaf itinerant teacher of stu- hard-of-hearing students. Explicit skills & Leybaert, 2003; Musselman, 2000). dents who are deaf and hard of hearing instruction and the contribution of Currently, however, there is limited (DHH) within a large urban school dis- phonics seemed at odds with her read- research on actually developing phono- trict. She has nine students on her case- ing instruction. However, she continued logical awareness skills with students load, all of whom have moderate to pro- to tackle problems with improving the who are DHH and documenting how to found hearing losses. The students on consistently low reading and spelling apply those skills in reading and Mikela’s caseload are included in gener- levels of her students. She provided a spelling (Trezek & Malmgren, 2005). al education classrooms with inter- good language model through ASL and With this empirical evidence, and preters who use American Sign Lan- tried to provide her students with rich promise from anecdotal and related guage (ASL). Seven of her students are language input. research, this article provides strategies kindergarten through fourth grade; two Due to changes in state standards teachers and related services profession- are in sixth grade. Mikela has struggled and the No Child Left Behind Act, als can use in the classroom to help for many years with the low reading Mikela and her students were facing an develop phonological awareness skills achievement of her students and how to increasing emphasis in instruction on with their students who are DHH. help them access the general education spoken language skills, specifically Phonological awareness is the over- curriculum in reading and language arts. phonological awareness and phonemic arching term for skills such as rhyming, Mikela felt that she balanced her awareness. Phonemic awareness is a set alliteration, onset and rime, and syllabi- reading instruction by focusing on of specific skills involving sound identi- cation. Most children who can hear meaningful reading and writing activi- fication, sound blending, segmenting, have a sensitivity to speech sounds that ties, filling her classroom with authentic and sound manipulation. These skills is acquired naturally. Phonological literature, and providing specific vocab- seemed virtually inaccessible to her stu- awareness encompasses specific phone- ulary instruction and word identifica- dents due to their hearing losses. At the mic awareness skills such as sound tion strategies for students. She also same time, Mikela recognized that these identification, sound blending, seg- knew phonological awareness, a sensi- skills might be part of unlocking the menting, and sound manipulation. tivity to speech sounds in spoken lan- print code for DHH students. She set off Skills and activities within these guage, was important for hearing stu- to explore different avenues of instruc- domains have been described and illus- dents, but she could not understand tion of these skills with her students to trated in other publications (see Gerber & Klein, 2004; Smith, 1998).

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ MAR/APR 2006 ■ 53 Figure 1. Cues You Can Use The process of building internal phonological representations may be more “transparent” for students who are hard of hearing (HH) than for students who are deaf. Students who are HH likely have some access to sounds in spoken language through use of their residual hearing. Consequently, they may be able to hear and understand speech sounds. This auditory accessibility allows more immediate internaliza- tion of the phonological properties of words. Because many students who are HH also use spoken language to communicate, the way they are coding and storing the information matches their internal lexicons. It must be emphasized, however, that not all students who are HH have complete access to the sounds in spoken language through audition alone. They will frequently need to supplement the development of their phonological representations through visual, tactile, and kinesthetic When hearing students struggle words; they internalize rules and pat- cues. Cues that can be used with these with the natural process of acquiring terns associated with these sound-based students are illustrated in Figure 1 and phonological awareness skills, they properties, and subsequently can effec- are described later in this article. receive varying degrees of more struc- tively decode novel words. Hearing stu- The application for students who are tured teaching to help build the skills. dents also have the ability to associate deaf is more complex. Students who are Numerous studies have found that the words they are decoding with words trained through oral/aural methods intensifying teaching strategies with stored in their already expansive word have learned to maximize their residual hearing thereby enabling, or optimizing, hearing students who have difficulty banks. They can do this because the auditory access. Students who rely with phonological awareness skills language they are using to communicate upon sign-based communication, either yields positive results for later reading is the same language they are reading. through simultaneous communication achievement (see National Reading Comprehension and true reading occurs or ASL, frequently have limited or no Panel [NRP] Report, National Institute when students easily decode words and auditory access to sounds in spoken of Child Health and Human Develop- apply word meanings to the context of language. Similar to some of their peers ment, 2000). Similarly, students who what they are reading. are DHH can be taught to develop who are HH, they will need to establish Internal representations of pho- phonological awareness through explic- the development of their phonological nemes are mental images of the sounds it, systematic, and structured strategies representations through visual, tactile, within words that hearing or DHH stu- (Trezek & Malmgren, 2005). To date, and kinesthetic cues (see Figure 1). dents can develop. When students who these strategies have not been widely Information about the phonological are DHH develop phonological aware- researched, perhaps because re- (sound-based) properties of words must ness skills, they are presumed to searchers and teachers have thought be complete for accurate internal repre- process, store, and later recall sound- them neither plausible nor possible. sentations to be formed. Researchers based information using a mental have discussed the perils of inadequate- Building Internal Phonological image, or an internal representation (see ly developed internal representations Representations Leybaert & Alegria, 2003 for further dis- that result in the weak development of As young hearing children develop cussion on mental representations). The phonological awareness skills (Leybaert phonological awareness, they are able internal representations do not need to & Alegria, 2003). Therefore, strategies to internalize the sound-based proper- be externalized for them to be meaning- that provide complete information ties of words that allow sound-letter ful (Hanson, 1989). In other words, it about phonological aspects of spoken associations to be made. They are build- seems that students who are DHH do language seem to be advisable in ing internal phonological representa- not need to use spoken language to instruction. Similar to instruction with tions by realizing that sounds in words understand and use phonological hearing students who require skill can be manipulated to create new awareness. development in phonological awareness

54 ■ COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN (NRP, 2000), deaf students should be man, 2000). Information stored phono- Visual Cues taught using explicit, systematic, and logically seems to be retained longer Two ways to completely represent spo- meaningful instruction. and recalled more effectively than infor- ken language visually include Visual One of the challenges for students mation that is processed through other Phonics and Cued Speech. Both are who are DHH is the connection between coding strategies such as orthography or visual, auditory, and tactile/kinesthetic the internal phonological representa- fingerspelling (see reviews by Mussel- systems that represent the phonemes of tions that create words and meaning. man; Paul, 2003). This point, however, spoken English, yet are distinct in their For students who use sign-based sys- continues to be debated (Ronnberg, implementation. Table 1 shows the sim- tems for communication, the ability to 2003). ilarities and differences between Visual decode words and connect those words Phonics and Cued Speech at a glance. How Is Phonological Awareness to their internal lexicons could be prob- Both of these methods require special- Taught to Students Who Are lematic. There may not be an immediate ized training for those who would like DHH? connection between the blended to incorporate them into their instruc- sounds, /k/ /a/ /t/, and the small furry Figure 1 provides an overview of strate- tion. house pet. The link between the phono- gies that can be taught within several logical information contained within the sensory domains. Strategies that are Visual Phonics. See-the-sound/Visual word and the meaning must be explicit auditory, visual, and tactile/kinesthetic Phonics was developed in 1982 by the during instruction. The semantic and seem to be effective methods for devel- International Communication Learning phonological analysis of vocabulary oping phonological awareness skills Institute (Waddy-Smith & Wilson, must occur simultaneously (Stanovich, with students who are DHH. Different 2003). It consists of 45 hand and 1994). strategies would need to be emphasized grapheme cues. The hand cues provide depending on the strengths of individ- visual and kinesthetic information that Why Bother? ual students. Some students will access can be associated with the way a sound The National Reading Panel (2000) information through their residual hear- is produced verbally. For example, the explicitly defines phonological aware- ing, whereas others will benefit from /p/ sound is represented with a hand ness as a critical building block for suc- visual or tactile/kinesthetic strategies. cue that simulates the “plosiveness” of cessful reading achievement. Teachers Many of the strategies are multi-modal. /p/—the air being released from the should include the development of lips. The grapheme cues are unique phonological awareness skills as part of Auditory Cues symbols that when paired with letters their reading curriculum because of the When appropriate, use of a student’s provide students with a visual correlate strong research support for its imple- residual hearing can be utilized to gain for the sound a letter might “make” in a mentation with hearing students. phonological information about spoken particular word. Studies with deaf students indicate a language. Use of residual hearing can be Students who are DHH learn Visual positive correlation between phonologi- maximized by encouraging students to Phonics in meaningful contexts such as cal awareness and reading (Dyer et al., wear their amplification systems in the reading and spelling. They learn to asso- 2003; LaSasso et al., 2003). Luetke- classroom. Parents can help by making ciate the Visual Phonics hand and Stahlman and Nielsen (2003) state sure teachers are supported by having grapheme cues with phonemes. The “whether they are deaf or hearing, new batteries available for students’ student then has the means to internal- monolingual or bilingual, normally personal hearing aids. Educational audi- ly represent and store the phonemic developing or experiencing cognitive or ologists can provide their expertise by information related to a word. Because learning disabilities, beginning readers assuring students have maximum bene- the information is taught in context, the must learn how sounds of the spoken fit from their hearing aids or FM sys- representations are built using meaning- language are represented by letters or tems. Teachers should know how to ful referents. Some teachers who use letter sequences within words” (p. 469). troubleshoot and care for assistive lis- Visual Phonics as an integral part of People who are DHH can have access to tening devices and monitor and encour- their instruction have reported anec- phonological information (Hanson, age their use daily. dotally that students who are DHH learn Goodell, & Perfetti, 1991) and can devel- Teaching Tip: An auditory cue you to “decode” or sound-out novel words op phonemic awareness (Leybaert & can use is acoustic highlighting. With and apply meaning to them over time. Alegria, 2003). acoustic highlighting, you emphasize The exact nature of this process has not A manual or visual coding process yet been explained scientifically. In their your target sound(s) by may seem more natural for people who experience, students also seem to retain use sign-based communication systems. Making that sound louder within a spelling words more effectively. An Research and discussions on this topic, word (i.e., home). example lesson using Visual Phonics is however, argue that these strategies If it’s a voiceless consonant, whisper presented in Table 2. may not be as efficient as phonological the whole word (i.e., cake). coding processes for individuals who Or place increased stress on a sylla- Cued Speech. Cued Speech was devel- are DHH (Hanson et al., 1991; Mussel- ble (i.e., homework). oped by Orin Cornett in 1964 as a

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ MAR/APR 2006 ■ 55 method to facilitate spoken language Table 1. Similarities and Differences Between Visual Phonics communication with students who were and Cued Speech DHH (Cornett & Daisey, 2001). Cued Visual Phonics Similarities Cued Speech Speech consists of 8 hand shapes and 4 locations around the mouth that, when Developed in 1982 to Complete visual Developed in 1964 paired with spoken language, represent provide visual cues representation of all as a communication 45 phonemes of spoken English. Cues for phonemes for phonemes in English system. used in Cued Speech are provided at the students who are Originally used to level of the syllable and the phonemic DHH. facilitate acquisition information contained in spoken lan- Is not used, nor of spoken English guage is conveyed during typical dis- advocated, as a (oral language) with course, much like running speech. communication students who are Because Cued Speech is used as a com- system. DHH. munication system, students are Uses 46 unique Uses 8 hand shapes exposed to the cues regularly throughout tactile/kinesthetic to cue consonants their school day and often at home. hand cues that were and 4 placements to Students learn about the phonological designed to reference cue vowels, along information inherent in spoken English the “way a sound is with lip movement produced in the cues. as they learn spoken language. They internalize the phonological information mouth.” The minimal unit The minimal unit of of a “cue” is the (and externalize it through speaking) a cue is the syllable. and use it while reading. There is strong phoneme. Strong research that research that indicates students who are Uses unique graphic demonstrates students educated using Cued Speech read and symbols that who are DHH and spell on levels similar to their hearing correspond with have been in Cued peers (Leybaert & Alegria, 2003). phonemes. Speech programs tend Despite this evidence, many educa- Lack of empirical to have better reading tors in the field of deaf education find research base that and spelling skills limited application of Cued Speech for than their non-cuing supports its use for students who are not developing spoken peers. reading development language skills. On the other hand, with students who Implementation some educators do support the use of are DHH. Is used in oral Cued Speech for students who use sign- Used with students programs serving based communication. who have other students who There are other ways to provide visu- difficulties learning are DHH as a to read (i.e., learning al information to build internal phono- communication disabilities) and who logical representations. While they lack system. are not DHH. the complete access provided by Visual The speaker cues to Phonics and Cued Speech, when com- Implementation students providing bined and used strategically, they can Used frequently by complete access to be helpful in building the internal repre- phonemes in spoken speech-language sentations necessary for students who language. pathologists to are DHH. These include speechreading facilitate speech Students learn spoken and syllabication. development. language receptively and expressively. Is being used by Speechreading. Speechreading cues are some teachers in The connection to available to all students who are DHH. classrooms to make reading is similar the phonological and for hearing students Teachers provide speechreading cues phonemic elements because students who strategically during reading and spelling in reading acquisition are DHH have devel- lessons, and frequently during typical more accessible for oped oral language discourse using either sign-based com- their DHH students. skills through a mode munication or spoken language. Is used as an “over- that allows access Students can be taught (and many do lay” to existing to complete this “automatically”) to use speechread- information. reading curricula. ing cues to make inferences about the phonemic information in words. Using this information, they build their inter-

56 ■ COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Table 2. Visual Phonics Lesson

Instructional Instructional Materials/ Assessment/ Content Objective Procedure Equipment Evaluation

California Language 1. Identify grapho- Word Sort: Long “a”/ Books to provide “Pahh” (break- Arts Standard 1.5: phonemic differ- Short “a” context. through) moment for Distinguish long-and ences between Teacher provides the student today. short-vowel sounds in long “a” words and models as needed. During the word sort orally stated single- short “a” words to activity, which was syllable words (e.g., establish a rule. 1. Student sees the only recently intro- bit/bite). (review). word in context duced yesterday (in print), and focusing on grapho- 2. Recognize differ- determines if it’s phonemic recognition ences between long or short. of long “a” and short long "a" and short “a,” he was able to "a" words phone- 2. Student sees and classify almost all mically (using says/produces words correctly Visual Phonics) (using Visual through Visual and make Phonics) the word, Phonics cues alone connections determines if it’s AND provide me with between words long or short. the appropriate sign. such as mad becomes made. 3. Student provides (Note that these signs for each words were different word after than the words used determining if it’s in previous activity). long or short and then uses the word I began the activity in context. moving quickly through the review Challenge: Teacher same as yesterday. gives only Visual This tells me he is Phonics cues and decoding using the student determines if phonological cues. it’s long or short and identifies the word with meaning. nal representations to develop phono- mic awareness skills such as phoneme English contains a vowel. Vowels by logical awareness. segmentation and blending. Syllabi- nature are unrestricted phonemes. Teaching Tip: You can work on cation can be an effective cue at any They require the mouth to open and phoneme identification and speechread- time in reading and spelling instruction. the jaw to drop during coarticulated ing when providing information about There are three underlying features of speech. Therefore, speechreaders how a word is spelled using the sand- syllabication that make it a particularly can more easily determine the num- wich technique. Begin by signing and powerful cue for students who are ber of syllables in a word, regardless saying (or mouthing) the whole word. DHH: of audition. Next, instead of fingerspelling or writing Syllables can be easily conveyed Rhythmic information is low- the whole word for a student, finger- through fingerspelling by chunking a frequency information. The beat of a spell or write most of the word, omitting word. This strategy fosters working drum, the rhythm of a song, and syl- the target phoneme. Say (or mouth) that memory recall by encouraging stu- phoneme (not the letter name). Then labic information in words is carried dents to memorize (and hopefully sign and say (or mouth) the word again. through low frequencies. It is com- learn) words in chunks, rather than mon for students who are DHH to discrete and unrelated letters—a Syllabication. Phonologically, the inter- have more residual hearing in the decidedly more difficult task. nal structure of a word has rhythm, low frequencies. Subsequently, this Syllabic information inherent in often associated with syllabication. information is frequently available to words is stored as part of the phono- Syllabication is a well-documented these students. logical information students use as phonological awareness skill and is a Syllables are highly visible on the they are building internal phonologi- precursor to more sophisticated phone- mouth. Each syllable in spoken cal representations. It provides

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ MAR/APR 2006 ■ 57 another tool for students to use to cal awareness must be taught within Spencer (Eds.), Deaf studies, language, “crack the code” embedded within meaningful contexts, particularly with and education (pp. 261–274). New York: written English. students who are DHH. Phonological Oxford University Press. Luetke-Stahlman, B., & Nielsen, D.C. (2003). Teaching Tip: Start fingerspelling awareness skills are critical to the read- The contribution of phonological aware- multisyllable words to your students in ing process and these skills should be ness and receptive and expressive English chunks. If your students are used to taught as part of a well balanced read- to the reading ability of deaf students with ing curriculum. varying degrees of exposure to accurate copying spelling words letter-by-letter, English. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Regardless of the mode of communi- you may need to instruct them to watch Education, 8, 464–484. for several letters, hold those letters in cation or the language of instruction, Musselman, C. (2000). How do children who memory, and then write them down students who are DHH must be taught can’t hear learn to read an alphabetic (i.e., te-le-vi-sion, or ham-bur-ger). these strategies to build internal repre- script? A review of the literature on read- sentations to be subsequently used during. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 5, 9–31. Tactile/Kinesthetic Cues ing reading and spelling. As internal National Reading Panel, National Institute of Two highly kinesthetic cues that teach- representations are created, the “link” Child Health and Human Development. ers can use with students who are DHH to meaning will come from the language (2000). Report of the National Reading are production cues and mouth move- that students hear/see/feel daily. Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific ment cues. Students learn about Although previously perceived as coun- research literature on reading and its terintuitive, developing phonological phonemes by producing them. Although implications for reading instruction (NIH previously emphasized, production is awareness skills with students who are Publication No. 00-4769). Washington, not necessary for students to build inter- DHH is both plausible and possible. DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. nal representations of phonemes, how- Paul, P. V. (2003). Processes and components References of reading. In M. Marschark & P. E. ever it can facilitate the process. When Cornett, R., & Daisey, M. (2001). The cued Spencer (Eds.), Deaf studies, language, appropriate, and in isolated opportuni- speech resource book for parents of deaf and education (pp. 97–109). New York: ties, students can be encouraged to pro- children. Cleveland, OH: National Cued Oxford University Press. duce, or approximate, phoneme produc- Speech Association. Ronnberg, J. (2003). Working memory, neu- tion. Students who do not use their Dyer, A., MacSweeney, M., Szczerbinski, M., roscience, and language: Evidence from voice or any spoken language for com- Green, L., & Campbell, R. (2003). Predic- deaf and hard of hearing individuals. In tors of reading delay in deaf adolescents: M. Marschark & P. E. Spencer (Eds.), Deaf munication can be encouraged to use The relative contributions of rapid autom- studies, language, and education (pp. 478– appropriate mouth/lip movements for atized naming speed and phonological 490). New York: Oxford University Press. phonemes and words. awareness and decoding. Journal of Deaf Smith, C. R. (1998). From gibberish to This strategy is not incompatible Students and Deaf Education, 8, 215–229. phonemic awareness. Effective decoding with signed-based communication, or Gerber, A., & Klein, E. (2004). Speech-lan- instruction. TEACHING Exceptional Child- guage approach to early reading success. ren, 30, 20–25. more specifically, ASL. It is often feasi- TEACHING Exceptional Children, 36, Stanovich, K. E. (1994). Constructivism in ble for ASL users to use mouth move- 8–15. reading education. Journal of Special ments that correspond with word pro- Hanson, V. L. (1989). Phonology and read- Education, 28, 259–274. duction while signing (Valli & Lucas, ing: Evidence from profoundly deaf read- Trezek, B., & Malmgren, K. (2005). The effi- 1995). The kinesthetic nature of this ers. In D. Shankweiler & I. Liberman cacy of utilizing a phonics treatment pack- (Eds.), Phonology and reading disability: age with middle school deaf and hard of strategy facilitates word identification Solving the reading puzzle (pp. 69–89). hearing students. Journal of Deaf Studies and spelling (LaSasso, 1996). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. and Deaf Education, 10, 256–271. Teaching Tip: Use naturally occur- Hanson, V. L., Goodell, E., & Perfetti, C. A. Valli, C., & Lucas, C. (1995). Linguistics of ring, quick, and “teachable” moments (1991). Tongue-twister effects in the silent American sign language. An introduction. to work on mouth movement or pro- reading of hearing and deaf college stu- Washington, DC: Gallaudet University dents. Journal of Memory and Language, Press. duction. If a student spontaneously 30, 319–330. Waddy-Smith, B., & Wilson, V. (2003). See moves his mouth, or tries to produce a Harris, M., & Moreno, C. (2004). Deaf chil- that sound! Visual phonics for deaf chil- word, give feedback about his or her dren’s use of phonological coding: dren. Odyssey, 5, 14–17. production through a model. Repeat the Evidence from reading, spelling, and working memory. Journal of Deaf Studies Rachel A. Friedman Narr (CEC CA Feder- word and ask him or her to watch your ation), Assistant Professor, Department of mouth while you sign and say the word. and Deaf Education, 9, 253–268. LaSasso, C. (1996). Foniks for deff tshildre- Special Education, California State University, Northridge. Final Thoughts un? Yoo beddzah! Perspectives in Education and Deafness, 14, 6–9. Address correspondence to the author at Building strategies to decipher English LaSasso, C., Crain, K., & Leybaert, J. (2003). California State University Northridge, 18111 Rhyme generation in deaf students: The print will enhance students’ reading and Nordhoff Street, Northridge, CA 91330 effect of exposure to cued speech. Journal spelling skills. All teachers must have a (e-mail: [email protected]). variety of tools they can use to actively of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 8, 250–270. teach their students. The tools should TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 38, Leybaert, J., & Alegria, J. (2003). The role of No. 4, pp. 53–58. be used easily and effectively within cued speech in language development of language arts curricula and phonologi- deaf children. In M. Marschark & P. E. Copyright 2006 CEC.

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