Factors That Hinder Women's Access to Management

FACTORS THAT HINDER WOMEN’S ACCESS TO MANAGEMENT POSITIONS IN GOVERNMENT AIDED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN UGANDA: THE CASE OF EASTERN REGION

Gidudu Lunyolo Hannah

A Thesis submitted to the Institute of Postgraduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education (Education Management) of Kabarak University.

JUNE, 2015

@2015

Gidudu Lunyolo Hannah

All rights are reserved. No part of this PhD Thesis may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by means of either mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any other information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the Author or

Kabarak University.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank God the Almighty for His protection, wisdom and His abundant love and care. He had good plans for me for He has brought me this far. Without Him, I would not make it.

I feel deep gratitude to my supervisors Prof. T.M.O. Ayodo, and Dr. Betty J.Tikoko for their support, encouragement, guidance and dedication in supervising my PhD thesis. I also appreciate the efforts of my lecturers for their support. I am grateful to Dr. Kageni Njagi and

Prof. James O. Awino for inspiring our class during research seminars.

I extend my sincere appreciation to my dear husband Rt. Rev. Patrick Gidudu for his tireless support. My sincere gratitude to my children Samuel, Emmanuel, Marion and Janet for their prayers and support rendered to me during the study. My sincere gratitude to my son Samuel and Uncle Tim Wangusa who worked tirelessly to edit this work. My sincere gratitude to my daughter Janet Judith Gidudu for accompanying me during the many times I went to present my academic papers and during examination time. You endeavored to wake up in the night to prepare for me the meals for each day I was abroad. You did carry my heavy luggage each time I travelled. May God bless you all abundantly.

I also extend my heartfelt thanks to my classmates at Kabarak University for their company, support and encouragement they rendered to me during this program, and the cooperation they exhibited during the course. I am very grateful to my friends Mr. Alfred Muwoya, Rev

George Etyang Mr. Nabende Patrick, and Mr. Wandwasi Robert who worked tirelessly as my research assistants during data collection period. I do appreciate Uganda Christian University

Mbale for meeting part of my financial obligation. Thanks to my brother Samuel, his wife

Agnes for their support during my study and all the respondents in the study.

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my beloved mother Mrs. Penina Wepukhulu, my dear husband Rt.

Rev. Patrick Gidudu and my children Samuel Lecob Gidudu, Emmanuel Rob Gidudu,

Marion Tabitha Gidudu, Janet Judith Gidudu, and all female managers.

ABSTRACT

This research explores the factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda, a matter insufficiently addressed by previous research by other scholars. The general objective was to establish these factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in the said Government Aided secondary schools in the study area. Gender Equality Theory undergirded this research. A conceptual framework helped to focus on the variables that hinder women‘s access to management positions. Descriptive Survey Research Design was used. The study population was 18 female head teachers, 460 female teachers, 32 Chief Administrative Officers (CAOs), 32 District Education Officers (DEOs), and 32 Gender Focal Persons (GFPs). The sample was 5 CAOs, 5 DEOs, 5 GFPs, 5 female head teachers, and 210 female teachers. Purposive and simple random techniques were used to select the respondents. An interview schedule, a questionnaire and documents analysis were used to collect data. Data was analyzed using descriptive analysis, and Epi Info 7. The study established barriers to gender parity that included: socio-cultural, religious, home-based, individual, education level, discrimination, male dominated interviewing panels, and negative criticisms. Female head teachers experience unique challenges like balancing career work and family responsibilities, sexual harassment, socio-cultural and religious factors. Covert organizational practices like inadequate resources, biased structures, lack of transformation, negative work-identity perceptions, and work-life balance are a threat to women leadership. Given the existing gaps in available research, the study provided a new context relating to the factors that hinder women‘s access to management. The researcher recommends that: the Government should increase the number of female head teachers, balance interviewing panels, discipline culprits, streamline roles of politicians in schools, sensitize stake holders, and implement gender equality policies.

Key Words: Policies, Discrimination, Equality, Gender, Barriers, and leadership.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration ...... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. Recommendation ...... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. Copyright ...... III Acknowledgement ...... IV Dedication ...... v Abstract ...... vi Table of contents ...... vii List of figures ...... xi List of Tables ...... xii Abbreviations and Acronyms...... xiii Definitions of operational of terms ...... XV CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 INTRODUCTION...... 1 1.1. Background to the Study ...... 1 1.2. Statement of the Problem ...... 5 1.3. Objectives of the Study ...... 6 1.4. Research Questions ...... 6 1.5. Significance of the Study...... 7 1.6. Scope of the Study ...... 8 1.7. Limitations of the Study ...... 8 1.8. Assumptions of the Study...... 9 CHAPTER TWO ...... 10 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 10 2.0. Introduction ...... 10 2.1. Women‘s Perceptions on Minimal Occupation of Management Positions ...... 10 2.3. Barriers to Women‘s Access to Management Positions in Secondary Schools ...... 12 2.4. Effectiveness of The Existing Government Gender Equality Policies to Enhance Women‘s Access to Management Positions in Government Aided Secondary Schools in Eastern Uganda...... 17 2.4. Unique challenges that female head teachers face in the administration of government aided secondary schools ...... 27 2.4.1. Socio-cultural challenges...... 27 2.4.2. Home barriers ...... 33 2.4.2. Individual challenges ...... 35 2.4.3. Religious factors ...... 38 2.4.4. Coping strategies ...... 38 2.4.5. Conclusion ...... 38 vii

2.5. Theoretical Framework: Gender Equality Theory ...... 38 2.6. Conceptual Framework ...... 40 CHAPTER THREE ...... 43 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 43 3.1. Introduction ...... 43 3.2. Research design ...... 43 3.3. The study area...... 43 3.4. Study population...... 44 3.4.1. Research participants ...... 44 3.5. Sampling procedure ...... 45 3.5.1. Sample ...... 46 3.6. Data collection instruments ...... 47 3.6.1. Questionnaire...... 47 3.6.2. Interviews ...... 48 3.6.3. Documentary review ...... 49 3.7. Reliability and validity of instruments ...... 50 3.7.1. Validity of the instrument...... 50 3.7.2. Reliability of the instrument ...... 51 3.8. Data collection procedure ...... 54 3.9. Data analysis...... 55 3.10. Ethical consideration ...... 57 3.11. Conclusion ...... 58 CHAPTER FOUR...... 59 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 59 4.1. INTRODUCTION ...... 59 4.1.2. Summary of questionnaires administered and response rate...... 60 4.1.3. Bio-data of respondents ...... 60 4.1.4. Gender of respondents ...... 61 4.1.2. Working experience of female respondents ...... 62 4.1.3. Respondents‘ highest education level ...... 63 4.2.2. CAOS‘ perceptions on women‘s minimal occupation in management positions in government aided secondary schools in Uganda...... 73 4.2.3. DEOS‘ responses on perception on women‘s minimal occupation in management positions...... 77 4.2.4. GFPS‘ responses on perception on women‘s minimal occupation in management positions...... 81 4.3. Barriers to women‘s access to management positions in government aided secondary schools ...... 86

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4.3.1. Female teachers‘ responses on barriers to women‘s access to management positions . 87 4.3.2. Socio-cultural barriers to women‘s access to management positions ...... 88 4.3.3. Religious barriers to women‘s access to management positions...... 91 4.3.4. Home barriers to women‘s access to management positions ...... 92 4.3.5. Individual barriers to women‘s access to management positions ...... 93 4.3.6. Education level ...... 94 4.3.7. Politics, as barriers to women‘s access to management ...... 94 4.3.7.1. Socio-cultural factors to women‘s access to management positions ...... 96 4.3.7.3. Individual factors ...... 97 4.3.8. GFPS response on barriers to women‘s access to management positions ...... 100 4.3.8.1. Socio-cultural factors to women‘s access to management positions ...... 100 4.3.4.1. Socio-cultural factors to women‘s access to management positions ...... 102 4.3.4.3. Home factors ...... 107 4.4.1. Comparison analysis ...... 107 4.4.2. Conclusion ...... 108 4.4.3. The effectiveness of the existing government gender equality policies to enhance women‘s access to management positions in government grant- aided secondary schools in uganda ...... 109 4.4.4. Female teachers‘ responses on effectiveness of the existing gender equality policies110 4.4.2. CAO‘s responses on the effectiveness of the existing gender equality policies ...... 115 4.4.4. Conclusion ...... 118 4.5. Unique challenges female head teachers face in the administration of ...... 119 4.5.1. Female head teachers‘ responses on the unique challenges that they face in administering secondary schools ...... 119 CHAPTER FIVE ...... 127 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 127 5.1. Introduction ...... 127 5.2. Summary of the major findings of the study ...... 127 5.2.1. Women‘s perceptions on minimal occupation in management positions in government aided secondary schools in uganda...... 128 5.2.2. Barriers to women‘s access to management positions in government aided secondary schools in uganda ...... 129 5.2.3. The effectiveness of the existing government gender equality policies to enhance women‘s access to management positions in government aided secondary schools in Uganda...... 130 5.2.4. The unique challenges that female head teachers face in the administration of government aided secondary schools ...... 130 5.3. Conclusion of the study ...... 131 5.4. Policy recommendations ...... 132

5.5. Suggestions for further research ...... 133 References ...... 134 Appendices...... 151 Appendix I: Questionnaire for female teachers of government aided secondary schools ..... 151 Appendix II: Questionnaire for CAOs, DEOs, and GFPs ...... 156 Appendix III: Interview guide to be administered to female head teachers ...... 160 Appendix 1V: Consent letter to the research participants ...... 161 Appendix V: A map of uganda showing the location of eastern uganda...... 163 Appendix VI: A map of uganda showing eastern uganda ...... 164 Appendix VII: A map of eastern uganda showing the study districts ...... 165 Appendix V11I: Introduction letter from kabarak university ...... 166 Appendix V1II: Approval letter from research ethics committee, kabarak university ...... 167 Appendix IX: A letter from national council for science and technology ...... 168 Appendix X: Cronbach‘s alpha for variables...... 169 Appendix XI: Sample size (s) required for the given population size (N) ...... 170 Appendix xii: Published papers ...... 171

LIST OF FIGURES 2.6. Conceptual Framework ...... 40 Figure 3.1: Cronbach‘s Alpha (155) Ratings ...... 169

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Research Participants ...... 44 Table 3.2: School status and the number of female head teachers per district ...... 45 Table 3.3: Sampling technique ...... 47 Table 3.6: Calculated cronbach‘s alpha ...... 169 Table 3.7: Cronbach‘s alpha for variables ...... 169 Table 3.8: Summary of data analysis methods used ...... 57 Table 4.1: Summary of questionnaires administered and response rate ...... 60 Table 4.2: Gender of respondents in management positions ...... 61 Table 4.3: Working experience of female respondents...... 62 Table 4.4: Respondents‘ highest education level...... 63 Table 4.5: Female teachers‘ perceptions on women‘s minimal occupation in management ... positions (N=210) ...... 66 Table 4.6.: CAO‘S perception on women‘s minimal occupation in management positions .. 73 Table 4.7: Deos‘ perceptions on women‘s minimal occupation in management positions (N=5) ...... 77 Table 4:8: GFPS‘ perception on women‘s minimal occupation in management positions .. 81 Table 4.9: Female teachers‘ responses on barriers to women‘s access to management ...... 87 Table 4.10: CAOs responses on barriers to women‘s access to management positions...... 96 Table 4: 11: GFPS response on barriers to women‘s access to management positions ...... 100 Table 4: 12: Deos response on barriers to women‘s access to management positions ...... 102 Table 4.13: Female Teachers‘ responses on effectiveness of the existing gender equality policies (N=210) ...... 110 Table 4.12: CAO‘s responses on the effectiveness of the existing gender equality policies. 115 Table 4.13: Female head teachers‘ responses on the unique challenges that they face in administering secondary schools ...... 119

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS BPA Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action CAO Chief Administrative Officer CEO Chief Executive Officer DEO District Education Officer ESC Education Service Commission FAO Food and Agriculture Organization GAD Gender and Development GEM Girls Education Movement GEWE Gender Equality and Women Empowerment GFP Gender Focal Person GoU Government of Uganda ILO International Labour Organization INSSTEP In-Service Secondary Teacher Education Program IR International Relations MDGs Millennium Development Goals MFPED Ministry of Finance Planning and Economic Development MGDLSD Ministry of Gender, Labor and Social Development MGLSD Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development MoES Ministry of Education and Sports MoLG Ministry of Local Government NAPW National Action Plan on Women NDP National Development Plan NGP National Gender Policy NGP National Gender Policy NPA National Planning Authority NSGE National Strategy for Girl Education PGEP Promotion of Girl Education Program SADC South African Development Community UBOS Uganda Bureau of Statistics UNAIDS United Nations program on HIV/AIDS UNDP United Nations Development Plan UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNFPA United Nations Population Fund xiii

UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children‘s Fund UNIFEM United Nations development Fund for women UNJPGE United National Joint Programme on Gender Equality UPE Universal Primary Education USE Universal Secondary School UWONET Uganda Women‘s net work WFP World Food Program WHO World Health Organization WID Women in Development

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DEFINITIONS OF OPERATIONAL OF TERMS

Management is the process of working with and through the people to achieve the set goals.

Management in businesses and organizations is the function that coordinates the

efforts of people to accomplish goals and objectives using available resources

efficiently and effectively. Being in management in this study refers to holding the

highest position in Government Aided secondary school. For example, being a Head

teacher.

Government is the structured system of operation. It is a group that exercises sovereign

authority over a nation, state, society or other body of people. A government is the

system by which a state or community is governed A group of people that governs a

community or unit In the study it refers to the Republic of Uganda.

Leaders are defined by Growe and Montgomery (2000) as people who provide vision and

meaning for an institution and embody the ideals toward which the organization

strives. In this study a leader refers to the head teacher.

Secondary Schools: These are post Primary schools which run for four or six years

depending on the status. That is, Advanced Level schools take 6 years and the

Ordinary‘ Level takes 4 years.

Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female

and the relationships between women and men, and girls and boys, as well as the

relations between women and those between men. These attributes, opportunities and

relationships are socially constructed and are learned through socialization processes.

Gender equality refers to fairness of treatment for women and men, for girls and boys

according to their respective needs. In this study gender equality refers to equal

treatment in terms of rights, benefits, obligations and opportunities.

Access is the act of approaching, entering, exiting or making use of (American

Heritage College Dictionary, 1993). In this study, access means being appointed to

manage a school.

Policy is a principle or protocol to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes or a

statement of intent, and is implemented as a procedure or protocol.

Gender policy is a principle that guides the operation of an organization. In this study it refers

to the guiding principle of operation on gender matters. It comes from the

understanding that, inequality between men and women is deep rooted and it is

manifested in discrimination against women in different forms. It also means

organization-wide strategies to achieve gender equality and women's empowerment. It

ensures that there is no sex-based discrimination in the allocation of resources or

benefits, or in access to services.

Management position in this study refers to the post of a head teacher.

Government Aided secondary schools refer to the schools which receive funds from the

Government of Uganda to run the school programs.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background to the Study

Gender inequality in management positions in different sectors of employment has gained attention in many countries mainly at legislative and research levels (Kiamba, 2008). It is largely acknowledged that women are very few in management positions practically in all circles of employment and education is not excluded in this broadly held position (Chabaya,

Symporosa,& Newman 2009; Tikoko & Kiprop, 2012; Logan, 1999). An observation by

Smith (2010) indicates that in European countries like Britain and Wales only 36% females are in management positions. In support to this notion, Coleman (2001) observed that in UK, women in educational management are a minority. Nevertheless, they are also a minority in most other countries, both those in similar stages of progress and those which constitute the newly evolving economies.

The need for female representation in management positions in educational systems worldwide is necessary to offer a gendered viewpoint on educational amendment and development and in addition, to make sure that social justice through gender equity in management and decision making levels is attained(Sperandio & Kagoda, 2005). This is because the presence of women in management positions at the secondary school level provides a feeling in schools for the well-being of girls and provides career choice for girls with role models of women managers and leaders. As such, it is important for women to fully participate in leading educational change given the important duty which the education system of a country plays in both national development as well as the establishment a gender equal society. If women are to fully participate in the change and development process, they must exist in management positions and be provided with the relevant skills and knowledge

1 required to participate efficiently and effectively in educational management and policy- making at both school and national levels (Sperandio & Kagoda, 2005).

In several countries, concerns about gender inequalities in education have concentrated on student performance, mainly in terms of under-attainment of girls, differences in access at different levels of schooling and dropout rates in fields taken. These have induced a range of explanations and policies around gender disparities in educational results (Davies, 1990).

Nevertheless, the issue of gender imbalance in the management structures of schools and colleges has not received adequate care, although there is acknowledgment in education of both the importance of equal chance and the strengths that women bring to management

(Coleman, 1994).

The 1995 Beijing Declaration on Gender Equality and Development guarantees equal opportunity to women and men in accessing management positions (United Nations, 2014;

Chinkin, 1996). In addition, the 4th World Conference on Women (1995) called for governments worldwide to generate a gender sensitive education system so as to guarantee maximum and equal participation of women in educational administration, policy and decision making. According to Kiamba (2008) this declaration was to be attained by 2005 but it has not been met, apart from South Africa and Mozambique. It was therefore necessary for an investigation to be undertaken on the factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda.

At regional level, effort has been made to enable women access management positions. In

Uganda, the government has encouraged women to access management positions in all institutions by putting in place various gender equality policies as a commitment to

2 redressing the disparities that characterize the provision of education for girls. In education for example, girls who qualify to gain admission to universities are accorded 1.5 points.

Sperandio & Kagoda, 2005). This is where girls‘ Ordinary and Advanced Level results are converted to weight points and added to 1,5 extra points to enable them qualify to join public

University Similar opportunities are accorded to women in political parties and leadership. In addition, protective laws against gender bias in the opportunities of employment have been enacted (Wakholi, 2006).

Despite these progressive policies on gender equality, women are still concentrated in low income and low status positions like deputy head teachers and classroom teachers (The

Republic of Uganda, 2013). But the fact that the constitution of Uganda of 1995, stipulates equality for all citizens, women are still few in management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. For instance, in Eastern Uganda, out of the 142 Government Aided secondary schools, only 15 schools (10%) are headed by female head teachers (Republic of

Uganda, 2013). As observed by Kiamba (2008), men have traditionally been favored to access management jobs including leadership of Government Aided secondary schools. On that note, the common notion that women teach while men manage schools still holds notwithstanding the strategies to rectify the gender inequality in educational management

(Chabaya et al, 2009).

In relation to the gender imbalance in the management of educational institutions, the government of Uganda came up with Uganda National Gender Policy (NGP) to address this problem. According to the American Heritage Dictionary, a policy is a written contract or guiding principle or procedure considered expedient, prudent or advantageous. In the context of the study, gender policy is a set of guidelines which were formulated in 1997 and revised

3 in 2007 with the main aim of addressing gender inequality in access to justice by attaining gender balance and women‘s enablement as an integral part of Uganda‘s socio-economic development (Republic of Uganda, 2007). The purpose of the NGP was to establish a clear framework for identification, implementation, and coordination of interventions designed to achieve gender equality and women‘s empowerment in Uganda. The policy is a guide to all stakeholders in planning, resource allocation, implementation, as well as monitoring and evaluation of programmes with a gender perspective (The Uganda Gender Policy (2007)).

The objectives of the NGP were; to reduce gender inequalities, rise information and the accepting of human rights among women and men, to enable them identify violations, demands, access, seeking redress and enjoy their rights, to strength women existence and abilities in making critical decisions for their significant participation in administrative and political processes, and to address gender disparities and guarantee presence of gender analysis in macroeconomic policy formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation.

All these strategies in place; notwithstanding, very little has been achieved since there are still very few female head teachers in the management of Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda. It was against this backdrop that this study was set to investigate the factors that hinder women from accessing management positions in secondary schools in

Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

The number of women in management positions in secondary schools in Uganda is very small compared to that of men. Out of the 1,536 Head teachers of Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda, only 277 are women. This meager 12% of the total head teachers are women. This same trend is also applicable to privately owned secondary schools which have only 238 (10%) female head teachers as opposed to 1,780 male head teachers. In

Eastern Uganda, only 15 (10%) out of the total of 142 head teachers are women. In Mbale

District there were only 8 female head teachers out of 30 head teachers in the district of which 6 have retired and have since been replaced by male head teachers, and none of the female teachers has been appointed a head teacher to these schools. This trend is further aggravated by the fact that the number of female head teachers is reducing at a great speed because the female head teachers who retire are being replaced by male teachers. Worse still, even some of the girls‘ schools are being headed by men, for instance Bubulo Girls High school in Manafwa District. This reveals that women experience challenges in accessing management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. Despite the fact that there are many established gender policies such as the gender equality policy, there is still a problem of under representation of women in Government Aided secondary schools. This is happening in spite of the fact that women form the majority of the work force in the education sector. Evidentially, not much research has been done to establish why gender disparity exists or why women cannot access management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. Furthermore, insufficient research has been done on the factors which hinder women from accessing management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda. This disturbing trend prompted the researcher to question whether the Gender Equality policy was well managed and implemented in secondary schools in

Eastern Uganda. What unique challenges did the female head teachers experience in executing their duties? What are the women‘s perceptions on minimal occupation of management positions in Government Aided secondary schools? And what are the barriers to women‘s access to management position in Government Aided secondary schools. Therefore the study sought to address these issues and the identified gaps.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

The study intended to establish the factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda.

The specific objectives for the study were:

i. To establish women‘s perceptions on minimal occupation of management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda.

ii. To find out the barriers to women‘s access to management positions in Government

Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda.

iii. To review the effectiveness of the existing Government gender equality policies to

enhance women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary

schools in Eastern Uganda.

iv. Establish challenges that female head teachers face in the administration of

Government Aided secondary schools.

1.4. Research Questions

i. What are the perceptions on women‘s minimal occupation of management positions

in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda?

ii. What are the barriers to women‘s access to management positions in Government

Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda?

iii. How effective are the existing Government gender equality policies to enhance

women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in

Eastern Uganda?

iv. What unique challenges do female head teachers face in the administration of

Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda?

1.5. Significance of the Study

The researcher anticipated that this study would contribute to an understanding of the factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda. It would further guide the policy makers to enact policies which will consider gender equality in recruitment of technical staff in management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools. It was also anticipated that this study would help to curb the problem of inequality of gender at the recruitment process as this segregates women from the men. In addition, the results of this study will enable women who may have experienced the barriers to access management positions in various job opportunities to understand the issues on individual attitude, religious and socio-cultural factors so as to know how to defend and fight for their rights. Furthermore, the study will provide a basis for the

Government of Uganda to initiate strategies for eliminating discrimination against women.

Further still, it will also form a basis for further research in other parts of the country on a similar or related topic, and in other states in Africa to avoid bias on women. It will also provide more insights for further research.

In view of the fact that every society requires equal participation of both men and women for meaningful development and social change to take place, the researcher is convinced that the study is of great importance towards the achievement of this noble goal. It is contended

7 therefore that this research will provide information that will shed light on Gender theories and will be of critical value in the future formulation and execution of development and management policies and strategies in Uganda and Eastern Region in particular as well as in other African countries. It was necessary, therefore, to find out what factors prevent women from taking management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern

Uganda in order to attract talented young females with different styles of management.

The findings of this study will help policy makers, the Provincial Education Board, the

Diocesan Education Board and the District Education Boards in enhancing participation of women in management of secondary school education.

1.6. Scope of the Study

The study focused on selected Government Aided secondary schools in the selected Districts in Eastern Uganda. These are, Mbale, Sironko, Manafwa, Tororo, and Bududa Districts, and addressed the factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government

Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda. The study was carried out between the period

September 2013 and April 2015.

1.7. Limitations of the Study

The limitations of the study are highlighted as follows: Some of the respondents were reluctant to adequately fill the questionnaires as required within the set time. To address this issue, the researcher established the rapport with respondents before giving them the questionnaires. In addition, five research assistants were employed to ensure that the questionnaires were adequately filled and collected. Unavailability of previous research data was another limitation. In this case, the researcher utilized the primary data.

1.8. Assumptions of the Study

The researcher‘s assumption was that the respondents would give correct information on the factors that hinder women from accessing management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda. Another assumption was that, respondents would be willing and honest to share information. It was also assumed that the respondents chosen would have adequate knowledge on the factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0. Introduction

This chapter entails the review of related literature. It is divided into three main sections, namely theoretical review, conceptual frame work, and the review of the related literature on the factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda. The literature specifically addressed the following specific objectives: To identify Women‘s perceptions on minimal occupation of management positions in Government Aided secondary schools; To find out the barriers that hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools; To review the effectiveness of the existing Government gender equality policies to enhance women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools; and to establish the unique challenges that female head teachers face in the administration of secondary schools. The study also referred to relevant Ugandan gender equity policies on employment.

2.1. Women’s Perceptions on Minimal Occupation of Management Positions

This section reviews the related literature in relation to the research question; ―What are the women‘s perceptions on minimal occupation of management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda?

Coleman (2002) observes that there are very many women in the teaching career in most countries but they embrace the least management positions in education, although most of the schools which cater for very young children, are quite often managed by women.

Women‘s perceptions on under-representation in Educational Leadership in most of the developed and developing countries indicate that women do not choose headship as a job option (Smith, 2010). Sperandio & Kagoda (2005) and Dirasse (1991) attribute this to women‘s own making, lack of self-confidence, fear of risk-taking and fear of blame. The women have few or no role models and guides as such. This might have far reaching concerns in terms of increasing future female leaders. But for women to be in management of education institutions, they must be cherished and developed throughout humanity (Cole,

2006). This could be a reason for women‘s minimal occupation in management of schools.

Women in UK focus on barriers or the ‗glass ceiling‘ that assumes that most women are being excluded from management positions by a range of identifiable development. This is challenging in that it negates women‘s individual mediation (Smith, 2010). Women can make pronouncements and take steps to form their own lives and careers (Smith, 2008). According to Carey (2005) and Marshall (1984) women are not usually dedicated to paid employment, but choose to do a job instead of advancing a career. This view is shared by Kiamba (2008) who attributes this to cultural practices and prohibitions on women speaking in public or going to public places. Tripp (2001) disagrees by making reference to Grace Onyango the first woman MP in Kenya who succeeded in becoming a leader because she had concern and knew what she desired (Musandu, 2008). This could be misleading because there may be some women who are committed and have interest but are denied access to management positions in secondary schools. There is no research published on these issues, therefore the researcher addressed this gap.

Women are of the view that men misjudge their abilities as observed by Blogger (2008),

Carey (2005) and Bowman et al (1965). Socio-cultural and historical factors have a lot to do

11 with such attitudes towards female workers, especially those in management. They further point out that attitudes have not changed substantially because many people believe in stereotypes, and do not want to work with or for women, and if they have to, they still make life difficult for them. A 1991 survey done in Sierra Leone on attitudes of people towards women executives revealed that two-thirds of men and almost one-fifth of women would feel uncomforTable working for a female boss (Mason et al, 1992).

Women‘s perception on minimal occupation of management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda as identified by Smith (2010) is that the society norms are biased and favor men.

2.3. Barriers to Women’s Access to Management Positions in Secondary Schools

Research question two was ―What are the barriers to women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools?‖ Kloot (2004) observes that there is indirect discrimination in universities disguised in the necessities for promotion and appointments. These results also concur with those of Brunner and Kim (2010) who reported that some barriers that women thought were significant include: school boards prejudices against women administrators, school board members‘ perception that women are not strong managers and their perception that women do not qualify to handle budgeting issues and finances. Moya, Amorano, Juan, Perez and Ge (2010) and Kiamba (2008) also share a similar view of the perception that women are not capable to carry out any management obligation.

At international level, leadership has supported the concept of machismo and the confidence that men make better leaders than women (Hejase, 2013, and Panigrahi, 2013).These concur with those of Onyango, Simatwa and Ondigi (2011) who found that men are assigned heavy

12 tasks while women are assigned light work by superiors in organizations because management is stereotyped as masculine and a male domain. Onsongo (2004) also in a study reported that management is still regarded from a masculine perspective. Hojgaard (2002) attributes to societal resolutions regarding gender and leadership that traditionally eliminate women in management positions. He further urges that leadership is viewed as a masculine territory. This could be true because internationally women are regarded as home makers

According to Grant (2005) and Ngcongo (1993), African societies assumed that men lead and women trail. For example in rural villages in Africa a man literally walks ahead of a woman.

Different reasons may be advanced for this but ultimately it illustrates the deeply held concept of leadership as masculine. However, there are some success stories where some women have made some struggle to increase such conditions and have struggled for acknowledgement, despite the dangers involved, especially being ‗labeled,‘ and the risk of breaking family ties and culture. Some examples of these include Margaret Thatcher of

Britain, Grace Onyango (The first elected member of Parliament) of Kenya, Hon. Speciosa

Kazibwe, the first female vice president, Hon Geraldine Bitamazire, the first female Minister for Education and Sports in Uganda(Kiamba, 2008). African culture expects women to be humble, submissive to men and to stay at home to handle family chores like cooking.

In addition, Moya, Mack, and Yates (2000), and Kiamba (2008) contend that culture affects women‘s access to management positions. This could be true because in African tradition, a woman‘s dominant role is family focused (Moya, et al., 2000), therefore the girl child is traditionally trained on how to become a good mother, while the boys are prepared for white collar jobs. This confirms the World Bank Report and Betz &Fitzgerald‘s (1987) idea which attributes women‘s barrier to accessing management positions to socially demarcated roles.

This is also supported by Llwellyn-Jones, (1990). But as urged by Kiamba (2008), the historical belief is that of masculinity and the belief that men make better leaders than women, which still exists and could be a factor affecting women‘s advancement to management positions. In many societies especially in Africa, women are still assigned a secondary place by the predominant customs and culture (Nzomo (1997).

In Uganda, women face the patriarchal system where decision making powers are in the hands of males (Sadie 2005). Smith (2010) alludes to the same factor. Despite women‘s education and entry into the job market, the woman‘s role is typically one of homemaker.

The man, on the other hand, is a bread winner, head of household and has a right to public life (Sadie, 2005). Confining women‘s identity to the domestic sphere could be a barrier to women‘s entry into management positions.

Qin (2000) contends that traditional prejudice, social pressures, women‘s sensitivity to people‘s misconception of successful women, and the tendency of men to choose family- oriented wives is a hindering factor to women‘s access to management positions in secondary schools. Moutlana (2001) noted that the socialization of women at the work place occurs within a system of power and inequality and that such system tend to reproduce various forms of inequality. Women need to be actively involved in leading educational change given the vital role that the education system of a country plays in both national development and the development of a gender equal society (Kiamba, 2008). For women to be active participants in the change and development process, they must be present and provided with the necessary skills needed to participate in educational management and policy-making at both school and national levels.

Eastern Uganda is a patrilineal society, where customs favor men as the dominant force with women being submissive (Holly, 2013). Mikell (1997) captured the dilemma for women that

Contemporary African women sometimes think of themselves as walking a political-gender tightrope. While women gain certain freedoms by facing social and cultural challenges, other freedoms may be lost (Mikell, 1997). Larwood & Wood, (1979) argue that, some women do sacrifice being promoted to a high ranking position to avoid conflicts in their marriages

(Kiamba, 2008).This could be so because women have to choose between their families and work. As such persecution of women is largely due to society‘s attitude toward appropriate male and female roles. In their discussion on barriers women face in leadership positions,

Growe and Montgomery (2000) say that compared to men, women receive little or no encouragement to seek leadership positions.

Women organizations in Uganda can be traced way back to 1950s. According to Scholz

(2012), by 1963 economic roles of women had been published and Ugandan women were already writing about importance of women in development. Further,Scholz (2012) states that equality is not just a lofty aspiration anymore. It is the necessary missing link for sustainable development because women on average reinvest up to 90% of income into their households.

Reducing gender inequality gives women more money to spend on food, housing and education hence crucial components for reducing poverty and promoting sustainable development.

Uganda constitution of 1995 (chapter 4, article 33.4) states that women shall have the right to equal treatment with men and the right shall include equal opportunities in social, political and economic activities. Regrettably, there still exists a belief that women cannot make good leaders.

Kiamba (2008) and Marshall (1984) share the view that women who had attained a high level of education were still hindered from accessing certain jobs such as administration and policy formulation, because of men's negative attitudes towards women as super-ordinates. Mikkola

& Crrie (2007), Chen et al (2000) indicate that using performance based criteria to promote managers and in company training experiences is positively associated with managerial skill utilization.

The socialization of the girl children in many societies is also to blame for perceived inability on the part of women‘s access to management. To quote Emmett (2001), ―The life passages of women are not sacramentalised, celebrated or even acknowledged‖. This is illustrative of the position ascribed to women, right from the birth of the girl child, in comparison to the boy child and the subsequent position of men in society. In many African cultures, the rituals and rites of passage pertaining to the boy child nurture them for leadership positions, whether at local or national levels of governance, in business, politics or public administration. Religion tends to cement these cultural norms. As observed by Emmet (2001), all mainstream religions have stereotypical roles for men and women where women are perceived as fewer equivalents than men.

Attempts have been made to explain women‘s lack of achievement in educational management both in countries in the developed world and in Africa, particularly Uganda.

Women are hindered by both internal and external barriers which keep them from advancing; internally owing to the effects of socialization and sex stereotyping, and externally because organizations structure the behaviour of their workforce so that women limit their performance because they are locked into low-power, low-visibility and dead-end jobs

(Brown, 2014). In addition, men regard women as legitimate prey for sexual exploits

(Rosalind, 2002).

2.4. Effectiveness of The Existing Government Gender Equality Policies to Enhance

Women’s Access to Management Positions in Government Aided Secondary

Schools in Eastern Uganda

Worldwide, there are three policies that are applied to ensure women‘s representation in various structures, which Norris (2000) outlined as rhetorical strategies, affirmative action programs, and positive discrimination strategies. In most cases these are merely symbolic gestures made in order to appear politically correct, and thus gain political mileage.

Unfortunately in Uganda, there is no clear indication that this policy is being implemented.

This might be a similar trend to that of other African countries like Kenya where rhetorical statements are made and do not yield results because there is usually no mechanisms to ensure or enforce compliance (Daily Nation, July 6, 2007).

Laws and policies favourable to women have been put in place and some women are already in management positions and are working (Kiamba, 2008). Worldwide, there are three policies that are applied to ensure women‘s representation in various structures, which Norris

(2000) outlined as rhetorical strategies, affirmative action programs, and positive discrimination strategies. According to him, rhetorical strategies refer to informal means of getting women to participate in decision making structures articulated through political and other public speeches. In most cases these are merely symbolic gestures made in order to appear politically correct, and thus gain political mileage. Unfortunately in Uganda, there is no clear indication that this policy is being implemented. This might be a similar trend to that of other African countries like Kenya where rhetorical statements are made and do not yield

17 results because there are usually no mechanisms to ensure or enforce compliance (Daily

Nation, July 6, 2007).

Affirmative action has been used in many countries to correct gender imbalances. Norris

(2000) describes affirmative action programs as meritocratic policies that aim to achieve fairness in recruitment by removing practical barriers that disadvantage women. Affirmative action programs were intended to provide trainings, financial assistance and to monitor the outcomes. In Uganda, there is no evidence that the implementation and the monitoring of gender equality policy outcomes is being done. This too needed to be investigated. According to Norris (2000), positive discrimination strategies set mandatory quotas for selection of candidates from social or political groups.

Quotas could be set at different levels or at different stages of the selection process. Quotas can also be binding and implemented by law or other internal party rules. When they are legally specified as part of the constitution, they are to be implemented and guarantee women inclusion in management.

In Uganda, there has been lack of seriousness in the implementation of gender equality policies, (namely; the Uganda gender policy (2007), the National gender policy (1997), the

National Human Rights policy (2005), the National Women‘s Council Act, National Land

Policy, 2013 and Affirmative Action) because women are still very few in the management of

Government Aided secondary schools. For example, only 15 (10%) out of the total of 142 head teachers in the selected districts are women (Ministry of Education and Sports, 2014). In

February 2013 the National Land Policy was finally adopted by Cabinet and then in August

2013 it was gazetted (Rugadya & Scalise 2014). The researcher sought to establish the truth about this through carrying out this study.

The principle of equality of men and women was enshrined in the United Nations Charter and was later inaugurated in many international instruments and national constitutions. The

United Nations Commission on the status of women held its 1st session in 1947 and between that time and 1967the major thrust of the commission was the definition, legitimization and promotion of international norms and standards to eliminate all forms discrimination in a number of fields (Kiamba, 2008).

There is deliberate discussion of the causal factors which enhance and constrain women's advancement to positions of management. The barriers which need to be overcome include some social and cultural factors and even some forms of harassment, some historical factors, educational attainment, government policies, networking, domestic responsibilities and organizational factors (Sperandio & Kagoda, 2005).

In Africa, efforts were being made to ensure that female representation is achieved at all levels of governance though women are still underrepresented in many government and non- government organizations particularly in positions of power and leadership (De la Rey,

2005). From statistics presented by Sadie (2005) on the South African Development

Community (SADC) parliamentary structures, the target of 30% representation by women in political and decision-making structures and government in adopting the 1997 Declaration on

Gender and Development, which was to be achieved by 2005, had not been met, except in

South Africa and Mozambique (Kiamba,2008, Separandio & Kagoda, 2005).

In addition, efforts are being made to ensure that female representation is achieved at all levels of governance, though women are still underrepresented in many government and non- government organizations particularly in positions of power and leadership (De la Rey,

2005). From statistics presented by Sadie (2005) on the Southern African Development

Community (SADC) parliamentary structures, it is evident that the target of 30% representation by women in political and decision-making structures of member states set by

Heads of State and Government in adopting the 1997 Beijing Declaration on Gender and

Development to be achieved by 2005, and the UN Millennium Development Goals by 2015 have not yet been met, except in South Africa and Mozambique (Kiamba 2008, Separandio &

Kagoda (2008).

There has been a breakthrough in politics for female parliamentarians due to party regulations and electoral laws which have been changed to ensure that women are elected. Changing the rules provides an opportunity for women to participate in politics, since, ―women‘s increased participation in decision-making seldom happens by some evolutionary miracle‖ (Lowe

Mona (2004), as cited by Sadie (2005).

The UN program on gender equality for Uganda (UNPGE) had various components. For example International Labour Organization (ILO) aims to promote employment and non- discrimination towards women in Uganda (Government of United Kingdom, 2014). Local

Governments are to have strategies, systems and staff capabilities to increase women‘s access to sustainable livelihood and gain employment. Government is expected to put in place strategies to reduce gender based violence and increase women‘s access to justice, to ensure that systems and strategies are developed for citizen‘s active participation in decision making and accountability processes that impact the advancement of gender equality, and to develop

20 strategies plans and capacities to reduce priority gender gaps in selected MDGs related programmes. These programs were to include rising awareness and capacity building on gender main streaming including gender auditing, strengthen women participation, representation in structures and support drafting guidelines for non-discrimination in the world of work ( Gaynor & Kabuchu, 2012).

Following the UN MDGs declaration on UPE and USE in education ministry, UPE was introduced in Uganda in 1997 with the aim of giving free primary education to 2 girls and 2 boys from each family; to promotion of awareness about girl education at basic level and increase female enrolment to basic education. It was also aimed at introducing Teacher development and management Systems (TDMS), sensitization about the importance of girl education, and Promotion of Girl Education Preferred (PGEP). In- Service Secondary

Teacher Education (INSSTEP) has strong focus on constraints on female teachers and pupils gender awareness; 1.5 point bonus for qualified A ‗level female applicants to access

Universities and other tertiary institutions; Female Students Initiative (FSI); supported by the

Carnegie Corporation of New York (Launched in 2001 at Makerere University); The Girl

Education Movement (GEM) launched in 2001 to which Uganda is a member, women‘s

NGOs efforts for example the Female Life Education (FLE) which incorporates confidence, and Universal Secondary Education (USE).

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO ), International Labour Organization (ILO), joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), United Nations High

Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF), United

Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), World Food Programme ( WFP), World

Health Organization (WHO), established the United Nations Joint Programme on Gender

Equality (UNJPGE) of Uganda. This program was intended to address the United Nations

Development Plan (2010/2011) which was drawn from the United Nations Joint Program on

Gender Equality (UNJPGE) with the goal of enhancing gender equality in access to services and opportunities. This program was a five year programme running from 2010-2014. The

UNJPGE was developed to meet the need for addressing significant gaps in gender equality and women‘s empowerment in Uganda, in alignment with the NDP and the Uganda Gender

Policy (UGP) (Gaynor & Kabuch, 2012). The Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social

Development (MGSLD), the ministry with the central mandate on Gender Equality and

Women‘s Empowerment (GEWE) was the main implementing partner of the programme, with the focus on seven priority sector ministries for gender mainstreaming.

These participating Government ministries and agencies include ministry of Finance,

Planning and Economic Development (MFPED), Ministry of Local Government (MoLG),

Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES), the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), National

Planning Authority (NPA), Civil Society Organisations (CSO) and Civil Society networks working with gender Equality. GEWE are also programme partners.

The National Gender Policy was developed in 1997 and revised in 2007 with a long term goal of eliminating gender inequalities (UNDP, 2011). Uganda has an excellent record of promoting gender equality in all aspects of life and the issue of gender disparities in education has been of concern to the government and all civil society stakeholders (Wakoko

& Labao, 1996; Mutibwa, 1998; Kwesigwa, 1997; Ministry of Gender and Community

Development, 1997, Ministry of Gender, Labour and Community Development, 1999) yet women remain under-represented in Educational leadership. Furthermore, the Ministry of

Education and Sports in collaboration with the international community have put in place a

22 number of the gender equality policies. These policies were established by various ministries as a result of the UN Declaration on gender equality where the developing countries Uganda inclusive were required to come up with policies on how to address the problem of gender inequality. In Uganda some of the policies formulated include the following among others:

The Uganda gender policy, 2007, National Gender Policy, 1997, Local Government Act

1997, Affirmative action, UPE and USE, The Poverty Eradication Action Plan 2004/05-

2007/08, Gender and Livelihoods, The right to human development, HIV/AIDS Policy, Land

Act (1998), The 1995 Uganda Constitution, The National Women Council Statute (1993),

The Equal Opportunity Commission, Vision 2040.

The Goals of the gender equality policy represent human needs and basic rightsthat every individual around the world should be able to enjoy—freedom from extreme poverty and hunger; quality education, productive and decent employment, good health and shelter; the right of women to give birth without risking their lives; and a world where environmental sustainability is a priority, and women and men live in equality.

Another policy was as a result of the declaration on the MGDs, the 3rd goal which emphasizes promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women. The policy target was to eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015 (MDG Report, 2010).

The Institute of Development Studies (IDS) is looking beyond the MDGs to address gender equality issues. The recommendations the IDS offers might hold the key for success of ushering in a new era of gender equality. If not, development goals will never be realized.

The recommendations of the IDS include the following: Articulate gender equality as a human right, getting girls into school and ensuring that they learn and thrive in quality; child-

23 friendly learning environments are key UNICEF priorities, fulfilling Millennium Goal 2 of universal primary education as well as this Goal. As lead agency for the United Nations

Girls‘ Education Initiative (UNGEI) and UNICEF coordinate efforts of a broad range of partners at global, regional, and national levels to meet the goals of gender parity and equality in education. Giving girls a good start in early childhood is important because a child‘s earliest years are critical. Skills such as language acquisition, social competence, coping, the ability to think critically and the capacity to learn, all develop in the first years of life

(Borgen, 2015).

Despite all the efforts made as already heighted, the policies are not yet effective because there are still few female head teachers in Ugandan Government Aided secondary schools.

Besides, the 1995 Ugandan constitution is against cultures which violate women‘s rights.

Article 33.6 of the constitution asserts that cultural customs, norms and traditions which are against the dignity, welfare, interest of women or which undermine their status are prohibited.

Article 30.2 of the constitution further strengthens the affirmative action. This was to give full effect to cushion the marginalized groups against discrimination and neglect based purely on gender, age, disability or any other reason created by history, tradition or custom.

However, much as the constitution of Uganda had these provisions, little had been done to follow up this policy implementation and to sensitize people and encourage them to remove their traditional biases on female leadership. Therefore the researcher had set to establish the effectiveness of the Gender Equality policy in Government Aided secondary schools in

Eastern Uganda.

According to Bernstein, Ndinda, Russell, and Kattau (2009), quotas can also be binding and implemented by law or other internal party rules. Obviously when quotas are legally specified as part of the constitution, they are more likely to be implemented, and guarantee women

24 inclusion in leadership. Some people view this process as unfair as some people are automatically included or excluded from recruitment processes exclusively on the basis of their gender or race. It has been argued that such strategies violate the principles of fairness and competence and contribute to a culture of laxity in women (Sadie 2005). According to him, the constitution was amended to ensure 50% representation of women, and the quota system applied in some regions in Uganda, although in many cases the application has been voluntary. Sadie (2005) further indicates that there has been pressure to have constitutionally mandated quotas for women in politics in order to safeguard the commitment to gender equality. However, it is only in Tanzania that legislative quotas at the national level exist.

Sadie (2005) defends the quota system by saying that the uneven playing field on which men and women compete is such that it requires measures to ensure women are included.

It has been suggested that the only means to overcome existing man-made barriers to women‘s participation is to develop a strong women‘s movement that could offer support in overcoming systemic gender discrimination (Nzomo, 1997). It is evident that even with gender equity policies in place; women need to monitor implementation themselves. As observed by Nzomo (1997), an over reliance on policy makers and/or state bureaucrats will only bring limited, sometimes superficial, reforms. Also, voluntary quotas are at the mercy of the government of the day for enforcement and may be abandoned at any time. In any case, women should not lose sight of the fact that the policy makers, state bureaucrats and political parties that implement present reforms are still male dominated (Erin, 2000). To what extent are present reforms genuinely implemented for women? Could there be another reason for these reforms? Until women take full charge and responsibility for issues that concern them changes will remain superficial and slow. There is need for continued lobbying by women for women‘s issues (Kiamba, 2008).

Studies that have been conducted about women in leadership in Uganda have tended to concentrate on women in higher institutions of learning, health, politics and business. Very little is known or has been done on women leaders in levels of other educational institutions especially secondary schools. Therefore this research has analyzed factors that hinder women from accessing management positions in secondary schools.

The issue of gender disparities In Ugandan education sector has been of concern to the government and all civil society stakeholders. The current policy is on expanding the functional capacity of educational structures and reducing on the inequalities of access to education between sexes, geographical areas, and social classes in Uganda. It advocates for redistribution of resources viz a viz reforming the educational sector. More resources have been allocated to lower educational public sector through the UPE program in order to enhance equality of access at that level between boys and girls (MoES 1998 b). The impact of this shift in policy on the female gender is yet to be ascertained, but for females from poor districts, their chances for higher education have been minimal (Sperandio & Kagoda).

The Government of Uganda policy provides for equal opportunities in Education and other sectors for both sexes. The GoU through the ministry of Gender, labour and social

Development ( MGLSD) formulated the National Action Plan on Women (NAPW) and the

National Gender Policy (NGP) to help advocate for gender equity at all levels in all aspects of life. The ministry of education and Sports in collaboration with the GoU and the International community has in addition put in place a number of policies but they had seemed not to have been effective. This too needed to be established.

The Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES), in collaboration with the international community have in addition put in place a number of initiatives, interventions and policies to serve the purpose of curbing the problem of gender parities in the country (Muhwezi,2004).

2.4. Unique challenges that female head teachers face in the administration of

government aided secondary schools

2.4.1. Socio-cultural challenges

There are stereotypes about how men and women in management and leadership operate

(Howard, 2007). Women are thought to be caring, tolerant, emotional, gentle and predisposed towards collaboration, empowerment and teamwork. Men are supposed to be aggressive, assertive, analytical, decisive and more inclined to act independently (Bem 1974; Gray 1993).

The masculine character of professionalism has been supported by the simplest possible mechanism, the exclusion of women (Connell 1987). Similarly, Collins and Hearn (2000) have drawn attention to the stereotypical view of ‗heroic‘ leadership; men are associated with the concept of ‗managerially‘ linked to their implicit rationalism, and in opposition to the essentialist view of women as caring. The challenges female head teachers of secondary schools face are of various categories as also observed by Kitele (2013). There are gender related barriers that pose challenges to female head teachers in management of secondary schools. They are unique to female head teachers and they are categorized as follows:

Institutional barriers, Psychological barriers, Staff attitude towards female head teachers,

Balancing home responsibilities of women, and professional/ career roles, social and Cultural challenges.

These management challenges are numerous and in most cases the society and general public seemed not to be aware of. What is important for them to know is all about the students‘ performance in A‘ Level and O‘ Level. They seemed not to know that management challenges are a barrier to outstanding students‘ performance in national examinations at all levels. Hackney and Haggard (2000) share the view that when women are appointed to leadership positions, they enter existing social groups with established norms, beliefs, and assumptions that guide interactions and relationships which make it very hard for female head teachers to manage schools well. This implies that leadership functions can be carried out in many different ways, depending on the individual leader, the context, and the nature of the goals being pursued.

In Eastern Uganda, there are norms, assumptions and beliefs that may pose challenges to female head teachers. This includes also the nature in which secondary schools were set up.

Scholars, such as Jones and Montenegro (1983), Kichniak (1977), and Paddock (1981) state that, female leaders are viewed as anomalies and deficient in performance, unlike their male counterparts. This could be thought so because female leadership takes on different appearances, different shapes, and different directions as a web in constant design, expanding and counteracting in strength from empowering others (Helgesen, 1990). In view of the above theories, the researcher underscored the leadership challenges which female head teachers face. Women in male-dominated occupations like secondary schools leadership face unique challenges (Barnard& Martin 2013).

Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Gratton,

(2004) and Gillard, (2001) define culture as the habits, traditions and beliefs of a country, society or group of people. According to them, culture and tradition have a noticeable impact

28 on women managers. The school is an extended organ of the community and cultural beliefs also manifest themselves in the school situation. Kitele (2013) also noted that cultural and social issues interfered with the management of school affairs. When educators enter schools, they do not leave behind their cultural belief systems at home. They believe that women are inferior to men and cannot manage administration and that because of their femininity, they are thus considered weak and not fit for management positions. This notion originates from traditional gender hierarchies and norms that prevail in the family and society. Regardless of gender equality and empowerment, the household unit has a traditional structure that makes males the dominant gender as Hartmann (2010) also observes. These traditional stereotyped role expectations according to Bobbitt-Zeher, (2011) and Cha (2013) spill over to organizational policies and practices to maintain women‘s marginalized work roles and become entrenched in a gender-biased organizational culture (Prescott & Bogg, 2011).

Historically, men have dominated policy development (Taylor, 1997). Organisations are still structured and function in ways that do not always support women‘s career patterns and their need to integrate work with family responsibilities (Cha, 2013; Fromeet al., 2006). Hicks

(2012) observes that it is the invisible aspects of the male-dominated institutional culture that give lip service to gender empowerment strategies but continue to marginalise women.

According to Fennimore and Cunningham (2005), men have predominantly recorded the history of women and work through their eyes. Tamale (2003) states that Ugandan women see nothing but deeply entrenched norms of male privilege and power embodied therein. The

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has repeatedly pointed out that nowhere in the world are women treated as men.

In Africa, a woman is expected to be humble and submissive to a man (Dodey, 2013). This according to Dodey (2013) is usually taken to mean that she should be seen but not heard. In many mixed forums it is men who are supposed to talk. In addition Hyde (2012) states that women have no right to express themselves. They have no freedom to meet and associate with other men at will. For instance, a married woman only belongs to those clubs or societies; her husband approves of and can, only attend meetings with his expressed permission. Single women are still given little respect. This attitude compels unmarried women to attach themselves to a man just for protection.

Studies done in Turkey and the United States on an examination of leadership competence of school principals, female principals in Turkey stated that, because of social and cultural norms, they are not accepted as readily as male principals. Their authority is not readily accepted by their followers irrespective of the gender of the followers Hyde (2012). In United

States women are segregated.

Women‘s social, political and economic problems and challenges are therefore a result of thousands of years of male privilege (Dodey, 2013). Women are economic and social dependents of males who control labour. Margaret and Sharon (1991) say that a woman passes at marriage from under the authority of her father to that of her husband. In traditional

Africa, women have no right to own property such as inherit land from either their parents or husband. They are also not protected by law on succession, divorce, burial, marriage and marital protection. Consequently, a woman is not expected to make a decision (Dodey, 2013).

Men take important decisions unilaterally. In Mbale district for instance, a woman is supposed to sit down on the floor under her husband‘s laps during special gatherings, she is

30 not expected to ride a bicycle nor make a comment when men are discussing important issues.

It can therefore be assumed that tradition and outright male oppressions are alarming barriers to women to obtain equality and mutual respect. Women leaders including school administrators may therefore find many leadership challenges due to traditional expectations of them.

Discrimination and bias seemed to be the predominant challenge women face, whether they are evident in formal policies and tangible resources or in covert aspects of the organizational culture that reflect debilitating stereotypes and male resistance. Previous studies also show that women in general experience both overt and subtle mistreatment that inhibits their career progression in male-dominated fields (Harris & Giuffre, 2010; Sargent, 2005; Ward, 2004;

Watts, 2009).

Shakeshaft (1989) observed that superintendents and school board members held unfavorable attitudes towards women in administration. She pointed out that women had traditionally no support, encouragement or counseling from family, peers, subordinates or representatives of educational institutions to pursue or maintain careers in administration. However, she noted that in South Africa, women are slowly entering managerial positions, but attitudes within organizations are a major constraint to management.

In studies conducted on challenges faced by women as school managers in secondary and primary schools, it is men who hold the values that consider women managers to be inferior to men, are more likely to create more difficulties for women managers ( Republic of South

Africa, 2004) Nzeli (2013) also share the same view. The above study points out one of the

31 most important hurdles which the women in management in all countries have thought to be the persistent stereotype that associates management with being male. In Kenya and Uganda for a long time, female head teachers have only been heading girls‘ schools (Nzeli, 2013),

According to her, it is only recently that the trend has changed and female head teachers are now holding headship positions in mixed secondary schools. A report in the DEOs office,

Kangundo district indicates that out of the 45 secondary schools, 39 are mixed secondary schools and 10 out of the 45 schools are headed by female head teachers (Nzeli, 2013). Like her, Wakholi (2005) also shares a similar view that there is scanty literature on whether the female head teachers faced management challenges due to cultural beliefs or not. This study therefore attempted to do so to fill this gap.

Ready and Ball (2000) state that for female leaders to be recognized in leadership positions inevitably, they have to develop more masculine ways of interacting in order to be seen as authentic leaders, especially by their counterparts, the males. The female head teachers doubly work harder so as to be recognized by males that they are performers. On the other hand, a desire for female head teachers to do a good job and contribute to organizational functioning motivates them to even work harder (Davey, 2008; Prescott & Bogg, 2011).

Hartmann (2010) attributes women‘s unique work experiences, coupled with archaic work- life role structures based on gender as the cause of the unique challenges to career-orientated women in general. There is a scarcity of literature in institutional barriers interfering with management of secondary schools by female head teachers in Uganda, this study sought to find out the impact of institutional barriers to management of secondary schools by female head teachers to fill in the gap.

Raghuram (2008) encourages researchers to think in a different way about the effect of gender on career paths and aspirations in male-dominated environments. A focus on women in male-dominated occupations remains important especially, in the light of studies that point to the negative personal and social consequences women face. Mostert (2009) highlights the effect of work-family conflict and at the same time the demands of work and home on women‘s health, whereas Mathur-Helm (2006) cautions against the consequent family relationship problems.

2.4.2. Home barriers

Studies on principals, leadership and gender in the United States suggest that women in leadership are faced with the dilemma of balancing the societal expectations of women regarding their family responsibilities with that of the leadership at the workplace. In South

Africa, women entering the work force are faced with challenges related to family issues

(Kitele, 2013). Bratton, Grint and Nelson (2005) pointed out that during the 1960‘s; women entered the work force in increased numbers. Chovwen (2007) also observes that work- family conflict is another major inhibitor of career progress among women in male- dominated environments. Lifanda (2005) shares the similar view by stating that more women than men are faced with challenges of choosing between family and their career, though Bush and Middle wood (1997) believe that the twin demands of career and family affect both men and women, but it is the woman who most often carry the major responsibilities within the home. Furthermore, Coleman et. al. (1998) indicates that the dual role that women play will affect them irrespective of their potential and quality. He further urges that women have a lot of housework to do and so have less time to spend on their career work than men. The housework disturbs women managers who wish to take their school work home. Men can take their school work home because they have minimal disturbances as compared to women.

Cha (2013) further emphasizes that increased work responsibilities do not tax men‘s family obligations as much as they do to women‘s because women retain the bulk of the household responsibilities. This makes them prone to role overload (Franks et al., 2006; Harris &

Giuffre, 2010; Mostert, 2009).No studies have been done in Eastern Uganda to find out how the dual responsibility of female head teachers interfere with their professional duties, therefore this study attempted to fill this gap. Wanjiku (2013) shares a similar view that women faced certain difficulties due to their dual role as mother and teachers and the responsibilities in these roles. She further contends that the factors are personal and others are external. According to her, Socio-cultural factors and sex role stereotyping are major challenges which female head teachers face. Women straggle to balance between family responsibilities and their career work regardless of whether they have children to take care or not. The participants‘ different roles emerged as a source of conflict because they regularly needed to balance between being primary caregivers with their career women. They felt that their domestic responsibilities inhibited the pace of their career progression compared to their male colleagues. They also acknowledged that career advancement and achieving work-life balance are mutually exclusive. This meant that they had to neglect aspects of one in order to focus on the other.

The family expectation is that women must still do the cooking, shopping, housework and childcare. This causes role overload and conflict first as house wives and as head teachers.

This view is shared by Finnemore & Cunningham (1995) and Mostert (2009). Harris and

Giuffre (2010) regard the work-family conflict burden as heavier for women in male- dominated occupations because the male perspective of complete devotion to work dominates the male-dominated organizational culture. When women live their office work at school,

34 they continue working in their permanent offices, (the kitchen), while men relax in the living room while watching the TV and listening to the news. Besides that the wife is expected to prepare food, serve her husband and the children in addition to other home related duties.

2.4.2. Individual challenges

Coetzer (2004) alludes to the fact that all management behaviours start from within an individual‘s deepest self. The way the person behaves is influenced by the way that person views herself or himself. The manner in which female managers view themselves is of paramount importance. He further states that if managers can‘t live with themselves, they will not be able to get along with others as well. It is of dominant importance for a manager to first accept himself or herself. Their self-perception determines their professional future.

However, Kitele (2013) noted that psychological traits do not bar the head teachers from performing school duties effectively. Women experience Physical and health related difficulties like: Labour-intensive work, inadequate physical strength and hormone cycles add to the emotional strain of working in a male-dominated occupation. For instance, one cannot ignore women‘s monthly menstrual cycles because they tax women‘s bodies with fatigue and body pain together with no support in place for females to cope.

Stereotypical beliefs such as women‘s inability to be competitive, inability to be decisive and inability to be emotionally sTable continues to plague women managers. Women are generally seen as being unable to control their tempers, thus throwing temper tantrums.

According to Wakholi (2005), woman in a highly charged emotional situation, can sometimes fail to perform their duties because many of them may not be able to manage their emotions.

She also observed that some women are also seen to be having bad attitudes, such as bearing grudges and not forgiving and forgetting when hurt. Kitele (2013) also observes that low self-

35 esteem that leads to lack of confidence by female head teachers pose a challenge as they manage secondary schools. On the other hand, she acknowledges the fact that the few female head teachers who are in management of schools are doing very well in terms of performance. As she puts it, female head teachers are positively viewed by their teachers, and are approachable by the students since they encourage them to work to attain their goals in schools. Female head teachers are effective in regard to time management in the management of secondary schools since they are able to follow the laid down policies hence achieve the goals of their institutions.

Wakholi (2005) noted that female head teachers are never respected by staff members as it is for male head teachers. This view is also observed by Wolfram, Mohr and Schyns (2007).

According to them, there are prevalent followers‘ prejudices against female leaders as also observed by Kitele (2013). They further contend that female leaders were receiving less professional respect from their followers than male leaders and followers with traditional gender role attitudes were prone to have comparatively little professional respect for female leaders. This explains the post primary institutions learning students‘ attitudes towards female head teachers and the respect they accord them is gender biased. Rudman and Kilianski

(2000) also observe that people who have internalized the traditional gender role attitudes actually object to female authority.

Sexual harassment is another serious problem for women in bureaucracies. According to

Moya, Mack., and Yate. (2000), Sexual harassment is bullying or coercion of a sexual nature, or the unwelcome or inappropriate promise of rewards in exchange for sexual favors. They also state that harassment is used as a form of power by an employer; sexual harassment intimidates and demoralizes women and creates an atmosphere of silence, because many women fear that reporting sexual harassment will jeopardize their careers. "It is unlawful to

36 harass a person." Harassment can include "sexual harassment" or unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical harassment of a sexual nature (Dziech, Billie Wright; Weiner, Linda, 2002). Patriarchal value structures allow men to believe that they have a right to control women. Feminists insist that preconceived notions of gender roles are central to this understanding; these lead to a wide range of rules pertaining to gender determined behaviors and expectations. Society's acceptance of these rules sets up the rationale for male supremacy and the potential for male harassment or violence against women (Goethals, Georgia, Sorenson& Burns, 2004).Some female head teachers are sexually abused by their male supervisors (Wakholi, 2005).

Some husbands do not want their wives to head schools due to the fear that other men will fall in love with their wives (Wakholi, 2005 ) However Lady Lydia (2011) is in support to this statement but does not attribute to wives‘ going out to work to the fear of other men loving their wives instead, she describes the husband as a provider and the wife as a keeper, guard and guide of the home, each one doing her or his job but both working together for the good of the earth. Some male teachers make it hard for female head teachers by instigating students to rebel against the female head teacher. The women are underrated and marginalized (Wakholi, 2005 ).

The women's career continuity requires financial considerations. For women to perform effectively and efficiently, they must be supported financially. In the construction industry, for example, Mathur-Helm, (2005) reported a lack of available funding that targets improving the status and qualifications of female employees (Madikizela & Haupt, 2009).

2.4.3. Religious Factors

There exist a large number of religions and religious institutions which prohibit women from taking the position of leadership. In Islam for example women are required to be under men in every sphere.

2.4.4. Coping Strategies

Although women in Uganda are advancing because of Government policies in Education and politics, they still struggle to achieve equality with men and have formed organizations to be their voice. They speak against rational and cultural practices that make women less equal to men. Albino (1992) encourages female education managers to learn to develop and use work strategies to perceive risk as potential for success, but not failure. There is need to appreciate feminine advantage, balancing of work and family responsibilities, adopting male characteristics, team working, as well as networking with other female head teachers, and mentorship.

2.4.5. Conclusion

In conclusion, the women in male-dominated occupations often work in conditions that do not cater for their unique needs because of covert and entrenched gender-biased organizational cultures. Very few supportive organizational practices are at the disposal of these women and organizations often leave them to their own devices when it comes to coping in their respective male-dominated occupations.

2.5. Theoretical Framework: Gender Equality Theory

In order to assess factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools, the study used Agassy‘s (2013) Gender Equality

Theory. The theoretical Framework catered for the moderating variables as indicated on the

38 conceptual frame work (Figure1.1). According to Agassy (2013), Gender Equality Theory empowers women and gives them an equal role in society, especially in politics and at work.

Its goal is to ensure complete gender equality between men and women without changing completely the way the society works.

The theory supports a logical sequence of progression in gender equality. In theory, it is reasonable to presume that early gains in gender equality take the form of women‘s greater equality with men in skill development and standard of living. These gains free women from traditional household activities to participate with greater frequency in civic activities and management roles. As a result more women will achieve power positions.

The theory of gender equality depends on equal control over surplus resources and, conspicuously so, the theory that in modern society, gender equality depends on the full abolition of the gender segregation of all social roles, especially work roles, whether performed in the private sphere or in the public sphere, whether paid for or unpaid. These various contributions show the relevance of using Agassi‘s Gender Equality Theory (2013).

2.6. Conceptual Framework

The conceptual frame work shown in Figure 1.1 below delineates the variables which were used to guide the data collection and analysis. It visualizes which variables influence women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. It shows the independent, dependent and moderating variables. Independent variable is a predictor variable. It influences the dependent variable and it is a presumed cause of the variation in the dependent variable (Amin, 2005). The independent variables in this study are the factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government aided secondary schools.

These include: culture, political, social, education level, individual, and economic status.

The conceptual framework postulates that socio-cultural factors do hinder women‘s access to management positions in secondary schools in Uganda and world over. This is due to the fact that women in society are considered to be inferior to men. The literature review supports this fact. However, the effect of these factors is moderated by intervening variables such as women‘s income, age, and experience in leadership position and participation in entrepreneurship. Studies by Onyango, Simatwa, and Ondigi (2011) in Kenya established that socio-cultural factors do hinder women participation in educational management. These factors were; discouragement by spouses, domestic chores, lack of interest, gender bias, lack of motivation, inferiority complex, religion and political interference Socio-cultural factors such as individual factors do hinder women‘s access to management positions in secondary schools, particularly negative attitude by women themselves to occupy leadership positions and fear of criticisms, lack of self-esteem and self-confidence are other individual factors among others that hinder women participation in educational management at various levels.

The impact of such factors is however moderated by intervening variables such as experience

40 and income. The other independent factors do influence women‘s access to management position in secondary schools in different aspects.

The dependent variable is access to management position. The independent variables determine the level of access to management position. It can either be low, high, average or no access at all. The moderator variable is the secondary independent variable which is selected for the study to determine if it affects the relationship between the primary independent variable and the dependent variable. The moderator variables in the study are

‗child rearing and housekeeping‘. The researcher assumes that the independent and the moderator variable in the conceptual frame work will account for the greatest influence on the Dependent variable, Access to management positions. There is also a relationship between the intervening variables and independent variables which hinder women‘s access to management positions in secondary schools.

Moderator variables Independent Dependent variables variables  Age Women‘s access to Factors that hinder  Location of management women‘s access to school positions management positions Indicators Indicators  High chances  Social- of promotion Cultural  High barriers . number of  Individual women in

barriers. management  Home based position factors

 Political factors  Government policies  Work experience  Educational levels

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Frame work.

Source: Researcher (2014)

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction

This chapter describes the research design and procedure used in the study. It states the population of the study, sample size, sampling techniques, and area of study. It also describes the procedure for the data collection, and analysis.

3.2. Research Design

The descriptive survey research design was used in this study since the researcher intended to look at the problem at hand, define it, clarify it, and obtain pertinent information that would be of use to gender equality policy makers. The survey design enabled the researcher to collect both quantitative and qualitative data (Amin 2003), which the researcher used to ascertain the factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government

Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda. The study used qualitative approach in the study.

3.3. The Study Area

The area of study was Eastern Region in Uganda and it was chosen because it had fewer female head teachers as compared to other parts of Uganda (Republic Government of

Uganda, 2013).. It lies between longitudes 320 54‘ East and 340 40‘‘East; and Latitudes 000

17‘ 20‘‘ North and 30 39‘ 18‘‘ North. It covers 2,672.4 km2 with a population density of

3,107 per square km2. Eastern region is bordered by Kenya on the East, Nakapiripiriti on the

North East, Moroto, Lira, Dokoro, and Lake Kyoga on the North, River Nile on the west, and

Lake Victoria on the South. It comprises of 32 districts. However, the study was carried out in purposively selected 5 districts, namely; Mbale, Tororo, Sironko, Manafwa and Bududa.

3.4. Study Population

The population of the study was 15 female head teachers, 460 secondary school female teachers employed by the Education Service Commission (ESC), 32 Chief Administrative Officers (CAOs).

The number of female head teachers per region was as follows: Eastern - 15female head teachers,

Western – 21female head teachers, Northern – 18female head teachers, and Central-20female head teachers.

3.4.1. Research participants

A total of 230 respondents participated in the study as indicated on Table 4.1.

Table 3.1: Research participants

Position Frequency Percentage

Chief Administrative Officers 5 100

District Education Officers 5 100

Gender Focal Person 5 100

Female head teachers 5 100

Female teachers 210 100

Total 230 100

Source: Primary Data (2014)

The research participants were categorized as per Table 4.1, namely 5 CAOs, 5 DEOs, 5

GFPs, 5 Female head teachers and 210 Female teachers.

Table 3.2: School Status and the number of female head teachers per district

District Gov’t Status Aided Day mixed Boarding Boarding Boarding No. of Female head mixed girls boys teachers

Mbale 14 13 01 00 00 3 Tororo 17 15 00 02 01 3 Sironko 10 08 00 01 01 1 Manafwa 14 13 00 01 00 1 Bududa 10 10 00 00 00 1 Total 65 59 1 4 2 9 Source: Eastern Uganda District Education Offices (2014)

Table 3.2shows the type and the status of schools in the five selected districts. It also indicates the number of female head teachers in relation to the total number of Government

Aided secondary schools in the selected districts. The Table also shows that the female head teachers are very few, that is 9 (16%) out of the 65 schools.

The study was based on the five selected districts which consisted of 61 Government Aided secondary schools of which majority were day mixed schools as shown on Table 3.2.

3.5. Sampling Procedure

The sample for female teachers was determined using Krejce and Morgan‘s(1970) Table as adopted by Amin(2005) as per appendix X. Purposive sampling was also used to select the respondents. The five CAOs, five DEOs, five GFP, and five female head teachers were purposively selected for the study because they are in management positions and therefore had the pertinent information for the study. This allowed the researcher to get the richest information (Best & Kahn 2006).

3.5.1. Sample

Blanche & Durrheim (1999) define sampling as a process used to select cases for inclusion in a study with a basic idea of selecting some elements in a population. It allows one to make inferences about the entire population as stated by Cooper and Schindler (2003). The sampling unit was the district. From the population of 32 districts in Uganda, 5 districts were purposively selected because they have the least number of female head teachers. These districts are: Mbale, Bududa, Sironko, Manafwa and Tororo. From each of the above named districts, one Chief Administrative Officer, one District Education Officer, one Gender Focal

Person and five female head teachers were purposively selected. Therefore the total number of purposively selected respondents was 5 CAOs, 5 DEOs, 5 GFPs and 5 female head teachers. Pseudo names were used in the study to represent the sampled female head teachers of the selected Government Aided secondary schools. These respondents were purposively selected because they hold management positions in the districts and therefore provided pertinent information for the study.

Simple random sampling was thereafter used to select the female teachers to participate in the study. Using the recommended sample sizes by Krejcie & Morgan (1970), 210 female teachers were randomly sampled from the population of 460 of the selected districts in

Eastern Uganda. The study had a total sample of 225 respondents (49%). Forty two female teachers were selected randomly from each of the five selected districts.

Table 3.3: Sampling Technique

Category Population Sample Sampling technique

Female teachers 460 210 Simple random

Female head teachers 18 5 Purposive

Chief Administrative Officers 32 5 Purposive

District Education Officers 32 5 Purposive

District Gender Focal Person 32 5 Purposive

Source: ESA Regional Education Offices(2014)

A simple random sample is a sample obtained from the population in such a way that samples of the same size have equal chances of being selected (Amin, 2005). Simple random sampling was used to select female teachers because they were many. In this case the researcher used the lottery method where numbers were written on the tags that identified elements of the population to be sampled. Purposive sampling technique was used to select 5 female head teachers, CAOs, DEOs and DFPs. The 5 districts were purposively selected because they had the least number of female head teachers in Eastern region. Five CAOs,

DEOs and GFPs in total were selected one from each because each district has only one of the above mentioned officials. These were found suiTable for the study.

3.6. Data Collection Instruments

Three instruments were used in data collection. These were questionnaires, interview guides, and Documentary analysis.

3.6.1. Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Further, it is easy to administer

47 and analyze data (Robson, 1996). The questionnaire had both closed and open ended questions which were used to collect in-depth data. These were distributed to 210 female teachers, 5 CAOs 5 DEOs and 5 GFPs by both the researcher and the research assistants. This instrument was chosen because the respondents were many. The questionnaire was divided into 5 sections. Section required background information from the respondents. Section B contained items that captured women‘s perception on minimal occupation in management positions, while section C addressed factors that affect women access to management positions. Section D contained items that assessed the effectiveness of the existing government equality policies, and section E contained items on the challenges female head teachers face in the administration of secondary schools in Uganda. The researcher used 5 point Likert scale to rate the responses. This type of questionnaire was used because it takes less time to construct, analyze and offer an interesting possibility for opinion research (Best

& Kahn, 2006). Open ended items were also included to allow free responses while collecting a wide range of opinion and information.

3.6.2. Interviews

An interview is a conversation between two or more people where questions are asked by the interviewer to elicit facts or statements from the interviewee. The interviews were meant for female head teachers. The interview contained open ended questions to allow the female head teachers raise as many points on the theme as possible. These interviews were administered by the researcher to the five selected female head teachers of the five selected secondary schools 6 weeks after the collection and analysis of the questionnaires. This enabled the researcher to capture the information which had been omitted on the questionnaires.

Furthermore, during the interview, the interviewer was able to explain more explicitly the investigation‘s purpose and what information the researcher wants as observed by Best &

Kahn (2006). Another reason for choosing this instrument is to allow the researcher to probe for further in depth clarification on information which had been omitted on the questionnaire.

The interview also enabled the researcher to verify the information on the questionnaires.

There are many types of interviews as stated by Burgess (1982); however, the researcher used the open-ended and casual interviews as proposed by Wiersma and Jurs (2005). This instrument encouraged the interviewees to answer in their own words at some length and therefore provided greater depths of response (Best & Kahn, 2006).

3.6.3. Documentary Review

This method was also used as a source of data where official records were used. The records were viewed and analyzed alongside with data from interviews and questionnaires. As stated by Moshi (2007), documents are used to support and supplement evidence from other sources of data. The reason for using the documents was to substantiate the evidence from various literatures regarding the study. Documentary analysis was basically limited to data related to the factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in government Aided secondary schools. The researcher examined various documents such as minutes of School

Board meetings and PTA meetings, policy review documents, the Ugandan constitution of

1995, employment records, the 1992 Government White Paper on Education and Education ordinances. These documents were to verify observations made by a researcher and also gave supporting evidence on data obtained from the questionnaires and interviews. The Ugandan formal policy statement on gender equity was also used.

3.7. Reliability and Validity of Instruments

Reliability and Validity are important concepts in the acceptability of the use of an instrument for research purposes (Amin, 2005). Reliability measures the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results or data after repeated trials (Kothari, 2004). A pilot study is a trial run conducted to detect weaknesses in the research designed instruments (Kothan,

2004, Otuya, 2013). The pilot study was done in Budaka district because it had a female

CAO whom the researcher believed had viable knowledge on matters concerning female managers. It provided data needed for verification of validity. A pilot study was therefore carried out to detect weaknesses in the research design and instruments. It was useful in testing the validity of the instruments.

The research used a sample of 7 female teachers, 1 CAO, 1 DEO, and 1 GFP in order to check for possible response errors that could arise from unclear instructions, incomplete categories in response and exhaustiveness of data codes. The piloting of the instrument provided clarity of meaning and how well the items were understood by the respondents.

3.7.1. Validity of the Instrument

Validity refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of the measurement. Its concern is to check if the questionnaire is measuring what it is expected to measure. The researcher gave the instrument to the experts in the area of education management for correctness and value.

From the comments they made, the instrument was corrected accordingly to enhance validity.

Construct validity is ―the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring (Polit& Beck, 2012), Brown (1996), and Cronbach (1946) Meehl (1955). It is the degree to which a test actually reflects the hypothetical construct being measured. In contrast,

Content validity refers to whether the items on the test actually test what one is looking at, and that the test is representative of it.

For construct validity, the researcher used a confirmatory factor analysis to see if the various single items contribute to the overall construct measurement. Items in the questionnaire were constructed in consideration of the requirement of each objective of the study. Peers and specialists examined the contents of the instruments to ensure that they measured the variables they intended to measure. Therefore, the researcher incorporated peers‘ and specialists recommendations in the final instruments. Some of these included rephrasing some of the question items, and eliminating some of them.

3.7.2. Reliability of the Instrument

Reliability refers to the dependability or trustworthiness of research instruments in the context of a measuring instrument (Amin, 2005).Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) define reliability as the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent data or results after repeated trials. Its concern is that, if the measurement is done using the instrument, it gives consistent results over time and when used at different times it gives similar responses.

The researcher used test-retest method to test the reliability of the research instrument or to establish reliability. Four Government secondary schools out of 7 were purposively selected for the pilot study. These schools were: Kamonkoli College, Naboa SS, Iki-ki SS, and

Bugwere High, The questionnaire was administered to the same 7 female teachers of the four selected schools, 1 CAO, 1 DEO, and GFP in Budaka District on two different occasions after the duration of two weeks. The relationship between the scores of participants for the

51 two different times on teachers was calculated using Cronbach‘s Alpha Coefficient to determine how similar, sTable and consistent the scores of the instrument.

A pilot study of the research instrument (questionnaire) was conducted in Budaka district to provide data needed for verification of reliability. Budaka district was not one of the districts where the study was conducted but was only used for testing the research instruments because it has similar features to the ones under study.

The questionnaire was retested for reliability by using Cronbach Alpha method. The reliability analysis was used to test consistency of respondents‘ answers to all the items of independent and dependent variables in the questionnaire, whether the items were highly correlated with one another or not (Hamidun, 2009). Cronbach Coefficient Alpha values were generated to determine the internal consistency of the scale used. Sekaran (2003) observes that Cronbach Alpha Coefficient is a reliable coefficient that indicates how well the items are positively correlated to one another. The closer Cronbach Alpha is to 1, the higher the internal consistency. If all factors are above 0.7, then it will confirm the internal consistency of the constructs. Cronbach Alphas for all the factors were above 0.7, confirming the internal consistency of the instruments. The instrument was therefore considered reliable because it scored 0.70 on Cronbach's Alpha scale.

The theoretical value of Alpha varies from zero to 1, since it is the ratio of two variances.

However, depending on the estimation procedure used, estimates of Alpha can take on any value less than or equal to 1, including negative values, although only positive values make sense (Ritter, 2010). Higher values of Alpha are more desirable. Some professionals, as a rule of thumb, require a reliability of 0.70 or higher (obtained on a substantial sample) before they

52 will use an instrument. Obviously, this rule should be applied with caution when Alpha ( ) has been computed from items that systematically violate its assumptions. Furthermore, the appropriate degree of reliability depends upon the use of the instrument (Eisinga, Grotenhuis

& Pelzer, 2013).A commonly accepted rule of thumb for describing internal consistency using Cronbach's Alpha is as on figure 3.1. However, a greater number of items in the test can artificially inflate the value of Alpha

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronbach%27s_alpha#cite_note-Cortina-8) and a sample with a narrow range can deflate it, so this rule of thumb should be used with caution. Cronbach‘s

Alpha Ratings Table shown in figure 3.1 as indicated in appendix x was used as a control to determine the correctness of the instrument. It shows standard ratings which were used as a control to determine the correctness of the instrument for the study. The coefficient level was

5% on the Cronbach‘s Alpha rating control Table implying that the results below were also at the same accuracy.

Table 3.6 in appendix x shows the calculated Cronbach‘s Alpha. It indicates the consistency of the instrument. That is, the questionnaire items in section B were accepTable while those in section D were unaccepTable. This guided the researcher to review the question items accordingly.

The instrument had four sections of which two sections, B and E were excellent according to

Cronbach‘s Alpha test of internal consistency computed to the Likert5 point scale.

Section C was acceptable, and section D was unacceptable because the internal consistency rate was very low. To rectify this anomaly, in section D, the researcher added more items to test the same concepts to ensure internal consistency. In addition, the existing items were modified to become relevant to the effectiveness of the existing Government Gender equality policies. In section C, items were modified, added, and others which were not relevant were

53 removed. In summary, Cronbach‘s Alpha measures the average of measurable items and its correlation and the results is generally above 0.5 or (50%), it was therefore considered to be reliable (Peighambari, 2007). This was an indication that the research instrument was adequate in content, reliable and valid to measure the opinion of the respondents on factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions of Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda. According to Cronbach (1946), reliability coefficient of above

0.80 is considered good indicator of internal consistency reliability that was used in this study. The detailed calculations for the variables are attached. (Appendix 10).

Reliability of the research was enhanced through training of research assistants on the use of the research instrument.

3.8. Data Collection Procedure

The letter obtained from the institute of Post Graduate Studies and Research was used to obtain permission from Uganda National Council for Science and Technology before going out to the selected districts to collect data on factors that hinder women from accessing management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda

(Appendix ix). The researcher thereafter visited the selected districts to obtain permission from the districts to carry out the research. The researcher made appointments with the CAO and the DEO of Mbale, Tororo, Sironko, Manafwa, and Bududa districts for the distribution of the questionnaires. The target institutions were contacted for further authorization.

The questionnaires were administered to the CAO, DEOs, the GFPs, and female teachers with prior permission from Chief Administrative Officers. The respondents were briefed on the purpose of the study by the researcher, and then asked them to voluntarily fill the questionnaires. The research assistants distributed the questionnaires to the 210 selected

54 female teachers. The respondents were given fourteen days to respond to the questionnaires.

The questionnaires were then collected after the fourteen days by the researcher. Nevertheless some of the respondents took a little more time to fill the questionnaires. After seeking permission from the selected interviewees, (5 female head teachers) the interview sessions were arranged. The selected female head teachers were interviewed one at a time each on a different day. The interview proceedings were both written and tape recorded for easier retrieval of information. Interview was chosen because it enabled the researcher to gather first hand and in depth information. In addition, people are more willing to talk than to write.

This enabled the researcher to obtain in-depth data.

3.9. Data Analysis

A statistical package for analyzing social science data known as the Epi Info 7 assisted in data analysis. Qualitative analytical procedure was used to analyze and interpret data on

‗Factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda. According to Lillis (1999), the analysis of any qualitative data involves reduction, classification, and interpretation. Data collected was classified, coded, and linked to the themes in the study. Data was presented using frequency

Tables.

Research question one ‗What are women‘s perception on minimal occupation of management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda was analyzed using Tables, descriptive statistics like means, percentages and frequencies, and thematic approach based on the open ended statements. These were treated under the Epi Info 7 tool.

Research question two, ‗What are the barriers to women‘s access to management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda?‘ was analyzed using descriptive statistics like frequencies, percentages and means. It was presented in cross tabulation and frequency

Tables, ‗

Research question three, ‗How effective are the existing gender equality policies to enhance women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in

Uganda?‘ was analyzed using descriptive statistics like frequencies, and percentages. It was presented on a frequency Table.

Research question four, ‗What unique challenges do female head teachers of Government

Aided secondary schools face in administering secondary schools in Uganda? This was analyzed using Tables, and thematic approach based on the open ended statements. The results were presented on a frequency Table.

Table 3.8: Summary of data analysis methods used

Objective Independent Dependent variable Data collection Method of Analysis variable Instrument perception on women‘s women‘s minimal occupation Questionnaire, Descriptive statistics minimal occupation of perception of management documentary analysis and Epi info 7 management positions in positions and Interview guide software Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda the barriers to women‘s the barriers women‘s access to Questionnaire and Frequency Table access to management management Interview guide and Epi Info 7 positions in Government positions software Aided secondary schools in Uganda Effectiveness of the Effectiveness Enhancement of Questionnaire and Epi Info 7 software existing gender equality of the women‘s access to Interview guide and policies to enhance existing management Descriptive analysis women‘s access to gender positions management positions in equality Government Aided policies secondary schools in Uganda unique challenges unique administering Questionnaire and Percentages and Epi female head teachers of challenges secondary schools Interview guide Info 7 software Government Aided secondary schools face in administering secondary schools in Uganda Source: Questionnaires, (2014)

3.10. Ethical Consideration

The researcher considered the following: ethical standards in professional practice, relationship between researcher and respondents, the relationship between the researcher and other researchers. Plagiarism, this is researcher and research community relationship as recommended by Amin (2005). The researcher therefore put ethical issues into serious consideration to ensure better protection of the rights of the research rights of the research participants and ensured that the entire research ethics principles were adhered to. That is the researcher ensured permission and interests of all those involved in the study was sought.

There was no misuse of any information discovered, for example, the researcher made sure that moral responsibility was maintained. It was the researcher‘s duty to protect the rights of all the people in the study as well as their privacy and sensitivity. The researcher exercised confidentiality of all the information obtained from the respondents. And above all, the

57 researcher applied the principle of voluntary participation without necessarily coercing participants. The researcher first informed the respondents before administering the research instruments.

3.11. Conclusion

This section provides an overview of the research design and methodology used in the study.

It describes population from which the sample was drawn, outlines procedures that were followed to collect data. It also discusses the measurement instruments used in the study, and the statistical methods used in analyzing the data.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Introduction

This chapter presents and discusses the results of the study. The presentation of results has been done under every research question under each category of the respondents, namely: female teachers, the CAOs, the DEOs, the GFPs, and the female head teachers. The research questions are as below. 1. What are the perceptions on Women‘s minimal occupation of management positions

in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda?

2. What are the barriers to women‘s access to management positions in Government

Aided secondary schools?

3. How effective are the existing Government gender equality policies to enhance

women‘s access to management positions in Government Grant-Aided secondary

schools in Uganda?

4. What unique challenges do female head teachers face in the administration of

Government Aided secondary schools?

The procedure for the presentation and analysis of data is going to follow this pattern: the relevant research question will be reproduced. By way of addressing the research question, the responses to the questionnaires will be presented according to the five categories of respondents. Comparison of the responses between the categories will be undertaken after the presentation and analysis of all categories, at the very end of the section subsumed under the particular research question.

In the presentation and discussion of the results, pseudo names have been used in place of female head teachers‘ actual names because of ethical considerations. These are Namaleya,

Awoja, Victoria, Ogare, and Wanale. Additionally, the presentation and discussion also captures the views from the open ended questionnaires, documentary analysis, plus the

59 interview results. In backing the study, other important information on the respondents‘ Bio- data, demographic Characteristics, Work Experience of female teachers, and their highest

Education Level were instrumental to this study. The summary of questionnaires administered and response rate was also tracked to ensure proportionate response rate.

4.1.2. Summary of questionnaires administered and response rate

This was useful in that it enabled the researcher to assess if the quantity of the returned questionnaires was adequate for the analysis of the study.

Table 4.1: Summary of questionnaires administered and response rate

Category Questionnaires distributed Actual returned Response rate

Female Teachers 210 210 100%

CAOs 5 5 100%

GFPs 5 5 100%

DEOs 5 5 100%

Total 225 225 100%

Source: Questionnaires, (2014)

To start with, the response rate of the returned questionnaires was excellent as demonstrated by

100% response rate on Table 4.1.

4.1.3. Bio-data of Respondents

This section describes the characteristics of the sample of the respondents, which was likely to have a bearing on their response to the research items. These characteristics have been broken down into three main groups, namely: gender, working experience, and education level.

4.1.4. Gender of Respondents

The study sought to find out the gender distribution among the respondents (CAOs, DEOs, and GFPs). The respondents were asked to indicate their gender. The results were recorded on Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Gender of Respondents in Management positions

Category Gender Total

Male Female

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

CAOs 05 100% 00 00% 05

DEOs 04 80% 01 20% 05

GFPs 04 80% 01 20% 05

TOTAL 13 87% 02 13% 15

Source: Primary Data (2014)

The participants were categorized by gender to establish the number of females holding management positions against the number of male respondents. The results on Table 4.2 show that out of the total 15 respondents, the male respondents had the highest representation of 13 (87%), while the female respondents had 02 (13%). This shows that males are more than females management positions. Kiamba (2008) attributes gender imbalance to the fact that the males are more preferred to than the female counterparts. This is in line with what was established during interview with female head teachers. According to Awoja, most of the management posts are filled by men, while the lower positions and deputy positions are filled by women. Further, the findings from the checklists and official documents like the

Government payrolls show that in Uganda, there are more men in management positions than women (Government of Uganda payrolls, 2013), although in terms of the population of

Uganda, women are more than men as it was also revealed by the research participants. In an

61 interview with Awoja, she said there are more women in education sector in this country but very few of them hold management positions. The interpretation in this case is that women‘s low representation in management positions in secondary schools suggests that if there were equal number of male to female, the problem of gender inequality would not be there. The assumption, therefore, is that if more women were deployed in management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools, there would be proper utilization of the available human resources, hence promoting the country‘s economy. The results show that males are more than the females as also observed by Kiamba (2008).

4.1.2. Working Experience of female Respondents

The study sought to find out the work experience of respondents. This in turn helped the researcher to establish the work experience the female teachers had been exposed to in terms of their performance as female teachers as indicated on Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Working experience of female respondents

Experience in years Female teachers (n=210) Female head teachers Percentage (n=5)

Less than a year 21 0 10 1 – 5 years 44 0 22 5-10 years 56 2 26 10 years above 89 3 42 Total 210 5 100% Source: Primary Data (2014)

The results on Table 4.3 show that there was a highly significant (P<0.05) variation in the working experience of the respondents in Eastern Uganda because the expected 25% in the working experience of the respondents was not realized. The results pointed out that 21

(10%) had worked for less than one year, 44 (22%) had worked for a period of 1 to 5years, 56

(26%) had worked for 5 to 10 years, and 89 (42%) had worked for 10 years and above. This

62 implies that the respondents are well grounded in the this field and can give accurate information on the factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools.

The results obtained from the checklist, the official documents, and interview guide indicated that some teachers had taught for more than 10 years but they have never been promoted to the level of a head teacher of a secondary school. The results seemed to indicate that the teaching experience of female teachers is high but they have never had an opportunity to get promoted to the management positions of Government Aided secondary schools. Therefore, the assumption is that when these experienced female teachers are given opportunity to head the Government schools, they would do a good job.

4.1.3. Respondents’ highest education level

The study sought to find out the female teachers‘ highest level of education. This in turn helped the researcher to find out the highest academic level of the female teachers. This helped the researcher to determine whether the female teachers had the required minimum academic qualifications for headship of Government Aided Secondary schools. The results are indicated on Table 4.3.

Table 4.4: Respondents’ highest education level

Highest education Female Female head Total Frequency Percentage level teachers teachers (n=5) (n=210) Diploma 83 00 83 39 Degree 105 03 108 50 Masters 22 02 24 11 PhD 00 00 00 00 TOTAL 210 05 215 100 Source: Primary Data (2014)

The results on Table 4.4 show that 108 (50%) of the respondents had Bachelor‘s Degrees,

24(11%) had master‘s degree and none had a PhD. This indicates that the majority of the female teachers had acquired minimum academic and professional qualifications of a

Bachelor‘s degree and the work experience for heading Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda. However, they have not been given the opportunity to do so. Since the respondents had different education levels as indicated on Table 4.4, they gave different independent views on the topic. Empirical evidence from the studies conducted by social scientists (Kruega and Lindahl, 2001) make it clear that there is significant scope for education to play a role in influencing the economics and social situations of people. In comparison of education level and leadership responsibilities of schools with other countries, the results indicated that ones‘ education level in the study area plays an important role in enabling one to access management positions in Government Aided secondary schools.

Findings from the interview schedule revealed that people with higher education level are most likely to access management positions in Government Aided secondary schools.

Further, they indicate that due to earlier socialization of girls, some women are hesitant to take up leadership of schools due to too many family responsibilities. However, they said, despite these family roles, women can manage the leadership of schools since those already in management are doing a good job. Furthermore, the results show that many female head teachers have the required education qualifications but have not accessed the management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. Therefore, the assumption is that when more women are deployed in management positions of Government Aided secondary schools, girls who aspire to join management will have a variety of the models to emulate.

This will therefore prepare them to be good and effective managers.

A chi square test of independence was conducted to find out the relationship between the education level of the respondents and the accessibility of management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools. The results reveal a highly significant (P < 0.05) relationship between the education level and accessibility of management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda.

4.2.1. Female Teachers’ Perceptions on Women’s Minimal Occupation in Management

Positions in Government Aided Secondary Schools in Uganda

Table 4:5.shows the female teachers‘ responses on women‘s perceptions on minimal occupation in management positions. The key to Table 4.5, SA= Strongly Agree, A= Agree,

NS= Not Sure, D= Disagree, and SD= Strongly Disagree

Table 4.5: Female Teachers’ Perceptions on Women’s minimal occupation in management positions (n=210)

Questionnaire item SA A NS D SD There is a high ratio of women to men in 14(7%) 130(62 %) 22(10%) 44(21%) 00 Uganda Women prefer to work under men 20 (10%) 25(12%) 05(1%) 100(48%) 60(29%) Women are less visionary than men 09(4%) 10(5%) 12(6%) 80(38%) 99(47%) Women are not assertive and authoritative 17(8%) 18(9%) 9(4%) 98(47%) 68(32%) Women have other obligations they do not 18(9%) 20(10%) 16(7%) 96(46%) 60(28%) want leadership The majority of women lack management 07(3%) 20(9%) 17(8%) 83(40%) 83(40%) skills Women are poor communicators 07(3%)) 10(5%) 8(4%) 102(48%) 83(40%) Women managers are more authoritative 60(29%) 103(49%) 11(5%) 23(11%) 13(6%) and trustworthy than men women are less efficient and less effective 7(3%) 22(10.5%) 14(7%) 166(79%) 1(0.5%) Women have many family challenges 89(42.4%) 65(26.2%) 25(12%) 26(12.4%) 15(7%) Women are poor performers 3(1%) 7(3%) 25(12%) 115(55%) 60(29%) Corrupt tendencies by those in power 60(19%) 110(5%) 10(4%) 130(62%) 20(10%) There is gender imbalance in allocation of 100(48%) 65(31%) 15(7%) 20(10%) 10(4%) management positions There is limited employment for women 28(13%) 20(10%) 18(9%) 97(46%) 47(22%) Girl child education generally undermined 97(46%) 13(6%) 40(19%) 10(5%) 50(24%) Women lack support and encouragement 162(77%) 28(13%) 3(1%) 10(5%) 7(3%) from spouses and Government Women have limited experience 79(38%) 20(9%) 13(4%) 100(48%) 1(1%) Women have limited qualifications 29(14%) 13(6%) 4(2%) 160(76%) 4(2%) Male dominance society 140(67%) 30(14%) 00 30(14%) 10(5%) Interference by culture, religion, politics and 150(71%) 20(10%) 6(3%) 30(14%) 4(2%) society Sexual harassment 152(72%) 18(9%) 2(1%) 30(14%) 8(4%) Low self-esteem of women 100(48%) 18(9%) 9(4%) 32(15%) 51(24%) Source: Primary Data (2014)

The results of the study indicate 69% of the respondents agreeing with the statement that there is high ratio of women to men as against 21% who disagreed and 10% who were not sure. As reflected on Table 4.5, the findings indicate that there is a high ratio of women to men as it is represented by the highest percentage. The records of the population census

66 results of 2014 also confirm this (The Government of Uganda, 2014). As indicated in the literature reviewed, Coleman (2002) observes that women numerically dominate the teaching profession in most countries. However, he notes that despite this, women hold a minority of the management positions in education, apart from schools which cater for very young children which are often managed by women. This therefore explains why there are few women in the management of schools. In an interview with Namaleya, one of the female head teachers, said, ‗More women should be involved in the management of Government

Aided secondary schools because they have students and the entire school at heart.‘ She further said, ‗female managers are more authoritative and trustworthy than men‘ (FHTRN /

TD/ 17TH/ 04/ 2014).However, according to her, some female teachers in her school have a belief that they cannot manage leadership. She said that this belief was as a result of the biased African culture which does not allow women to lead. Kiamba (2008) shares the similar view that cultural practices prohibit women from leading. She stressed the fact that the African women are disadvantaged because of their cultures and upbringing.

According to Dorsey (1989) most of the challenges female administrators face, are partially rooted in the pattern of gender socialization and African belief systems. In addition, Cole

(2006) is of the view that it was due to lack of nurturing and development through society that women are few in management positions in Government Aided secondary schools.

Uganda being a patriarchal and matrilineal society (Obbo, 1995), it is highly probable that the female head teachers in the country‘s secondary schools are affected by their earlier socialization and cultural understanding of their roles. Coleman (2000) alludes to cultural perception as a factor leading to the female leaders experiencing burnout because of the constant need to prove their worth. These findings concur with those of Onyango, Simatwa

67 and Ondigi (2011). They observe that men are assigned heavy tasks, and women light ones by superiors in organizations. This is because the management is stereotyped as masculine and a male domain. Onsongo (2004) reported that management is still viewed from a masculine perspective. Namaleya identified this kind of notion as the reason why students and staff in her school did not want her to head the school. She further stated that it was this kind of belief that students in her school wanted to strike upon seeing her as their new head teacher. She was the first female head teacher in that school, and during her first address to the students, she met a lot of resistance from students and male teachers. She said, ‗They shouted at me and said, we want a Daddy, referring to a male head teacher (FHTRN/TD/17TH

/04/2014).

These findings also agree with African teaching on gender roles as identified by Namaleya.

According to her, the girls are trained in what they are supposed to do as women and also warned about certain things they are not supposed to do. She also said ―the girls are taught to do the roles of women right away during their earlier age‖ (FHTRN/TD/17TH /04/2014).

All the female head teachers interviewed showed great concern about women‘s minimal occupation of management positions in Government Aided senior secondary schools in

Uganda. They all confirmed that the number of female head teachers was too low and that it needed to be increased. For example, according to the interview findings, there are no female head teachers in some districts, namely; Bududa and Manafwa districts. According to them, this has far-reaching consequences. That is, it makes them feel lonely because according to them, the female head teachers are normally segregated by their male counterparts. They strongly believe that women are trustworthy, committed, transparent, and are motherly to the students. This makes students learn with ease and concentrate in their academic work. This is evidenced by the example of Bubulo Girls High school in Manafwa district where a female head teacher was replaced by a male head teacher upon the transfer of the former. This same

68 trend has persisted even in Atiri senior secondary school in Tororo district where a female head teacher was replaced by a man after her death.

Seventy seven percent of the respondents disagreed with the statement that women prefer to work under men, while 22% of them agreed, and only 1% was not sure. It was established that having fewer women in the management of Government Aided secondary schools does not mean that women preferred to work under women. This is evidenced on Table 4.5. It has been observed, therefore, that it is not fitting for men to make the assertion that women prefer to work under men. According to the findings of the study, this statement does not hold, as demonstrated by the respondents who disagreed with it. This, therefore, means that women can be in managerial positions. In contrast, the minority of the respondents (22%) who agreed that women prefer to work under men depict some women‘s mentality that leadership is for men. A similar notion was also reflected by Namaleya who affirmed that some female teachers she had encountered said that they do not manage headship. This is what she said,

―Headship is for men, we cannot handle, for it has very many challenges which can be only be tolerated by men‖ (FHTRN/TD/17TH/04/2014). Emdee (2009) gave a British survey claim which states that most women prefer to work under the males on the claim that women leaders are more prone to mood swings. This trend so longer holds since it has been disproved by the research findings.

Of the respondents to the statement that women are less visionary than men, 85% disagreed with it, as opposed to 9% who agreed with it, and 6% who were not sure. This assumption does not hold since the majority of the respondents disagreed with it. Instead, some women do not consider headship as a career option according to Smith (2010), while Sperandio and

Kagoda (2005), and Dirasse (1991) attribute having fewer women in management to women‘s own attitude, lack of self-confidence, fear of criticism, and fear of risk taking.

Erin (2011) is in support to this view. He argues that women are truly more naturally creative and intuitive in their thinking than men.

In addition, 79% of the respondents disagreed with the statement that women are not assertive and authoritative, while 17% of them agreed with it, and 9% were not sure. This was a mere stipulation because the results of the study have established that women are assertive and authoritative. The respondents feel that if women were given opportunity to be in managerial positions, they can do a very good job as compared to male head teachers who misjudge the female head teachers. This view is in line with the position of Bowman et al

(2002) who pointed out that men are influenced by socio-cultural and historical factors to misjudge women‘ abilities. Qin (2000) claims that traditional prejudice, social pressures, women‘s sensitivity to people‘s conception of successful women and the tendency of men to choose family oriented wives is a hindering factor to women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. This also is reflected in Smith‘s (2010) observation that societal norms are biased and favour men. The findings of this study indicate that if women were given opportunity for leadership in Educational institutions, they could demonstrate both efficiency and effectiveness; hence ruling out the view that women are not assertive and authoritative.

Further, the findings show 74% of the respondents disagreeing with the statement that women have other obligations, and they do not want to hold management responsibilities. 19% of the participants agreed with it, while 7% of them were not sure. 74% of the respondents disagreed with the notion of women‘s having other obligations as a reason for not being in management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. However, Smith (2010) asserts that women do not consider headship as a career option. Likewise, Seprandio and

Kagoda (2005) and Dirasse (1991) affirm this notion and point it out as the main cause of women‘s denial in management positions, leading to low representation of women in the management of Government Aided secondary schools. Similarly, Cole (2006) concluded that in order for women to be in management of education institutions, they must be nurtured and developed throughout the society. This idea raises the question as to how long this principle of nurturing and developing should be. The implication in this case is that if more women were recruited into management positions in Government Aided secondary schools, they could manage alongside other personal duties.

The statement that the majority of the women lack management skills was disagreed with by

80% against 12% of the participants who agreed with it, and 8% who were not sure. The studies also revealed by interview results that the majority of the women do not lack management skills. In an interview with Victoria, she said, ―The ladies have led schools by example and have good management skills which are both acquired and in born‖(FHTRV/MD/24Th April 2014). The majority of the respondents strongly disagreed with the notion that the majority of the women lack management skills. They identify this as the reason for low representation of women in management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. However, Kiamba (2008) and Panigrahi (2013) attribute low women‘s representation to discrimination of women on the basis of gender, ethnicity, social class, age, sexual orientation and religious beliefs, as it was also identified in an interview with Awoja.

She said, ―Women have been segregated several times on several occasions. A religion like

Islam never allows women to head a school unless it is a girls school‖ (FHTRA/MD/24Th

April 2014).

A total of 88% as against 8% of the respondents disagreed with the statement that women are poor communicators, where 4% were not sure. This is also supported by the interview findings which strongly state that women are good communicators since they are always able to run schools efficiently and effectively. Ogare said, ―Women should be supported because they have good communication skills which can enable them to manage schools competently.‖ This is in line with the literature reviewed. As stated by Smith (2008), women make decisions and take steps to shape their own lives and careers and that of the communities. Smith (2008) further suggests that barriers to women's progress into management are derived from several sources such as: constraints imposed upon them by society, the family, employers, and by women themselves. The researcher established that there were a number of different arguments to explain why women are not present in large numbers in the management of Government Aided secondary schools, namely, earlier socialization, among others.

There are a number of powerful barriers to women‘s mobility to the management positions of

Government Aided secondary schools. For instance, behavioral expectations regarding women's role in the family represent a very real obstacle to their corporate upward mobility.

Also, the majority of the burden of child rearing is still placed on mothers, imposing additional responsibility on a career woman that is often not faced by a man. Namaleya said during an interview that ‗Women are better communicators despite all the challenges, they can easily impact positively on the development of Government Aided secondary schools

(FHTRN/MD/17Th April, 2014).

4.2.2. CAOS’ perceptions on women’s minimal occupation in management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda

Table 4:6 shows the CAOs‘ responses on women‘s minimal occupation in management positions.

Table 4.6.: CAO’s perception on women’s minimal occupation in Management positions

Questionnaire item SA A NS D SD There is a high ratio of women to men 1(20%) 3(60%) 00 1(20%) 00 Women prefer to work under men 00 1(20%) 00 3(60%) 1(20%) Women are less visionary than men 00 00 00 5(100%) 00 Women lack management skills 00 00 1(20%) 4(80%) 00 Women are too busy for leadership 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 Women managers are more authoritative and 00 4(80%) 00 1(20%) 00 trustworthy than men Women are less efficient, less effective and have 1(20%) 3(60%) 00 1(20%) 00 Low esteem than men Women have many family challenges 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 Corrupt tendencies by those in power 00 3(60%) 2(40%) 00 There is gender imbalance due to male dominance 00 1(20%) 1(20%) 3(60%) 00 Girl child education is undermined 00 4(80%) 1(20%) 00 00 Women lack support and encouragement from 00 5(100%) 00 00 00 spouses and Government Women have limited qualifications 00 00 1(20%) 4(80%) 00 Interference by culture, religion, politics and 1(20%) 4(80%) 00 00 00 society Sexual harassment 3(60%) 2(40%) 00 00 00 Source: Primary Data

CAOs’ responses on perceptions on women’s minimal occupation in Management positions

Sixty percent (60%) of the respondents strongly agreed with the statement that female administrators are more authoritative and trustworthy than the men as opposed to 40% of those who disagreed. Therefore the findings indicate that female administrators are more authoritative and trustworthy than the men as represented on Table 4.6.

Sixty percent (60%) of the respondents agree with the statement that women are less efficient and less effective, 40% of them disagree with it. The majority of the respondents were in disagreement with the statement. Besides, all the female head teachers interviewed indicated

73 that women are trustworthy, dependable, efficient and effective in their activities unlike their counterparts, the men. Namaleya said, ―Women are honest and fear stealing school money but to some men it sounds normal for them to use school money‖ (FHTRN/MD/17Th April,

2014).

In addition, the results from the open-ended questionnaire items indicated that the female head teachers are marginalized by the male head teachers. The interview results also support the same view. It was a general concern for the female head teachers who were interviewed that there are very few females in leadership positions especially in the management of

Government Aided secondary schools. In her response, Victoria attributes this to the unbecoming conduct of some men. She said, ―Men marginalize female head teachers‖(FHTR/TD/17TH/04/2014). Wanale‘s comment was that more women should come up and take management positions of Government Aided secondary schools regardless of the identified challenges. She said, ―We need more women to come up, encourage female teachers and female students to take the mantle of the management of secondary schools‖

(FHTRW/TD/04/2014).

The study showed that the majority of the respondents, female teachers, had a plea that if the government works towards ensuring having interviewing panels gender balanced, more women will access management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. This was observed by all female respondents.

Furthermore, findings of the study in interviews with female head teachers showed that the women have a high working commitment especially in schools, despite the challenges of having a small number of female head teachers heading Government Aided secondary

74 schools. According to Awoja women are committed to their job. She said, ―The women are so committed to their duty even amidst the unique challenges that they face‖

(FHTRA/TD/17th/04/2014).

Namaleya further revealed this, and cited Mr. Agaba the commissioner‘s (For secondary schools in Uganda) who gave a positive comment about female head teachers‘ performance during his address to all head teachers of Government Aided secondary schools in 2013. He argued that if many of them were given opportunity to manage these schools, the academic performance of students would be excellent since women are trustworthy, dependable, efficient and effective in their activities (FHTRN/MD/17Th April, 2014).

A hundred percent (100%) of the respondents disagreed with the statement that women are poor performers. The statement that women are poor performers was totally refuted by all the respondents as represented by 100% of the CAOs. The results of the study indicate that it is a false allegation because the majority of the respondents strongly disagreed with the statement. According to Smith (2010), women can make good decisions as supported by the interview results which stipulate that women managers are the best performers. Victoria said,

―Female head teachers‘ performance is better as compared to that of the males head teachers.

The females have a feel and attention for the school unlike the men who do not care much about the schools they head‖ FHTRV/TD/17TH/04/2014). Besides, Cook (2014) adds that women are naturally born leaders because they are independent, energetic, have dynamic personality traits and are enthusiastic.

Furthermore, in support to the findings of the interview results with female head teachers and open-ended questions showed that the women have a high working commitment especially in schools, despite the challenges of having a small number of female head teachers heading

Government Aided secondary schools. Nevertheless, according to the results from the questionnaires and interview with the female head teachers, this commitment is sometimes betrayed by a spirit of family responsibilities, family challenges, corruption by some male appointing officials, limited qualification and exposure, limited support coupled with political, religious, cultural, and societal norms and beliefs. As such, this type of commitment has been abused in various forms. Like ‗glass ceiling‘ as referred to in United Kingdom, many women have been denied opportunity to access management positions in secondary schools. This denies women‘s personal agency, as put across by Smith (2010). Therefore if they are appointed head teachers of secondary schools, they can create a good and long lasting impact on students‘ performance too.

Eighty percent (80%) of the respondents disagreed with the statement that women have many family challenges as opposed to the 20% who agreed. The minority of the respondents had the opinion that women are few in the management positions of Government Aided secondary schools because of family challenges. Besides, the reviewed literature indicates that women‘s perception on minimal positions in Government Aided secondary schools in

Uganda as identified by Smith (2010) is that the society norms are biased and favour men. He further asserts that women‘s education and entry to job market is limited, and that women‘s role is typically more of the home maker, rather than that of a career worker. Besides, the respondents in this study indicated that unlike men, women have many family challenges: a housewife, a mother, a home planner and a home keeper, as exemplified in an interview with a female head teacher Namaleya (FHTRN/TD/17TH/04/2014).This implies that more women would be in management if they were not hindered by societal norms.

The notion that there is corruption in the recruitment system was agreed with by 60% while those who disagreed were 40%. In addition, the interview results showed that corruption is a reason for women‘s low representation in management positions in Government Aided secondary schools as mentioned by Namaleya (FHTRN/TD/17TH/04/2014). In this case the female head teachers‘ opinion override the opinion of other respondents since the head teachers are in management so they have experience. This is the reason for the difference in results.

Table 4.7: DEOs’ Perceptions on Women’s minimal occupation in management positions (n=5) Questionnaire item SA A NS D SD There is high ratio of women to men 00 4(80%) 00 1(20%) 00 Women prefer to work under men 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 Women are less visionary than men 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 Women lack management skills 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 Women are to busy for leadership 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 Women managers are more authoritative and 00 2(40%) 1(20%) 2(40%) 00 trustworthy than men Women are less efficient, less effective and have 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 3(60%) 00 Low esteem than men Women have many family challenges 3(60%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 00 Corrupt tendencies by those in power 3(60%) 2(40%) 00 00 00 There is gender imbalance due to male dominance 2(40%) 2(40%) 00 1(20%) 00 Girl child education is undermined 1(20%) 3(60%) 1(20%) 00 00 Women lack support and encouragement from 00 4(80%) 1(20%) 00 00 spouses and Government Women have limited qualifications 00 1(20%) 4(80%) 00 00 Interference by culture, religion, politics and 00 5(100%) 00 00 00 society Sexual harassment 1(20%) 2(40%) 00 2(40%) 00 Source: primary Data

4.2.3. DEOs’ responses on perception on women’s minimal occupation in management positions

The findings showed that there is gender imbalance in allocation of management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda. This is demonstrated by the majority of the respondents who agreed with the statement (80%). In contrast, the minority of the respondents disagreed, probably due to lack of information. The respondents who were interviewed attribute low representation of women to lack of gender balance in the entire

77 recruitment process. According to Ogare, there is no gender balance in the recruitment system. She said, ‘gender balance is never considered when recruiting head teachers. The interviewing panels are always dominated by men (FHTRO/TD/18TH/04/2014).The female head teachers assume that if there is gender balance in the allocation of management positions, the performance of schools would be good. It is assumed that if gender was balanced in the allocation of management positions, more women would be in management positions.

Eighty percent (80%) agreed with the statement that girl child education is generally undermined while 20% were not sure. The study revealed that girl child education is undermined. Due to the fact that girl child education was undermined, it consequently leads to women‘s lack of role models and mentors as observed by Sperandio and Kagoda (2005).

This as a result has a far reaching impact as it makes women not to consider headship as a career option as noted by Smith (2010). The responses from the open-ended questionnaires also indicated lack of support to girl child, cultural, political, and society interference. On the issue of non-support to girl children, the available literature is also in support to this finding, to the effect that despite progress in recent years, girls continue to suffer severe disadvantage and exclusion in education system throughout their lives (UNICEF, 2014). It is assumed that if the parents are advised to treat all their children equally regardless of their gender, the girls could also make it to higher education, which is a pre-requisite to the access of management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. This implies that for any woman to access management positions, the foundation stages are very critical in that they prepare one for future career obligations. Therefore the assumption is that when the girls are given good education at the earlier stages, they will qualify for other future tasks like the management of

Government secondary schools.

Eighty percent (80%) of the respondents agreed with the statement that women lack support and encouragement from spouses and Government, and 20% of were not sure. The results indicated that women lack support and encouragement from spouses and Government as represented by the majority (80%) of the respondents who agreed. Kagoda and Ezati (2013) support these findings. They attribute husbands‘ failure to support their wives to attain further studies to the fear that their husbands would feel they are undermined when their wives upgrade. The findings of the study indicate that women are not given the support they deserve. But the minority of the respondents indicate that some husbands support and encourage their wives to go for further studies. The implication is that if given all the support by men, many female teachers will attain higher qualifications and morale to aspire for management posts in Government Aided secondary schools, and as such, it would solve the problem of under representation of women in management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. The assumption is that if the spouses and the Government supported the women, we would have many of the ladies joining the management of Government Aided secondary schools.

The findings further reveal that women have experience. This is represented by 80% of the respondents who disagree with the statement that women have limited experience. However,

20% of them agree with agreed with it. The study shows that women have experience which is one of the requirements for promotion to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. However, 20% of the respondents were not sure of the statement.

Eighty percent (80%) of the DEOs agreed with the statement that women have limited qualifications, whereas 20% of them were not sure. However, majority of the female teachers

(78%) disagreed. Therefore the results showed that women do not have limited qualifications as represented by the majority of the respondents. Fifty five percent (50%) of the female head teachers who participated in the study had Bachelor‘s Degrees in Education, which is the minimum academic qualification for the post of head teacher in Government Aided secondary schools, but they had tried several times to access management positions without success. The implication here is that women should be encouraged to take up the management roles.

Table 4:8 GFPs’ perception on women’s minimal occupation in Management positions Questionnaire item SA A NS D SD There is a high ratio of women to men 00 4(80%) 1(20%) 00 00 Women prefer to work under men 00 00 00 5(100%) 00 Women are less visionary than men 00 1(20%) 1(20%) 3(60%) 00 Women lack management skills 00 00 00 5(100%) 00 Women are to busy for leadership 00 1(20%) 1(20%) 3(60%) 00 Women managers are more authoritative and 00 4(80%) 00 1(20%) 00 trustworthy than men Women are less efficient, less effective and have 1(20%) 2(40%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 Low esteem than men Women have many family challenges 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 Corrupt tendencies by those in power 00 3(60%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 There is gender imbalance due to male dominance 1(20%) 3(60%) 00 1(20%) 00 Girl child education is undermined 00 3(60%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 Women lack support and encouragement from 00 2(40%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 spouses and Government Women have limited qualifications 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 Interference by culture, religion, politics and 1(20%) 4(80%) 00 00 00 society Sexual harassment 00 3(60%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 Source: primary Data

4.2.4. GFPs’ responses on perception on women’s minimal occupation in management positions

The study reveals that there is male dominance in the employment process as indicated by

80% of the respondents who agreed, while 20% were not sure. The respondents agreed with the statement that male dominance in society is a reason for low representation of women in the management of Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda. This is against the minority (20%) of those who were not sure of the statement. This is also in support of what Giddens (2005) and Holtkamp (2002) identified. However, they further state that the proportion of women in managerial positions is slowly increasing. The assumption is that if more women were supported to join management of secondary schools, the performance would be excellent due to the combined efforts of both genders.

A hundred percent (100%) of the participants agreed with the statement that there is interference by culture, religion, politics and society in the management of secondary schools. Additionally, Bowman et al (2002) are in agreement with the statement. They further stress that socio-cultural and historical factors have a lot to do with men‘s misjudgment of women‘s abilities to perform. According to them, men‘s attitudes have not changed since they believe in stereotypes, and do not want to work with or for women, and that if they have to, they still make life difficult for the female head teachers. This concurs with the available literature by Kiamba (2006) which states that historically, leadership has carried a notion of masculinity and the belief that men make better leaders than women and is still common today. Holly (2013) asserts that in some cultures, the boys are favoured over girls and to the extent that in some cultures women are not even allowed to discipline the boys. However, the 16% who are the minority indicate that there is no interference from culture, society, religion, and politics in the management of schools. The explanation for this could be that they come from communities which have leant to appreciate the efforts of women. This implies that women could perform better if they were not interrupted and as such, it could improve on the discipline of the students. It is therefore deduced that there exists culture, religion, politics and society influence in the management of school. The assumption is that if each stakeholder‘s roles were clearly streamlined and upheld, there would be no more conflicts in roles, which when they persist, collapse the performance of the schools.

Furthermore, the findings of the study indicate that there is sexual harassment of male teachers as revealed by the study. 60% agreed, 20% disagreed and 20% were not sure. And as established from the interview results, women are sexually harassed. Namaleya is in support to this finding. She states that, ―Some male head teachers ask for sexual advances before recommending the female teachers for promotion or even before appointing them in

82 administrative positions like senior women teachers, head of department, or Director of studies‖ (FHTRN/TD/17TH/04/2014). Hejase (2013) asserts that in the case of sexual harassment, the perpetrator is in a position of power or authority over the victim, or is expecting to receive power in the form of promotion. Ashford (2012) confirms this with emphasis on lack of women‘s representative in Government especially in the recruitment structure. The assumption is that if more women got involved in policy making and implementation structures, they would encourage female teachers to apply for management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. The findings of the study indicated that female administrators face sexual harassment as represented by the majority of the respondents.

There was also low self-esteem of women at 60% of those who agreed, while 40% disagreed with the statement. Low self-esteem affects one‘s performance at work. This is in agreement to Coetzer‘s (2004) view that if managers cannot live with themselves, they will not be able to get along with others as well. According to him, it is of paramount importance for a female manager to first accept herself and commit themselves to the work. Blogger (2007) is in support to this view that women themselves are not usually committed to paid employment. The findings extracted from the open-ended questionnaire revealed that some women lack interest in the management of Government Aided secondary schools, a fact also observed by Masambu (2008) and Tripp (2001). In support to this reason, Shakeshaft (2006) urges that some women have indicated that the tasks of administration are not of interest to them because they entered education to teach but not do administration work (Marshall,

1984). Kiamba (2008) attributes minimal occupation of women in management positions to the women themselves not being committed to paid employment. Furthermore, Shakeshaft

(2006), Sprandio, and Kagoda (2005), and Dirasse (1991) note that women‘s attitude, lack of

83 self-confidence, fear of risk taking, and fear of criticisms are responsible for minimal occupation of women in management positions. This is supported by Carey (2005) and

Marshall (1984) who noted that women themselves are not usually committed to paid employment, but prefer to do a job rather than develop a career. This cannot be ruled out because there are some women who do not wish to take management as their career, as already discussed above. Besides, other reasons like fearing their husbands and the public opinion are also issues that affect female teachers in participating in the management of

Government Aided secondary schools. It is therefore concluded that some women have low self-esteem as stated by all the GFPs.

The summary of the findings on women‘s perception on minimal occupation in management positions by the four categories of the respondents are as follows: all the respondents indicated that there are more women than men in Uganda; that female administrators are more authoritative and trustworthy than the men; that there is corruption in the recruitment system; that women lack support and encouragement from spouses and Government; that there is male dominance, interference by culture, religion, politics and society, sexual harassment and low self-esteem of women.

However, all the respondents disagreed with the statements that women prefer to work under men, that women are less visionary, that women are not assertive and authoritative, that women have other obligations such that they do not want leadership, that women are poor communicators, that women are poor performers, that women have limited experience, and that girl child education is generally undermined.

Besides, there were some conflictions in the following statements: whereas all the GFPs disagreed that female teachers lack management skills (100%), both the CAOs and the DEOs were in agreement to it. The CAOs and the GFPs agreed with the statement that women are less efficient and less effective. The DEOs also agree with the statement.

The CAOs and the GFPs agreed that women have many family challenges whereas the DEOs disagreed with the statement. The DEOs disagreed with the statement that there is limited employment for women while the CAOs and GFPs agreed with it. Whereas the CAOs and the

GFPs were in disagreement that there is gender imbalance in allocation of management positions, the GFPs and the DEOs agreed with it. Both the CAOs and the GFPs disagreed that women have limited qualifications as opposed to the DEOs who agreed with the statement.

Nevertheless, the overall perception on women‘s minimal occupation in management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda according to the results from both the questionnaires and interview with the female head teachers, indicate that this commitment of women serving in management positions is sometimes betrayed by various factors ranging from internal to external. A spirit of family responsibilities and challenges, corruption by some male appointing officials, limited qualifications and exposure, limited support coupled with political, religious, cultural, and societal norms and African beliefs is a hindrance to women‘s access. In addition, this type of commitment has been abused in various forms, like ‗glass ceiling‘ as referred to in United Kingdom. Many women have been denied the opportunity to access management positions in secondary schools, and so denied their personal agency, as pointed out by Smith (2010). The female teachers‘ overall perception on minimal occupation of management positions in government Aided secondary schools is that male head teachers are more preferred to female ones.

Therefore the overall conclusion on perception on women‘s minimal occupation of management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda shows a pattern that women do not have equal access to management positions in the specified study area.

4.3. Barriers to women’s access to management positions in government aided

secondary schools

The second research question was: What are the barriers to women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools? The results have been presented according to the four categories of respondents, namely; the female teachers, the CAOs,

DEOs, and GFPs. In addition, these results have been harmonized with the interview results of the female head teachers. Lastly, the conclusion of the findings from all four categories was analyzed in comparison.

Table 4.9: Female teachers’ responses on barriers to women’s access to management positions (n=210) Questionnaire item SA A NS D SD Socio-cultural factors Women are meant to produce children and do kitchen 09(4%) 07(3%) 14(8%) 150 (71%) 30(14%) work Women will always cause things to go wrong 00 02(1%) 03(1%) 105 (54%) 100(43%) Men should always lead while women follow 02(1%) 04(2%) 03(1%) 191 (92%) 10(4%) It is only men who can withstand management 04(2%) 04(2%) 03(1%) 100(52%) 98(43%) challenges Only men are born with leadership traits 00 04(2%) 08(3%) 200 (95%) 00 Women are less intelligent than men 03(1%) 00 01(0.5%) 200(95%) 06(3%) Only men can go for higher education 00 02(1%) 00 208(99%) 00 Only men can manage leadership in schools 00 01(0.5%) 01(0.5%) 208(99%) 00 Women cannot influence decision making 04(2%) 04(2%) 02(01%) 195(93%) 05(2%) Management theories only favour men 05(2%) 60(29%) 22(10%) 103(48%) 20(10%) Women‘s economic status is low 26(12%) 24(11%) 07(3%) 101(48%) 52(25%) Negative criticisms by men make women hate 33(16%) 103(49%) 08(2%) 66(31%) 00 management positions. Women need lobbying to access management positions 23(11%) 101(48%) 12(6%) 64(30%) 10(4%) Lack of sensitization 99(47%) 44(21%) 07(3%) 60(28.5) 00 Religious & political factors interference by religion 99(47%) 87(41%) 02(1%) 12(6%) 10(5%) Home-based factors

Family challenges and responsibilities 60(29%) 49(23%) 10(5%) 70(33%) 21(10%) Individual factors Women have a negative attitude towards management 03(1%) 55(26%) 01(0.4%) 108(51%) 43(20%) Inferiority complex 39(19%) 16(8%) 12(6%) 121(58%) 22(10) Education Women have low education 00 26(12%) 01(0.5%) 103(49%) 80(38%) Limited qualification and exposure 21(10%) 08(4%) 04(2%) 100(48%) 77(37%) Source: Primary data, (2014)

4.3.1. Female teachers’ responses on barriers to women’s access to management

positions

The findings of the study showed that there are a number of barriers to women‘s access to management positions in secondary schools. The interview results and response in the questionnaire as shown on Table 4.9 were harmonized, categorized and discussed thematically under the following factors. These are socio-cultural, religious, home-based, individual, education level, Government policies, and political barriers.

4.3.2. Socio-cultural barriers to women’s access to management positions

According to the results, 95% disagreed with the statement that it is only men who can withstand management challenges as opposed to 5% who agreed with it. These findings of the study therefore indicate that it is not only men who can withstand management challenges as it was stated. The available literature supports the statement. Brown (2014) noted that women are hindered by both internal and external barriers which keep them away from advancing. She also attributes this to society‘s beliefs and further states that internally owing to the effects of socialization and sex stereotyping, and externally because organisations structure the behaviour of their work force such that women limit their performance. This is because they are locked into lower-power, low-visibility, and dead-end jobs. This idea is also supported by the World Bank Report, (2014) which attributes women‘s barriers to accessing management positions to women‘s socially defined roles. According to this report, African women are still assigned secondary places due to the prevailing customs and culture. In addition, Brown (2014) points out that these barriers are particularly applicable to women educational managers in Uganda. It is also in line with what Moutlana (2001) noted. She stated that socialization of women at the workplace occurs with a system of power and inequality. Such systems tend to reproduce various forms of inequality in educational institutions. This therefore calls for full and active involvement of women in leading educational change. This therefore implies that women can handle management challenges too.

According to the findings on Table 4.9, there is a misconception about women within African societies. The statement that women are meant only to produce children and do kitchen work was disagreed with by the majority of the respondents. This is represented by 85% of the respondents who disagreed, against 11% who agreed and 8% who were undecided. This

88 therefore implies that a belief that women are meant to produce children and do kitchen work does not hold, although Sadie‘s (2005) opinion is that women‘s role is typically one of a home maker. Since the majority of the respondents disagreed with the statement, it is therefore concluded that women are not meant only to produce children and do kitchen work but have other roles to play.

Another statement was that women will always cause things to go wrong. According to the study, the majority (97%) of the participants disagreed with the statement. The interpretation here is that women will not always cause things to go wrong as the statement claims.

Therefore this notion does not hold because most of the respondents did not agree with it.

The viewed literature also disagreed with the statement. According to Cook (2014) women are naturally born leaders, they are independent, energetic, have dynamic personality traits, and they are energetic and enthusiastic. This means that they cannot cause things to go wrong. Therefore, it is not true that when women are in management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools they will mismanage the schools.

Furthermore, 96% of the respondents disagreed with the statement that men should lead and women to follow. This according to results is another misconception which is misleading because the results indicated the majority of the respondents disagreed as against 3% who agreed. However, according to the literature review, men have a belief that they should lead women (Holly, 2013). Therefore the findings disapprove the notion that only men should lead and women follow. The belief that men make better leaders than women as observed by

Howard (2007), Betz & Fitzgerald (1987) and Kiamba (2008) does not hold. This understanding is misleading because the findings of the study show that women make good leaders especially in the management of Government Aided senior secondary schools.

Female head teachers are parental, transparent, caring about the school, accountable, and dependable. They argue that the few women who are in management positions do perform better than some men. This is supported by Agaba‘s observation (Commissioner for secondary schools), as sited by Ogare during the interview. She quoted Agaba as saying, ―We like women administrators because they are good, account Table, well organized, and transparent.‖ In addition, the interview results are also in support of these results. Ogare

(FHTRO/MD/18Th /April/2014) observed that female head teachers are despised by the male teachers and are never taken seriously. They describe them with contempt. She said,

―kakasinako‖ meaning a woman also. She also shares a similar view with Hojgaard (2002) that the tradition that leadership is a masculine domain and regarding women as ‗home makers‘. Panigrahi (2013) shares a similar view that leadership has carried the notion of masculinity and the belief that men make better leaders than women. This is a barrier to women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools.

The findings also refute what Grant (2005) and Ngcongo (1993) who concur with the statement those men should always lead and women follow. This idea was also captured by

Ngcongo (1993). He argued that it is a mere belief especially in African society that men lead and women follow, yet beyond this kind of belief, there are some success stories of some women who have risen to management positions and have demonstrated visionary, authoritative and trustworthy management skills. Such women, according to him, include

Margaret Thatcher of Britain, Grace Onyango, the first woman Member of Parliament of

Kenya, and Specioza Wandira Kazibwe, the first female vice president of Uganda. Such success stories, that have proved that women are not necessarily poor performers out way the notion of masculinity and the belief that men make better leaders than women (Betz and

Fitzgerald (1787). These findings therefore concur with Hojgaard (2002) on his position that

90 it is the societal conventions regarding gender and leadership tradition that exclude women from management positions. It should therefore be noted that women too can lead. The results of the study shows 96% of the participants who disagreed with the idea that men should lead and women follow. According to African culture women who get into leadership are seen as trouble makers, more specifically strong and assertive women (Daily Nation,

2009). These findings concur with the available literature. Moya et al (2000) contend that culture affects women‘s access to management positions.

The statement that men should lead while women follow was proved wrong since the majority of the respondents did not support it. This is in agreement with the African culture that has a belief that women are supposed to be led but not to lead as cited by Smith (2010).

According to him, stereotyped notions about women constitute major barriers. Brown (2014) contends that women are hindered by both internal and external barriers which hinder them from advancing. He further points out that these barriers are particularly applicable to women educational managers in Uganda whose advancement is further impeded by the cultural imperatives of male dominance and suppression.

Accordingly, the results of the study confirm that it is not only men who can lead. The study indicates that even women can lead and can hold management positions in Government

Aided secondary schools.

4.3.3. Religious Barriers to Women’s Access to Management Positions

The results indicate 88% of the respondents agreed that there is religious interference on women‘s job performance versus 11% who disagreed and 1% who was not sure. Women are believed to being a cause of bad leadership. For example, Islam quotes have misled her

91 husband Adam. Accordingly, Muslims generalize that women should not be in the lead instead men should always lead, while women follow. Some Christians quote Paul (1

Corinthians 14:34) that women should be silent in meetings. This also indirectly pushes the women to the back benches. Awoja observed that women are naturally disadvantaged in that they are not allowed to lead. She asserts, “If women attend an interview and the interviewing panel has more Muslims than members of any other religion, they will never appoint a woman to be head teacher.‖(FMHTRA/MD/24Th/April/2014).

4.3.4. Home barriers to women’s access to management positions

The results indicate 52% of respondents agreed that females have challenges of balancing family responsibilities and their career work this as opposed to 43% who disagreed and 5% who were not sure. These tasks were as the result of socially defined roles as put across by

(World Bank, 2014, Betz and Fitzgerald, 1987 and Jones1990). Sadie (2005) adds that confining women‘s identity to the domestic sphere is a barrier to women‘s entry to management positions. The study further revealed that some husbands deprive their wives of further education by leaving for them the entire responsibility of parenting and taking care of the family while for them they progress in studies. Surprisingly, even when they complete their further studies, they do not give opportunity to their wives also to go for studies. In an interview with female head teachers, Namaleya says, ―Some husbands do not allow their wives to go for further studies‖. This view is shared by Awoja who says ―Unsupportive husbands do not allow their wives to go for further studies.‖ It was revealed in an interview that some husbands want their wives to keep their homes, while others fear that when their wives go for further studies, they mess up with other men. In addition, it was found out that if their wives attain higher qualifications than them, they will despise their husbands.

According to the respondents, these challenges were as a result of socially defined roles which is also supported by Shakeshaft (2006) who states that in most families, women are still responsible for the majority of child-care and homemaking. He believes that such responsibilities inhibit the ability of women to perform their jobs as school managers, and therefore such responsibilities make women undesirable candidates for administrative positions. Lawless (2014) is also not different from the findings of this study. She urges that traditional family orientations serve as a significant impoundment to women‘s candidature to management positions. Howard (2007) shares a similar view. Sadie (2005) is also in agreement to this too. He adds that confining women‘s identity to the domestic sphere is a barrier to women‘s entry to management positions. This very woman is a house wife, mother, and she has to attend to both of these. For example, she has to cook food for her husband, children and all her household. As a mother, she passes through pregnancy-associated problems like attending antenatal sessions, maternity leaves every year and taking children for medication. Balancing these home obligations with office work is very challenging to many women therefore they need to be supported by their husbands, the government, and all other concerned parties.

4.3.5. Individual Barriers to Women’s Access to Management Positions

It is also noted that women have individual barriers that prevent them from accessing

Management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. Wanale and Awoja

(pseudonym), (FHTRW/TD/17Th /April/2014 and FHTRA/MD/24Th April/2014) attribute failure to access to management positions to fear by female teachers. For example, they note that some women fear management challenges, and feel that they cannot handle them. Such challenges include insufficient funds to run the institution, drop in academic performance, and political interference. As a result, they fear negative criticisms and this makes them give

93 up attempts to aspire for management positions. The results further indicate that some head teachers lack self-esteems a result of inferiority complex. Thus, they lack authoritative character, they cannot speak out, and they are shy and lack confidence.

4.3.6. Education Level

The results of the study disprove the statement that women‘s education is low so they cannot access management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. This was represented by 87% which is the highest percent. Besides this, it was established that the majority (55%) of the female teachers who participated in the study have the required academic qualifications of a Bachelor‘s Degree in education (Table 4.7.2), but still have not accessed leadership of

Government Aided secondary schools. So the allegation that female teachers‘ academic level is low is not true. Awoja confirms that women have the minimum requirements for the secondary school headship. In her school, where she is a head teacher, 20 female teachers out of the 45 teachers in the school have qualifications for heading a Government Aided secondary school. She said, ―In one interview for headship, there were very many women who had been short listed for headship as against men, but I was surprised because only men were appointed head teachers. So I do not know whether they asked them very difficult questions or what happened I do not know‘‘ (FHTRA/MD/18TH APRIL 2014).

Furthermore, Moya et al (2010) and Kiamba (2008) also confirm that many people have a misconception that women are not academically qualified to carry out any management duty.

Therefore this notion is not true and it misleading.

4.3.7. Politics, as Barriers to Women’s Access to Management

The findings of the study show that area politicians to a certain extent interfere with the management of schools. This is represented by 88%. These cover from Local council one up

94 to highest levels, Member of Parliament. For example, the headship of the school is sometimes believed to be supportive by the area politician. According to interview results, men are usually substituted for women as men are thought to be stronger party supporters than women. This was also observed by Wakholi (2005). In addition, the respondents argue that it is not that women are poor communicators that they fail to access management positions in Government Aided schools as some people think. This argument was carried across the respondents and is represented with the lowest percentage as indicated on Table

4.9.Instead, women attribute the barriers to other reasons of which limited support from staff and government rank the highest. This implies that women are good communicators as evidenced on Table 4.9. 51% agreed, 29% disagreed while 12% were not sure. The few women who are in management positions in Government Aided secondary schools express the view that they are not given support by their staff members, both male and female, and that the government deliberately or through her policies has shown minimum support for female head teachers. Besides the above, interference by other structures such as religion, culture, and politics play a big role against women‘s access to management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools. In an interview with Awoja, one of the only three female head teachers in Mbale district confirms that if the panel which interviewed her had

Muslim men, they would not have appointed her a head teacher. This is what she said,

‗‗Muslim religion does not allow women to head them, so if the panel has Muslim men they won‘t give a lady headship‘‘. Discrimination against women in Government Aided senior secondary schools in Uganda is another barrier to their access to management positions. In an interview with Namaleya, she attributes women‘s failure to access management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools to the assumption that societies have about women.

Cultural values and religious values like women being submissive also affect women‘s access to management positions.

TABLE 4.10 CAOs responses on barriers to women’s access to management positions Questionnaire item SA A NS D SD Socio-cultural factors Women are meant only to produce children and 00 1 (20%) 00 4 (80%) 00 do kitchen work Women will always cause things to go wrong 00 00 00 5 (100%) 00 Men should always lead while women follow 00 1 (20%) 00 4 (80%) 00 It is only men who can withstand management 00 2 (40%) 00 2(40%) 00 challenges Only men are born with leadership traits 00 00 00 5(100%) 00 Women are less intelligent than men 00 00 00 5 (100%) 00 Only men can go for higher education 00 00 00 4(80%) 1(20%) Only men can manage leadership in schools 00 00 2(40%) 2(40%) 1(20%) Women cannot influence decision making 00 1(20%) 1(20%) 2(40%) 1(20%) Management theories only favour men 00 00 2(40%) 2(40%) 1(20%) Women‘s economic status is low Negative criticisms by men make women hate 5(100%) 00 00 00 management positions. Women need lobbying to access management 00 3(60%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 positions Limited support by the Government 1(20%) 2(40%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 Lack of sensitization 2(40%) 2(40%) 00 1(20%) 00 Religious & political factors interference by culture 2(40%) 2(40%) 1(20%) 00 00 Home factors

Family challenges and responsibilities 4(80%) 00 00 1(20%) 00 Individual factors Women have a negative attitude towards 00 1(20%) 1(20%) 3(60%) 00 management Inferiority complex 4(80%) 00 00 1(20%) 00 Education Women have low education 00 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) Limited qualification and exposure 2(40%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 Source: Primary Data

Barriers to women‘s access to management positions are categorized and discussed as below.

4.3.7.1. Socio-cultural factors to women’s access to management positions

The results indicate that all the respondents (100%) disagreed with the statement that only men are born with leadership traits. This implies that women like men are born with leadership traits. This notion was disapproved by the majority of the respondents. The available literature also opposes the statement. According to Cook (2014) there are women who are born with leadership traits. She states that some women are naturally born leaders.

They are independent and energetic and have dynamic personality traits. They are energetic and enthusiastic.

Also the results show that all the respondents (100%) disagreed with the statement that women are less intelligent than men. This was proved wrong because the majority of the respondents did not consent to it. These concur with the interview results. According to female head teachers, women too can do what a man can do. In an interview with Awoja, woman can fulfill her motherhood obligation and still manage office work. She said, ―A woman can also manage to do what a man does. They expect the women to do house duties, gardening, and washing up while men go out for duty and also go for further studies outside the family as women stay back to take charge of the family‘‘. The study shows that women are intelligent too. Similarly, the study indicates 80% of the respondents who disagreed with the statement that only men can go for higher education, against 20% who strongly disagreed with it. Accordingly the results show that both women and men can advance in their studies.

4.3.7.3. Individual Factors

Forty percent (60%) disagreed that women have a negative attitude towards management positions, 20% agreed while 20% were not sure. However, it is noted that women have individual barriers that prevent them from accessing management positions in Government

Grant Aided secondary schools. Wanale and Awoja attribute failure to access to management positions to negative attitude by female teachers. For example they note that some women fear management challenges, and feel that they cannot handle. Such challenges include insufficient funds to run the institution, drop in academic performance, and political interference. As a result, they fear negative criticisms and this makes them give up attempts to aspire for management positions. The results further, indicate that some head teachers lack

97 self-esteem as a result of inferiority complex. Thus, they lack authoritative character, they cannot speak out, they are shy and lack confidence. It can therefore be concluded that women do not have a negative attitude towards management positions in Government Aided secondary schools.

Education Factors

Eighty percent (80%) of the respondents strongly disagreed that women have low education as being a reason for failure to access management positions. The majority of the respondents

(80%) disagreed with the statement that women‘s education is low so the women cannot access management positions in Government Aided Secondary Schools as against 20% who were not sure. The respondents‘ highest academic qualifications especially those of the female teachers was a Bachelor‘s degree (Table 4.4) which according to the job requirement is a requirement for one to aspire for headship of Government Aided senior secondary school ( Government of Uganda, 2010).

Forty percent (40%) of the respondents strongly agreed that limited qualifications and exposure are a hindrance to women‘s access to management positions, 20% agreed, 20% disagreed and 20% were not sure so limited qualification and exposure is not a hindrance to women‘s access to management positions. The results of the study disprove the statement that women‘s education is low so they cannot access management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. This was represented by 87% which is the highest percent. Besides this, it was established that the majority (55%) of the female teachers who participated in the study have the required academic qualifications of a Bachelor‘s Degree in education (Table 4.7.2), but still have not accessed leadership of Government Aided secondary schools. So the allegation that female teachers‘ academic level is low is not true. Awoja confirms that women

98 have the minimum requirements for the secondary school headship. In her school, where she is a head teacher, 20 female teachers out of the 45 teachers in the school have qualifications for heading a Government Aided secondary school. She said, ―In one interview for headship, there were very many women who had been short listed for headship as against men, but I was surprised because only men were appointed head teachers. So I do not know whether they asked them very difficult questions or what happened I do not know‘‘

(FHTRA/MD/18TH APRIL 2014). Furthermore, Moya et al (2010) and Kiamba (2008) also confirm that many people have a misconception that women are not academically qualified to carry out any management duty. Therefore this notion is not true and it misleading.

Besides, the reviewed literature indicates that women‘s perception on minimal positions in

Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda as identified by Smith (2010) is that the society norms are biased and favour men. He further asserts that women‘s education and entry to job market is limited, and that women‘s role is typically more of the home maker, rather than that of a career worker. Besides, the respondents in this study indicated that unlike men, women have many family challenges: a housewife, a mother, a home planner and a home keeper, as exemplified in an interview with a female head teacher Namaleya

(FHTRN/TD/17TH/04/2014).This implies that more women would be in management if they were not hindered by societal norms.

4.3.8. GFPs Response on Barriers to Women’s Access to Management Positions

TABLE 4; 11: GFPS Response on Barriers to Women’s Access to Management Positions Questionnaire item SA A NS D SD Socio-cultural factors Women are meant only to produce children and 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 do kitchen work Women will always cause things to go wrong 00 00 5(100%) 00 Men should always lead while women follow 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 It is only men can withstand management 00 3(60%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 challenges Only men are born with leadership traits 00 00 00 5(100%) 00 Women are less intelligent than men 00 00 00 1(20%) 4(80%) Only men can go for higher education 00 00 00 2(40%) 3(60%) Only men can manage leadership in schools 00 00 00 00 5(100%) Women cannot influence decision making 00 00 00 00 5(100%) Management theories only favour men 1(20%) 2(40%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 Negative criticisms by men make 00 4(80%) 00 1(20%) 00 Women need lobbying to access management 00 4(80%) 00 1(20%) 00 positions Lack of sensitization 2(40%) 2(40%) 00 1(20%) 00 Limited support by Government 2(40%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 Religious and political factors interference (religion, culture & politics) 3(60%) 1(20%) 00 1(20%) 00 Home based factors Family challenges and responsibilities 2(40%) 240%) 1(20%) 00 00 Individual factors Women have a negative attitude towards 00 2(4%) 00 3(60%) 00 management Inferiority complex 00 4(80%) 00 1(20%) 00 Education Women have low education 00 2(40%) 1(20%) 2(20%) 00 Limited qualification and exposure 3(60%) 1(20%) 00 1(20%) 00 Source: Primary Data

4.3.8.1. Socio-cultural factors to Women’s Access to Management Positions

Eighty percent (80%) of the GFPs agreed with the statement that negative criticisms by men make women hate management positions. Men‘s negative comments affect women‘s morale with regard to taking up leadership assignments. These findings concur with those of

Onyango, Simatwa and Ondigi (2011) who found out that man are assigned heavy tasks while women are assigned light work by superiors in organizations because management is stereotyped as masculine and a male domain. Onsongo (2004) also in a study reported that management is still viewed from a masculine perspective. In fact, in Kenya it is an

100 established fact that women are discouraged from participating in educational management by male colleagues and spouses due to social stereotypes and this makes women lack confidence in their abilities as managers thereby becoming ineffective (Onyango et al., 2011).

Men prefer their spouses to take care of children at home as meetings take a lot of time in view of their core functions at home, the domestic chores (Osumba, 2010). The consequence of this is that women are reduced to shunning participation in educational management activities. It is therefore not fair for the men always negatively criticize female administrators as it makes women who would have wished to take management as their carrier to opt out.

Eighty percent (80%) of the GFPs agreed with the statement that women need lobbying in order to access disagreed. The conclusion here is that women need lobbying if they are to access management positions in Government Aided Secondary Schools.

Eighty percent (80%) of GFPs agreed with the statement that there is lack of sensitization while 20% disagreed. There is lack of sensitization of female teachers on the available promotion opportunities. This is evidence that many more female teachers could have applied for the posts of head teachers but they were not aware as revealed in this study. Lack of sensitization of female teachers is a factor that hinders women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools.

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4.3.4. DEOs Response on Barriers to Women’s Access to Management Positions

TABLE 4; 12: DEOs Response on Barriers to Women’s Access to Management Positions Questionnaire item SA A NS D SD Socio-cultural factors Women are meant only to produce children and 00 2(40%) 00 3(60%) 1(20%) do kitchen work Women will always cause things to go wrong 00 00 00 5(100%) 00 Men should always lead while women follow 00 00 00 5(100%) 00 It is only men can withstand management challenges Only men are born with leadership traits 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 Women are less intelligent than men 00 00 00 5100%) Only men can go for higher education 00 00 00 5(100%) 00 Only men can manage leadership in schools 00 00 00 5(100%) 00 Women cannot influence decision making 00 00 00 5(100%) 00 Management theories only favour men 00 00 00 5(100%) 00 Negative criticisms by men make 00 2(40%) 00 3(60%) 00 Women need lobbying to access management 00 00 1(20%) 2(40%) 1(20%) positions Lack of sensitization 1(20%) 3(60%) 00 1(20%) 00 Limited support by Government 00 3(60%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 Religious and political factors interference by politics 1(20%) 3(60%) 1(20%) 00 00 Home based factors Family challenges and responsibilities 00 4(80%) 00 1(20%) 00 Individual factors Women have a negative attitude towards 00 1(20%) 1(20%) 3(60%) 00 management Inferiority complex 3(60%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 Education Women have low education 00 1(20%) 4(80%) 00 00 Limited qualification and exposure 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 Source: Primary Data

4.3.4.1. Socio-cultural factors to Women’s Access to Management Positions

All (100%) of the respondents disagreed with the statement that women cannot influence decision making. The findings show that women leadership can influence decision making as evidenced in the interview results. Ogare said that the few women who are in leadership have in most cases influenced positively the decisions of school boards (FHTRO/MD/18Th

/April/2014). According to Ashford (2012), around the world, women‘s lack of representation in government, especially in high-level executive and legislative bodies, limits their influence

102 over governance and public policies. Women‘s participation in decision making is essential for ensuring their equality and rights. Where women have participated actively in public policy, they have been able to raise the visibility of women‘s issues and work toward ending gender discrimination. But women have made slow progress in the political arena, even while making impressive gains in other areas such as education, employment and health. Uganda, in common with the majority other developing countries, is still struggling to meet the goal of 30% representation of women in leadership roles in education that the Bejing platform considered critical for women to have an impact on decision-making (BPA 1995,section 181 and 182). The results imply that women can influence decision making provided they are given the opportunity.

Sadie‘s (2005) and Smith‘s (2010) view that women face patriarchal systems where decision making powers are in the hands of males is evident. The study found that the interviewing panels are mostly dominated by men and that at other times the interviewing panel comprises only men as established during the interviews with female head teachers who stated that the panels who interviewed them were mostly men with either one female or none at all.

Further, African culture expects women to be submissive to men, and also to take charge of domestic and family responsibilities as cited by Kiamba (2008). The study established the same challenge as women‘s barrier to management positions. Furthermore, the results show that stereotype that men have over women is a barrier to women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools which according to Kiamba (2008) are associated to customs and African customs favour men. According to Emmett (2001), socialization of the girl child in many societies is to blame. In other words, limits are put on girls as opposed to boys.

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Brown (2014) also agrees that culture is a barrier to women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. She attributes this to the cultural imperatives of male dominance and suppression. In addition, Panigrahi (2013) observes that leadership has carried a notion of masculinity.

Sadie‘s (2005) and Smith‘s (2010) view that women face patriarchal system where decision making powers are in the hands of males is evident. The study found that the interviewing panels are mostly dominated by men and that at other times the interviewing panel comprises only men.

The results of the study further show that stereotype that men have about women is a barrier to women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools which according to Kiamba (2008) are associated to customs. African customs favour men. And according to Melody and Emmett (2001), socialization of the girl child in many societies is to blame. In other words, limits are put on girls as opposed to boys. To overcome this anomaly, there is need to sensitize societies and communities on the potentials God has bestowed upon women, therefore they should not be underrated and discriminated on terms of being women.

Yet everybody is because of a woman. She carefully carries a baby in her womb for nine months and even after birth, she ensures it is safe, in terms of treatment, feeding, love, care and the like, otherwise if she chose to abort it like other non-responsible and heartless women one would be no more what so ever.

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Forty percent (40%) of the participants disagreed with the statement that women‘s economic status cannot enable them hold management positions, 20% agreed while 40% of them were not sure. The findings indicate that women‘s economic status cannot affect their access to management positions in government Aided secondary schools.

Sixty percent (60%) of the respondents agreed with the statement that sexual harassment hinders women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. however, 20% of them disagreed while 20% were not sure. This finding is also in agreement with what Sperandio and Kagoda (2005) also observed that some male supervisors sexually harass women. According to them, the offender is in a position of power and authority over the casualty (due to differences in age and employment relationships) or expecting to receive such power and authority like promotion. The literature available also indicates that female administrators are sexually harassed by their male supervisors (Kaiser, Marie. and LaPorta,

Anthony, 1992). The interview results also support this statement. An interview with Ogare observed that sexual harassment by male supervisors is another barrier for women to access management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. She said, ―Male supervisors ask for sex advances from the female teachers before recommending them for headship.

According to Awoja, men think that women belong to them as their property. The female head teachers emphasize that there is sexual harassment of women in the workplace. This is another barrier to the access of women to management positions.

Sixty percent (60%) of the respondents agreed that limited support by the Government hinders women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools.

However, 20%of them disagreed while 20% were not sure.

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The results of the study reveal that the education of the girl child is not sufficiently supported.

Despite progress in recent years, girls continue to suffer severe disadvantage and exclusion in education systems throughout their lives UNICEF (2014). They continue to take a more transformative approach to girls‘ education by tackling discrimination, violence and the exclusion of girls from education. As such, programming in girls‘ education will focus on the empowerment of girls in tandem with improving their learning and measuring learning outcomes. UNICEF (2014) is working with partners to move beyond indicators focused on gender parity and focus more on measuring larger progress in girls‘ education on dimensions of equity and learning outcomes. Furthermore, according to them this emphasis on girls‘ empowerment will demand even greater attention to social emotional learning and innovation within programmatic approaches in education.

Education Level

Eighty percent (80%) of the respondents disagreed with the statement that limited qualification and exposure hinders women‘s access to management positions in Government

Aided secondary schools while 20% were not sure. It was established that majority (61%) of the female teachers who participated in the study have the required academic qualifications but still have not accessed leadership of Government Grant-Aided secondary schools as indicated on Table 4.4. So the allegation that female teachers have limited qualifications is not true. Awoja confirms that women have the minimum requirements for the secondary school headship. In her school where she is a head teacher, 20 female teachers out of the 45 teachers in the school have qualifications for heading a Government Grant Aided secondary school.

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4.3.4.3. Home Factors

Eighty percent (80%) of the respondents agreed that family challenges and responsibilities hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools.

The available literature is in support to this statement. Onyango, Simatwa, & Ondigi (2011) are of the view that due to social stereotypes which make women lack confidence in their abilities as managers makes women become ineffective

4.4.1. Comparison Analysis

The findings of the study indicate that there are very many allegations against women as far as the management of the schools is concerned. The CAOs, GFPs, and the DEOs do not agree that women are meant only to produce children and do kitchen work, that women will always cause things go wrong, that men should always lead women, that it is only men who were born with leadership traits, that women are less intelligent, only men can go for higher education, only men can manage leadership in Government Aided secondary schools, women cannot influence decision making and that women‘s education level is low so they cannot access management positions.

Whereas the GFPs do agree that it is only men who can withstand management challenges, the CAOs and DEOs disagree with the notion that it is only men who can do some good work. Like the female teachers, the three respondents indicated that women are discriminated against by males. Low self-esteem affects one‘s performance at work. Coetzer (2004: states that low self-esteem leads to lack of confidence by women head teachers. Low self-esteem affects one‘s performance at work. It is important for a manager to first accept herself. He further indicates that low self-esteem causes lack of confidence by women head teachers, and that it poses a threat as they manage secondary schools.

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4.4.2. Conclusion

The women influence decision making; they are not meant only to produce children and do kitchen work; they do not mismanage schools; they are not less intelligent than men; their education level is not low; they can lead; they are born with leadership traits; they qualify go for higher education; they have required qualifications for headship; can manage school leadership; women have positive attitude towards management positions.

Women are discriminated against by males; they are not fully exposed to management positions, The researcher makes a conclusion basing on the DEOs‘ opinion that the female teachers have required qualifications for headship since they supervise them; women are born with leadership traits. Sexual harassment affects women‘s access to management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools and limited financial support by the Government to women who wish to advance in studies.

Negative criticisms by men make women hate management positions; women need lobbying in order to access management positions in Government Aided Secondary; lack of sensitization of female teachers is a factor that hinders women‘s access to management; religion, culture & politics affect women‘s access to management positions

Family challenges and responsibilities; Inferiority complex hinders women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda.

In summary, all the five categories of respondents agree that there are multiple barriers to women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in

Uganda some of which are manifested in culture and religion. Despite the fact that the government of Uganda has tried to correct the anomaly by putting in place the Gender equality policies to enable more women attain the secondary school headship status , women

108 are still very few in these management positions. The study therefore concludes that women are not simply meant to produce children and do kitchen works, but can do more than that, including school leadership and particularly in participating in management positions. This has been demonstrated by the few women who have been given opportunity to manage

Government Aided Secondary Schools. They have perfectly managed these schools where they are deployed, and thus proving wrong the fear that woman will always cause things to go wrong in schools, and that therefore the men have to be in the lead as the women follow.

This has also proven wrong the thinking that only men are born with leadership traits that manage challenges and influence decision making as against the philosophy that women are ignorant and timid. Furthermore, learning from a few women who have progressed indicates that more women would do better if only given the opportunity and not discriminated against by religious factors, social norms and men on interviewing panels and subjected to negative criticisms and unbecoming conduct by men.,

4.4.3. The effectiveness of the existing Government gender equality policies to enhance

women’s access to management positions in Government Grant- Aided

secondary schools in Uganda

Table 4.9: presents results on the existing Government gender equality policies to enhance women‘s access to management positions in Government Grant- Aided secondary schools in

Uganda.

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TABLE4.13: Female teachers’ responses on effectiveness of the existing gender equality policies (N=210) Policy on equal access Awareness of existence Effectiveness of the gender equality policy

Yes No VE E NS NE NVE The Uganda gender policy, 2007 153(73%) 57(27%) 00 9(4%) 36(17%) 94(45%) 59(28%) National Gender Policy,1997 61(29%) 149(71%) 14 (6%) 11(5%) 16(8%) 134(64%) 35(17%) Local Government Act 1997 177(84%) 33(16%) 44 (21%) 10 (48%) 17 (8%) 34 (16%) 14 (7%) Affirmative action 210(100%) 00 59(28%) 94(45%) 36(17) 12(6%) 9(4%) UPE and USE 210(100%) 00 43(21%) 120(57%) 00 25(12%) 22(10%) Poverty Eradication Action Plan 200(95%) 10(5%) 14(7%) 34(16%) 17(8%) 44(21%) 101 (48%) 04/05-07/08 Gender and Livelihoods 187(89%) 23(11%) 02(1%) 03(1%) 02(1%) 99(47%) 104(50%) The right to human development 34(16%) 176(84%) 02(1%) 03(1%) 104(50%) 02(1%) 99(47%) HIV/AIDS Policy 201(96%) 09(4%) 17(8%) 44(21%) 14(7%) 101(48%) 34(16%) Uganda National Land 153(73%) 57(27%) 14(7%) 17(8%) 101(48% 34(16%) 44(21%) Policy, 2013 The 1995 Uganda Constitution 210(100%) 00 17(8%) 101(48%) 34(16%) 14(7%) 44(21%) The National Women Council 65(29%) 149(71%) 11(5%) 14(6%) 16(8%) 134(64%) 35(17%) Statute (1993) The Equal Opportunity 23(11%) 187(89%) 14(7%) 34(16%) 17(8%) 44(21%) 101(48%) Commission Uganda Vision 2040 50(24%) 160(76%) 09(4%) 12(6%) 36(17%) 94(45%) 59(28%) Source: Primary Data

Key: VE=Very Effective, E=Effective, NS=Not Sure, NE=Not Effective, NVE=Not Very Effective

4.4.4. Female teachers’ responses on effectiveness of the existing gender equality

policies

The findings on Table 4:11 indicate that 73% of the respondents were aware of the Uganda gender policy, 2007 whereas 27% were ignorant about the policy. Even though the majority of them said that they were aware of the policy, the majority (64%) of them state that this policy is not effective. 28% stated that the policy is effective, while 8% were not sure. Basing on the majority rule, this policy is not effective. However, these results differ with what

Kiamba (2008) stated. According to him, the Uganda gender policy, 2007 is effective and favorable to women and that some women have been put in management positions. In contrast, this is only effective in political arenas where the two thirds of women are given opportunity to be voted in power, but not yet in recruitment of technical staff level. This anomaly is as a result of not having gender equality policies implemented at the recruitment structures of technical staff. It is therefore assumed that if this policy is fully implemented in all sectors, more female teachers will access management positions in Government Aided secondary schools hence their potentiality will be fully be utilized. It is therefore concluded

110 that the National Gender Policy, 1997 is not effective as observed by the majority of both the female teachers and the CAOs.

Eighty four percent (84%) of the respondents were aware of the Local Government Act 1997 while 16% were not. The study indicates that the majority of the respondents (69%) show that this policy is effective, 8% was not sure, while 23% of them said the policy was not effective.

According to Head of States and Government agenda of adopting the 1997 Beijing

Declaration on Gender and Development, which was to be achieved by 2005 had not yet been realized. The UN Millennium Development Goals were to be attained by 2015. However, these have not yet been met, apart from South Africa and Mozambique (Kiamba 2008,

Separandio & Kagoda (2008). The female teachers indicated that this policy is effective. The assumption therefore is that if the government implements this policy effectively, there will be no more gender disparities. However, the minority of the respondents who said that the policy is not effective could also imply that the policy has gaps which need to be addressed.

All the respondents were aware of Affirmative action policy. The study established that this policy is effective as represented by the majority of the respondents. According to Table 4.11,

73% state that the policy is effective as opposed to the 10% who say it is not effective, and the 17% who were not sure. The study also confirms that Affirmative action policy is effective. For example, 1.5 points added to the female students who join university studies.

The female head teachers were in agreement to this statement. They also confirm that the 1.5 points awarded at A ‘level to girls who join university is as a result of the policy to facilitate the women‘s access to further education and training. In an interview with Awoja she said,

―the girls who perform well in every district are given the 1.5 points to enable them join public Universities‖ (FHTRA/MD/24TH /April/2014). The findings have revealed that this

111 policy is effective since the majority of the respondents agreed that the policy is implemented.

Norris (2006) is also in support and confirms that affirmative action is in place and it is effective. However, its existence has not yet created a recognized impact due to the fact that the women are still seriously underrepresented in management positions in secondary schools. As it had also been observed in Daily Nation, July 6, 2007, that there are no mechanisms to ensure or enforce compliance. It is now seven (7) years since the launching of the Beijing Declaration on Gender but nothing much has been done to attend to the gender disparity in the management of Government Aided secondary schools. This implies that nobody is caring to remove the barriers that disadvantage women to this effect. The assumption is that if Government of Uganda worked at this problem, since it further disadvantages the female students, more women would have access to management of

Government Aided secondary schools. This will enable the girls to have more role models to emulate. In Kenya, the government introduced affirmation action policy that requires that one third of all positions of management in education be held by women (Republic of Kenya,

2005). This has been achieved to a large extent. This is in furtherance of Wirth (2004) who reported that there was increase in the participation of women in educational management.

All the respondents were aware of UPE and USE policy. With regard to its effectiveness,

78% of them agreed that the policy was effective while 22% said the policy was not effective.

However, according to reviewed literature, the Government of Uganda is already implementing the policy amidst being overwhelmed by other nationwide programmes

(Rugadya, 1999). It therefore concluded that the UPE and USE policies are being implemented.

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Ninety five percent (95%) of the respondents were aware of Poverty Eradication Action Plan

2004/05-2007/08 policy while 5% of them were not. The study revealed that although the respondents were aware of existence of Poverty Eradication Action policy, it is not very effective as represented by the highest percentage (69%) of the respondents as against the

23% who said the policy is effective and the 8% who were not sure. However, the available literature shows that the policy is effective. There evidence on the progress made in the implementation of the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP) (Ministry of Finance,

Planning and Economic Development (2004). It is assumed therefore that if this policy were fully implemented, there would-be gender equality in all sectors.

Eighty nine percent (89%) were aware of the existence of the Gender and Livelihoods policy, while 11% were not. The findings show that this policy is not very effective though it exists.

This is represented by 97% which is the majority of the respondents, as contrasted with the

2% who said the policy was effective and 1% who were not sure. The findings concur with the available literature which also states that this policy is not effective (FAO, 2007).

According to this report, Gender based violence along with poverty and HIV and AIDS, remains among the most pervasive problems confronting women across the globe, with adverse consequences for almost all sectors including Education, agriculture and labour.

Gender Based Violence (GBV) takes many forms like physical, sexual, emotional and psychological, and socio-economic. It is assumed that if this policy were implemented, the harmful traditional practices which are also considered a form of GBV would be avoided, and that societies will change patterns of doing things.

The available literature indicates that the principle of equality was enshrined in the UN

Charter and later on inaugurated with major thrust of legitimization and promotion of

113 international norms and standards to eliminate all forms of discrimination (Kiamba, 2008); however according to the results of the study, this has never been achieved. The study shows that the gender equality policies are not effective and therefore need to be revised and implemented. Worse still, as observed, there is no evidence that the implementation and the monitoring of outcomes of gender equality policy is being done. The situation in Eastern

Uganda continues to worsen since the female head teachers who retire in most cases are being replaced by males. There is no deliberate effort in terms of policy review to increase the number of female head teachers. So, all these put the young girls in dilemma as they continue to lack role models. A case in point is Mbale district which had 8 female head teachers in 2002, as noted by Wakholi (2005), but currently, there are only 3 female head teachers in the district.

The results indicate that the gender equality policies in Uganda are not effectively implemented. Where as the United Nations Commission cited by Kiamba (2008) held its 1st session in 1947 and also through 1967 on the status of women, to remove all forms of discrimination, it has not yet yielded positive results. Uganda has not up to date yielded good results because the study identified discrimination as one of the leading barriers to women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. In addittion, findings show that although gender policies do exist, they are not implimented. Though there was a coss section of respondents who thought that gender policies are fair and to others good, the the majority of those interviewed expressed dismay because the policies in place are not implemented. The study also found out that there are some policies on Gender balance but they are never monitored and implemented at all levels.

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TABLE 4.12: CAO’s Responses on the effectiveness of the existing gender equality policies Policy on equal access Awareness Effectiveness of the gender equality policy of existence Yes No VE E NS NE NVE The Uganda gender policy, 2007 05 00 00 03(60%) 00 2(40%) 00 National Gender Policy,1997 05 00 00 00 1(20%) 4(80%) 00 Local Government Act 1997 05 00 00 3(60%) 00 2(40%) 00 Affirmative action 05 00 1(20%) 3(60%) 00 1(20%) 00 UPE and USE 05 00 1(20%) 2(40%) 00 2(40%) 00 The Poverty Eradication Action Plan 05 00 00 3(60%) 00 1(20%) 1(20%) 2004/05-07/08 Gender and Livelihoods 05 00 00 1(20%) 1(20%) 3(60%) 00 The right to human development 05 00 1(20%) 1(20%) 00 3(60%) 00 HIV/AIDS Policy 05 00 00 2(40%) 00 3(60%) 00 Uganda National Land Policy, 2013 05 00 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 The 1995 Uganda Constitution 05 00 00 2(40%) 00 2(60%) 00 The National Women Council Statute 05 00 00 1(20%) 00 4(80%) 00 (1993) The Equal Opportunity Commission 05 00 00 2(40%) 00 3(60%) 00 The Uganda Vision 2040 05 00 00 00 2(40%) 3(60%) 00 Source: Primary Data

Key: VE-Very Effective, E- Effective, NS-Not Sure, NE- Not Effective, NVE- Not Very Effective

4.4.2. CAO’s responses on the effectiveness of the existing gender equality policies

Like the female teachers, the CAOs were also given a similar questionnaire to compare their opinion with that of the female teachers. 60% of the respondents agreed that the Uganda gender policy, 2007 is effective while 40% of the said it is not effective. The majority of them stated that the policy is effective. This is contrary to the opinion of the teachers. The contrary could be that the CAOs are part of the implementing structure so they may be having a better opinion as against the teachers.

Sixty percent (60%) said that the Gender and Livelihoods policy was not effective while 20% said that it was effective, and 20%were not sure. The CAOs are also of the same view that the policy was not effective. They indicated that the policy was not implemented. The findings in this case also agree with what Awoja indicated. During an interview with her, she said, ‗these policies are merely on paper and they are not implemented ‗(FHTRA/MD/24TH/April/2014).

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Sixty percent (60%) of the respondents stated that the right to human development policy was not effective while 40% of them said the policy was effective. The CAOs also shared a similar view that the right to human development policy was not effective. Namaleya is also in support to the policy statement not being effective. In an interview with her, she indicated that the policy is never implemented (FHTRN/MD/17TH/April/2014). The assumption therefore is that when this policy becomes effective, there will not be gender disparities.

Sixty percent (60%) of the respondents stated that the HIV/AIDS Policy was not effective whereas 40% said it was effective. According to the CAOs, this policy was not effective.

They therefore share the same opinion with that of the teachers. However, the literature indicates that there was evidence of the policy being implemented though not yet very effective (Tim &Suzette 2004).

A hundred percent (100%) were aware of the existence of the Uganda National Land Policy.

The majority (80%) of the respondents indicate that the policy is not effective, while 20% say it is. However, the available literature shows that the policy is effective. According to

Rugadya and Scalise (2014), the National Land policy which was adopted by Cabinet in

February 2013 and then gazetted in August 2013 has since been implemented.

All the participants were aware of the existence of the 1995 Uganda Constitution. Sixty percent (60%) of the respondents said that the 1995 Uganda Constitution was not effective while 40% were of the view that it was effective. However, One of Uganda‘s constitution‘s main objectives was to ensure Gender Balance and Fair Representation of Marginalized

Groups like women on all bodies. However, the findings of the study indicate that the policy is not very effective. As such, the women of Uganda gathered through women organizations -

116 including: Action for Development (ACFODE); Center for Women in Governance

(CEWIGO), Forum for Women in Democracy FOWODE), Women‘s Democracy Network-

Uganda Chapter (WDN-U) and the Uganda Women‘s Network (UWONET) - are stating the case for amendments to the 1995 constitution of the Republic of Uganda. These proposed amendments are intended to advance gender equality; further an inclusive democratization process; and promote the rule of law and the respect of human rights (The 1995 Constitution of the Republic of Uganda).

All the respondents were aware of the existence of the National Women Council Statute

(1993). The majority (80%) of the respondents stated that this policy was not effective, while

20% said it was effective. However, the minority (20%) of them who said this policy is effective could have noted some of the articles in the policy being implemented. If this policy is implemented, women will not have many barriers to their access to management positions.

All the respondents (100%) were aware of the existence of the Equal Opportunity

Commission policy. 80% stated that this policy was not effective, although 20% said it was.

The findings indicate that the Equal Opportunity Commission policy is not effective as observed by the majority of the respondents. According to Ogare, the policy does not have any value for female administrators. For example, an Area Member of Parliament may wish to have a man as the head teacher for a particular school, but not a woman even if they both have the similar qualifications. In some cultures and societies, a woman is supposed to be led and it is only a man who should lead. The similar notion was raised by Awoja, one of the female head teachers in Eastern Region in Uganda. She quoted one of the male members on an appointing committee who had made two comments on women and leadership. She reported, ―How can we make women administrators‘‘. ―I am a man, how can I be led by a

117 woman?‘‘ (FHTRA/MD/24TH/April/2014).This kind of situation is worsened by the fact that the Government itself is not gender sensitive. Thus, even though the policy is in place, as long as it I not implemented, manipulation will always take place so that only men are put in leadership positions.

All the respondents were aware of The Uganda Vision 2040. Sixty percent (60%) of them stated that Vision 2040 was not effective, while 40% of them were not sure. However, the related literature indicates that Uganda‘s Vision 2040 is being implemented (Government of

Uganda, 2010).

4.4.4. Conclusion

The reviewed literature indicates that affirmative action has been used in many countries to correct gender imbalances. Norris (2000) defines affirmative action programs as meritocratic policies that aim to attain fairness in recruitment by eliminating practical obstacles that handicap women. The affirmative action programs were intended to provide trainings, financial assistance and to monitor the outcomes but have not been attained. In Uganda, there is no evidence that the implementation and the monitoring of gender equality policy outcomes is being done. This too needed to be investigated. According to Norris (2000), positive discrimination strategies set mandatory quotas for selection of candidates from social or political groups. And the affirmative action of 1.5 for girls joining universities in Uganda is too limited and it is not applicable to all the girls who finish senior six. To proof whether the above results a hypothesis was tested in order to reset it.

There‘s no effect of government policies on gender equality according to the respondents.This according to the findings of the study, means that there are some gender equality policies but they are not implemented. Although according to Norris (2000), positive discrimination strategies set mandatory quotas for selection of candidates from social or political groups. And the affirmative action of 1.5 for girls joining universities in Uganda is

118 too limited and it is not applicable to all the girls who finish senior six. In conclusion, the results have indicated that the gender equality policies in Uganda are not implemented.

4.5. Unique challenges female head teachers face in the administration of

Government Aided secondary schools

The findings on the unique challenges that female head teachers face in administering secondary schools in Uganda are presented on Table 4.13.

Table4.13: Female head teachers’ responses on the unique challenges that they face in administering secondary schools

S/NO Unique challenges Frequency (n=5) Percentage 1 Discrimination 05 100 2 Sexual harassment by male supervisors 04 80 3 Culture 05 100 4 Undermined by males 02 40 5 Looked at as minority group 02 40 6 Balancing family roles and career job 03 60 7 Fear of failure 03 60 8 Stereotype, negative criticisms and male dominance 04 80 9 Unsupportive husbands 01 20 10 Male dominance and competition by men 03 60 11 Female head teachers are despised by their male counterparts 04 80 12 Insubordination and disrespect by male teachers 04 80 13 Intimidation by the School Boards 03 60 14 Political interference in female head teachers administration 03 60 15 Negative perception by society that women cannot manage 04 80 administration

Source: Primary Data

4.5.1. Female head teachers’ responses on the unique challenges that they face in

administering secondary schools

According to findings on Table 4.13, 100% of the respondents agreed that there is discrimination against women. This is typical in male-dominated occupations like secondary schools where female head teachers face unique challenges (Barnard& Martin

2013).Following the establishment of the study results, it is true that women face unique

119 challenges in the administration of secondary schools as expressed both through the interviews and the questionnares. For example,the misconception that a woman is only meant to produce children and do housework. This phenomenon traces its way right from the earlier socialization of the girls being trained to become housewives, and mothers. This has greatly impacted on the current women hence creating a social gap amongst women and men. This is in line with what Farrington (2012) observed as cited by Shore, Rahaman & Tilley (2014).

According to him, gender discrimination reduces women‘s performance and prevents them from pursuing leadership positions that are traditionally considered male positions.

Uganda has an outstanding record of promoting gender equality in all aspects of life and the issue of gender inequalities in education has been of an anxiety to the government and all stakeholders (Wakoko & Labao, 1996; Mutibwa, 1988; Kwesiga, 1997; Ministry of Gender and Community Development, 1997, Ministry of Gender, Labour and Community

Development, 1999) Further, the ministry of Education and Sports in collaboration with the

Government of Uganda has in addition put in place a number of the gender equality policies, which according to the findings have not yet been effective because there are still few female head teachers in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda as established during the oral interviews with the female head teachers. Besides, The Ugandan constitution of 1995 is against cultures which violate women‘s rights. Article 33.6 of the constitution asserts that cultural customs or traditions which are against the dignity, welfare or interest of women or which undermine their status are prohibited. Article 30.2 of the constitution further strengthens the affirmative action. However, as much as the constitution of Uganda has these provisions, the researcher established that very little effort has been done to follow-up the gender equality policy implementation.

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The results of the study show that there is a lot of discrimination against women in

Government Aided secondary schools. Kloot (2004) shares the view that there is subtle discrimination in universities disguised in the requirements for promotion and appointments.

These findings also concur with those of Brunner and Kim (2010) who reported that some barriers against women include: school boards prejudices against women administrators, school board members‘ perception that women are not strong managers and their perception that women are unqualified to handle budgeting issues and finances. Moya, Amorano, Juan,

Perez and Ge (2010) and Kiamba (2008) observed the same regarding women‘s barriers to management positions. For instance, girls are trained to become good mothers, while boys are prepared for white collar jobs like administrators. Therefore the common view in this case is that there is discrimination against women in Government Aided Secondary Schools.

Furthermore, the Government of Uganda policy provides for equal opportunities in Education and other sectors for both sexes. This according to the findings has been done through the

Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development (MGLSD). However, the findings indicate that there is still a problem of under representation of women in management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda.

The findings also established that female head teachers are sexually harassed by some of their male supervisors. This is evidenced by 80% who agreed versus the 20%position of those who disagreed. The available literature confirms that sexual harassment exists. Sexual harassment is a criminal offence with penalties of up to 14 years imprisonment (US Department of State,

2011). According to US Department of State (2011), sexual harassment is taken as a serious and wide spread problematic situation like those in Ugandan schools, universities, and work places.

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A hundred percent (100%) of the respondents stated that culture is a challenge to female head teachers. Culture and tradition have a noticeable impact on women managers. The school is an extended organ of the community and cultural beliefs also manifest themselves in the school situation. This finding is supported by the literature reviewed. Kitele (2013) also noted that cultural and social issues interfered with the management of school affairs. When educators enter schools, they do not leave behind their cultural belief systems at home. Some cultures have beliefs that women are inferior to men and cannot manage over men. Because of their feminineness, they are thus considered to be weak and not fit for management positions. This notion originates from traditional gender hierarchies and norms that prevail in the family and society. Regardless of gender equality and empowerment, the household unit has a traditional structure that makes males the dominant gender as Hartmann (2010) also observes.

These traditional stereotyped role expectations according to Bobbitt-Zeher, (2011) and Cha(

2013) leak over to organizational policies and practices to uphold women‘s marginalized work roles and become rooted in a gender-biased organizational culture (Prescott & Bogg,

2011).Furthermore, culture has manifested in various forms and also in a very hash manner to women. For example, there are stereotypes about how men and women in management and leadership operate. Women are thought to be caring, tolerant, emotional, initiative, and gentle and predisposed towards collaboration, empowerment and teamwork. Men are supposed to be aggressive, assertive, analytical, decisive and more inclined to act independently (Bem 1974;

Gray 1993). The masculine character of professionalism has been supported by the simplest possible mechanism, the exclusion of women (Connell 1987). Similarly, Collins and Hearn

(2000) have pinched attention to the stereotypical view of ‗heroic‘ leadership; men are associated with the notion of ‗managerially‘ related to their implied rationalism, and in

122 disagreement to the essentialist view of women as caring. It was also proved that there is unjustifiable traditional attitude to women by the community.

The female head teachers of secondary schools in Uganda are faced with numerous management challenges which in most cases the society and general public seemed not to be aware of. What is important for them to know is all about the students‘ performance in A‘

Level or O‘ Level and little they might know that management challenges are a barrier to outstanding students‘ performance in national examinations at all levels. Hackney and

Haggard (2000) share the view that when women are appointed to leadership positions, they enter existing social groups with established norms, beliefs, and assumptions that guide interactions and relationships which make it very hard for female head teachers to manage schools well. This implies that leadership functions can be carried out in many different ways, depending on the individual leader, the context, and the nature of the goals being pursued.

In Eastern Uganda, there are norms, assumptions and beliefs that may pose challenges to female head teachers. This includes also the nature in which secondary schools were set up.

Other scholars, such as Jones and Montenegro (1983), Kichniak (1977) and Paddock (1981) state that female leaders are regarded as abnormalities and are lacking in performance, unlike their male counterparts. This could be thought so because female leadership takes on diverse forms, different shapes, and diverse directions, expanding and counteracting in strength from empowering others (Helgesen, 1990). Forty percent of the respondents indicated that males undermined female head teachers and 40% did not.

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The results also indicate that most of the respondents (60%) agreed with the fact that most of the women have challenges of how to balance domestic/home responsibilities with office work. This according to them was due to issues related to parenting and other domestic work.

The women are normally away from schoolwork when they are on maternity leave un like their counterparts the males who go for only fourdays of partenity leave.Sixty percent of the female head teachers expressed fear of defeat as a challenge to their administration work.

However 40% do not see that as a challenge.

Stereotype, negative criticisms and male dominance are unique challenges to female head teachers. In addition, the results indicate that there is male dominance and competition by men. This was proved by 80% as opposed 20% of those who disagreed. This concurs with

Panigrahi (2013) who also identified male dominance as a unique challenge which female head teachers face. In studies conducted on challenges faced by women as school managers in secondary and primary schools, it is men who hold the values that consider women managers to be inferior to men, create more difficulties for women managers (Republic of

South Africa, 2004). Nzeli (2013) also share the same view where he states that society that believes that women can make a good wife which is part of management does not believe that women can become good managers. The above study points out one of the most important hurdles which the women in management in all countries which have been thought to be the persistent stereotype that associates management with being masculine. In Kenya and Uganda for a long time, female head teachers have only been heading girls‘ schools (Nzeli, 2013).In addition, there are negative criticisms by men that frustrate women from aspiring for management positions.

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The challenge of unsupportive husbands was proved by 20% as against 80% of those who disagreed and 4% who were not sure. During interviews with the female head teachers, they indicated that some husbands do not want their wives to head schools because they have a fear that they will fall in love with their wives and that as such their wives will end up divorcing them, and under rating their husbands. For example, on hearing that Awoja was due for promotion to headship of a school, her husband refused at first, but later on he accepted after a long explaination by his wife. She said, ‗‘Why do they want to make you a head teacher? it means they love you‘‘ (FHTRA/MD/24Th/April/2014).

It was further discovered that quite a number of husbands do not allow their wives to pursue further studies. This scenario is worsened by the fact that men have negative attitude towards women management as earlier indicated. Furthermore, women are subjected to society stereotype. This carries along with the negative and biased attitude of subjection.

Eighty percent (80%) agreed that female head teachers are despised by their male counterparts while 20% disagreed. Insubordination and disrespect by male was agreed with by 80% as against 20% who disagreed. In an interview with Namaleya,

(FHTRN/MD/17Th/April/2014)., she attributes women‘s being despised by men and also in subordinated by them due to the attitude that societies have about women. Cultural values and religious values like women being submissive also affect women‘s access to management positions. However, some women fear management responsibilities as stated by Wanale during the interview with her.

The study also established that intimidation by school Boards is also another source of challenge as represented by 60% who agreed with the statement as opposed to 40% of those

125 who disagreed. Political interference which usually tends to support male gender is another challenge as represented by60% of the respondents who agreed as opposed to only 40% who disagreed. Eighty percent (80%) of the respondents indicated that negative perception by society that women cannot manage administration is another barrier to women‘s access to management positions in government Aided secondary schools. Besides the above challenges, female head teachers are psychologically tortured by society and some parents.

On some occasions, parents only see mistakes made by female head teachers and never see the good job they do. For instance, one day Namaleya (FHTRN/TD/17Th /April/2014) came across some of the male parents to the school she heads, making funny comments about her because she was a female head teacher. She said, ―I wish this school was headed by a man"

(FHTRN/TD/17Th /April/2014).

Agassy gender equality theory (2013) set to work out the full abolition of the gender segregation of all social roles, especially work roles, whether performed in public or private sphere, whether paid for or not. The theory has not done much as far as gender equality in job allocation in concerned. The researcher strongly believes that if the theory and policy on gender equality are properly revised and implemented, the segregation and stigmatization of women will be minimized to begin with and eventually be eliminated from the entire recruitment and appointment systems.

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Introduction

This chapter presents a summary of the results of the study, draws conclusions, and gives recommendations for policy and practice, and suggestions for future research. The study aimed to establish factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda. These have been presented according to the objectives of the study.

5.2. Summary of the Major Findings of the Study

The general objective of the study was to establish the factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda. The specific objectives of the study were as follows:

1. To identify perceptions on women‘s minimal occupation of management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda.

2. To find out the barriers to women‘s access to management positions in Government

Aided secondary schools in Uganda.

3. To review the effectiveness of the existing government gender equality policies to

enhance women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary

schools in Uganda.

4. To establish the unique challenges that female head teachers face in the administration of

Government Aided secondary schools.

The study used descriptive and content analysis methods.

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5.2.1. Women’s perceptions on minimal occupation in management positions in

government aided secondary schools in Uganda

The findings indicate that there is a high ratio of women to men in Uganda. However, they do not have equal opportunities to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda. They have not been given equal opportunity with males to leadership in Government Aided secondary schools. The study indicates that denying women leadership positions has been based on points that neither have truth nor helps women to develop their talents. The study has proved as wrong the assertions that women prefer to work under men, that they are not visionary, assertive, or authoritative; that they have no interest in leadership, lack management skills, and have other obligations; that they are less efficient and less effective, are poor communicators and performers; have many family challenges, limited experience and qualifications. The study also indicated that the points used to deny women access to leadership positions are rooted in cultural, societal, political, and religious biasness. The findings further show that women are authoritative, trustworthy, good financial managers, transparent, parental, and dependable.

The study also shows that there is gender imbalance in allocation of management positions, corruption in the recruitment process. It also shows that girl child education in Uganda is undermined. There is male dominance in the employment process. The study also established that there is interference by culture, religion, politics and society, sexual harassment in the management of government Aided secondary schools in Uganda. Low self-esteem of some women is also a challenge in women‘s access to management. Therefore in conclusion, women‘s perception on minimal occupation of management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda shows a pattern that women do not have equal access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools.

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5.2.2. Barriers to women’s access to management positions in government aided

secondary schools in Uganda

As in the already discussed findings, it can be concluded that women are not simply made to produce children and do kitchen work, but can do more including school leadership and management positions. The few women who have been given opportunity to manage schools have done a very good job, and thus proving wrong the fear that woman will always cause things to go wrong and that the men have to lead and women follow. The findings have also proven wrong the thinking that only men are born with leadership traits that manage challenges and influence decision making as against the philosophy that women are ignorant and timidity. Furthermore, learning from a few women who have progressed indicates that more women would do better if only given the opportunity and not discriminated upon by cultural, religious, political, social norms, men on interviewing panel, and subjected to negative criticisms by men.

In summary, there was a cross section of barriers to women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda. These include the following, among others: male dominated interviewing panels, negative criticisms by men, sexual harassment by some male supervisors, female head teachers are despised by their male counterparts, some husbands are unsupportive, traditional attitude to women by community, insubordination and disrespect by male teachers, Intimidation by the School Boards, discrimination against women at all levels, negative criticisms by men, cultural negative attitude towards women management, political interference, dominance of men and society stereotype, limited support of women by Government and society, and that male teachers make it had for female head teachers to manage schools well.

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5.2.3. The effectiveness of the existing government gender equality policies to enhance

women’s access to management positions in government aided secondary schools

in Uganda.

These findings indicate that the Government policies on gender equality are not effective with regard to women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. Although it is generally agreed that there exist gender equality policies, it is also established that these policies are not being implemented and therefore there is gender imbalance in the allocation of management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. Whereas laws and policies favourable to women have been put in place and some women are already in management positions and are working, in Uganda this has not yet worked.

The affirmative action programmes were intended to provide trainings, financial assistance and to monitor the outcomes but have not been attained. However, there is an affirmative action program of 1.5 points for girls joining universities in Uganda but it is too limited and it is not applicable to all the girls who finish Senior Six. And there is no evidence that the implementation and the monitoring of gender equality policy outcomes is being done.

5.2.4. The Unique Challenges that Female Head Teachers Face in the Administration

of Government Aided Secondary Schools

All the female head teachers who participated in the study consented that unlike their counterparts, the male head teachers, female head teachers face unique challenges which affect their performance as school managers and administrators. Most of these challenges occur as a result of the biases embedded in African cultures. The biases include the following, among others: there exists a misconception that women are meant to produce

130 children and do housework; female head teachers are sexually harassed by some of the male supervisors; there is male dominance and competition by men; female head teachers are despised by their male counterparts; there are unsupportive husbands to female head teachers, biased traditional attitude to women by community; insubordination and disrespect by male teachers, culture supports only men in leadership; intimidation by the School Boards; management theories only favour men, discrimination against women in Government Aided

Secondary Schools; women are not allowed to go for further studies by their husbands; men have a negative attitude towards women management. Additionally, there is societal stereotyping of women; political interferences with women management; negative criticisms by men that make women hate management; home responsibilities balancing with work; limited support of women by the Government; gender imbalance in the treatment of head teachers; and lack of interest in headship by some female head teachers.

5.3. Conclusion of the Study

The study set out to establish factors that hinder women‘s access to management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda. The study used quality measures to come up with results of the study. The women think that the points used to deny them leadership positions are rooted in cultural, societal, political, and religious biasness. Instead, women see themselves as being authoritative, trustworthy, good financial managers, transparent, parental, and dependable.

There are several factors that hinder women from accessing management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools, some of which are rooted in cultural, social, political, and religious biasness.

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It was also agreed that there exist gender equality policies, however, it was also established that these policies are not effective apart from the Affirmative Action of the 1.5 points accorded to Senior Six graduates to enable them join a public university. The findings show that there are unique challenges to female head teachers in Government Aided secondary schools.

All respondents consented that unlike their counterparts the male head teachers, female head teachers face unique challenges which affect their performance as school managers and administrators. Most of these challenges occur as a result of biased African culture.

Furthermore, the findings show the few existing female head teachers in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda experience unique challenges as female administrators in addition to other usual ones which their male counterparts also face.

5.4. Policy Recommendations

On the basis of the findings of the study, the researcher makes the following recommendations to the Government of Uganda and other stakeholders:

 Counteract and eliminate the causes against women advancement that are rooted in

cultural, societal, political, and religious biasness;

 Deliberately raise the numerical strength of women in management positions,

specifically in Education, to be at par with that of their male counterparts;

 Introduce gender balance on the interview panels for appointments and promotions of

all deserving applicants;

 Apply Affirmative Action in supporting women to access management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda;

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 Apply Affirmative Action in supporting and promoting Girl Child education from

pre-primary to tertiary levels;

 Let the Ministry of Education mainstream gender issues in its programmes and

curricula, and formulate equal opportunity policies;

 Encourage and promote high self-esteem and trust among female managers, and put

in place a deliberate plan to promote reward hard-working female head teachers;

 Government should encourage and promote further education and in-service training

for women, and create more employment for women by opening more girls‘ schools;

 Put in place stringent disciplinary and punitive measures to curb sexual harassment of

female aspirants by their male bosses.

5.5. Suggestions for Further Research

Future research could investigate more variables that hinder women‘s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools. Further studies can also be carried out to review women‘s perception on minimal occupation of management positions in Government

Aided secondary schools in Uganda. A study could be carried out to assess the impact of

Gender Equality policies in recruitment process of head teachers in Government Aided secondary schools in Uganda. A comparative study could be carried out on the effectiveness of Gender Equality policies in the recruitment of head teachers in Government Aided secondary schools in different countries of East Africa.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX I: Questionnaire for female teachers of Government Aided secondary schools

This questionnaire is to be used to collect data from female teachers of Government Aided secondary schools. You are kindly requested to complete it as instructed in each section. The data you provide will be treated as strictly confidential and will only be used for the purpose of the study. You are not required to write your name on the questionnaire.

SECTION A:Background information

1. (a) Name of the district……………………………………………………………………..

(b) For how long have you served in this district?

(a) Less than a year

(b) 2-3 Years

(d) 5 Years and above 2. Highest Academic qualification.

(a) Certificate

(b) Diploma

(d) Masters

(e) PhD

3. Position held/status

(a) Head teacher

(b) Teacher

151

Tick as appropriate the responses to the following questions i.e.

A-Agree SA –Strongly Agree, SN- Not sure D-Disagree, SD-Strongly Disagree

Yes, No, VE-Very effective, E-effective, NS-Not sure, NE-Not effective, NVE-Not Very

Effective

SECTION B: Perception on women’s minimal occupation of management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda?

Questionnaire item SA A NS D SD There is high ratio of women to men in your district Women prefer to work under men Women are less visionary than men, have limited experience, and limited qualifications Women are not assertive and authoritative Women have other obligations they do not want leadership Majority of women lack management skills Women are poor communicators, poor performers less efficient and less effective Women managers are more authoritative and trustworthy than men Women have many family challenges Corrupt tendencies by those in authority There is gender imbalance in allocation of management positions There is limited employment for women Girl child education is undermined Women lack support and encouragement from spouses and Government Male dominance society Interference by culture, religion, politics and society Sexual harassment Low self-esteem of women

152

SECTION C: Barriers to women’s access to management positions in Government

Aided Secondary Schools in Eastern Uganda

Questionnaire item SA A NS D SD Women are meant to produce children and do kitchen work Women will always cause things to go wrong Men should always lead while women follow It is only men who can withstand management challenges Only men are born with leadership traits Women are less intelligent than men Only men can go for higher education Only men can manage leadership in Government Aided secondary schools Women cannot influence decision making Management theories only favor men There is a lot of discrimination against women in Government Aided Secondary Schools Women‘s economic status cannot enable them hold management positions Women‘s education is low so they cannot access management positions in Government Aided Secondary Schools Women have a negative attitude towards management positions Negative criticisms by men make women hate management positions. Women need a lot of lobbying in order to access management positions in Government Aided Secondary Schools Sexual harassment Lack of sensitization Inferiority complex Limited girl child education support Limited qualification and exposure Family challenges and responsibilities Limited support by the Government Job interference (religion, culture & politics)

Others specify………………………………………………………………………………….

153

SECTION D

Effectiveness of the existing Government gender equality policies to enhance women’s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern

Uganda

Policy on equal access Awareness Effectiveness of the gender of equality policy existence Yes No VE E NS NE NVE The Uganda gender policy, 2007 National Gender Policy,1997 Local Government Act 1997 Affirmative action UPE and USE The Poverty Eradication Action Plan 2004/05-2007/08 Gender and Livelihoods The right to human development Maputo Protocol HIV/AIDS Policy Land Act (1998) The 1995 Uganda Constitution The National Women Council Statute (1993) The Equal Opportunity Commission Vision 2040

154

SECTION E

Unique challenges that female head teacher’s face in administering secondary schools in

Uganda

Questionnaire item SA A NS D SD Misconception that Women are meant to produce children and do housework Women are sexually harassed by male supervisors men always want to be leaders Female head teachers are despised by their male counterparts Corruption by some male supervisors Unsupportive husbands negative attitude toward female head teachers by community Insubordination and disrespect by male teachers Culture supports only men in leadership Intimidation by the School Boards Management theories only favor men There is discrimination against women in Government Aided Secondary Schools Women‘s economic status cannot enable them hold management positions men have a negative attitude towards female managers Societal stereotype Political interference Female head teachers are emotional Negative criticisms by male counterparts Domestic/home responsibilities Limited support of Women by Government and society. Inferiority complex by some female head teachers Gender imbalance in the treatment of head teachers Male dominance Lack of interest in headship by some female head teachers

155

APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR CAOS, DEOS, AND GFPS

This questionnaire is to be used to collect data from Chief Administrative Officers, District

Education Officers, District Gender Focal persons, and female teachers of Government Aided secondary schools. You are kindly requested to complete it as instructed in each section. The data you provide will be treated as strictly confidential and will only be used for the purpose of the study. You are not required to write your name on the questionnaire.

SECTION A: Background information

4. (a) Name of the district……………………………………………………………………..

(b) For how long have you served in this district?

(e) Less than a year

(f) 2-3 Years

(g) 3-5 years

(h) 5 Years and above 5. Highest professional qualification.

(f) Certificate

(g) Diploma

(h) Degree

(i) Masters

(j) PhD

6. Gender

(a) Male

(b) Female

7. Position held/status

(d) Head teacher

156

(e) Teacher

(f) Deputy Head teacher

(g) CAO (h) DEO

(i) Gender Focal Person

Tick as appropriate the responses to the following questions i.e.

A-Agree SA –Strongly Agree, SN- Not sure D-Disagree, SD-Strongly Disagree

Yes, No, VE-Very effective, E-effective, NS-Not sure, NE-Not effective, NVE-Not Very

Effective.

SECTION B: Perception on women’s minimal occupation of management positions in

Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda?

157

SECTION C: Barriers to women’s access to management positions in Government

Aided Secondary Schools in Eastern Uganda

Others specify………………………………………………………………………………….

158

SECTION D Effectiveness of the existing Government gender equality policies to enhance women’s access to management positions in Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda

159

APPENDIX II1: INTERVIEW GUIDE TO BE ADMINISTERED TO FEMALE HEAD

TEACHERS

1. What difficulties do women face in accessing management positions in Government

Aided secondary schools in Uganda?

2. How many gender equality policies do you know?

3. Which of these gender equality policies are effective? The Uganda gender policy,

2007,National Gender Policy,1997,Local Government Act 1997,Affirmative action, UPE

and USE, The Poverty Eradication Action Plan 2004/05-2007/08,Gender and

Livelihoods, The right to human development, HIV/AIDS Policy, Uganda National Land

Policy, 2013,The 1995 Uganda Constitution, The National Women Council Statute

(1993),The Equal Opportunity Commission, Vision 2040.

4. Which factors affect women‘s access to management positions in Government Grant-

Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda?

5. What is your comment on women‘s minimal occupation of management positions in

Government Grant- Aided secondary schools in Uganda?

6. What unique challenges do female head teachers face in executing their duty in

Government Aided secondary schools in Eastern Uganda?

160

APPENDIX 1V: CONSENT LETTER TO THE RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS

Date: ______

Name: GIDUDU HANNAH LUNYOLO

Under the Supervision of Prof. T.M.O Ayodo and Dr. Betty J. Tikoko

Kabarak University

Department of Theology, Education and Arts

P.O.BOX 20157

Dear Participant:

This consent letter is your invitation to consider participating in research that I am

Conducting as part of a course requirement in the Department of Theology, Education and

Arts at Kabarak University under the supervision of Professor T.M.O Ayodo and Dr. Betty

Tikoko.

The research will focus on Factors that Hinder Women‘s Access to Management Positions in

Government Aided secondary schools‘‘

I will question you on various topics.

(I will need to meet you for two interviews. The first interview will take no more than two hours of your time. The second interview will take no more than 45 minutes. With your permission, the interviews will be recorded in note and audio form to facilitate the collection of information and later transcribed for analysis. The location and specific times of the interview will take place at our mutual convenience).

Participation in this study/interview is voluntary. You may decline to answer any of the interview questions. Further, you may decide to withdraw from the interview at any time

161 without any negative impact. In the event that you wish to withdraw from the interview no information collected to that point will be used for this research.

Shortly after the interview has been completed, I will send you a copy of the transcript to give you an opportunity to confirm the accuracy of our conversation and to add or clarify any points discussed.

All information you provide is considered completely confidential. Your name will not appear (a pseudonym will be used) in the final paper for the course. However, with your permission, anonymous quotations may be used. I will leave you with a copy of this consent letter and retain one copy for my own records. The only people with access to this consent letter (in addition to you) and access to the interview notes are me, my professor T.M.O

Ayodo, my second supervisor Dr. Betty Tikoko and representatives from Kabarak University

Ethics Review Office.

The collected information will only be used for the final paper in the course. Data collected during this study will be destroyed (seven months after the completion of the course (April 1,

2016). There are no known or anticipated risks to you as a participant in this study.

If you have any questions regarding this study/interview, you can contact me on +256 772

550884 or by email at [email protected]. You may also contact my supervisors,

Professor T.M.O.Ayodo on +254733793483 and Dr. Betty Tikoko on +254726287066. You may also contact the Postgraduate Coordinator/ Director on +254 721692490.

Thank you in advance for considering in participating in this course project.

Yours Sincerely,

______Signature

162

APPENDIX V: A MAP OF UGANDA SHOWING THE LOCATION OF EASTERN

UGANDA

163

APPENDIX V1: A MAP OF UGANDA SHOWING EASTERN UGANDA

Figure 4 A map of Uganda showing Eastern Uganda

Key

Eastern Region

164

APPENDIX V11: A MAP OF EASTERN UGANDA SHOWING THE STUDY

DISTRICTS

165

APPENDIX V11I: INTRODUCTION LETTER FROM KABARAK UNIVERSITY

166

APPENDIX V1II: APPROVAL LETTER FROM RESEARCH ETHICS

COMMITTEE, KABARAK UNIVERSITY

167

APPENDIX IX: A LETTER FROM NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

168

APPENDIX X: Cronbach’s Alpha for Variables

Table 3.7: Cronbach’s Alpha for variables

Variable Number of items Calculated Cronbach’s Comment Alpha values

Section B 22 0.92 Excellent Perception on minimal occupation of management positions Section C 16 0.60 AccepTable Access to management positions Section D 04 0.25 UnaccepTable Effectiveness of Gender equality policies Section E 22 0.90 Excellent Unique challenges that female head teachers face in administration

Cronbach's Alpha Internal consistency

α ≥ 0.9 Excellent (High-Stakes testing)

0.7 ≤ α < 0.9 Good (Low-Stakes testing)

0.6 ≤ α < 0.7 Acceptable

0.5 ≤ α < 0.6 Poor

α < 0.5 Unacceptable Figure 3.1: Cronbach’s Alpha (5%) Ratings

Summary of consistency reliability tests using Cronbach Alpha coefficient

The formula used to test reliability of the research instruments is as follows:

K   2    1  xi   2  K 1  

2 Where: K – is the number of items in the section,  xi - is the variance of ith item

 2 - is the variance of the test scores, α - is the Cronbach Alpha coefficient

Table 3.6: Calculated Cronbach’s Alpha

Variable(s) K 2 2 Α Remarks  xi 

Section B 22 23.2 196.6 0.92 Excellent

Section C 16 20.5 46.4 0.60 Acceptable

Section D 4 10.8 13.2 0.25 Unacceptable

Section E 22 41.2 284.7 0.90 Excellent

169

APPENDIX X1: SAMPLE SIZE (S) REQUIRED FOR THE GIVEN POPULATION SIZE (N) N S N S N S N S N S

10 10 100 80 280 162 800 260 2800 338

15 14 110 86 290 165 850 256 3000 341

20 19 120 92 300 169 900 269 3500 346

25 24 130 97 320 175 950 274 4000 351

30 28 140 103 340 181 1000 278 4500 354

35 32 150 108 360 186 1100 285 5000 357

40 36 160 113 380 191 1200 291 6000 361

45 40 170 118 400 196 1300 297 7000 364

50 44 180 123 420 201 1400 302 8000 367

55 48 190 127 440 205 1500 306 9000 368

60 52 200 132 460 210 1600 310 10000 370

65 56 210 136 480 214 1700 313 15000 375

70 59 220 140 500 217 1800 317 20000 377

75 63 230 144 550 226 1900 320 30000 379

80 66 240 148 600 234 2000 322 40000 380

85 70 250 152 650 242 2200 327 50000 381

90 73 260 155 700 248 2400 331 75000 382

95 76 270 159 750 254 2600 335 100000 384

Source: Adapted from R.V. Krejcie & D.W. Morgan (1970).

Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and psychological measurement,

30. 608.

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APPENDIX X11: PUBLISHED PAPERS

1 Gidudu L.H., Ayodo, T.,M.,O, Tikoko, B., (2014). The effects of high student – teacher ratio on academic performance in universal secondary schools in Uganda: the case study Mbale municipality. Globalization: Identity and Multiculturalism in Africa. , Retrieved on the 25th/01/2015.http://41..18:8080/handle/123456789/366, pp. 89-99.

2 Gidudu L.H., Ayodo T.M.O., TikokoJ.,B., and. Simatwa E.,M.W., (2014). Socio-cultural Factors that Hinder Women‘s Access to Management Positions in Government Grant Aided Secondary Schools in Uganda: The Case of Eastern Region. International Research Journals. Vol. 5(7), pp. 241-250.

3 Gidudu L.H., (2014). Challenges of HIV and AIDS implementation policy in primary schools in Mbale district in Uganda. African Journal of Education, Science and Technology. Vol 2(1). Pp. 78-83, https://kenyasocialscienceforum.files.wordpress.com/2014/07/kenya-studies-review- volume-6-number-3-education-and-ict.pdf.

4 Gidudu L.H., (2014). Challenges of the Implementation of HIV and AIDS Policy in Primary Schools in Mbale District in Uganda. Kenya Studies Review, Vol.6 (3). https://kenyasocialscienceforum.files.wordpress.com/2014/07/kenya-studies- review-volume-6-number-3-education-and-ict.pdf Pp. 258.

5 Gidudu L.H.,(2014). Gender Based Leadership and School Administration: A Case Study of Mbale District Local Government, https://kenyasocialscienceforum.files.wordpress.com/2014/07/kenya-studies-review- volume-6-number-3-education-and-ict.pdf. p.p. 343. 6 Gidudu L.H.,Manana, M., Gimuguni, L.,N & Nandutu J.,(2014), The Effect of High Student-Teacher Ratio on Academic Performance in Universal Secondary School in Uganda: The Case of Mbale Municipality. https://kenyasocialscienceforum.wordpress.com/2015/06/29/new-book-globalization- identity-and-multiculturalism-in-africa/ pp. 174.

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7 Kusuro J., Nandutu J., Gidudu L.H., Gimuguni L.,& Manana M., (2015) Teaching for Critical Reflective Thought in Universities in Africa: The Case of Selected Universities in Uganda, https://kenyasocialscienceforum.wordpress.com/2015/06/29/new-book- globalization-identity-and-multiculturalism-in-africa/ pp.192. 8 Nabaasa L., Gimugumi J., Nandutu J, Bekoreire M B., Gidudu L.,H., Jesca K. Y and Manana M.,,Curriculum Management and Students Academic Performance in Secondary Schools, https://kenyasocialscienceforum.wordpress.com/2015/06/29/new-book- globalization-identity-and-multiculturalism-in-africa/. pp336-356.

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