191

Coastal and marine environment

1 Why is it important?

South ’s marine environment spans more than and flora of include both the typical cold 60 000 square kilometres of waters and more than temperate biota of Tasmania, Victoria and southern New 5000 kilometres of coastline (Geoscience Australia 2010). South Wales and the transitional warm to cool temperate The coast, and adjacent marine waters are a biota of southern Western Australia. A range of habitats unique part of the South Australian environment. It is is evident, from warm salty waters in the gulfs to cool- a distinct, complex and interconnected natural system, water kelp forests in the south-east, and from the low- with finite resources that are vulnerable to overuse and productivity waters of the to the degradation when not well managed. nutrient-rich upwellings of the south-east. These factors have combined to produce a rich diversity of organisms and communities along the South Australian coast, 1.1 Unique features and species which is unparalleled in Australia and the world (Edyvane endemism 1999). South Australian waters support more than 6000 invertebrate species, 350 fish species, 16 breeding Australia’s long period of geologic isolation from the rest seabird species, 33 mammal species, 1200 algae species of the world (more than 65 million years), the state’s and 12 seagrass species. In the , 75% of extensive continental shelf, the long east–west ice-free the red algae species, 85% of the fish species and 95% of extent of the southern coastline, and the characteristic the seagrass species are found nowhere else in the world, low nutrient condition of coastal waters have all giving them local, national and international significance contributed to the biological richness and endemism (Government of South Australia 2004). of South Australia’s temperate marine environments The largest breeding colonies of , and (Edyvane 1999). South Australia has a wide range of more than 80% of the total population, are found in coastal landforms and marine habitats, and also a variety our state. South Australia also has 32 species of whales of oceanographic conditions, including a high degree of and dolphins and more than 70 species of seabirds, variability in sea temperatures. including , osprey and the white-bellied Of particular significance are the two large, sheltered sea eagle. We are still to discover some of the many tidal gulf ecosystems of and Spencer species of invertebrates. South Australia has 24 coastal Gulf, which provide habitat for some of the largest areas wetlands that support populations of migratory birds of of temperate , seagrass and tidal saltmarsh conservation significance. communities in Australia. In addition, the marine fauna

Opposite page: Yellow-nosed albatross (Diomedea chlororhyncos Lath.) Richter HC in Gould’s birds of Australia, National Library of Australia an10049041 192 Coastal and marine environment In summary Aspect andobservation which increases theriskofpestspeciesincursions. Port handlingandshippingtraffic hasincreased, Pest plantsandanimals cuttlefish andlittlepenguin). There isadeclineinsome species(e.g. giant diversity are variableand declining. conditionand Coastal andmarineecosystemextent, Sea levelisrising. Ocean acidityisincreasing. Ocean salinityandcurrents are changing. (e.g. New Zealandfursealandsouthernrightwhale). There hasbeenanincrease insomespecies implemented. New fishery recovery strategies havebeen number. Marine protected areas haveincreased insizeand Threatened speciesand ecosystems improving. The qualityofcoastalandmarinewatersis Human populationinthecoastalzoneisincreasing. The area occupiedbyaquaculture isincreasing. The capture andreuse ofstormwaterare increasing. increasing. The qualityanduseoftreated wastewaterare Disturbance andpollution and ) are declining. (including foreshore, rocky reefs, seagrass, saltmarsh The extentandconditionofcoastalecosystems ecosystems Extent andconditionofcoastalmarine Grades trend Recent • • Very poor Deteriorating Improving • • Poor Unclear Stable Good confidence Level of Very good Very poor ˜ › ™ • Assessment grade Adequate high-quality evidenceandhighlevelofconsensus Adequate high-quality Limited evidenceorlimitedconsensus Evidence andconsensustoolowtomakeanassessment • • • Poor Good Very good ˜ ˜ ˜ ˜ In grade Confidence › › ˜ › In trend Coastal and marine environment 193 Economic and social benefits Ecosystem services Ecosystem single sector in the state’s aquaculture industry, industry, aquaculture single sector in the state’s gross 53% of the state’s accounting for approximately The other in 2009–10. production value of aquaculture oysters (18%) and marine finfish two main sectors are 2011). The industry is expected to (14%) (EconSearch in 2010–11 state product contribute $306 million to gross 2012). (EconSearch bioprospecting, flood and storm protection, education, storm protection, flood and bioprospecting, and nutrient cycling. research 1.3 live within than 90% of South Australians More of the coast (ABS 2002), and many rely 50 kilometres for their on the coast and adjacent marine waters the from livelihood. Social and economic benefits include benefits from coast and marine environment tourism, urban development, commercial recreation, shipping and transportation, fisheries and aquaculture, mining, manufacturing, science coastal agriculture, and education. and and recreational) (both commercial Fishing (tuna, aquaculture oysters, mussels, abalone, freshwater have yabbies and others) and marine finfish, marron, economically important to South become increasingly in the total value of seafood production Australia; 2012). 2010–11 was almost $426 million (EconSearch in 2009–10 total seafood production South Australia’s 68 000 tonnes, of which aquaculture was approximately is the largest 49%. Tuna contributed approximately 1.2 sheltered the South Australian dominate Seagrasses and important spawning habitats and provide nearshore of fish and invertebrates. for a wide variety nursery areas nutrient performs many functions, including Seagrass (by coastal erosion reducing cycling, carbon storage, and filtering attenuating wave action) stabilising sand and in the water column. out suspended solids complex habitats create and their macroalgae reefs Rocky and biologically the most productive and support some of These systems have been shown diverse ecosystems. for a wide and nursery areas to be important spawning to and contribute variety of fish and invertebrates, also easily services. They are biodiversity and ecosystem accessible to humans. and marine coastal, estuarine South Australia’s of ecosystem services number a large ecosystems provide regulating, Provisioning, that have yet to be quantified. services include food supply, and supporting cultural to 30 metres tall can be found in the south-east,to 30 metres along with the smaller intertidal and subtidal bull kelp. trenches at have sponges that are have sponges that are at Backstairs Passage trenches corals. and gorgonian in diameter, than one metre more up communities of giant kelp reaching Underwater forest beaches in the Southern Hemisphere. Colourful sponge beaches in the Southern Hemisphere. can be found in the shallow waters of Pelican gardens Island. The deep Lagoon and Bay of Shoals off Kangaroo Western Australia) area of temperate-water seagrass seagrass of temperate-water area Australia) Western as well as being a wetland of meadows. The Coorong, high-energy international importance, also has the largest Western Australian border to Cape Adieu, and Spencer border Australian Western in southern forests mangrove Gulf has some of the largest (after has the second largest South Australia Australia. known locally as ‘Little Patty’, which is found in only one known locally as ‘Little Patty’, Peninsula. location on the west coast of Eyre the from Ninety metre–high limestone cliffs extend numbers of southern right whales to breed and calve numbers of southern right whales to breed other end of the spectrum, our waters the At each year. smallest live-bearing starfish, also home to the world’s are giant cuttlefish (Steer et al. 2013). Our waters are feeding feeding et al. 2013). Our waters are giant cuttlefish (Steer bottlenose dolphins, blue whales, for endangered grounds increasing and sperm and pilot whales, and attract significance, including two types of seadragons, and significance, including two types of seadragons, and pipefish, as well as the species of seahorses several of Australian aggregation known breeding largest world’s 200–400 species of macroalgae have been described of macroalgae 200–400 species (Edyvane 1999). has many fish species of conservation South Australia level of temperate species biodiversity in macroalgae biodiversity in macroalgae species level of temperate in the times the level recorded three is approximately approximately where of Australia, regions tropical 50–80% greater than for comparable regions around around regions for comparable than 50–80% greater and more 800 species the world, with approximately algae alone. The in red recorded than 75% endemism diversity and endemism in the temperate regions of regions in the temperate diversity and endemism in the world. The richness among the highest are Australia is (i.e. 1155 species) flora macroalgal of the temperate In contrast, approximately 13% of fish, 10% of molluscs 13% approximately In contrast, endemic in the tropical are and 13% of echinoderms marine macrofloral Similarly, of Australia. regions and 189 species of ascidians have been recorded (Lewis (Lewis been recorded of ascidians have and 189 species 85% of fish species, approximately et al. 1998). Of these, endemic. 90% of echinoderms are 95% of molluscs and that extends across the southern coast of Australia, coast of Australia, the southern across that extends of 22 species 1155 species of macroalgae, approximately of echinoderms of fish, 110 species 600 species seagrass, Within the Flindersian Province, a biogeographic region region biogeographic a Flindersian Province, Within the 194 Coastal and marine environment Figure 1 CoorongVincent, andOtway—are showninFigure 1. Murat, Eyre, SpencerGulf, NorthSpencerGulf, GulfSt The eightmarinebioregions inSouthAustralia—Eucla, a varietyofspecies,somewithonlylimiteddistribution. different proportions ofhabitattypes,andare hometo oceanographic andecologicalcharacteristics, comprising in Australia. Theseecosystemshavedistinctive characteristics thatare distinctfrom thoseelsewhere large marineecosystem,withbiologicalandphysical regions. Eachofthesebioregions canbeconsidered a are classifiedinto60 distinctmarinebiogeographical Nearshore Australian coastalandmarineenvironments 2 What doweknowaboutit? South Australia’s marine bioregions coastal watersisbasedonaclassificationsystemthat possible. TheassessmentofSouthAustralia’s shallow The informationisprovided atbioregional scale,where sandflats andmudflats,estuaries,beachesdunes. have beenassessed;theyincludeseagrasses, reefs, the SouthAustralian coastal and marineenvironments Key ecosystems,habitatsandspeciesthatmakeup 2.1 a gradient ofhumandisturbance(Figure 2). based onamodelofchangeinbiologicalconditionalong and waterqualityparameters. Theclassificationsystemis incorporates seagrass and reef habitatconditionindices, Bioregional environmental assessment Coastal and marine environment 195 Saras Kumar, Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources and Natural Department of Environment, Water Kumar, Saras cow and calf, Great Australian Bight Marine Park Australian Great Southern right whale cow and calf, 196 Coastal and marine environment of thestate’s shallowcoastalwaters.The newinformation and coverofseagrass hasbeenobtainedforthemajority (EPA 2008),more detailed information abouttheextent 2008 SouthAustralian stateoftheenvironment report western endoftheSouthAustralian coastline.Sincethe McDonnell neartheVictorianborder toFowlers Bayat the Australia, growing inshallow, sheltered baysfrom Port There are 21 speciesinninegenera ofseagrass inSouth important carbonsink(Fourqurean etal.2012). erosion bystabilisingsediments.Seagrass isalsoan food forsomemarineherbivores, andhelpstoprevent other organisms, seagrass isalsoanimportantsource of vital ecologicalroles. Aswellasproviding habitat for high valueasproductive coastalhabitats,withnumerous Seagrass meadows are recognised globallyasbeingof Seagrasses2.1.1 condition. located awayfrom nutrientsources were inabetter Protection Authority (EPA) in2010showedthatareas monitoring bytheSouthAustralian Environment Consistent withthemodelabove,ecologicalcondition Figure 2 Source: Gaylard etal(2013) Ecological conditiongradient andclassificationsystemforshallownearshore marine waters inSouthAustralia

Table 1 provides thebioregional assessmentforseagrass. the future. and coverofseagrass meadowscanbeassessedin provides abaselineagainstwhichchangeintheextent Coastal and marine environment 197 rise. at continued , two condition condition. , while on condition, with good good

poor Posidonia excellent very to Amphibolis antarctica Amphibolis (Bryars and Wear 2008). The 2008). (Bryars and Wear moderate spp. Throughout there are are Spencer Gulf there Throughout spp. Halophila australis Amphibolis , and spp. and spp. due to exposure to heat and ultraviolet light (Seddon 2000). This light (Seddon to heat and ultraviolet due to exposure Heterozostera Posidonia Posidonia , two species of . Many of the seagrass meadows in these bays provide habitat and nursery areas for and nursery areas habitat bays provide meadows in these . Many of the seagrass Amphibolis antarctica good Amphibolis with seagrass meadows of with seagrass excellent indicating of epiphytic algae on the seagrasses, in dense growths signs of nutrient enrichment reflected et al. 2013). (Gaylard under stress that the habitats are beds over 53% of the sea floor, support seagrass warm, shallow waters North Spencer Gulf bioregion’s total seagrass (50% of the state’s kilometres 4215 square At and northern reaches. mostly in the central and one of the in South Australia, meadows recorded of seagrass area this is the largest coverage), has limited water movement and low The area meadows in Australia. seagrass of temperate areas largest dissipated. There not readily of pollution that are to land-based sources so it is vulnerable wave energy, has been a loss of in the gulf with climate change, as temperatures is expected to continue and might increase trend other areas of the Eyre region were largely in good condition and the overall condition of the bioregion condition of the bioregion and the overall in good condition largely were region of the Eyre other areas was considered Bay supports the only D’Estrees importance. recreational and and various fishes of commercial prawns to be in Island; this bed is considered bed on the south coast of Kangaroo seagrass 2009). (KI NRM Board such areas, sheltered the more they occur in in this bioregion, not widespread are Although seagrasses the Wardang around and areas Victoria west, Bay in the east, Harbour in the Port Hardwicke as Franklin seagrass Highly productive along the mid-east coast (including Balgowan). and other areas Island group, were There currents. area, which is exposed to strong Reef of the Tiparra also a feature meadows are patches or sand) in the south-east of Spencer interspersed with reef (often small stands of seagrass Protection The Environment Bay. Port Minlacowie and the southern part of Hardwicke such as off Gulf, Harbour as assessed the ecological condition between Arno Bay and Franklin Authority the ecological condition was classified as Moonta and Wallaroo, around the eastern side of the gulf, at —boast extensive areas of seagrass meadows, which are estimated to cover an area an area estimated to cover meadows, which are seagrass of areas Island—boast extensive at Kangaroo such as the Sir Joseph Banks and The lee side of some islands in the bioregion, of 56 956 hectares. in conditions and supports dense seagrasses sheltered provides Investigator groups, expansive and diverse. Almost all known South are region of the The seagrasses including six species of the region, species have been documented across Australian species of healthy. all considered are region meadows in the Investigator Group seagrass Point , the Billy Lights stormwater run-off sea-cage from aquaculture, Within Boston Bay, all contribute nutrients into the sheltered discharges plant and fish-processing wastewater treatment bays and condition of both Boston and Louth bays. This is likely to contribute to the eutrophic in these bays was in seagrass losses. The remaining subsequent seagrass in The seagrasses enrichment in these areas. nutrient indicating widespread dense epiphytic algal growth There are no seagrass beds currently mapped in the Eucla bioregion. However, an expedition by an expedition However, in the Eucla bioregion. mapped beds currently seagrass no are There dominated by beds of seagrass located extensive patches and others Gurgel of Department (F Gurgel, outer limestone reefs the beach and the study site between the Coymbra evaluate The study did not November 2012). pers. comm., Resources, and Natural Environment, Water the to determine required are and further assessment and mapping seagrass, the condition of the habitats in this bioregion. condition of seagrass This bioregion border. Australian the Western before of seagrass area Bay is the last large Fowlers of covering an area South Australia, in recorded of seagrass 15% of the total area represents evidence suggests that loss Smoky Bay alone (DEH 2007a). Anecdotal Bay and in Streaky 86 160 hectares of nutrient inflow. Bay is likely to be due to high levels beds in Smoky of seagrass Venus, Baird, bioregion—including in the Eyre sandy embayments number of sheltered, The large Peninsula, Bay Eyre and D’Estrees Peake bays off Louth and Boston, Proper, Sceale, Coffin, Waterloo, Bioregional assessment of seagrass assessment Bioregional Gulf North Spencer Spencer Gulf Eyre Murat Eucla Table 1 198 Coastal and marine environment Table 1 Coorong Gulf St Vincent continued is understress from excess nutrients(Gaylard etal.2013). condition. Throughout theregion there were heavyepiphyte loadsonseagrasses, indicatingthatthearea habitat has been lost (Western Cove), probablyhabitat hasbeenlost(Western asaresult ofeutrophication (Bryarsetal.2003,Gaylard headlands. Insomeofthesebays,there isevidencethatseagrass meadowsare degraded andseagrass The northerncoastofKangaroo Islandisdominatedbyseagrass-filled embaymentspunctuatedby rocky Kangaroo Island(Nepean bio-unit) et al. 2013). particularlynearsmallcoastaldevelopmentssuchasBlackPointenrichment, andWool Bay(Nelson the region as Ardrossan andTroubridge Island.Recent investigationsbytheEPA classified theecologicalconditionof The low–wave energy environment ofwesternGulfSt Vincentsustainslarge seagrass meadowsbetween (Orontes bio-unit) seagrass lossinthefuture (Gaylard etal.2013). in habitats consistingmainlyof subjected tolarge tidesand limitedwaterexchange. Overall, thesiteswere dominatedbydenseseagrass Seagrass meadowsdominatetheshallow, low-energy environment atthetopofGulfSt Vincentandare Northern GulfSt Vincent(Clinton bio-unit) good conditionandnotaffectedbydischarges from theLightRiver. Levels ofepiphytecoverobservedinYankalilla Bayare low. Seagrass offtheLightRiverdeltaisinvery Yankalilla BayandLightRiver quality, asoutlinedinthedraft AdelaideCoastalWater QualityImprovement Plan (EPA 2013). option formitigatinglosses;however, successfullong-term recovery willrely onimprovements inwater methods byIrvingetal.(2010)foundthatsand-filled hessianbagsprovided aviableandcost-effective patchy, andthere are indicationsofnutrientenrichment throughout theregion. Testing ofrehabilitation condition ofthewaterslessthan15 metres deepisconsidered tobe surveyed were typicallydensewithlowepiphyteloadsinclearwater. Further south,theecological investigations bytheEPA determinedtheecological conditiontobe (Gaylard etal.2013).Althoughlosseshavebeenreported forthedeeperwatersoffshore, recent seagrasses particularlyaround Semaphore, while thearea betweenGrange andGlenelgwasdegraded throughout thispartofthecoastanddeterminedthatconditionwas to causefurtherlossofseagrass alongthissectionofcoastline.TheEPA assessedtheshallowwaters of discharges inthenearshore waters,duetolack ofmixingwithdeeperwatersare likelytocontinue The numerous discharges ofnutrientsandsedimentintothecoastalwaters,highresidence time (EPA 2013).Theremaining seagrasses are fragmented, leavingthemvulnerable tofurtherdegradation. adjacent towastewaterdischarges, asindicatedintheAdelaideCoastalWater QualityImprovement Plan 5000 hectares ofboth Seagrass bedsalongthemetropolitan coastlinehavebeencharacterised bythelossofmore than Metropolitan coastline in front ofthetownshipKingston. western partofthebioregion. Thenearshore seagrass hasregressed approximately 100 metres offshore of higherwavepower;somepatches ofseagrass are interspersed betweenreefs andsandyareas inthe from agricultural drains There andcoastaldevelopment. islittleseagrass northofthe Granites because meadow (25 062 hectares). Thismeadowisvulnerable totheimpactsofhigh-nutrient waterflowing Inthemoremovement. sheltered watersofLacepedeBay, there isadenseandextensiveseagrass Seagrass bedsare scarce alongmostofthecoastbecausehighwaveenergy andactivesand significantly impacted (such as Western Cove)whileinothers (such asBayofShoals) itwasin 2005). Theregion wasassessedasgenerally in very good condition.However, there are emergingwhichmightleadto signsofnutrientenrichment, very good Amphibolis , butlarge partsoftheregion were undersignificantstress becauseofnutrient Posidonia spp. and spp. and Posidonia good Amphibolis condition,butinsomeareas theseagrass was spp. inthenearshore watersandinseveral locations spp., andtheregion wasconsidered tobe very good poor fair, becausetheseagrasses are withsomeareas ofintact becausethemeadows good continued Coastal and marine environment 199 Dr Jane McKenzie is found at is found at Amphibolus Amphibolus Posidonia ), wire grass ( grass ), wire Adelaide coastline, looking south from Port Adelaide Port Adelaide coastline, looking south from Posidonia australis Posidonia ). Historical seagrass loss documented in has in Rivoli Bay loss documented seagrass ). Historical r small patches occur near and Boatswain Point. Seagrass meadows meadows Seagrass Point. and Boatswain occur near Beachport r small patches Heterozostera tasmanica Heterozostera ) and eelgrass ( ) and eelgrass Seagrasses are a minor feature of the Otway bioregion. The most easterly bed of The most the Otway bioregion. of a minor feature are Seagrasses othe MacDonnell, and Port ( dominated by strapweed are bioregion in the Otway antartica in the seagrass The remaining (Seddon et al. 2003). discharges impacts of drain been attributed to the (Wear losses the previous from and seabed instability resulting wave energy to high bay is vulnerable et al. 2006). continued Otway Table 1 Table 200 Coastal and marine environment Table 2 high tidesbutexposedduringlowtides,theseintertidal zones, preventing erosion ofsandybeaches.Covered by reduce theimpactofhigh-energy waveactiononcoastal of coastalenvironments. Intertidalrocky reefs helpto the extremes oftidesconstitutesanimportantseries The stripoflandthatfringestheseaandliesbetween Reefs2.1.2 Eyre Murat Eucla Gulf Spencer North Gulf Spencer Bioregional assessment ofreefs rare anduncommonspecies. Theconditionoftworeefs withintheEyre bioregion, locatedaround thetoeof large diversityandabundance ofinvertebrates (sponges, ascidians,bryozoansandhydroids), includingsome supportdifferent assemblages,despitetheirgeographic proximity. These reefs generally havea shore platformstoatleast50 metresintertidal wave-cut deep. Reefs atthebottomofYorke Peninsula and granitewave-exposed outcrops andreef platforms.Insomepartsofthe Eyre bioregion, reefs extendfrom diverse range ofsubtidalreef habitats,includingledges,boulders,caves,crevasses, overhangs,cobblereefs, The coastoftheEyre bioregionislandandreef alternatesbetweenintermittent, exposures. There isahighly algae provide animportant foodsource forherbivores andhabitatforother animals. Reef, Fowlers BayandPoint Bellare characterised byadiversity of red algae.Thediverseassemblagesof macroalgae (includingvarious speciesof including rocky partsofbays, headlandsandaround islands,supportadiversecoverofbrown canopy Of thehabitatsthathavebeenmappedinMurat bioregion, 17.2%are subtidalreef. Reefs inthebioregion, assigned. Surveysaround theBundaCliffsconsidered theseascapetobe systematically surveyedbecauseoftherelative inaccessibilityofthearea; therefore, nooverall trend canbe The marinehabitatsoftheAlinytjara Wilurara Natural Resource ManagementRegion havenotbeen relatively pristine. and difficultcoastalaccesshavehelpedtoensure thattheenvironments ofthe Great Australian Bight are Of thehabitatsthathavebeenmappedinEuclabioregion, approximately 12.5%are subtidalreef. Isolation Australian Government(PIRSA2012ab). of cuttlefishin2011hasprompted anextensionoftheprotection area andaninvestigationbytheSouth molluscs andascidians(sea squirts). Theoverall conditionofthesereefs isnotknown.Adeclineinnumbers area alsoprovides habitatforthemanyspeciesandabundantnumbersofechinoderms,includingseaurchins, recognised asanimportantarea forspawningaggregations oftheAustralian giantcuttlefish becomes low-relief subtidalrocky reef outto70–130 metres offshore. Thesubtidal reef around is fragments,consists ofaplatformplate-like whichextends outbeyondtheintertidalzoneandgradually The onlyintertidalreef intheNorthSpencerGulfbioregion isfoundaround BlackPoint andPoint Lowly. It largely unknown. portion oftheinshore benthichabitatshavebeenmapped,theconditionofecological communitiesisstill The SpencerGulfshoreline includesawidevarietyofbedrock platformsandintertidalreefs. Althoughalarge NRM Board 2009). Hanson Bay—are identifiedashavinghigherspeciesrichnessthanother Australian temperate coastlines(KI Kangaroo Islandandhave highinvertebrate andalgaldiversity. Two sitesin thisarea—Browns Beachand regionally unusualassemblages. Intertidalreefs (rocky shores) are acommonfeature ofthecoastline Parts ofthewestandsouthcoastKangaroo Islandalsosupportadensecoverofmacroalgae, including Yorke hasbeendescribedas Peninsula, typica Cystophora andSargassum l through Reef Healthsurveys(DEH2008). Table 2provides thebioregional assessmentforreefs. because oflimitedmonitoring. The healthofmostreefs inSouthAustralia isnotknown intertidal areas are likelytoundergo considerable change. harvesting. Withcontinuedpopulationgrowth, these They alsosufferthehighestimpactfrom pollutionand environment forhumanrecreation andotherpursuits. zones are oneofthemostaccessiblepartsmarine ), andmanyspeciesofred algae.Nuyts excellent (AW NRMBoard 2011). continued . The

Coastal and marine environment 201 continued condition, good . The unusually high were predominantly in the south and predominantly were Ozius truncatus good (Turner et al. 2007). Reefs that were considered that were (Turner et al. 2007). Reefs caution . fair since they are covered in a dense canopy of macroalgae and have a high fish diversity and abundance (Brock and have a high fish diversity and abundance (Brock in a dense canopy of macroalgae covered since they are and Kinloch 2007). metropolitan coast. was found between Hallett Cove and Southport The highest amount of sedimentation metropolitan and in autumn et al. 2007). The ecological near the mouth of the Onkaparinga River (fluvial origin), (Turner to between Marino and Sellicks was considered the area deep in condition for waters less than 15 metres be reef of coastal algae and the number and diversity of fish as a measure brown of larger Based on the presence to be in Island could be considered on Kangaroo health (Turner et al. 2007), the subtidal reefs during the Reef Health surveys, many of the reefs along the metropolitan coastline have a health status coastline have a along the metropolitan Health surveys, many of the reefs during the Reef index of in to improve reefs for the condition of Adelaide metropolitan trend is a general There areas. nonmetropolitan (Westphalen 2011). to south (best condition) condition) north (worst condition from was conducted over reefs baseline investigation of the sedimentation on 12 metropolitan A preliminary sedimentation was found along the 2007 to 2008. Spatial variation in reef summer and autumn from winter, identified Port Stanvac as an important reef in the region for molluscs, echinoderms and red algae, because region for molluscs, echinoderms and reef in the Stanvac as an important Port identified Over in South Australia. to date on other intertidal reefs species that have not been recorded it supports rare found. of taxa in the number increase to be an overall appeared the past 20 years, there and abundant macroalgae dominated by large were bioregion in the Gulf St Vincent reefs The subtidal rocky and crustaceans. echinoderms, molluscs ascidians, hydroids, life, such as sponges, bryozoans, invertebrate the of fish, including the western blue groper, species abundant habitat for several also provided The reefs developed Based on the health indices species of wrasse. western blue devil, the harlequin and several densities of scavenging and predatory crustaceans within these aquatic reserves might indicate disruptions crustaceans within these aquatic reserves densities of scavenging and predatory of to determine the role is required 2008). Research NRM Board to the normal ecological balance (AMLR in marine systems. crabs predatory in 1988, in 1998 and at the end intertidal reef Stanvac undertaken at the Port Biodiversity surveys were appears to have biological Stanvac area Port to Dutton and Benkendorff (2008), the of 2007. According coast and . The surveys Adelaide metropolitan importance for intertidal diversity along the species. The lowest invertebrate biodiversity was recorded within the Noarlunga Reef and Aldinga aquatic within the Noarlunga Reef biodiversity was recorded species. The lowest invertebrate to have a appeared Peninsula Fleurieu Lady Bay on traffic. was heavy recreational there where reserves, Myponga boulder fields found at remote 2008). The NRM Board richness (AMLR higher intertidal species due to the lack of probably biodiversity, indicated high invertebrate Victor Harbor, and Kings Beach, near Reserve appeared at Aldinga Aquatic within boulder field areas low diversity recorded disturbance. Relatively crab of the predatory to be due to unusually abundant populations communities vary according to wave exposure and type of substrate. Red and brown leafy algae dominate and brown Red and type of substrate. to wave exposure communities vary according Yorke and Fleurieu tips of the high-energy rock around crystalline on cliffs of hard lower intertidal zones algae, barnacles worms, green islands. Above the algae, layers of polychaete nearshore peninsulas and some crevices. while little blue snails appear in and limpets can be observed, suggested that, in general, Fleurieu Peninsula around of 15 intertidal reefs of surveys In 2006–07, results sites and no introduced communities at most diverse invertebrate in good health, with were these reefs Intertidal reefs in the Gulf St Vincent bioregion are typically calcareous or limestone rock platforms. Intertidal platforms. Intertidal or limestone rock typically calcareous are Vincent bioregion Gulf St in the Intertidal reefs basalt and of granite, reefs Harder Bay. and Lady Aquatic Reserve at Aldinga Reef occur reefs limestone Peninsula, the tip of Fleurieu the Cove. Around and Hallett Valley occur at Second volcanic conglomerates studied. The intertidal cliffs, and is little adjacent to sheer coastal band occurs as a narrow intertidal zone continued Gulf St Vincent Table 2 Table 202 Coastal and marine environment Table 2 Coorong Otway continued of thecoastlinefrom CapeJaffatoNorthumberlandisdominatedbyflatlimestone reefs.Theshallow of plantandanimalspecies.Apartfrom longstretches ofhigh-energymuch beach,suchastheCanundaarea, In theOtwaybioregion, nearshore rocky platformsandrocky intertidalareas provide habitatforanabundance westerly extentofthiscold-water plant. the outer, more exposedpartsofthereef. Thisisofspecialinterest becauseCapeJaffa represents themost reefs oftheneighbouring Otwaybioregion andothercold-water areas Australia, ofsouth-eastern isfoundon the transition betweentwobiogeographical regions. Giantkelp, whichtypicallydominatesthehigh-energy , westofCapeJaffaandatthesoutherlyextentCoorong bioregion, islocatedin around 11 metres to60 metres. calcareous reefs inthisarea stretch from onthe LacepedeShelf, theCoorong toCapeJaffa, from adepthof crevices andare amajorhabitatforrock lobster, spongesandotherbenthicinvertebrates. Theparallel species. Indeeperwater(more than25 metres), theflatcalcareous platform reefs containmanyholesand the presence ofoffshore reefs dominatedbyinvertebrates andimmobilefilterfeeders, ratherthanalgal sediments, bryozoansandmixed red macroalgae toadepthofatleast35 metres. Surveyshavealsorevealed In thesouthernpartofCoorong bioregion, mixed patchreef andsandhabitatisdominatedbycoarse by adifferent mixofalgae,withanabundancebryozoansinwatersdeeperthan20 metres. latter isaknownhabitatforjuvenileabalone.Thereefs atthesouthernendofLacepedeBayare dominated branching algae,withadiverseunderstorey ofgreen andred foliosealgae,andcrustosecoralline algae.The In theshallowhigh-energy areas, reef systemsare mostlydominatedbykelpsandothertough,brown, of thepresence ofledges,crevices andcracks. Theyare idealhabitatforadultandjuvenilerock lobsters. western partofthebioregion, nearPortthere Elliot, isaseriesofreef structures, whichare sand asaresult ofthehighturbulencein region, andfewplantsanimalsare foundonthem.Inthe 4.5 kilometres offshore, runparallel alongmuchoftheCoorongManythese coast. reefsare covered in . Much ofthesea-floor habitatforthis region isunmapped. Low platform reefs, approximately Subtidal reefs includelowplatformreefs, offshore calcareous reefs tothesouth,andfringinggranite reefs in their condition. reef. Limitedresearch hasbeenconductedontheintertidalreefs inthisregion, andlittleisknownabout Most ofthereef habitatwithintheCoorong bioregion issubtidal;there isonlyasmallportionofintertidal diversity ofbrown, green andred macroalgae. important becausetheyprovide habitatforvariousattachedandmobileinvertebrates, andhaveahigh ofbiodiversity.‘hot spot’ Thelimestonereefs around Robe andNora Creina are alsoconsidered ecologically Margaret Brock Reef, ontheboundarybetweenCoorong andOtwaybioregions, isconsidered tobea including intertidalreefs (SENRMBoard 2010). There isnoconditionbaseline orbenchmarkforthegeneral conditionofmosthabitattypesinthesouth-east, rocky poolsandcrevices containseastars,gastropods andbivalveshells,anemones andotherinvertebrates. calcareous platformreefs intheRobe area extendtoadepthofabout20 metres. many Intheintertidalarea, complex asaresult Coastal and marine environment 203 continued er. These can result from urban and industrial development, urban and industrial from These can result and dumping, stormwater run- and include dredging and trawling. discharges, sewage and industrial off, is very poor. Knowledge of the condition of these habitats assessment for sandflats the bioregional 3 provides Table and . more mobile sand grains and are dominated by burrowing dominated by burrowing and are sand grains mobile more worms. They also provide polychaete species, including and resident and habitat for migratory areas foraging or shorebirds. wading birds impacts to human vulnerable habitats are These beach and ocean-based activities, both land-based from marine including coastal development, urban run-off, activities such as bait digging pollution, and recreational driving on beaches. The beaches for fishing and especially by human collection of living organisms also impacted are 2008, Dutton and NRM Board (AMLR and trampling Benkendorff 2008). contain a rich infauna and bottoms Soft-sediment and epifauna. a substrate The epifauna itself provides of the productivity and captures habitat for a rich fauna The organisms the water column via its filter feeders. critically important as food for higher on the bottom are maintaining levels of the food web and contribute to habitats are stability of the bottom. Soft-sediment that disturb the seabed. to any activities vulnerable NRM Board 2008). 2008). NRM Board the environment (i.e. benthic environment Soft sediments form the majority of the Eucla bioregion animals, such as sponges, ascidians and invertebrate Filter-feeding associated with the sea floor). These of the sea floor in the shelf waters of the Eucla bioregion. a dominant feature bryozoans, are For on the sea floor. sponges, form three-dimensional structures particularly the larger invertebrates, sea Bight, the invertebrate-covered Australian Great in the invertebrates many fish and mobile large camouflage and shelt for feeding, breeding, areas floor provides Intertidal soft sediment includes the Merdayerrah Sandpatch (a geological monument at the most (a Sandpatch Intertidal soft sediment includes the Merdayerrah to Cape Adieu, the coastline East of the Bunda Cliffs and Head of Bight western edge of the bioregion). headlands and barriers and interspersed with rocky by beaches backed with dune is characterised dune and dynamic backed by a large wave-exposed The in some areas reefs. beach habitats are used beach coastline are undisturbed of relatively by sandbars. The vast stretches system, and fronted 2011). NRM Board (AW including little penguins, hooded plovers and oystercatchers by birds, mean that A lack of coastal development and limited exploitation or harvesting of coastal resources in South with other coastal areas pristine compared are and coastal environments the nearshore vehicles associated with fishing (AW is the impact of four-wheel-drive exception The only Australia. Bioregional assessment of sandflats and mudflats assessment of sandflats and Bioregional Sandflats and mudflats Sandflats Eucla Table 3 interstices between the sand grains (Womersley and interstices between the sand grains habitats have coarser and Thomas 1976). High-energy with dunes and reef, seagrass or soft-sediment subtidal subtidal or soft-sediment seagrass with dunes and reef, communities, habitats. As in other subtidal soft-bottomed or the ‘gaps’ many tiny plants and animals live within the adjacent seagrass meadows. The larvae of many meadows. the adjacent seagrass Most in these rich feeding areas. species settle and grow associated beaches are to high-energy medium-energy fishes and shorebirds (some of national and international fishes and shorebirds continually washed by the , importance). Mudflats, and a linking habitat between mangroves provide Intertidal flats are generally associated with low-energy with low-energy associated generally Intertidal flats are complex food webs. The smaller coastlines and have food for crustaceans, small plants and animals provide NRM Board 2008). Sandy beaches, and estuarine 2008). NRM Board habitats are the soft-sediment sandflats and mudflats zone. within the intertidal of niches for plants and animals that can tolerate the and animals that can tolerate of niches for plants of wetting, drying, salinity, conditions often extreme (AMLR to sun and submersion exposure temperature, extent but are relatively open systems that rely on other systems that rely open relatively are extent but also regularly and are for connectivity, marine habitats a range These habitats create inundated by the . Intertidal habitats provide a transition zone between zone between transition a habitats provide Intertidal in narrow They are and marine ecosystems. terrestrial 2.1.3 204 Coastal and marine environment Table 3 North SpencerGulf Spencer Gulf Eyre Murat continued sheltered watersinthenorthernpartsofSpencerGulfbioregion. nearshore environments atPort Hughes isrelatively good. Subtidalsoftsedimentsare afeature ofthe soft-sediment habitatsandcommunitiesinthisbioregionWater thanabouttheirextent. qualityinthe with smallrocky headlands, andshore platforms.Much lessisknownabouttheconditionofintertidal of thegulfcompriseslong,sandybeacheswithasingleornarrow beltofdunesbehind,interspersed with extensiveseagrass meadowsatthefront (EPNRMBoard 2009).Muchside ofthemid-eastern have wideintertidalsandflats,backedbyverylow-energy tomoderate-energy high-tide beaches, protected from thesouth-west swell,andwavesgenerally developfrom onshore winds.Mostbeaches wind waves,withgreater tidalranges intheupperreaches. TheEyre Peninsula beachesare mostly The beachesofSpencerGulfare generally low-energy environments andare dominatedbylow- various fishesand crustaceans. they supportalarge variety ofinvertebrates, particularlymolluscsandworms,provide habitatfor region’s Soft-sediment mappedbenthic habitat. communitiesare foundinsheltered embayments; Authority’s 65 ambientwater-quality monitoringsites.Sandybottomformsalarge proportion ofthe Bay) wasrelatively good,withthelowestnutrientlevelsrecorded oftheEnvironment Protection Water qualityinthenearshore environments ontheEyre Peninsula (Boston Bay, CoffinBay, Venus condition (as aresult ofthelowlevelcoastaldevelopment),butrecognised thatdatawere patchy. (KI NRMBoard 2008)reported thatmanyoftheisland’s coastalandmarineecosystemswere ingood bioregion TheKangaroo thanabouttheir extent. IslandNatural Resources Management(NRM) Board Much lessisknownabouttheconditionofintertidalsoft-sediment habitats andcommunitiesinthis EPNRMBoard 2009 2009a, the Republic ofKorea, usethetidalflatsandbeachesthroughout the region (DEH2007ac, Wader birds, whichare protected bybilateral agreements betweenAustralia Japanand andChina, this hashelpedtoformaseriesofbaysandestuaries,sandybeachesrocky shores (DEH2007b). Eyre, JussieuandBolingbroke peninsulabeachesare mostlysheltered from south-westerly swells,and are typicallydominatedbylow-wind wavesandare commonlyfronted byseagrass meadows.The lower SpencerGulfare generally low-energy environments, eitherreflective orlow-tide terraces. They calcarenite cliffs,oratbasesofinthewestern area ofthisbioregion. Thebeachesalongthe There are manysmallsandybeachesthatare opentohigh-energy waveactionbetweenthe dominant feature oftheMurat bioregion, accountingforonly4%ofitsarea. fish andbirds, includingmigratory birds, visittheseareas tofeed.Subtidalsoftsedimentsare nota in mangrove forests provide keynurseryhabitatforfishandwesternkingprawns. Manyspeciesof systems.Shallow,deeper andaccumulatebiggersand-dune sandybays,mudflatsandtidalareas to beshallow. Thiscontrasts withexposedbeachesonthewesternsideofMurat, whichare generally habitats (DEH2007a, in theStreaky Bayarea becausemanyoftheembaymentsare dominatedbymangrove andsaltmarsh Surf beachesands a large proportion of theNorthSpencerGulfbioregion. are activeonlywhenfloodedbyspringhightidesand storm surges. Soft-sediment communitiesform forming barrierislandsare multiplelinesofearlierstranded barriers,separated bysupratidal flatsthat 400 metres long, 10–50 metres wide,andrarely more than1 metre high.Landward oftheactively lines parallel totheshore alongthesheltered shoreline, from Cowell toPort Theyaverage Augusta. the influenceofstormsurges orextreme tidalevents.About340ofthesebarriersare arranged in coastal sandbarriers,whichare absentfrom higherenergy stretches ofthelowergulfandformunder extensive seagrass meadowsatthefront.Adistinctivefeature ofNorthSpencerGulfis theunusual have wideintertidalsandflats,backedbyverylow-energy tomoderate-energy high-tide beaches,with the area are increased bythetidal currents ofthenorthern gulfregion. Themajority ofthebeaches flats, whichare occasionallyinundatedbyhighspringorstormtides.Thediversityand productivity of intertidal mudflats,mangroves andsandflats.Thesupratidal zonecomprisesmainly of bare carbonate Coastal geomorphologynorthofPoint Lowly consistsofwidesupratidal samphire andmudflats, heltered beachesare scattered withintheFowlers Bayarea; theyare lesscommon EP NRMBoard 2009 ). ). Where reefs protect thecoastline,beachprofiles tend DSEWPaC continued Coastal and marine environment 205 bioregion is home to a diverse group of soft-sediment communities, which were identified as identified which were communities, of soft-sediment to a diverse group is home bioregion The intertidal and subtidal areas in the Otway bioregion are dominated by both flat and high-relief dominated by both flat and high-relief are in the Otway bioregion The intertidal and subtidal areas bays. sheltered in some of the more of seagrass patches of sand, and small areas limestone reefs, absent, are sandy beaches and coastal dunes and barriers can be found. Subtidal soft- reefs Where 7% accounting for approximately of the Otway bioregion, not a dominant feature bottom habitats are sand interspersed among the reefs. mostly found as patches of of its area. They are (194 kilometres from the to ). The lengthy ocean beach is an important mouth to Cape Jaffa). The lengthy ocean beach is an important the Murray from (194 kilometres single largest for many marine species, including Australia’s and nursery area feeding, breeding listed vulnerable site for the state’s is also an important nesting population of cockles. The region of the 2010). The condition and trends (SE NRM Board birds wading hooded plover and for migratory unknown because of inconsistent and insufficient in the south-east are intertidal coastal environment 2010). information (SE NRM Board fine sediments. The high by mouth is characterised Murray the from offshore directly The region also settling, but are immobile species from prevent constant sand movements in this area and energy Animals associated with invertebrates. habitat for bottom-dwelling and burrowing likely to provide worms; crustaceans, rays and skates; (e.g. flounder and flathead); include flatfishes these sandy areas Goolwa sea snails; and a variety of bivalve molluscs, including the well-known such as sand crabs; cockle or pipi. ecosystems were in good condition (as a result of the low level of coastal development), but of the a result (as in good condition ecosystems were (particularly ammonia) in A link has been found between nitrogen patchy. that data were recognised (Bryars et al. Island region the Kangaroo loss in of and seagrass regions the nearshore 2006). coast was in poor condition for several the metropolitan Monitoring indicated that water quality along an ecological assessment in 2011 of Adelaide’s from indicators and continues to decline. Results found and 558 individuals were taxa showed that 58 macroinvertebrate beach-nourishing program were found of invertebrates taxa beaches studied. The most dominant 15 metropolitan the across between 77 at The total number of species found ranged beetles). species (mostly typically terrestrial Outlet. South and 8 at Torrens Semaphore dunes, beach ridges by large dominated sandy ‘barrier coast’, is a large, bioregion The Coorong longest continual sandy beaches sandy beaches, including one of Australia’s and high-energy This 2005) report (Tanner surveys recent Sprigg (1976). More and assemblages by Shepherd six distinct losses The . within the gulf and in assemblages, both losses in all of these declines or and wastewater as dredging other impacts, such but trawling, to prawn linked predominantly were also contributed. discharges, Port Port Clinton to St Vincent from flats dominate the upper portion of Gulf Sandy to muddy tidal St Vincent Gulf on eastern 2008). Mudflats Adelaide (Womersley NRM Board and Thomas 1976, AMLR beach biodiversity Overall, and seagrasses. habitats samphire associated with coastal mangroves, are around beaches, which are 2008). Dissipative NRM Board (AMLR modest in gulf waters is relatively 2008). Tidal mudflats NRM Board Goolwa, rich in fauna (AMLR coast towards the eastern Fleurieu are important for wading birds nationally and internationally Vincent are Gulf St and other habitats in or shorebirds. coast and marine many of the island’s that reported (2008) Island NRM Board The Kangaroo continued Otway Coorong Gulf St Vincent Vincent Gulf St Table 3 Table 206 Coastal and marine environment rain. Thisdiscoloured waterisretained inthenearshore solids intonearshore coastalwatersafterperiodsof Urban stormwatercontributes large loadsofsuspended promising results (see Section 4). to reduce theimpactsfrom thesedischarges shows seagrass leaves orresult inbreakage ofleaves.Aprogram seagrasses, reduce theamountoflightavailableto the growth offast-growing epiphytes,whichsmother into themarineenvironment.Thenutrientspromote bicarbonate. Thesedischarges contributenutrientloads well asfrom alarge manufacturer ofsodaash andsodium discharges from three wastewatertreatment plants,as Adelaide’s metropolitan coastreceives nutrient-rich receiving waters. that are likelytoaffect theecologicalconditionof good monitored in2010theseregions wasconsidered tobe leakage andagricultural run-off. Theecologicalcondition from andland-basedaquaculture, sea-cage septic-tank Tumby andArnobays,receive nutrientsdischarged Other partsoftheLower SpencerGulfregion, including found inbothBostonandLouth bays. This islikelytocontributetheeutrophic conditions discharges allcontributenutrientsintothesheltered bays. Point wastewatertreatment plantandfishprocessing Bay, from stormwaterrun-off Port Lincoln,theBillyLights tanks locatednearsmallcoastaltowns.WithinBoston River inperiodsofheavyrain, andleakagefrom septic this region from includerun-off agriculture intothe Tod particularly duringautumn.Othernutrientsources in were inpoorcondition,withsignsofexcess nutrients, Monitoring atLouth Bayin2010showedtheseagrasses the nutrientsintonearshore areas suchasLouth Bay. located welloffshore, thewindandtidalactiondrives waters. Althoughthebulkofaquaculture farmsare in thisregion isdischarge ofhighloadsnutrientsinto from Port Lincoln.Thecumulativeeffectofmanyfarms bluefin tunaandyellowtailkingfishinthewatersoffshore comes from aquaculture sea-cage ofbothsouthern The pressure onwaterqualityinthelowerSpencerGulf ecosystems. canopy macroalgal ecosystemstoturf-dominated reef increasing epiphyteloadingonseagrass, andashiftfrom effects onbioticenvironments. Theseeffectsinclude concentrations canhavedisproportionate degenerative Consequently, evensmallincreases innutrient and animalshaveevolvedtothriveintheseconditions. in nutrients(oligotrophic) andclear, andtheplants The coastalwatersofSouthAustralia are typicallylow 2.1.4 . TheLower SpencerGulfhasavarietyofpressures Coastal waterquality loss ofseagrass. nearshore watersafterrain, whichcouldleadtofuture coastal towns) transport nutrientsandsedimentintothe Peninsula from (inadditiontostormwaterrun-off Present andpastlandmanagementpractices onYorke the groundwater intothenearshore marineenvironment. tanks, whichresult intheleakageofnitrogen through a varietyofpressures, includinghighdensitiesofseptic The northernandeasternYorke Peninsula issubjectto water qualityhasimproved are showingpositiveresults. metropolitan Seagrass coast. planting trials in areas where and thedegradation ofrocky reefs alongtheAdelaide has resulted inalossofover5000 hectares ofseagrass increases innutrientsanddecreases inwaterclarity Beach andNorthHaven.To date,thecombinationof waters from dredging atboatingfacilitiessuchasWest and deadseagrass beingdischarged intothenearshore This problem isexacerbated bythesuspendedsediments and theamountoflightavailabletoseagrass andalgae. waters, where itcandecrease theclarityofwater from theGlenelgwastewater treatment plant. associated withdischarges suchasstormwaterandwater a slightelevationinlevelsofmetals,whichwere largely the majorityofAdelaide’s metropolitanshowed coast, Pirie, WhyallaandthePort River. Urbanareas, including that havealonghistoryofindustrialisation,includingPort or industrial).Thehighestmetallevelsoccurred inareas translocated musselsandthebroad landuse(rural, urban An associationexistedbetweenmetallevelsinthe had relatively highmetallevels(Gaylard etal.2011). throughout SouthAustralia showedthatsomeareas A studyofmetaluptakeintranslocated bivalvemussels and furtherseagrass lossispossible. Nepean Bayare understress from nutrientenrichment, indicated thatadditionalseagrass habitatsthroughout Additionally, monitoringbetween2009and2011 than 2695 hectares ofseagrass from Western Cove. To date,there hasbeenalossordegradation ofmore in nutrientdischarges tothenearshore environment. high densitiesofseptictanksincoastaltownscanresult recreational fisheries.Inadditiontoagricultural run-off, reducing biodiversityandimpactingoncommercial and cause thedegradation ofseagrass androcky reefs, River bayonKangaroo Island.Thesedischarges can from agricultural lands,particularlyintotheCygnet rich andsediment-rich thatisdischarged run-off The southernregion ofGulfSt Vincentreceives nutrient- Coastal and marine environment 207 South Australian estuaries are generally poorly poorly generally are estuaries South Australian of a range from and often under threat understood and Environment, Water The Department of sources. mapped 102 estuaries, (DEWNR) Resources Natural to assess their condition surveyed these were and 25 of 2010). et al. (Rumbelow of that a high percentage These surveys showed to high levels state have moderate the estuaries across Threatening process. threatening of disturbance for each physical barrier water regime, altered included processes and head), dumping, habitat middle or lateral, (mouth, nutrient enrichment, vermin, overgrazing, fragmentation, from weeds, vegetation destruction, impacts tracks, marine buffer disturbance, erosion, vegetation recreation, and potential marine pathogens debris, aquaculture and 4). Some locations showed low dissolved (Figures 3 levels. oxygen ). Estuaries are ). Estuaries are Number of estuaries with particular land use directly adjacent to boundaries Number of estuaries with particular land use directly Rumbelow et al. (2010) Rumbelow Natural Resources Management Act 2004 Management Act Resources Natural Figure 3 Figure Source: protection, filtration of water as it flows from land to sea, of water as it flows filtration protection, of nutrients, and habitat for plants and cycling regulation and animals. critical transition zones linking land, freshwater habitats zones linking land, freshwater critical transition and the sea. and many ecosystem services They provide and storm-surge control erosion functions, including measurable variation in salinity due to the mixture of mixture variation in salinity due to the measurable on or under the land’ derived from seawater with water ( ecosystem processes and associated biodiversity, which biodiversity, and associated processes ecosystem or intermittently periodically, is either permanently, is a the ocean within which there occasionally open to In South Australia, an estuary has been defined as ‘a ‘a as has been defined an estuary In South Australia, including its of water, coastal body partially enclosed 2.1.5 Estuaries 208 Coastal and marine environment foreshore erosion. detect lossofbeachvolume, a fallinbeachheightor mainly intownshipsandare regularly profiled to infrastructure from coastalerosion. Theseare located the conditionofbeachesthat are criticaltoprotecting Board fundsacoastalsurveyprogram thatmonitors safety (Short2001).Inaddition,theCoastProtection classified according tophysicalcharacteristics and have beenmappedanddescribed.Theyalso All ofthe1788 beachesalongSouthAustralian coast 2.1.6 need tobeincreased tocoverallmarinebioregions. surveys needtoberepeated, andthenumberofsites These disturbances, andmanyhadahighlevelofimpact. Each ofthesitessurveyedwassubjecttomultiple state are considerably affectedby threatening processes. These results highlighthowestuarinesystemsaround the Figure 4 Source: Rumbelow et Beaches anddunes Extent ofthreatening processes across estuariessurveyedinSouthAustralia

al. (2010) and humanintervention. locations, reflecting both natural sand transport processes Differences betweenyears canbeobservedatsome the Adelaidecoastwith2009, 2010and2011values. 2008 beach volumesat60 monitored locationsalong from DEWNR’s Itcompares the beach-monitoringdata. south ofTorrens Figure 5 Inlet. hasbeen compiled asand-pumpingsystemhasbeenoperational2012, program. Sandiscurrently shiftedusingtrucks;since information isusedtoguidethebeachreplenishment Beach levelsandvolumesare monitored, andthis coastal infrastructure anddevelopmentfrom erosion. protection withasandmanagementprogram toprotect littoral Ithasbeennecessarytocombinerock-wall drift. sediment duetoareduced sandinputandanorthward 30-kilometre Adelaidebeach,forexample, hasdeclining and require managementtoprevent erosion. The Adelaide’s metropolitan beacheshavedecliningsediment Coastal and marine environment 209 for more information about NRM regions.) for more and is taken as bycatch in commercial and recreational and recreational and is taken as bycatch in commercial lobster pots. Resources Ranges Natural The Adelaide and Mount Lofty commissioned a survey of the Board Management (NRM) not species and concluded that population estimates were possible at the sites surveyed because of the low numbers photo-catalogued individuals were observed—only three sighted at Seacliff, and none were at Aldinga Reef, Further or Milkies reefs. Macs Ground Northern Outer, needed to better ascertain the status of the studies are harlequin fish and the many other species of conservation waters (Bryars 2011). (See the concern in South Australian Introduction

. Species protected . Species protected , a coastal reef fish , a coastal reef National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 and Wildlife Act National Parks Othos dentex Variation in volumes of beach sediment, 2009–11 Variation Fisheries Management Act 2007 Management Act Fisheries Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources and Natural Department of Environment, Water Threatened species Threatened grows to 76 centimetres in length, is incidentally captured in length, is incidentally captured to 76 centimetres grows and charter- recreational on hook and line by commercial, spear fishers, recreational by boat fishers, is targeted Living Australia 2012). The harlequin fish prefers high- 2012). The harlequin fish prefers Living Australia and rocky deep, quality coastal waters less than 45 metres with drop-offs, caves and ledges. The fish, which reefs is the harlequin fish coast the central and occurring from endemic to Australia of (Atlas Australia Western of Victoria to south-west noncommercial fish, to determine their conservation noncommercial deficient in data that most species are status. However, could determine their conservation status. One example endangered, vulnerable or rare (Table 4). (Table 4). or rare vulnerable endangered, was undertaken for desktop review A comprehensive than 200 species of many species, including more protected under the protected and the and Wildlife Act can be listed as under the National Parks 2.2 coast and marine species are and rare Threatened Figure 5 Figure Source: 210 Coastal and marine environment Table 4 Endangered National Parks andWildlifeAct caretta Loggerhead turtle( Fairy tern( Little tern( Sooty albatross ( epomophora sanfordi subspecies) ( Royal albatross (northern chlororhynchos chlororhynchos Ocean subspecies) ( Yellow-nosed albatross (Atlantic chlororhynchos carter Ocean subspecies) ( Yellow-nosed albatross (Indian Osprey ( ( seaeagle White-bellied ( Subantarctic furseal musculus Blue whale( Haliaeetus leucogaster Arctocephalus tropicalis ) Pandion haliaetus ) Sterna nereis Sterna albifrons Balaenoptera Diomedea Coast andmarinespeciesprotected under South Australian legislation Diomedea fusca Caretta Diomedea Diomedea ) i) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) Vulnerable Fin whale( Southern rightwhale( Leatherback turtle( Green turtle( Southern giantpetrel ( subspecies) ( Great skua(Macquarie andHeard Island Light-mantled albatross ( subspecies) ( Black-browed albatross (Campbell Island Wandering albatross ( epomophora epomophora Royal albatross (southern subspecies) ( Grey-headed albatross ( Salvin’s albatross ( Shy albatross ( Buller’s albatross ( Hooded plover( Australian sealion( ( Sei whale( Balaenoptera borealis Balaenoptera physalus Catharacta skualonnbergi Diomedea melanophrisimpavida Chelonia mydas Diomedea cauta Thinornis rubricollis Diomedea bulleri Diomedea cautasalvini Megaptera novaeangliae Dermochelys coriacea Neophoca cinerea Diomedea exulans Eubalaena australis Macronectes giganteus Diomedea chrysostoma Diomedea palpebrata ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) Diomedea ) ) ) Australian sealionpupsinrockpool atNorthPage Island ) ) ) ) ) ) Protected Fisheries ManagementAct Mogurnda Scalefish ofanyspecies Scalefish ofthegenus Syngnathidae Scalefish ofthefamily carcharias Great whiteshark( Spencer GulfandSt Vincent gouldii Western bluegroper • • classes carryingexternaleggs: Crustaceans ofthefollowing • • • blue swimmercrab bug ( edwardsii southern rock lobster( slipper lobster( gigas giant crab ( pelagicus ) inthewatersofornear ) Ibacus )

) ) Pseudocarcinus sp.) Carcharodon Scyllarides ( Dr JaneMcKenzie Achoerodus Ambassidae ( Portunus Jasus sp.)

Coastal and marine environment 211 Water quality Water Box 1 is estuarine areas quality in coastal and Water area by how the surrounding affected greatly uses in coastal catchments is used. Major land include that affect estuaries and coastal waters sea- horticulture, cropping, pastoralism, Additionally, and forestry. cage aquaculture plants, wastewater treatment stormwater, and effluent disposal and sewage treatment substantial systems in coastal towns discharge quantities of nutrients, heavy metals, matter into loads and organic microbiological estuaries and coastal waters. of have influenced several These pressures estuaries and coastal waters. For the state’s in the matter of organic breakdown example, Inman River estuary sediments and nutrient cause high levels of ammonia in processing litre). per 40 milligrams the estuary (above species, particularly to numerous This is toxic fish species, and can cause algal blooms. estuaries also The Onkaparinga and Cygnet amounts of nutrients and excessive receive organic matter. losses in Nepean Bay and Boston Seagrass nutrient levels. likely to be due to high Bay are losses in the Spencer and mangrove Seagrass Gulf coastal waters have been attributed to a combination of nutrient enrichment, industrial pollution and climatic conditions. It is also loss in likely that at least some of the seagrass Rivoli Bay (in the south-east) is attributable to water from drainage of agricultural discharges (Wear et al. 2006). Lake George Land-based activities What are the pressures? What are environment, entering and changing the food web of the underwater world and influencing many biological entire systems (Figure 6). aquaculture, marinas and boat ramps. Sediments from Sediments from marinas and boat ramps. aquaculture, effluent, from and nutrients or toxins or run-off, erosion persist in the marine industry and agriculture stormwater, fished, and some are overfished. The growing number overfished. The fished, and some are includes of coastal developments along the coastline boating facilities, public access points, offshore regional economic and recreational benefits may be compromised. benefits may be compromised. economic and recreational and traffic boating, shipping Uses such as recreational fully Most fisheries are increasing. are aquaculture resources. Unless these impacts are well managed, Unless these impacts are resources. the ability of the including for their cumulative impacts, to sustain the varied coastal and marine environment comes at some environmental cost (see Box 1), in the in Box 1), cost (see comes at some environmental of habitats, degradation form of pollution, erosion, of pests and unsustainable use of some introduction 75% live in greater Adelaide. Many commercial, industrial Adelaide. Many commercial, 75% live in greater Australia’s South activities benefit from and recreational This inevitably diverse coastal and marine resources. More than 90% of South Australians live within than 90% of South Australians More of the coast (ABS 2002), and approximately 50 kilometres such as climate change. 3.1 Pressures on the coast, and adjacent marine estuaries Pressures both land-based and marine-based from waters result global influences well as broader human activities, as 3 212 Coastal and marine environment Figure 6 Pressures andimpactsoncoastal andmarineenvironments Coastal and marine environment 213 Wildlife interactions that might occur with some marine with some marine that might occur Wildlife interactions sharks and seabirds, with interactions farming include (Harrison 2003). marine mammals protected 3.2.1 Tuna for 53% of South bluefin tuna accounts Southern from (GVP) value of production gross Australia’s years, 2011). In recent (EconSearch aquaculture to steadily; it is projected has risen production by 10% in 2011–12 and 20% continue to increase on the 2011). The pressures in 2012–13 (EconSearch tuna farming include from marine environment and parasites co-infection nitrification, from increased marine debris. Commission for the is a member of the Australia Tuna, was which Bluefin Conservation of Southern the species from established in 1993 to protect that the overfishing. A 2011 stock assessment showed but that low, relatively spawning stock biomass remains 2011). the outlook for the stock is positive (CCSBT South Australian aquaculture development, 2008–12 and planned aquaculture South Australian Figure 7 Figure Source: Department of Primary Industries and Regions South Australia, Fisheries and Aquaculture, unpublished data and Aquaculture, Fisheries South Australia, Industries and Regions Department of Primary Source: food entering the water, adverse interactions with marine adverse interactions food entering the water, albeit rarely. have been reported, vertebrates increased because of human activities in the marine increased and fishery discharge environment, particularly refuse in of the increase (Harrison 2003). As a result discards barramundi and algae. barramundi that the abundance and distribution of is evidence There markedly have marine vertebrates and certain seabirds licensees farming a variety of marine and freshwater variety of marine and freshwater licensees farming a bluefin tuna,species, including southern yellowtail oysters, yabbies and marron, kingfish, abalone, regional South Australia (EconSearch 2012). (EconSearch South Australia regional aquaculture 650 individual approximately are There and 20 549 tonnes in 2010. In 2010–11, aquaculture aquaculture In 2010–11, in 2010. and 20 549 tonnes state product to the gross contributed $90 172 million in of this was generated 70% Approximately (Figure 7). Aquaculture 3.2 Aquaculture increased South Australia in production Aquaculture 13 548 tonnes in 2002 in 1997 to 3883 tonnes from 214 Coastal and marine environment the potentialspread ofdiseasetonativeflora andfauna nutrient discharge tocoastal orfreshwater environments, marron. Pressures from land-basedaquaculture include predominantly abalone,finfish species,yabbiesand Land-based aquaculture in SouthAustralia comprises 3.2.5 etal.2004). (Wear with nativeoysters( feral populations includecompetitionforfoodandspace Harbour andDenialBayin1990. Thepressures from these oysters were reported forthefirsttimein Franklin of wildpopulations.SmallpopulationsPacific waters, concernhasbeenraised overtheestablishment Because Pacific oystersare exotic toSouth Australian (EconSearch 2011). approximately 10%peryearoverthenextthree years value since2003,andtheisprojected togrow by Intertidal shellfishfarminghasmore thandoubledin contributes 18%ofaquaculture GVP inSouthAustralia. Collectively,harvest. theintertidalshellfishculture sector the intertidalzonetocontainstockgrow outand far lesscommonly, fixed ‘rack and rail’ systemswithin oysters. Oysterfarmsmostlyusehangingbasketsor, Intertidal shellfishculture isthefarmingof Pacific 3.2.4 recognised asanenvironmental pressure. of debrisrelated tosubtidalshellfishaquaculture is and marinefinfish,theaccidentallossand/or disposal years (EconSearch 2011).Aswithsouthernbluefintuna by approximately 19.5%peryearoverthenextthree in valuesince2003,andtheisprojected togrow South Australia. Subtidalshellfishhasmore thandoubled culture sectorcontributes8%ofaquaculture GVP in grow Collectively, outandharvest. thesubtidalshellfish longlines, andbenthicstructures toharbourstock species vary;theyincludecontainedanduncontained subtidal shellfishspecies.Culture techniquesforboth Blue musselsandgreenlip abaloneare thefarmed 3.2.3 southern bluefintunafarming,describedabove. pressures from finfishfarming are similartothosefor that escapeshavelong-lasting ecologicalimpacts.Other seem tosurviveforlong.Therefore, itisnotanticipated kingfish, when recaptured, exhibitpoorhealthanddonot Fowler etal.(2003)concludedthatescapedyellowtail occur from finfish-licensedholdingcages.A reportby requirements haverevealed thatescapesofstockcan total aquaculture GVP (EconSearch 2011).Reporting Yellowtail kingfishcontribute14%ofSouth Australia’s Finfish3.2.2 Land-based aquaculture Intertidal shellfish Subtidal shellfish Ostrea angasi ) andotherfilterfeeders fishing mustalsobemanagedtominimisethefootprint impact negativelyonecosystems.Bycatchofcommercial overfishing hasthepotentialto reduce biodiversityand play importantroles intheirmarineecosystems,and Species targeted bycommercial andrecreational fishing at unsustainablelevels. state thatcouldbelostifaquaticresources are harvested Fishing alsobringseconomicandsocialbenefitstothe lead toirreparable damagetotheaquaticenvironment. and there isariskthatcontinuedoverexploitation might 09 (KnightandTsolos 2011).Aquaticresources are finite, increase inproduction of24%(9102 tonnes) since2008– worth anestimated$202 million.Thisrepresented an Australia’s commercial wildfisherieswas47 581 tonnes, During 2009–10, thetotalvolumeofproduction ofSouth 3.3 Fishing natural waterways. populations, andthethreat ofescapestockinto • • • • following: South Australian commercial fisheriesincludethe that fishingplacesontheaquaticenvironment. Effort andfishing dayshavesubstantially decreased, signs forrecovery ofthe species inrecent years. of southernrock lobster, there have beenpositive Southern rock lobster:Following adeclineinnumbers 400 tonnes forthe2011–12fishing season. was setforthe2009–10fishing season,increasing to and decreasing catchrates. Alimitof300 tonnes concerns, followingyearsofincreasing catcheffort management systemin2007toaddress sustainability Pipi (Goolwa cockle):Thepipifisherymovedtoaquota (Jones 2009). fishers is splitevenlybetweenrecreational andcommercial 2011). ThestatewidecatchofKingGeorge whiting reconsider managementarrangements (Fowler et al. several years, andthatthere isnoimmediateneedto in July2011,statedthatthefisheryhasbeenstablefor fishers. Thelateststockassessmentpublished report, heavily targeted bybothrecreational andcommercial considered an‘icon’speciesofSouthAustralia, andis King George whiting:KingGeorge whitingis et al.2010). Gulf, where thebiomasswasconsidered low(Fowler levels in2008–09,except forthesouthernSpencer stocks were assessedashealthyandatsustainable large increase intargeted longlineeffortforsnapper, major contributortothenationalcatch.Inspiteofa and recreational fishers,andSouth Australia isthe Snapper: Snapperishighlyvaluedbybothcommercial Coastal and marine environment 215 Fully fished Fully fished Fully fished Fully fished Fully Fully fished Fully fished Fully Overfished Overfished fished Fully Overfished fished Fully fished Fully fished Fully fished Fully Overfished Status Status and other environmental and other environmental species Fisheries stock status for selected for selected stock status Fisheries PIRSA (2006) Spencer Gulf prawn Southern Zone abalone Zone abalone Central Zone abalone Western Pipi (Lakes and Coorong) Pipi lobster rock Southern Zone southern lobster rock Northern Zone southern Southern garfish Southern calamari whiting King George Snapper Giant crab Blue crab Sardine Vincent prawn Gulf St Fishery year period, 97% of all the encounters involved trawl or net year period, 97% of all the encounters involved trawl and Boyle 2013). (Tsolos operations activities also have the potential to damage Fishing deployment of illegal impacts include habitat. Potential beds and damage reefs, mooring over seagrass artificial anchors. from to reefs Source: endangered with threatened, activities can interact Fishing species. Some species have been listed as or protected the of conservation concern under and/or protected 2007 Management Act Fisheries interfered legislation, and must not be taken or deliberately data submitted voluntarily by commercial with. From and Research licence holders to the South Australian 582 incidents were Development Institute (SARDI), there or endangered with 1921 threatened, involving interactions fisheries species in South Australian–managed protected during 2009–10 to 2011–12. Of these, 1802 animals were or escaped, and 119 died. Dolphins accounted released for 609 of the animals and 917 individual pinnipeds were is skewed by a The latter figure involved in interactions. with fishing in the Lakes number of seals interacting large during 2009–10 and 2010–11. Over the three- and Coorong Table 5 Table

pressure. Recovery strategies will be developed to strategies Recovery pressure. recover that stocks and ensure fishing pressure reduce timeframes. to acceptable levels within agreed optimum sustainable levels. Current fishing pressure is fishing pressure optimum sustainable levels. Current sustainable. considered not sustainable and/ Overfished—harvest levels are or yields may be higher in the long term if catch or reduced in the short term, or the stock effort levels are fishing excessive previous from may still be recovering Underfished—underutilised and has the potential to sustain harvest levels higher than those currently being taken. at, or close to, fished—harvest levels are Fully fishery (Dixon et al. 2011), and a recovery strategy recovery strategy et al. 2011), and a fishery (Dixon have for the gulf is in place. Spencer Gulf catches season, with stable since the 1973–74 remained coast 1048 to 2522 tonnes. West from catches ranging opportunistic, with annual catches fishing is more since 1990–91. less than 200 tonnes generally relatively stable catches and increases in prawn in prawn stable catches and increases relatively Gulf prawn size over time suggest that the Spencer limits (Dixon fishery is being fished within sustainable fishery has Vincent prawn et al. 2010). The Gulf St is likely to experienced a decline in biomass, which for the the potential egg production have reduced Australian sardine: The South Australian sardine sardine Australian The South sardine: Australian fishery by Australian South fishery is the largest at indicates that catches are volume of catch. Evidence the level of spawning biomass sustainable levels, with et al. 2010). (Ward range being within the target in effort, Historical reductions prawn: king Western catch of abalone from South Australian waters is South Australian catch of abalone from take of The recreational year. about 870 tonnes per at less than 10 tonnes in abalone was estimated (Jones2007–08 at catches are 2009). Recent (Mayfield et al. the fishery sustainable levels across 2011). Stobart et al. Hogg 2011, 2008, Mayfield and while catch per unit effort has considerably increased. increased. considerably per unit effort has while catch continuing challenges the fishery faces Despite this, (Linnane healthy levels of recruitment to ensure et al. 2011). The total commercial and blacklip abalone: Greenlip • • • PIRSA Fisheries and Aquaculture classifies the stocks classifies and Aquaculture PIRSA Fisheries into exploited species (Table 5) of commercially three categories: Department of Primary Industries and Regions South Industries and Regions Department of Primary and 2011, Knight (PIRSA) (Knight and Tsolos Australia 2011). Vainickis Details on other fisheries are available from the available from Details on other fisheries are • • • 216 Coastal and marine environment that leadtostarvationanddeath. causing physicalblockage,internalscarringandinjuries prey species.Thiscanaffecttheirdigestivesystems, ingested bymarinewildlifethatmistakethedebrisas balloons, plasticfragments andfoodwrappers) canbe facilitate drowning. Debris(e.g. plastic bags,rubber, infections, anddamagetobodylimbs,can mobility, leadingtostarvation.Itcanalsocreate wounds, For marinespecies,entanglement indebriscanrestrict at sea. nonbiodegradable floatingmaterialslostordisposedof commercial solid, fishingactivities;andship-sourced, adhesives; derelict fishinggearfrom recreational and bottles), ropes, fibreglass, piping,insulation,paintsand includes land-sourced plasticgarbage(e.g. bags and on theSouthAustralian marine environment.It Marine debriscontinuestobeapersistentpressure marine wildlife. international sources thatmightcauseharmtovertebrate plastics andothertypesofdebrisfrom domesticor marine debris’. Harmfulmarinedebrisrefers toall caused byingestionof, orentanglementin,harmful process: ‘Injuryandfatalitytovertebrate marinelife (EPBC Act;Cwlth) listsmarinedebrisasakeythreatening The 3.4 Environment Protection andBiodiversityAct 1999 Marine debris

commercial shipping(24%)inAustralia. translocation ofmarinepeststhanballastwaterfrom biofouling isalarger contributor(60%)tothe Hewitt andCampbell(2010)suggeststhatvessel recognised marinepestvectors.Recent research by Commercial shippingisoneofthemostcommonly outlined inthe pests. Thesepestsandtheprograms tomanagethemare fish stocksandtheirhabitats,to raise awareness of assess andrespond toallpeststhatposeathreat toour expensive. Biosecurityprograms are inplacetoidentify, established, eradication israrely possible,andcontrol is and aquaculture industriesdepend.Onceapestiswell adversely affectingtheecosystemsonwhichfishing outcompete nativespeciesforhabitatandfood,thereby from increased vesseltraffic. Marinepestscan threat from arange ofmarinepestspecies,resulting South Australia’s coastalwatersare underincreasing 3.5 1509 portcallsbycargo ships(Figure 8). 2010–11, SouthAustralia’s commercial portshadatotalof carrying more than26.8 million tonnes ofproduct.During our waters,makingmore than1000 portcallsand contributor totheeconomy—some 500 vesselstraverse South Australia’s shippingindustryisanimportant Pest plantsandanimals Little penguinkilledbymarinedebris atTroubridge Island Biodiversity chapter. Dr JaneMcKenzie Coastal and marine environment 217 and production Coastal and offshore exploration exploration Coastal and offshore exploration licence applications. There is one inshore is one inshore licence applications. There exploration Vincent, licence covering most of Gulf St petroleum under the licence to has occurred but little exploration date, and none in the marine part of it. One application in part of Spencer exploration is pending for petroleum licence also covers part of A geothermal exploration Gulf. Spencer Gulf and a small portion of in the south-east. in Australian waters. In developing these requirements, waters. In developing these requirements, in Australian Government has been working with the Australian that implementation arrangements stakeholders to ensure and effective in minimising the both practical are biosecurity risk posed by biofouling. due to in shipping traffic With an expected increase there in other trades, growth exports and natural mineral management of the will be continued focus on risk-based coastal waters. 3.6 activities include mineral exploration Coastal and offshore Offshore and production. exploration and petroleum mining has the potential to alter patterns of sediment movement, and associated and affect ecological processes exploration number of mineral A large biodiversity. near located onshore leases are licences and production of the salt and gypsum extraction the coast, and several tenements extend into inland waters. A substantial by 16 mineral amount of Spencer Gulf is covered chapter. Number of port calls by cargo ships in South Australia, 2001–02 to 2010–11 ships in South Australia, Number of port calls by cargo Biodiversity and Sediments. Government is also investigating new The Australian for vessels arriving biofouling management requirements arrangements will be consistent with the International arrangements International Convention for Maritime Organization’s and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water the Control A comprehensive set of management arrangements for set of management arrangements A comprehensive domestic ballast water is being developed to complement for international vessels. These the existing requirements concern (Wiltshire detailed information More et al. 2010). in the pest species section of on these species is provided the Australia since the 1800s are currently listed as trigger currently since the 1800s are Australia species in the marine pest monitoring manual, which of particular as species regarded means that they are requirements, and by minimising the amount of requirements, biofouling on vessels. in South Thirteen of the 99 pest species reported roles in preventing the spread of marine pests. Pests are are of marine pests. Pests the spread in preventing roles water according contained primarily by managing ballast management mandatory ballast water to Australia’s The Australian Government, through the National System System Government, the National through The Australian of Marine Pest and Management for the Prevention important Incursions, and the shipping industry play and container vessels, visiting Adelaide has increased has increased and container vessels, visiting Adelaide (BITRE 2012). deeper channels and larger berths, but are more efficient more berths, but are deeper channels and larger task. freight fewer trips for any given The and require vessels, including bulk carriers size of large average Figure 8 Figure ships that require larger towards is a trend there Globally, Source: BITRE (2012) Source: 218 Coastal and marine environment initiatives are addressing thisgapinknowledge. and temperature duetoclimatechange.Various research ocean environment, suchas changesinacidity, salinity the SouthAustralian impactsofotherchangesinthe understood, there islimitedinformationavailableabout Although changesinsealevelare relatively well and risingcoastalgroundwater levels. erosion, changingdistributionoftidalplantcommunities increasedincreased coastal seawaterfloodingrisk, The consequencesofsealevelrisecouldinclude and analysis. currently beingupdatedtoreflect more recent projections Thispolicyis government developmentplansin1994. into thePlanning Strategy forSouthAustralia andlocal and NewCoastalDevelopment1991)wasincorporated 1991 sealevelrisepolicy(Policy onCoastProtection impacts incoastalareas. TheCoastProtection Board’s in developingstrategic responses toclimatechange Recognising this,SouthAustralia hasledthenation to therisksofsealevelrisecausedbyclimatechange. 2013). Coastalinfrastructure isparticularlyvulnerable century andiscontinuingtorise(Climate Commission Global sealevelhasrisen0.21 metres overthelast 3.7 disaster couldoccurinSouthAustralia. Australia thatcouldreduce thechancesthatthistypeof from pastdisastersintheGulfofMexicoandnorth-west coastal ecologicalcommunities.Lessons havebeenlearnt can havemajorenvironmental impactsonmarineand Oil-well drillinghasthepotentialtocausespills,which 2008). between offshore seismicexploration andwhales in 2007)and larger cetaceans Act tointeractions betweenoffshore seismicoperations and of theEnvironment Protection andBiodiversityConservation the Australian Government’s regulated byCommonwealthlegislationandguided used inseismicexploration. Seismicoperations are to operate inthesamefrequency astheair-gun pulses than toothedwhales,astheiracousticrange isthought impact onwhales.Baleenwhalesmightbemore affected Seismicsurveyshavethepotentialto wells in2013–14. expected, aswelldrillingoffivedeepwaterpetroleum the Great Australian Further Bight. seismicexploration is A majoroffshore seismicsurveyisbeingundertakenin Climate change EPBC Act Policy Statement 2.1—Interaction (Environment Australia 2001;revised Guidelines ontheapplication , (DEWHA Dr JaneMcKenzie Coastal and marine environment 219 in June 1995. National Parks National Parks Fisheries Act 1982 Act Fisheries . These two areas comprise the Great comprise the Great . These two areas Great Australian Bight Marine Park Australian Great maintaining ecological processes in the marine maintaining ecological processes environment in the adapting to the impacts of climate change marine environment or natural of and conserving features protecting heritage importance cultural and allowing ecologically sustainable development use of marine environments opportunities for public appreciation, providing of marine education, understanding and enjoyment environments. and Wildlife Act 1972 and Wildlife Act Bight Marine Park. Australian and the in general, Bight region, Australian The Great have adjacent to the Nullarbor Cliffs, in particular, area of and values that are biological and physical resources • • • • • estimated Development in Sydney for Policy The Centre park highly the ecosystem services value of the marine zones, which cover almost 6% of state protected $20 million per year waters, to be worth approximately (Hoisington 2012). 4.2.2 Whale Sanctuary Bight Marine Park Australian The Great under the was proclaimed Bight Marine Australian the Great In September 1996, under the was proclaimed National Park network comprises 19 multiple-usenetwork comprises marine parks that The bioregions. South Australia’s distributed across are of each of the eight areas network includes representative marine that overlap with the state’s marine bioregions parks network covers a total area jurisdiction. The marine 44% of South kilometres—approximately of 26 912 square Australian the Great includes waters—and Australia’s (Figure 1). Bight Marine Park is to conserve The aim of the network of marine parks marine biological diversity South Australia’s and protect and habitats, and to assist in: Natural Resources Management Plan Management Plan Resources Natural

Marine parks network Natural Resources Management Resources Natural Plan Marine protected areas areas Marine protected South Australia’s Strategic Plan and Plan Strategic South Australia’s What are we doing about it? we doing about What are trends in the condition of habitats and species in trends marine parks and sanctuary zones. trends in the extent and condition of coastal trends seagrass, reefs, rocky ecosystems (including foreshore, saltmarsh and mangroves) effectiveness of management of South Australia’s Australia’s effectiveness of management of South a 2011 baseline) marine park network (from and reporting the monitoring, evaluation from results for the marine parks network. program The South Australian Government established the The South Australian Areas, of Marine Protected System Representative commonly known as marine parks, in 2009. This marine areas under different forms of protection. under different marine areas 4.2.1 4.2 Government holds a number of The South Australian are in place to achieve the identified targets. are Apart from programs for the ongoing management of the programs Apart from coastal and marine environment, the following initiatives • ecosystems (Target 10), including the following measures: ecosystems (Target 10), • The South Australian a has 2011b) of South Australia (Government 2012–2017 and marine the condition of coastal to improve target • environments’ (Target 71). The plan includes the following 71). The plan (Target environments’ for meeting the target: measures • South Australia’s Strategic Plan (Government of South (Government Plan Strategic South Australia’s to ‘maintain the health 2011a) has a target Australia unique marine and diversity of South Australia’s 4.1 The South Australian Government has established policies Government The South Australian the environmental and improve to protect and programs and marine environment. health of the coastal 4 220 Coastal and marine environment Figure 9 Source: 20 years ofannualmonitoring(Figure 9). pairs—67—recordedfemale–calf attheHeadofBightin has beenincreasing, and2011sawthehighestnumberof thenumberofsouthernrightwhales waters ofthepark, Although there isnohabitatmonitoringinthestate • • • • • Act andtheNationalParks Theyinclude: andWildlifeAct. international andnationalsignificanceundertheEPBC of theMerdayerrah Sandpatch. Nullarbor Cliffsandtheextensivetransgressive dunes geomorphological interest,includingthespectacular coastalareas ofhigh limestone-dominated and flora also containselementsofwarmtropical marinefauna because ofthepresence ofatropical current,thearea invertebrate fauna(such asseasquirtsandslugs); important marinebiodiversity, particularlyamong whales andhumpbacks) whales, killerwhalesandrorquals (bluewhales,minke endangered marinemammals,includingsperm seasonal habitatforotherspeciesofrare and of geneticdiversityforthespecies probably negligiblerates ofsealing,represent asource Nullarbor Cliffs), which,becauseoftheirisolationand the rare Australian sealion(particularlyalongthe important populationsandbreeding coloniesof two majorcalvingsitesintheworld calving areas forthisspeciesinAustralia, andoneof Bight), whichare themostimportantbreeding and southern rightwhale(particularlyattheHeadof breeding andcalvingareas fortheendangered Environment andNatural Resources Data collectedbyEubalaenaPtyLtd andtheDepartmentof Numbers ofcalvingsouthern right Australian Bight whales attheheadof Great tidal creeks andestuarineriversintheregion allprovide Themangroves, seagrass,park. saltmarsh, tidalflats, an additional300 dolphinsasoccasionalvisitorstothe bottlenose dolphins( The area isalsohometoabout30 resident Indo–Pacific • • • • • • • Australia. Itcontains: the mostintensivelyusedmarinewaterwayinSouth The Port AdelaideRiverandBarkerInletispossibly 4.2.3 outline key conservation priorities along the coast, outline keyconservationpriorities alongthecoast, contain detailedmaps,andplant andanimallists.They region (AMLR NRMBoard 2007, 2009). Theseplans has completedcoastalandestuary actionplansforits The AdelaideandMountLofty RangesNRMBoard 4.3 • • • • • • Dolphin SanctuaryAct 2005 viability oftheregional environment.The manages existingandfuture activitiestosupportthe the environment where theylive.Thedolphinsanctuary isdesignedtoprotectin 2005, thedolphinsbyprotecting The AdelaideDolphinSanctuary, whichwasproclaimed excess nutrientsinthewater. and thermalpollution,introduced marinepests,litterand environment, whichhasseenanincrease inchemical Intensive useover150 yearshasseverely affectedthe habitat andfoodforthedolphins. birdwatching anddolphinwatching. important recreational activities,includingfishing, European andAboriginalcultural andhistoricalvalues new developments,bothindustrialandresidential movements annually the state’s withthousandsofvessel majorport, light andheavyindustries a large wastewatertreatment plant metropolitan Adelaide’s powerplants development in management of the area. development inmanagementofthearea. promote theprinciplesofecologicallysustainable cultural prosperities ofthearea healthy environmentsocialand totheeconomic, promote publicawareness oftheimportancea into accountinmanagementofthearea ensure thattheinterests ofthecommunityare taken improve waterquality maintain, protect andrestore keyhabitatfeatures protect thedolphinsfrom physicalharm Coastal andestuariesactionplans Adelaide DolphinSanctuary Tursiops aduncus setsoutto: ), withatleast Adelaide Coastal and marine environment 221 (DEWR 2007) under the EPBC Act. (DEWR 2007) under All South Guidelines for the ecologically sustainable management Guidelines for the ecologically of recreational fishing in South Australia include a Australia fishing in South of recreational fishing recreational plan; a fishing strategic recreational into bag, boat and size management plan; a review limits; and a survey investigating the social aspects of Australia. fishing in South recreational Southern Zone Rock Lobster fisheries, the Gulf St Vincent fisheries, the Gulf Lobster Southern Zone Rock and Lakes (Lakes Alexandra and pipi in the Fishery, Prawn Fishery. Albert) and Coorong in giant cuttlefish to a decline 2013, in response In March site, the South aggregation Lowly populations at the Point closure a temporary Government approved Australian Spencer Gulf as a of all fishing for cuttlefish in northern the decline. while investigating measure precautionary reports annual fishery assessment SARDI prepares the sustainability of key on and stock status reports Management Australia. species in South commercial fisheries set performance indicators, plans for commercial can against which the performance of the fishery of performance against these be assessed. A review indicators can suggest whether management changes are required. continues to be Australia fishing in South Recreational survey into The most recent activity. an important leisure was undertaken in Australia fishing in South recreational and estimated that 236 000 people undertook 2007–08 Recreational fishing activities in that year. recreational fishing brings important social and economic benefits under way for the management to the state. Projects of pollutants from aquaculture and other sources within and other sources aquaculture from of pollutants of many different to aid the management Spencer Gulf, of pollution in the gulf. sources assessed by are fisheries commercial South Australian of Sustainability, Department Government the Australian Communities against and Population Environment, Water, the of fisheries the from exemptions fisheries have current Australian South that the Act, under recognising export controls in an ecologically managed fisheries are Australian sustainable manner. garfish Australia—southern in South fish stocks Two to that aims strategy a recovery and mulloway—require management of a range stocks by implementing rebuild have been strategies recovery Five measures. response fish stocks in implemented for South Australia’s of management to sustainability concerns, using a range stocks. These fisheries are aimed at rebuilding measures River area, the Northern and mud cockles in the Port

Fisheries Fisheries Posidonia and the and associated Regulations. Both and associated Regulations. Aquaculture Act 2001 Act Aquaculture management Aquaculture and fisheries Aquaculture Light Beach Coastal Action Plan Action Plan Onkaparinga Estuary Rehabilitation for the Hindmarsh, Fleurieu Estuary Action Plans three Inman and Bungala rivers. Metropolitan Adelaide and Northern Coastal Adelaide Metropolitan Action Plan Action Plan Southern Fleurieu Coastal Action Plan Thompson Beach Coastal Action Plan Coastal Parham and increasing the use of integrated multitrophic multitrophic the use of integrated and increasing impacts on nearshore to reduce aquaculture, The Aquatic Sciences division of the SARDI environments. the fate and transport is developing models to predict Options to reduce nutrient loads from aquaculture aquaculture nutrient loads from Options to reduce activities include locating the activities in deeper water Acts rely on a system of licensing; the objective is to Acts rely aquatic protect, manage, use and develop the state’s in a sustainable manner. resources Management of aquaculture and fishing in South Australia Australia and fishing in South Management of aquaculture is governed by the 2007 Management Act 4.4 inform future management actions to improve seagrass seagrass management actions to improve inform future Cove. condition in Western species in Western Cove, coupled with measuring species in Western as an indicator of epiphyte loads on artificial seagrass of both studies will The results nutrients within the bay. some sites), but many of the bags disintegrated before before but many of the bags disintegrated some sites), is The board the seedlings had a chance to take hold. of two transplantation trialling direct currently example, has trialled the use of sand-filled hessian sacks has trialled the use of sand-filled example, seedlings and evaluate revegetation. seagrass to recruit at species to three (up showed recruitment The results Various other initiatives by NRM boards in South other initiatives by NRM boards Various and marine coastal and improve aim to protect Australia for Island NRM Board, ecosystems. The Kangaroo • • • • • • The completed plans are: The completed plans • the conservation, protection and maintenance of natural and maintenance of natural the conservation, protection establish conservation priorities for and to resources, the coast. objectives of the plans. objectives to understand and facilitate are goals of the plans Key stakeholders. They also describe the management and the management They also describe stakeholders. and estuaries, to protect tasks required rehabilitation the achieving towards for stakeholders identify actions make recommendations for action and identify key for action and make recommendations 222 Coastal and marine environment stormwater discharges were found bytheACWS to bethe nutrients andsedimentsfrom industrial,wastewaterand sediment instabilityalongAdelaide’s coastline. Inputsof to extensivelossofseagrass, poorwater quality and through CSIRO from 2001to2007on howtorespond Waters Study (ACWS) wasascientificprogram undertaken searchers asearly60 yearsago. TheAdelaide Coastal the Adelaidecommunity, environmental managersand reef healthandsedimentinstabilitywere firstnoticedby Issues ofpoorwaterquality, lossofseagrass, declining beaches andshorelines. vegetation, andprotective andstabilisingservicesfor greater thanequivalentterrestrial-based areas ofnative fishers, carbonstorage valuesthatare manytimes species thatare fishedbycommercial and recreational Vincent andtheAdelaideregion. Theyprovide habitat for Healthy seagrass ecosystemsare importanttoGulfSt by 2050’. the returnofseagrass oftheblue-line closertoshore in abalancedmanagementapproach thataimstosee economic valuesare considered inequalandhighregard aquatic ecosystemswhere environmental, socialand The community-agreed visionintheACWQIP is‘Healthy reef condition. over time,allowthereturn ofseagrass andimproved stormwater toimprove coastalwaterqualityand, from industry, wastewatertreatment plantsand (ACWQIP; EPA 2013)setstargets toreduce discharges The AdelaideCoastalWater QualityImprovement Plan 4.5.1 pollution anddebris. Plans andprograms are underwaytoaddress water 4.5 • • • • • • Future prioritiesforthefisheries sectorare: management planforrecreational fishing. developing andimplementingastrategic planand under the commercial fisheriespursuanttothe requirements developing andimplementingmanagementplansfor promoting infisheriesmanagement co-management fisheries managementdecision-making integrating considerations socio-economic into of commercial andrecreational fisheries maintaining andimproving sustainablemanagement addressing resource accessandallocationissues Reducing pollution Improvement Plan Adelaide CoastalWater Quality Fisheries ManagementAct 2007 Resource ManagementRegional Plan. and theAdelaideMountLofty Ranges(AMLR) Natural the 30-Year Plan forGreater Adelaide,Water forGood, document islinkedtokeygovernmentpolicyincluding other agencies,localgovernmentandcommunities.The that havebeendevelopedinapartnershipapproach with The ACWQIP identifieseightstrategies forimplementation visual appreciation. (via desalination), primaryandsecondaryrecreation, and aquatic foodconsumption,industrial,raw drinkingwater waters includeaquaticecosystems,cultural andspiritual, environmental valuesidentifiedforAdelaide’s coastal catchments andcoastalwaters.Thecommunity-agreed guide desired waterqualityimprovement forAdelaide’s values andwater-quality objectivesintheACWQIP, to developing thecommunity-agreed vision,environmental Community andstakeholderinputhasbeenakeypartof ACWQIP hasbeenbasedonthesefindings. main causeofpoorwaterqualityandseagrass loss.The in thisregion thatare mostatrisk from entanglementin have beenconductedatthree locations.Marinespecies In theGreat Australian BightMarinePark,annualsurveys 20 selected sitesuptofourtimes peryear. Volunteers2011c). surveyone-kilometretransects at running since2008(Government ofSouthAustralia involving schoolsandGreen Corpsteams,hasbeen community-based marinedebrismonitoringprogram, threat abatementplan.OnEyre aregional Peninsula, achieved someoftheobjectivesnational (e.g. Tangaroa Blue,Teachwild), theiractionshave surveys. Combinedwithnongovernmentorganisations NRM regional boards havefacilitatedmarinedebris of theplanatlocallevels. vertebrate marine life,includingimplementingmeasures preventing theimpactsofharmfulmarinedebrison a coordinated nationalapproach tomitigatingand ThethreatEPBC Act. abatementplanaimstoprovide on vertebrate marinelife Threat abatementplanfortheimpactsofmarinedebris In June2009,theAustralian Governmentdevelopedthe 4.5.2 improve waterqualityfrom stormwater(EPA 2013). water-sensitive urbandesignfromto catchmenttocoast, communities. TheACWQIP promotes applicationof governments, arange ofstateagenciesandlocal more players,includingtheAMLR NRMBoard, local Management ofstormwaterdischarges involvesmany point-source discharges through licensingconditions. The EPA drivesreduction ofnutrientsandsedimentsfrom Marine debris (DSEWPaC 2009b) underthe Coastal and marine environment 223 . steering committee citizen science Education, capacity building and Education, capacity building South Australia. South Australia. between DEWNR,Partnerships the Marine Discovery and the Maritime Museum the South Australian Centre, the delivery of have allowed Museum South Australian to school groups. education programs several NRM boards provide members of the public who members of the provide NRM boards with Program volunteer for the Coastal Ambassadors for, to care skills required knowledge and practical coastal, estuarine and marine monitor and protect workshops to assist also hold The boards environments. planting and caring for the community with sourcing, native local coastal plants. monitoring is a community environmental Reefwatch run by the Conservation Council of South Australia project and overseen by a community and intertidal monitoring, as well as It includes reef has Program or in Peril with schools. The Feral programs divers, anglers been designed to enable recreational that of marine organisms and boaters to help keep track of special concern. It has been designed to identify are to the a potential threat marine pests that are introduced marine ecosystem, as well as local species that might be in danger of disappearing. with the aim of engaging the A citizen science program, community to monitor the effectiveness of the marine parks network, as a partnership is being developed between DEWNR and the Conservation Council of 80 kilometres have been cleared in the region, with the in the region, have been cleared 80 kilometres and of friends groups of school classes, participation is project focus of the volunteers. The current community quantify coastline but not to the debris from to remove no formal quantitative is origin. There its type and sources classifying harmful for assessment in the region of marine debris. launched its Regional NRM Board Peninsula The Eyre in 2008. This project Program Marine Debris Monitoring monitoring community-based consists of a region-wide marine officers, coast and supported by board program, active role local communities to take an to encourage Since 2008, volunteers at in their coastal environments. than more have collected Peninsula Eyre 20 sites across Bay far west as Fowlers sites as 2.5 tonnes of debris, from on the shores Bight to Australian near the Great of Spencer Gulf. 4.6 Government Association and DEWNR. One of its projects set out to clear up marine debris along 100 kilometres Approximately the Victorian border. of coastline from with the proximity to metropolitan Adelaide. to metropolitan with the proximity Coastal Conservation The South East Cooperative Initiative was devised by the South East Local the bioregion was hard polymer plastic fragments. In the polymer plastic fragments. was hard the bioregion debris was dominated by eastern part of the bioregion, associated presumably plastic food packaging (wrappers), associated with fishing, boating and aquaculture, from from associated with fishing, boating and aquaculture, and marine-based The most both terrestrial sources. debris type (by number) across commonly encountered or entanglement. These comprised a range of soft and or entanglement. These comprised a range user groups plastics associated with numerous hard such as packaging, containers, and debris and sources, between August and October 2010. Of the 985 kilograms Of the 985 kilograms and October 2010. between August identified were and 12 603 items, 10 major litter groups ingestion that could potentially affect wildlife through A large project involving predominantly community involving predominantly project A large staff surveyed 38 sites NRM Board volunteers and AMLR for marine debris Vincent bioregion in the Gulf St of marine rope and hard plastic fragments. These are These are plastic fragments. and hard of marine rope entanglement or ingestion to through a threat considered the seal and penguin colonies. conducted. The results from the surveys indicated less the surveys from conducted. The results than in debris in 2011 (170 kilograms) terrestrial-based Marine debris mainly consisted 2009 (192 kilograms). This provided baseline information on the amount, type This provided the island. and distribution of beach rubbish around 2009 and 2011, two further surveys were In March biennial beach rubbish (including marine debris) data debris) biennial beach rubbish (including marine first full survey was the collections since 2005. In 2007, Day. Australia conducted in conjunction with Clean Up methods across NRM regions. methods across been working on has Island NRM Board The Kangaroo and assessed. Recommendations from the 2011 report the 2011 report from and assessed. Recommendations surveys coinciding with the whale include ongoing beach the debris season, determining the origin of migration survey and standardising (particularly marine ropes) site. Information on temporal trends will become will trends temporal site. Information on surveys at the most recent from available as the data combined are Sandpatch and Merdayerrah Rocks Twin Plastics, which can be ingested or facilitate entanglement,Plastics, type of beach rubbish at each the most common were 2012), two at Merdayerrah Sandpatch (December Sandpatch at Merdayerrah 2012), two 2011) and one at Mexican Hat 2010 and November (November 2010). sea lions. At each site, NRM staff, rangers and school rangers staff, each site, NRM At sea lions. This included transects. surveyed one-kilometre children 2011 and 2010, (March Rocks at Twin surveys three marine debris are southern right whales and Australian right whales and Australian southern are marine debris 224 Coastal and marine environment algal blooms. upwellings, coupledwithincreased temperature, support of algalblooms.Conditionsfavourable foroceanic Satellite imageryforMarch 2013confirmedthepresence high watertemperatures andpossibleharmfulalgae. coast inearly2013hasbeenascribedtounusually The highnumberoffishdeathsalongtheSouth Australian change. Greater knowledgeinthisfieldisneeded. with andadapttomultiplepressures, includingclimate limited foranyinference onhowmarineecosystemscope connectivity inSouthAustralian marinesystemsistoo of communities.Ourunderstandingresilience and continued strength ofinteractions andpersistence populations offoundationspeciescouldenablethe the probability ofphaseshifts,maintenanceintact althoughforecastindicates that, climatesmightincrease on theresistance ofkelpforests toimpactsofpollutants by Falkenberg etal.(2012)from theUniversityofAdelaide not havespacetoretreat whensealevelsrise.Research vegetation, suchasmangroves andsaltmarshes,might There are concerns,forexample, thatsomecoastal are rising;allofthesechangeswillimpactmarinespecies. changing; oceanacidity, sealevelandstormfrequency still havetobequantified.Oceansalinityandcurrents are environment duetoclimatechangeare notcertainand extent ofpotentialandexistingchangesinthemarine and marineenvironment,althoughtheseverity Climate changeislikelytoprofoundly affectthecoastal 5.1 and future challenges. number ofplansandprograms hopetoaddress existing high levelofawareness oftheneedsourcoasts,anda resulting from developmentandresource use.There isa environments are declining,withincreased pressure Many areas ofSouthAustralia’s coastalandmarine 5 What canweexpect? Climate change:understanding resilience andconnectivity The expectedgrowth oftheoilandgasindustry, desalination plants. from variousrelated facilities,suchasportfacilitiesand the expansioninminingandcumulativeimpacts pressure ontheSpencerGulfmarineenvironment from next fewyears(SACOME 2012).There isconsiderable The numberofminesisforecast toincrease duringthe 5.2 mammals havetobecarefully evaluated. reducing carbonemissions, potentialimpactsonmarine initiatives couldpotentiallymakeacontributionto proposed duringthepasttwoyears.Althoughsuch Wave andtide farmsforenergy production havebeen of ecologicalharm. zones intoecosystemsingoodconditionpresents arisk environment. For example, expansionofaquaculture coast willleadtofurtherdegradation ofthenearshore thetrendmanagement, ofdevelopmentonandoffthe absence ofexceptional planningcontrols andpollution degradation oftheadjacentmarineecosystems.In water (e.g. sea-based aquaculture), there isanobservable wherever there isdevelopmentnearwatersorinthe waters throughout SouthAustralia demonstrates that, Monitoring ofecologicalconditionsinnearshore marine 5.3 impacts oncoastalandmarineenvironments. probably require neworexpandedports,withrelated require deeperchannelsandlarger berths.Thiswill Globally, there isatrend towards larger shipsthatwill species, suchasthesouthernrightwhale. increase pressure onmarinehabitatsandmigratory particularly inthewesternpartofstate,islikelyto Growth intheresources sectorand Further coastalandoffshore shipping development Coastal and marine environment 225 Dr Jane McKenzie adopting an ecosystem-based adopting an ecosystem-based to management approach Valuing ecosystem services and ecosystem Valuing Assessment 2005). This should build on the work under Assessment 2005). This should build on of monitoring, way to value ecosystem services as part of marine parks and the evaluation and reporting Plan. Improvement Adelaide Coastal Waters to protect and restore our coastal and our coastal and restore to protect marine environments. 5.5 and significant social and In spite of the obvious has there described in this chapter, economic benefits attempt to value the products been no comprehensive by coastal, estuarine and marine and services provided understanding and quantification of ecosystems. Better ability our services would improve and these products and to fully consider the to manage them sustainably, uses that affect costs and benefits of developments and that integrates them. An ecosystem-based approach for sectors and identifies thresholds management across services ecosystems, taking into account the ecosystem Ecosystem needed (Millennium is greatly they provide, efforts Tuna aquaculture, feeding sardines to tuna with scavenging seagulls, offshore from Port Lincoln from to tuna with scavenging seagulls, offshore feeding sardines aquaculture, Tuna and reporting Improved monitoring, evaluation evaluation monitoring, Improved framework anticipated in the state NRM plan aim to anticipated framework projects and future evaluate the effectiveness of current This will allow us to further improve and programs. reporting under these strategies and plans. The under these strategies reporting envisaged program monitoring, evaluation and reporting network and the reporting marine parks for the state’s Natural Resources Management Plan (Government of (Government Management Plan Resources Natural by a lack of is restricted 2011b), South Australia monitoring, evaluation and and ongoing comprehensive effectiveness of key government strategies and plans, government strategies effectiveness of key of South Australia (Government such as marine parks strategy conservation nature 2012), No Species Loss 2007), and the State of South Australia (Government inadequate monitoring. Furthermore, baseline Furthermore, inadequate monitoring. condition of ecological communities is information on the Assessment of the many areas. needed for greatly on the condition of these ecosystems across the state. For state. For the these ecosystems across on the condition of not possible to fully evaluate the it is many regions, actions because of effectiveness of management Knowledge of coastal, estuarine and marine ecosystems and marine ecosystems of coastal, estuarine Knowledge However, the past five years. during greatly has improved report be done to assess and properly has to much more 5.4 226 Coastal and marine environment Australia environment. Transactions ofthe Posidonia meadowconditioninapristineoffshore marine 2006: seagrasses oftheInvestigator Group region: Bryars SandWear R(2008).InvestigatorGroup expedition Resources, Adelaide. South Australian DepartmentofEnvironment andNatural Lofty RangesNatural Resources Management Board, devil andharlequinfish 2009–2010 and2010–2011 surveysforthesouthernblue concern onAdelaide coastal reefs: combinedresults of Bryars S(2011). Board, Kangaroo Island. 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