Reckoning with the Past

This book examines how Australian fiction writers draw on family histories to reckon with the nation’s colonial past. Located at the intersection of literature, history, and sociology, it explores the relationships between family storytelling, memory, and postcolonial identity. Discussing some of Aus- tralia’s most popular and critically acclaimed authors – including Kate Grenville, Richard Flanagan, Sally Morgan, Andrew McGahan, Kim Scott, Brian Castro, and Christos Tsiolkas – the book offers a powerful new reflec- tion on the social role of literature in national identity and opens cross-cultural dialogue on experiences of belonging in post-settlement Australia. With attention to the political potential of family histories, Reckoning with the Past argues that authors’ often autobiographical works enable us to uncover, confront, and revise national mythologies. An important contribution to the emerging global conversation about multidirectional memory and the need to attend to the effects of colonisation, this book will appeal to an interdisciplinary field of scholarly readers.

Ashley Barnwell is Ashworth Lecturer in Sociology at the University of Melbourne, Australia.

Joseph Cummins has a PhD in Literary Studies from the University of New South Wales, Australia, and serves on the board of the Association for the Study of Australian Literature. Memory Studies: Global Constellations Series editors Henri Lustiger-Thaler, Ramapo College of New Jersey, USA and Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, France

The ‘past in the present’ has returned in the early twenty-first century with a vengeance, and with it the expansion of categories of experience. These experiences have largely been lost in the advance of rationalist and con- structivist understandings of subjectivity and their collective representations. The cultural stakes around forgetting, ‘useful forgetting’ and remembering, locally, regionally, nationally and globally have risen exponentially. It is therefore not unusual that ‘migrant memories’; micro-histories; personal and individual memories in their interwoven relation to cultural, political and social narratives; the mnemonic past and present of emotions, embodiment and ritual; and finally, the mnemonic spatiality of geography and territories are receiving more pronounced hearings. This transpires as the social sciences themselves are consciously globalizing their knowledge bases. In addition to the above, the reconstructive logic of memory in the juggernaut of galloping informationalization is rendering it more and more publicly accessible, and therefore part of a new global public constellation around the coding of meaning and experience. Memory studies as an academic field of social and cultural inquiry emerges at a time when global public debate - buttressed by the fragmentation of national narratives - has accelerated. Societies today, in late globalized conditions, are pregnant with newly unmediated and unfrozen memories once sequestered in wide collective representations. We welcome manuscripts that examine and analyze these profound cultural traces.

8. Reckoning with the Past Family Historiographies in Postcolonial Australian Literature Ashley Barnwell and Joseph Cummins

9. Traumatic Storytelling and Memory in Post-Apartheid South Africa Performing Signs of Injury Christopher J. Colvin

For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.routledge.com/ sociology/series/ASHSER1411 Reckoning with the Past Family Historiographies in Postcolonial Australian Literature

Ashley Barnwell and Joseph Cummins First published 2019 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 Ashley Barnwell and Joseph Cummins The right of Ashley Barnwell and Joseph Cummins to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Barnwell, Ashley, author. | Cummins, Joseph, author. Title: Reckoning with the past : family historiographies in postcolonial Australian literature / Ashley Barnwell and Joseph Cummins. Description: 1 Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2019. | Series: Memory studies: Global constellations | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018035928 | ISBN 9781138088955 (hardback) Subjects: LCSH: Families--Australia--History. Classification: LCC HQ1235 .B37 2019 | DDC 306.850994--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018035928

ISBN: 978-1-138-08895-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-10953-4 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman by Taylor & Francis Books We dedicate this book to Colleen Brennan – a keen family historian who has always encouraged our research. This page intentionally left blank Contents

Acknowledgments viii

Introduction: Reckoning with the past: family, memory, nation 1 1 Dredging up family secrets: Kate Grenville’s The Secret River and Richard Flanagan’s Death of a River Guide 16 2 Confronting the ‘double fold of silence’: Kim Scott and Hazel Brown’s Kayang & Me and Sally Morgan’s My Place 36 3 Belonging across generations: Brian Castro’s Birds of Passage and Shanghai Nights and Alex Miller’s The Ancestor Game 54 4 Returning to homelands: Christos Tsiolkas’ Dead Europe and Christopher Koch’s The Many-Coloured Land: A Return to Ireland 72 5 Listening to the ghosts of the past: Andrew McGahan’s The White Earth 92 Conclusion 109

References 115 Index 125 Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Andrew Metcalfe, Anne Brewster, Ken Gelder, and Kate Darian-Smith for their encouragement in the early stages of this project. Audiences at conferences including ASAL, IABA Asia Pacific, and the Uni- versity of Melbourne’s Australian Centre seminar series also provided vital feedback on chapters-in-progress. Our thanks to Richard Flanagan for granting us permission to access his papers at the National Library of Australia; to Manuscripts staff at the NLA for their help; and to Amy Vanderharst for her research assistance. We are grateful to Neil Jordan and Alice Salt at Routledge for their enthusiasm in bringing the manuscript to fruition. And finally, we thank our family and friends for their interest and support. A shorter version of Chapter Five is published as Barnwell, A. and Cummins, J. 2017. Family Historiography in The White Earth. Journal of Australian Stu- dies 41(2), 156–70. Reprinted by permission of Taylor & Francis. Some passages in Chapter One appear in Barnwell, A. 2018. Hidden Heirlooms: Keeping Family Secrets Across Generations. Journal of Sociology 54 (3), 446–60. Rep- rinted by permission of SAGE Publications. Introduction Reckoning with the past: family, memory, nation

Just as our ancestors looked to genealogy as the model of nationhood so, perhaps, in these more complex renderings of family history, Australians may ﬁnd a clue to a new sense of national becoming. Graeme Davison, ‘Ancestors: The Broken Lineage of Family History’ (2000, p. 109)

This book examines how Australian writers draw on family histories to reckon with the nation’s past. Often encountering the unspoken violence within the settler colonial state, the novelists we discuss – Kate Grenville, Richard Flana- gan, Sally Morgan, Kim Scott and Hazel Brown, Brian Castro, Alex Miller, Christos Tsiolkas, Christopher Koch, and Andrew McGahan – locate the national in the personal and the public in the private. Their novels and life writing, which we call family historiographies, pursue the lost meanings of family heirlooms, explore the motivations behind migration, trace forgotten ancestors, interpret fragments from archives, and muse upon the riddle of family resemblances. Historiography, meaning ‘history-writing’,recognisesthe mechanics of how history is produced, particularly the contested and creative nature of re-collecting the past. The works we discuss are family historiographies, rather than just family histories, because they explore the diverse and sometimes competing forces of authorship and retelling of history within the family. These often autobiographical works uncover, confront, and revise national mythologies, particularly the lingering, haunting aftermath of colonial injustice. At the same time, our discussion of these works shows the importance of intergenerational knowledge to the composition of contemporary multicultural Australia. In this introduction we set out the cultural and historical context, and the methodological and theoretical frameworks that orient the following chapters. Since the 1970s the global interest in genealogical research has grown, with a boom in the last two decades further fuelled by the success of Ancestry.com and the popularity of television programmes such as Who Do You Think You Are? (Davison 2009; Lynch 2011; Barnwell 2013). Reckoning with the Past contends that the ‘family history craze’ is more than a retirement hobby for the white middle class. Rather, it is a rich, multicultural practice with profound national significance and political potential. The novels and memoirs 2 Introduction we analyse present diverse facets of Australian experience. They provide a space to investigate and challenge notions of origin, belonging, race, culture, and class as they change across generations. The works explore how events within Australian history – including frontier violence, Indigenous-settler relations, the transportation of convicts, the Gold Rush, post-World War II migration – also operate on an intimate level. Reading these books, we ask – how does the discovery and telling of family histories illuminate the past of the nation? How are family histories used to both rationalise and rethink the inherited inequalities and discriminations of Australia’s colonial past? And perhaps most provocatively, what responsibilities do we carry for the actions of our ancestors? Addressing these questions across the space of the book, we argue that the family history narrative is a vital mode of postcolonial reckoning. The intimate weave of the personal within the national foregrounds the relationship between the pursuit of self knowledge, and the collective processes of regeneration and recognition that follow colonial violence and migration from ancestral lands. Reckoning with the Past is as much a study of Australian history through the unique prism of literature as it is a sociological portrait of contemporary Australia and the cultural challenges it faces. Therefore we examine family historiography texts and Australian national memory and identity. Discussing Australian authors alongside key theorists from sociology, history, and literary studies, we illustrate a cross-cultural dialogue on the experience of belonging in various Australian times and places. Unravelling the multicultural fabric of Australian society and history, the novels and memoirs we examine tell complex, interlinked, and candid Indigenous Australian, Chinese Australian, Greek Australian, and Anglo-Celtic Australian stories. We investigate how the recounting of these histories in the present, and the emotional forces of secrecy, stigma, and shame that make their telling difficult, have shaped and continue to define Australian life. The desire to uncover and better understand the family’s past – the very pursuit of these works on the level of story – is essential to how the individual positions themselves in relation to national identity. Driven forward by the drama of emerging secrets and the tumult of the conflicting views that animate the present, as well as a need to reflect the diversity of experience that defines contemporary Australia, these works could be called, after Graeme Davison, democratic family histories (Davison 2000, p. 87). Each text broadens the scope of Australia’s story, often revealing the resilience of the cultures that have been oppressed or dis- criminated against in the forging of national identity, or opening up the complexity of cultural transmission within the family, and between the family and the nation. The act of writing a family history can be a process of self-discovery, but the outward ripples of this reckoning – defined as a process, a measurement, a settling of accounts, sometimes even the avenging or punishing of misdeeds – is equally powerful as a postcolonial process. Jeffrey Olick defines reckoning as a form of memory-work ‘which is not only about the past, but about Introduction 3 finding our relation to the past and our location in it’ (2016, p. 427). We argue that family historiography novels and memoirs imagine and illustrate the work of dually individual and collective reckoning within everyday life. For some, such as Grenville, Tsiolkas, or McGahan, narratives of family history are directly linked to fraught questions of national identity and responsibility. For others, like Castro, Morgan, or Scott and Brown, reckoning with this plait of family and national history also activates another meaning of the term, as a ‘contention for a place’. As profound acts of reclamation, their family historiographies reassert the place of these family histories within Australia’s historical consciousness, tell forgotten or silenced chapters, write against racist fantasies, and repair fractured kinships. It is often assumed that public opinion about national history and cultural identity is formed in civic spaces, such as public debates, or via school curriculums. But as our analysis of these novels and memoirs shows, the family is a key site for debating and revising history. As powerful representations of this space, literature about family history is a key channel for encountering our ancestors’ implication in the events of the past, for negotiating the present, and moving into the future; creating, as Davison says in our epigraph, ‘a new sense of national becoming’ (2000, p. 109). The texts we will analyse, when drawn together, offer a multifaceted account of Australia’s development as a nation from the perspective of the family. Family stories mapping different cultural traditions are variously connected to the formation of Australia as ‘a new frontier’, a colony, a white nation, a multicultural nation, a ‘transnation’ (Ashcroft 2011), a nation in pursuit of its own identity, a nation seeking to both ignore and confront its violent past. In each of the novels or memoirs we discuss, the writer and/or protagonist emerges as a family historiographer who does the work of imagining the family, and, in the process, reimagining the nation. Flanagan and Grenville tell stories of their ancestors’ experiences of convict stigma and participation in colonial settlement and frontier violence. Morgan, and Scott and Brown seek to reconstruct genealogical lines and reconnect family to cultural traditions and country in the wake of frontier violence and assimilation policies. Castro and Miller document Chinese Australian ancestors’ migration stories and experiences of discrimination and belonging. Tsiolkas and Koch map journeys of roots tourism and the troubled, and troubling, return to ancestral homelands in Europe. McGahan, in our final chapter, contemplates the deep haunting that infects settler descendants, challenged by different familial and civic accounts of dispossession, and the emotions and realities these varying versions of the past create. McGahan tells a story in which the family is a potential site where the past can be buried, edited, confused, but also confronted, and perhaps even transformed. This is the first book to highlight the centrality of literature to the powerful social interest in family histories within contemporary Australian cultural life. During the past decade there has been a steady growth in research about the personal and social motivations behind the rise in people wanting to 4 Introduction investigate their own family histories. Much of this work has been in the disciplines of sociology (Lambert 1996; Mason 2008; Kramer 2011; Smart 2011; Zerubavel 2011; Bottero 2015; Barnwell 2017a), history (Smith 2008; Evans 2011; de Groot 2009; Rosenzweig and Thelen 2000; Ashton and Hamilton 2010), and cultural geography (Basu 2007; Nash 2008; Timothy and Guelke 2008). This scholarship primarily focuses on family history’s potential to either preserve or unsettle dominant social histories, or to compose and anchor a secure identity amidst social change (Lambert 1996, p. 121; Basu 2007, pp. 8–9). Positioning the literary creations of some of Australia’s leading writers as integral to the larger cultural and political relevance of family history, our book makes an important sociological and literary contribution to this growing interdisciplinary field. Existing scholarship in postcolonial Australian literary studies has set the stage for our work on family, memory, and nation. The scholarship of Bill Ashcroft, Lyn McCredden, and Francis Devlin-Glass in Intimate Horizons: The Postcolonial Sacred in Australian Literature (2009), Alison Ravenscroft in Postcolonial Eye, White Australian Desire and the Visual Scene of Race (2012), Frances A. Johnson in Australian Fiction as Archi- val Salvage (2015), and Liliana Zavaglia in White Apology and Apologia: Australian Novels of Reconciliation (2016) each offer incisive analysis of postcolonial Australian fiction in relation to issues of national reckoning. Anne Brewster’s Giving This Country a Memory: Contemporary Abori- ginal Voices of Australia (2015) is perhaps the most closely aligned to our work, and underlines a growing interest in themes of memory and identity. This important book offers a combination of analysis and long-form interviews with leading Indigenous Australian writers including Kim Scott andJeanineLeane,whichwedrawfrominChapterTwo.Reckoning with the Past maps onto these precedents and opens out new terrain via our examination of family history literature in the context of postcolonial politics. Australia’s settler colonial context presents a fascinating case for memory studies. As Chris Healy (2008) and Babette Smith (2008) have argued, Australia is a nation with strategic amnesia about the past. Referring specifically to the violent impact on Indigenous communities in his 1968 Boyer Lec- tures, the anthropologist W. H. Stanner (2009) called this ‘the great Australian silence’, ‘a cult of forgetfulness practiced on a national scale’ (p. 189). The nation’s desire to forget, and to overlook ongoing inequality, extends to the discrimination faced by waves of Irish, Chinese, Greek, Vietnamese, African, and Middle Eastern migrants to Australia over the past two centuries (Mellor 2004; Darian-Smith and Hamilton 2013). While the government celebrates the country’s multicultural vibrance and welcoming culture, a history (and present) of racist social attitudes and policies – including the White Australia Policy, Assimilation policies, the popularity of nationalist political parties such as Pauline Hanson’s One Nation, and the legalisation of offshore detention for refugees – inform the experiences and memories of many Australian residents Introduction 5 and citizens. The agendas of national identity building and public relations or tourism campaigns gloss over these experiences. In this context, families become an important repository of countermemory and sites of resistance, as the emotions, traumas, undocumented histories, and strategies for survival are transmitted privately, in both tacit and deliberate ways. While our focus is on Australia, the analysis and conclusions are relevant to other settler colonial contexts. Though there is rich work on reckoning in the European, and especially German, context (Olick 2007; Schlink 2009), colonial contexts are com- paratively less explored. Beyond this geographical contribution, our study of family historiographies also aims to enrich and complicate our contemporary understanding of the complex sociological relationship between family and national memory. The sociology of memory is a small and fragmented field, but has a sus- tained history with roots in the classical canon (Olick and Robbins 1998; Packard 2009; Misztal 2003). A student of founding father Emile Dur- kheim, Maurice Halbwachs is known for his pathfinding work on collective memory. Halbwachs theorised that memory is inherently social; our views about the past are informed by others, and specifically in the interest of ensuring the survival of the (dominant) group’s traditions. Discontinuities and contradictions that threaten the group are smoothed out of the narrative, as the collective ‘projects a singularly vivid image on the screen of an obscure and unclear past’ (Halbwachs 1992, p. 66). As an example of one such memory group, Halbwachs described the family as having its own unique social logic, but also as operating within the logic of wider society in a way that sculpts the family into the national model of what a family should be. As he explains:

[E]ach family has its proper mentality, its memories which it alone com- memorates, and its secrets that are revealed only to its members. But these memories […] consist not only of a series of individual images of the past. They are at the same time models, examples, and elements of teaching. They express the general attitude of the group. (p. 66)

In more recent eras, Karl Mannheim’s explanation of how important generations are to the renewal and the continuity of knowledge (1923), along with Paul Connerton’s notion of embodied memory practices (1989), have continued to highlight the role of inherited rituals and intergenerational storytelling in forging collective memory, within and across families. Making a contribution to this sociological lineage, Reckoning with the Past shows how the literature of family histories tracks the formation of family memory as collective memory. Our study therefore illustrates how representations of the intergenerational family can illuminate the ethical and political tensions that govern the ongoing, creative dialogues between individual, familial, cultural, and national memories. 6 Introduction 1983–2005: a revisionist spirit The publication of the works we examine span a twenty-two-year period, from Castro’s Birds of Passage, published in 1983, through to Grenville’s The Secret River, Scott and Brown’s Kayang & Me, and Tsiolkas’ Dead Europe, all published in 2005. This stretch of time directly correlates to a key era in Australian national becoming, when questions of historical truth-telling and national identity took centre stage, for politicians, academics, and the general public alike. The revisionist spirit of this period was inspired by a confluence of events. The lead up to the 1988 Bicentenary was a pivotal moment, as the government poured funds into various public programmes, exhibitions, and curriculum initiatives that focused on distilling Australian identity 200 years post-settlement. The celebrations in Sydney on the day of the Bicentenary revealed deep tensions in how Australia narrates its past. As a re-enactment of the First Fleet (apocryphally) sailed into Sydney Harbour celebrating the advent of European discovery, in Redfern Park Indigenous Australians and political allies protested the event’s whitewashing of history with placards stating ‘don’t celebrate 1988’ and ‘white Australia has a black history’. Drawn out by the Bicentenary, the question of what it means to be an Australian in the late twentieth century became central to national culture. Discussions about belonging, and who the national story actually represents, revealed the extent of cultural silence around histories of racism toward Indigenous Australians, but also waves of migrants – from Chinese people who came to work in the Victorian gold fields in the late 1800s, to post-war European migrants, labelled ‘New Australians’, to more recent arrivals from South East Asia. As David Mellor has written, even after the dismantling of the White Australia Policy, ‘immigrants were expected to shed their culture and language and become part of mainstream Australian life’ (2004, p. 633). In spite of an official ‘multiculturalism’ policy, the national imaginary was one of exclusion rather than inclusion, as cultural assimilation remained the non-negotiable prerequisite for national belonging (Hage 2000; Rossiter 2002). In terms of family historiography, Castro’s Birds of Passage (1983) and Morgan’s My Place (1988) appeared in the lead-up to the Bicentenary, sig- nalling concerns that would become even more pressing. Into the 1990s, several key events further unsteadied a triumphant account of discovery, nation building, and an egalitarian ‘lucky country’. One of these was the Mabo decision, passed down in 1992, which recognised the legal fiction of terra nullius –‘nobody’s land’, the phrase used by British colonialists to justify the dispossession of Indigenous peoples. Along with the Wik Decision (1997), Mabo gave Indigenous groups a legal pathway to lay claim to their ancestral country. The conservative Howard government (term 1996–2007) responded defensively to Mabo and Wik withtheNativeTitleAmendmentAct (1998), commonly known as The Ten Point Plan. The anxiety of non-Indigenous land owners triggered by these court rulings is dramatised in The White Earth (Chapter Five). Symbolically these rulings gave voice to a counter-history Introduction 7 and recognised that stories of settlement hid a violent and shameful past. The impetus to question the dominant historical account was pushed further by perhaps the most devastating moment of the period, and the one which resonates closely with our concerns about family connection, the 1997 publication of the Bringing Them Home report of the national inquiry into the separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from the families. This report describes how various government agencies forcibly removed Indigenous children from their families between 1910 and 1970, enacting policies of assimilation which were based on racist theories of eugenics, social Darwinism, and white supremacy. Historian Peter Read termed these children ‘The Stolen Generations’ (1981). The Stolen Generations embody the cata- strophic impact of state power on family structures, as governments attemp- ted to cut ties to land and culture. As these political and social events unsettled dominant accounts of history, publics pushed to both challenge and defend the national story. Liberal Prime Minister John Howard was a vocal opponent of revisionist history. He refused to make a formal apology to the Stolen Generations based on his belief that present generations cannot apologise for the actions of past generations. In a parliamentary debate on ‘racial tolerance’ in 1996, for example, Howard declared that ‘as an identifiable group the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are the most profoundly disadvantaged within our midst’ (Parliament of Australia 1996, p. 3); but he also ‘strongly rejected notions of intergenerational guilt [and] … with the same vigour […] the black armband view of Australian history’ (p. 3). He went on to say that ‘the balance sheet of Australian history is a very generous and benign one’ (p. 3). Conservative historians also criticised emerging histories about dispossession, frontier violence, and Aboriginal massacres. These debates dominated Australian historico- literary and political discourse through the 1990s and 2000s and became known as ‘the History Wars’ (Macintyre and Clark 2003). The History Wars are a direct touchstone for some of the texts we discuss, including The Secret River, which Grenville positioned as a circuit-breaker for the debate, and My Place, which became a battleground for conflict over the Stolen Generations (see Reynolds 1981 and 1999; Windschuttle 2002). His- torians advocating for a political recognition of frontier violence were accused of what Radstone calls ‘the offence of claiming empathy with historical individuals’ (2013, p. 290). Driving these political, academic, and public debates was the key question: should we, or how do we, take responsibility for the historical actions of our ancestors? Or as Jane Jacobs and Ken Gelder put it, ‘[h]ow implicated are postcolonials in the past?’ (1996, p. 112). The prominence of these questions of historical consciousness spurred the family history craze in Australia, and underpinned the outpouring of family historiography works written in the 1990s and 2000s. Family historiographies help write this dark chapter in Australian history, showing how individuals uncover and make sense of the interconnections between national and family history across generations. The works in Reckoning with the Past explicitly 8 Introduction grapple with the emotional and structural impacts of frontier violence, forced child removal, and the racism and discrimination that confronted later migrant populations, especially those of non-Anglo descent. By reckoning with the past, the authors, and often their characters, call into question the dominance of settler histories. Since the History Wars, conservative commentators and politicians have continued to deny the violence of Australia’s colonial past. Nevertheless, the foundations of Australian history have been shaken. In the past fifty years how Australians engage with the past has changed dramatically. Emerging from and responding to this period, the family historiographies we examine give voice to the silences within Australian history. The texts deal with family, but also with the structures that gate-keep family knowledge. They trace connections and movements between places, the explanatory and censoring power of archives, and the intergenerational impacts of government policy.

Linking postcolonial memory and literary imaginings Bringing diﬀerent cultural histories into the literary landscape informs but also challenges how Australians imagine the national community, to recall Benedict Anderson’s theorisation of nationalism (1983). Literary storytelling about the nation has the potential to undermine the totality of a nationalist narrative, and to generate a space to challenge ‘the oﬃcial’. Family historiographies provide soundings of the Australian nation that work against monolithic narratives covering over diversity and silencing trauma. In ‘Transnation’ Bill Ashcroft conceptualises the multiplicity of literary perspectives within anationallitera- ture. He writes:

To what extent does literature constitute subjects as national? […] the idea of a ‘national’ literature might rely on a disregard for the wide range of literary works themselves, which constitute the life of the nation in a plethora of local and individual experiences. (Ashcroft 2011, p. 19)

Ashcroft’s transnation carries with it a powerful recognition of the different histories, cultural experiences, and storytelling traditions within the nation. The contexts of nation or ‘transnation’ also come into focus through the optics of postcolonial studies. The title of our book uses the term ‘postcolonial’ to locate the time, space, and concerns of the literature we discuss. Increasingly it is understood among scholars studying colonial power in contemporary life that the term postcolonial suggests too stark of a transition from the colonial, as if its influence is past. The term ‘settler colonialism’ is proposed as an alternative in some fields, in recognition that settler colonial countries, such as Australia, remain occupied and are governed by the laws and structures of the invading colonial culture (Wolfe 2006; Holmes and Ward 2011; Edmonds 2016). To step away from the notion of ‘post’ is to Introduction 9 recognise that the policies of colonialism are still deeply felt within the families of the nation, and clearly register in government statistics of social, health, and economic inequalities between cultural groups. Therefore it is important to qualify that we use this term with recognition of the debate around its ability to convey the enduring nature of colonial rule, but also with the knowledge that much of the literary and theoretical writing that calls itself ‘postcolonial’ by no means assumes that colonial power has dissipated. In literary studies, the term describes a particular cultural period or generation of Australian creative writers. These writers are concerned with the colonial era of Australian culture, with its patterns of invasion, settlement, and migration, but they are also concerned with the perspective of subsequent generations looking back. Descendants must grapple with the inheritance of colonial memories in a climate where the meaning of such memories has begun to change, or to be contested. The question is: what do we do with this inheritance going forward? What do we do now that the imperial and ideo- logical rationales for colonial expansion and its irrevocable damage on a global scale are known? In the context of our book the ‘postcolonial’ denotes this ongoing inheritance of the colonial. To reflect on what family historiographies narrate and contribute to this discourse, we will tie together theories of the postcolonial nation, intergenerational memory, and the family with the overarching concept of ‘multidirectional memory’ (Rothberg 2009). This concept frames our project in two ways. Firstly, it sets up multidirectional dialogues between the dominant theories of European memory studies and the settler colonial context. Secondly, read together the chapters of the book create a cluster of historiographic accounts, that, in their multidirectionality across time and space, offer diverse insights into the lived experience of Australia’s history (not least its history of immigration policies), and Australia’s memory-making: the stories we tell to both remember and forget the past. Michael Rothberg proposes that scholars adapt concepts of memory from European contexts, particularly Holocaust studies, to examine wider processes of decolonisation. In this, he is supported by calls in memory studies for scholars to develop less Eurocentric concepts of memory-making in particular (Kennedy and Radstone 2013), and a push towards recognising the value and contribution of Southern theories more generally (Connell 2007). The dialogue between existing work on nation-making, memory studies, and Australian literature, viewed through the larger prism of postcolonial studies, will enable us to explore how established concepts of collective memory resonate, fracture, or transform in the context of the postcolonial family and nation. Following Rothberg, we draw ideas from leading memory studies scholars into our postcolonial framework, including Eric Santner (1992), Marianne Hirsch (1997), Avery F. Gordon (2008), Dominick LaCapra (2001), Pierre Nora (1989), and Gabriele Schwab (2010). But we also examine how these concepts square up against the insights and interventions of Indigenous Australian scholars such as Larissa Behrendt (2016) and Jackie Huggins 10 Introduction (Huggins and Huggins 1994). To draw concepts of memory into Australia’s settler colonial context we will build on the work of historians and literature scholars who have critiqued the postcolonial nation (Anderson 1983; Ashcroft 2011; Birns 2015) and examined the haunted and uncanny nature of Aus- tralian literature (Jacobs and Gelder 1998). We do this in support of a growing sensitivity to the fact that always applying Northern theories to Southern contexts is in itself a perpetuation of Imperial logic. The book therefore makes a theoretical and methodological contribution to postcolonial memory studies (Lambek and Antze 1996; Hodgkin and Rad- stone 2003) by exploring how different forms of cultural memory – of dispossession, transportation, migration, and diaspora – compete and converse within families. In doing this, our theoretical analysis will forge a concrete link between the authorship of family histories and national imaginaries, demonstrating how social narratives are told through the family, and can also be contested on this scale. This approach answers calls in postcolonial memory studies to recognise that ‘everyday processes of relatedness […] such as tracing family histories […] have a larger-scale political import’ (Carsten 2007, p. 4). We do this work with reference to literature specifically, and are therefore interested in theories of memory that unpack the creative practices of imagining, writing, and intertextuality. In sociology, there has been increasing calls to recognise and explore the sociological value of literature (Coser 1972; Back and Puwar 2012; Beer 2015; Bauman and Mazzeo 2016; Barnwell 2017b). Reckoning with the Past takes up this directive, blending literary and sociological analysis. As a sociologist and literary theorist, respectively, we read family historiographies for their creative and social interventions. In this, we take up the imperative of sociologist of literature Avery F. Gordon. Describing Gordon’s method, Janice Radway explains that Gordon reads novelists such as ‘[Luisa] Venezuela and [Toni] Morrison as social theorists […] as intellectuals who use imaginative fiction both to diagnose the political dis-ease of our historical moment and to envision just what it will take to put things right’ (Radway in Gordon 2008, p. xi). Crossing the disciplines of sociology and literary studies, Gordon reads postcolonial literature for its haunting elements, ‘the appearance of spectres or ghosts’, or the return of repressed material (p. xvi). She argues that haunting is ‘one way in which abusive systems of power make themselves known and their impacts felt in everyday life, especially when […] their oppressive nature is denied’ (p. xvi). The return of the past, in other words, notifies us ‘that what’s been concealed is very much alive and present’ (p. xvi). Writing about postcolonial conditions specifically, Rob Nixon similarly argues that ‘in a world permeated by unseen or imperceptible violence, imaginative writing can help make the unapparent appear, making it accessible’ (2011, p. 15). Reading the authors we discuss as ‘social novelists’, we argue that these texts draw our attention to the logics that can block and/or ignite historiographic debates at the level of the family, a profound site of social repro- duction and revision. Introduction 11 Reckoning With the Past underscores the unique value of literature for exploring and testing the insights of sociology, memory studies, and history. At the same time, novels and life writing texts lead us back to this scholarship while they cast a different light and open a new social and historical context through an evocative description or a creative realisation of the world. The primacy of the imagination to the work of literature, both to its production by authors and its reception by readers, is perhaps the most unique and advan- tageous lens provided by our approach to family history. Writers explore and deconstruct the thoughts, feelings, and suspicions of their characters in a multitude of ways. Each historiography we encounter is a different portrait or dissection of the intimate mechanics of personal interiority, from depictions of characters imaginatively ‘filling in the blanks’ of the historical record, the influence of dreams or visions on how we view reality, to the way the words and pages of a book can be used to literally and figuratively hold, and hide, silenced histories. Just as family secrets can be unspoken, they can also be unwritten, ‘buried’ in the past, in a narrative structure or an unheralded chapter and paragraph. At the same time – and often on the same page – our authors can zoom out of the day-to-day and instead view the links and breakages of the passage of generational time. Another feature of our literary approach to family historiographies is the way authors explore how family history is transmitted, and not just between people. The history and presence of place is also intimately tied to the history of generations in these works. Landscapes hold but also inter the marks of memory and experience, as the context of Australian colonial and postcolonial history demonstrates again and again. Just as landscapes trace and reflect lines of genealogy, migration, travel, memory, and intergenerational transmission, so do objects. Our authors also take up the material cultures of family history in creative and original ways, using a vast range of materials, including archives, objects and heirlooms, letters, diaries, photographs, and songs. These material cultures inspire flights of fancy while also anchoring these works, and each writer we discuss plays with this tension. While sometimes it may appear that there is nothing holding back these writers from imagining the precise texture of historical experience and speculating on the motivations and reasoning behind the actions of our ancestors, in different ways each chapter of this book explores and tests the moral implications of imagining. This ethical attention is particularly important for placing family historiography in the violent landscapes of Australian colonial and postcolonial histories.

The ‘traits’ of family history literature In addition to outlining the sociological, historical, and theoretical contexts for our study of family historiographies it is important to locate them within the history of Australian literature. There are important literary antecedents to the works we discuss in the chapters that follow, including memoirs and 12 Introduction novels by some of Australia’s most influential writers from the last century. Mapping the intersection of genealogy and colonial history, these books set out many of the concerns with inheritance, belonging, and ownership that are taken up by writers in the 1980s–2000s. But crucially, these works, published in the first half of the twentieth century, do not face up to settler suprema- cism. Nor are they representative of the diversity of experiences that char- acterise later family histories. The novels and memoirs dramatise some of the activities of settlers on the frontier, mostly emphasising the personal hardship and everyday heroism while all but erasing violent processes of the dispossession and genocide that accompanied the colonial project in Australia. Lacking the self-reflexive distance and structural complexity of family historiographies, they are rather a family history literature that map ‘settler cultural terrains’ (Leane 2014, p. 1) and lay the foundations of mythic masculinity, whiteness, and enterprise espoused by historians like Russell Ward in his contemporaneous The Australian Legend (1958). Instead of recognising the diverse fabric of the ‘transnation’, these works imagine a homogenous national community. Mary Durack’s Kings in Grass Castles (1959, and adapted for television mini series in 1998) is among the most well-known works of Australian family history literature. Durack wrote several sequels to this book, including Sons in the Saddle (1983). Alongside Judith Wright’s The Generations of Men (1959), these books exemplify the heroic mode of mid-century family history literature and are defined by their strictly linear narrative structures – events unfold in chronological order, as if preordained. In The Generations of Men Wright notes of her descendants that ‘there was about their story something of the atmosphere of the Book of Genesis, and some aura, too, of super- natural descent clung to them’ (p. 5). The difficult but inevitable progress of these great families is saturated by a biblical tone that never calls into question the validity of the colonial enterprise and the complicity of the family. Several of Martin Boyd’s novels, including The Montforts (1928 – winner of the Australian Literary Societies Gold Medal) and his four ‘Langton family’ novels, The Cardboard Crown (1952), ADifficult Young Man (1955), Out- break of Love (1957), and When Blackbirds Sing (1962), trace the history of the extended à Beckett-Boyd family. While Kings in Grass Castles and Gen- erations of Men are foundational, if unreflexive, works that imagine the nexus of family and colonial history, Boyd’s novels are easily the most self- consciously engaged with family historiography. The narrator of The Montforts knowingly notes how, ‘For the next head of the family to go to Australia seemed to mark a stage in its disintegration’ (1928, p. 14). We encounter four generations of Montforts across the span of the novel and Sim, a member of the second generation, even publishes a volume titled ‘Colonial Gentry’–‘His politics had not interfered with his taste for genealogy’ (p. 85). Brenda Niall writes that in the novel ‘each member of the Montfort family is shown in his [sic] human inheritance – the work is concerned with what Boyd called ‘the past within us’ (1975, p. 5). Boyd’s work focuses on the landed gentry with close links to England; Introduction 13 characters experience the privations of settler life but also travel back and forth between Europe and Australia with a freedom only afforded to the wealthy. The dynamics of inheritance, migrations to and from England to live or be educated, and the keeping of family secrets all animate these books. Like Patrick White’s TheTreeofMan(1955), Boyd is less concerned with the battle to construct colonial order and the heroic deeds of the earlier settlers recounted by Durack and Wright, instead showcasing concerns with interiority and character development. The concentration of work written in the 1950s reflects a post-war natio- nalistic zeal, and demonstrates the political power of family history narratives in Australia, prefiguring the genealogy craze. The stories these works tell are Anglo-Australian family histories that do not interrogate the machinations of the colonial paradigm, although it must be noted that Judith Wright became dedicated to such critical rereading in her later works, such as We Call for a Treaty (1985). Davison argues that:

[t]hirty years ago, genealogy was still a rather select and selective pursuit, closely linked to the study of heraldry and to the search for a noble or genteel pedigree. […] In recent years, however, the movement has assumed a more popular and democratic character. (2000, p. 86)

We argue that literature about family histories also follows this path. Because these past novels are less democratic and lack the self-reflexive historiographic distance displayed by the majority of the later works we examine, they operate as important counterpoints and measures of transition in our thinking about the social and literary function of family histories. We selected books to analyse according to three criteria. Books had to a) be intergenerational in scope, namely, examine the transmission, remembering, or forgetting of family memories across multiple generations; b) deal with practices of historiography – the mechanics of researching and writing histories; c) offer insight into differing cultural experiences of reckoning with the past across Australia’s history since settlement. In addition to this, we often chose books that were canonical in contemporary Australian literature. Our rationale is to foreground that family history themes are central for some of Australia’s most widely read and acclaimed authors. This is significant because it shows that literature is a key site where questions of colonial wrongdoing and national identity and memory are being explored and dis- cussed, even if these conversations have been less probing and reflective in political discourse. The vibrance and popularity of family history as a theme means that there were many relevant works that we wished to but could not cover. The books we analyse represent some of the diversity of family historiography narratives and some of the creative ways writers have confronted the mechanics of collective memory. Chapters on Alexis Wright’s Plains of Promise (1997), 14 Introduction Larissa Behrendt’s Home (2004), Carmel Bird’s Family Skeleton (2016), and Bram Presser’s The Book of Dirt (2017) would just have easily sat between the covers of this book. Our hope is that in building a framework for analysing family historiographies, we and other scholars can continue to build on this analysis, to include more texts, and to apply the ideas to literary representations of other cultural communities within and beyond Australian society. Here we have selected just a few established family history literatures, including Abori- ginal life writing, British settler and convict stories, Chinese Australian family histories, and tales of post-war European migration. But the experiences of more recent migrants and refugees from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, among other regions, would give more dimension to the multidirectional study of Australia’s collective memory stories.

The chapters Chapter One considers the role of the novelist as revisionist historian and the potential for literature to pry open received histories of settlement. Grenville and Flanagan, two of Australia’s most popular literary authors, have both written novels that reframe and ground the History Wars. Drawing from the novelists’ own family histories, Death of a River Guide (Flanagan 1994) and The Secret River (Grenville 2005b) dramatise different aspects of frontier conflict and attempt to deal with the troubled and sometimes obscured origins of the family. The figure of the convict, a stain on the good name of a family, is hidden in the past; so too are their relations with the traditional owners of the land. Both novels ask how to confront what we know or imagine the actions of our ancestors to be, and flay open the guilt and responsibility we may feel for the secret histories that shape our families. Two life writing texts – Morgan’s My Place (1988) and Scott and Brown’s Kayang & Me (2005) – are our focus in Chapter Two. Each book details the experience of uncovering and/or reconnecting with Indigenous heritage in the wake of destructive colonial policies. They offer unique insights into how knowledge is both withheld and transmitted between generations. In this chapter we will discuss the rich and sometimes conflicting sources from which family stories are drawn, particularly the tension between oral histories and public archives. The means by which the Stolen Generations and their descendants must piece together fractured histories from government records, which are often traumatic to read, reveals the extent to which the identity and experience of the family is entwined with the nation and its social policies. We examine how collaboratively written intergenerational family histories offer testimonies of both trauma and resilience. Chapter Three moves our focus to the intergenerational memory and complex family histories of Chinese Australians. Imagining the experiences and motivations of ancestors who travel between the two continents, Miller’s The Ancestor Game (1992) and Castro’s Birds of Passage (1983) and Shanghai Dancing (2003) explore family histories that tie China to Australia. They Introduction 15 encounter the racism and trauma underpinning the Chinese experience of the Gold Rush in Australia, but also the wider repercussions of migration and displacement on the experience of belonging in a new country. In addition to their mappings of Chinese/Australian history, the novels cohere around ideas and objects of writing and script, and offer the opportunity to consider the role of material cultures in family histories. All three are focussed meditations on the power and value of material cultures, particularly written forms. In Chapter Four, we travel away from the Australian continent to explore representations of belonging, diaspora, and return. Issues of diasporic experience and second generation alienation and belonging animate Koch’s travel memoir The Many-Coloured Land (2002) and Tsiolkas’ novel Dead Europe (2005). Two radically different works, Koch’s is a nostalgic return to Ireland to explore cultural heritage through song, while in Tsiolkas’ novel the protagonist Isaac, a photographer, journeys through Greece, the Balkans, and Western Europe. Encountering the ghosts of his family history, and the history of Europe, in the photographs he takes, Isaac is a witness to and embodiment of the anti-Semitism and exploitation that still lingers there. With close attention to Tsiolkas and Koch’s narratives of nostalgic and haunted return, we situate these texts within a global phenomenon of roots tourism and the return to ancestral lands. The final chapter returns us to continental Australia and one of the defining moments of modern Australian history, the 1992 Mabo court ruling, which recognised that Indigenous Australians occupied and owned the land prior to being dispossessed by colonial settlers. McGahan’s The White Earth (2004) examines the dynamics of secrecy and suppression obscuring that foundational (and ongoing) violence. Bringing intergenerational trauma to the surface, we argue that McGahan’s novel is a striking portrait of how family and local histories are intertwined in the fabric of national mythologies of ownership and belonging. 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