Bulletin of Portuguese - Japanese Studies ISSN: 0874-8438 [email protected] Universidade Nova de Lisboa Portugal

Ruiz de Medina, Juan The role of the Blind Hóshi troubadours in the History of the Christian Mission in Bulletin of Portuguese - Japanese Studies, núm. 6, june, 2003, pp. 107-145 Universidade Nova de Lisboa Lisboa, Portugal

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THE ROLE OF THE BLIND BIWA HÓSHI TROUBADOURS IN THE HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN MISSION IN JAPAN

Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J. (†) Historic Institute of the Society of Jesus, Rome

When the Christian mission began in Japan, in the mid 16th century, vocal and instrumental music were at their zenith in the court and amongst the common people. The origins of this music are lost in the mists of time and it is impossible to identify the date or period in which they commenced. We shall leave the task of analysing its development to the experts, particu- larly with regard to the style of courtesan music from the (794-858).

I

1. Vocal and instrumental music in ancient Japan

1.1. Percussion instruments

Throughout Japan, there existed percussion instruments of sizeable dimensions, such as the bells with an external clapper of wood (the trunk of a tree placed in a horizontal position), as well as the enormous ritual drums installed in Buddhist temples or taken through the streets in carriages during popular processions. There were also smaller drums, timbrels, tambourines, cymbals (shó) and metal triangles that were struck with a stick, or some simple rattles, two broad pieces of wood, similar to those that young children nowadays carry through the streets of the city’s quarters to remind the residents with their clicks and a pleasant little tune, that they should extin- guish their home fires before retiring to sleep: “Matchi ippon kaji no moto. Yojin seyo!” [A single match can ignite a fire. Be careful!] Other percussion instruments included the diminutive ceramic bells that were suspended, and continue to be suspended even today, over the thresholds of doors and windows, so that the movement of the wind would cause a barely perceptible tinkle that was, however, sufficient to create the sensation of freshness even at the height of the blazing summer heat. Here, one could also mention that the sandals so typical of Japan, known as geta in Japanese, made from soft wood mounted on harder heels, 108 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J. were habitually manufactured in such a way so that the left and right feet produced sounds of a different when the wood struck the pavement. The traditional footwear worn by Japanese children is also often adorned with tiny little bells.

1.2. Wind instruments

Ancient Japanese wind instruments included enormous marine conch shells that produced esoteric sounds. Later, the made from bamboo appeared, with their high or low tesiture scales that varied according to their length and diameter. Another wind instrument typical of the Far East, whose characteristics varied from country to country, was the shó, whose ideogram can be interpreted as “living bamboo”. In Japan, this instrument consisted of 17 slim tubes of bamboo grouped together verti- cally. Curiously, the sounds were produced by blowing air from the mouth through an orifice in the base of the instrument and also by breathing in. The shó was only used in the Gagaku style of courtesan music.

1.3. String instruments, played by plucking and picking

1.3.1. The

From amongst the various Japanese string instruments, the elegant Koto, a kind of horizontal harp with ten or more strings, stretched over a broad, low and curved acoustic box, stands out. Each string rests upon a pivot made of ivory or paste that the artist displaces to accommodate the vibrations of the strings to the scale of the tonality that he is going to execute. The Koto is an instrument that produces a rich sonority that needs no accompaniment, although it is a common sight to see sets of two or three pieces played together. It is not just used to accompany the human voice. In 1957, against the vast backdrop of the Hibiya Hall in Tokyo, I had the privi- lege of attending a spectacular concert of 16 Kotos, played by themselves in various pieces during the programme, and accompanied by 80 in other compositions.

1.3.2.

The dry and harsh sounds of the Shamisen are in stark contrast with the sounds of the Koto. The novelist José Maria Gironella even termed them “offensive to the ear”. It is undoubtedly an instrument that is indispensable The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 109 for the vocalist who wishes to experiment with ancient popular traditions and the songs sung in the Japanese style that are so in vogue nowadays. The artist grips a by means of which he produces sounds from the three strings of silk stretched over the width of the slim mast mounted over a small quadrangular resonance box that is sealed with cat skin. Pressure exerted by the fingers of the left hand upon each string produces the tremu- lous vibrations that disguise the harsh strokes of the plectrum that is held in the right hand.

1.3.3. Origins of the Biwa. Different kinds of Biwa

The Biwa, a kind of four stringed mounted over a shallow, oval shaped wooden box, is the third kind of and is more elab- orate than the Shamisen. Luís Fróis described it thus:

“Our violas have six strings, besides the double course, and are played by hand. Those of Japan [have] four, and are played with a kind of comb”.1

Experts on the history of Japanese music have traced the ancient origins of the Biwa to the Middle East, the birthplace of a variety of instru- ments played by plucking and picking that were popularised over the course of many centuries in Asia and Southern Europe. The Biwa gradually spread to Japan from the 7th century onwards and was adapted into different vari- ants that were generally more sober than its counterparts in neighbouring and Korea. Like the Shamisen, the Biwa served to showcase vocal music. In the 7th and 8th centuries the Gaku Biwa model made its appear- ance, destined to accompany the music of the court known as Gagaku. In the 8th century the Moso Biwa or Kojin Biwa was developed in Miyako (Kyoto), to be used by and to accompany religious songs offered to the presiding deities of the kitchen, the most important room in the household. From this Moso Biwa the Satsuma Biwa and Chikuzen Biwa models developed in and Fukuoka, respectively. In the more jocular environments that were to be found on the same island of Kyushu,

1 “As nossas violas tem seis cordas, afora as dobradas, e tanjem-se com a mão. As de japão 4, e tamjen-se com uma maneira de pentes (peines)”; L. Fróis, Contradições e diferenças de custumes… (1585), Portuguese original and German translation edited by J. F. Schütte entitled Kulturgegensätze Europa-Japan (Tokyo, 1955), henceforth referred to as Contradições. 110 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J. the Kokkei Biwa or comic Biwa flourished, and the province of Kumamoto contributed with the development of the Higo Biwa, yet another model of Biwa that served to add lustre to recitals of well known Japanese legends.

1.3.3.1. The Biwa’s popularity

The combination of recitative and musical elements interested both nobles and commoners. In public squares and street corners, the people would gather around to hear the comic or heroic tales sung by itinerant musicians, who can be equated with the European bards who exemplified the Celtic tradition, the Provençal troubadours or the jesters of the Iberian “master of the art of histrionics” tradition. From the 13th century onwards, the Japanese aristocracy manifested great interest in the art, inviting the troubadours to play the Biwa in the soothing environs of their drawing rooms. The recitals were called Joruri, and favourite themes included the heroic exploits of past ages, such as the stories of the pilgrimage of the bonzo Benkei who accompanied Fujiwara Hidehira, or the poem Heike Monogatari and others, attributed to Hamuro Tokinaga, a Japanese nobleman. It is said that when he finished his masterpiece, he taught a blind bonzo to recite the poem, while he himself provided the accompaniment to his recital, playing the Biwa to provide a musical backdrop.

1.3.3.2. The Biwa Hóshi masters - The sightless

The legend of Hamuro Tokinaga, whether it was true or not, served to bring renown to the musicians who were members of the Japanese aristoc- racy as well as the multitude of bonzos who taught this art. Three centuries later, Luís Fróis provided us with a somewhat succinct image of these trou- badours, omitting the noblemen and putting the bonzos in their place:

“Amongst us [the Europeans], the aristocracy takes pride in playing the viola. In Japan it is the task of the blind, much in the same manner as the organ-grinders in Europe .…The bonzos teach them how to play, sing, practice the art of sword play etc.”2

Rodrigues Girão does not limit the role of bard to the blind alone, nor does he affirm that it was only the bonzos who were masters of the Biwa.

2 “Antre nós [os europeos] a jente nobre se preza de tanjer violas. Em Japão hé oficio dos cegos, como em Europa os samfonineiros… Os bonzos os ensinão a tanjer, cantar, esgrimir &c.”; Fróis, Contradições. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 111

In 1607, he wrote that a pagan nobleman

“had the task of teaching the sons of some noblemen to read and write, and also to play and to sing. This individual, having been persuaded by one of them – who was Christian – to hear the things of our holy law, took it so much to heart that he, along with a son, immediately became a Christian. When the bonzo, his priest, came to know of this, he tried with all means at his disposal to make him recant. And in the same way some heathen friends… The Christian responded to these messages saying that he thanked the good will that they showed him thus, and that he had become a Christian because he had clearly understood that there was no salvation to be had in any of the sects in Japan, and that only the law of the Christians that he had received had this [salvation], and he would die in this faith”.3

As one can see, this tutor was neither a bonzo nor was he blind, given that he taught his pupils how to read and write. The disciples of the bonzos were called dójuku,4 young boys and adoles- cents who generally were not blind. They lived as resident apprentices in the teragoyas or schools of the Buddhist temples and the common people some- times considered them to be bonzo apprentices, known as kozó. A fair percentage of these dójuku were from good families, and there are many instances of offspring from noble families. To cite a curious example, the dictator Hideyoshi was a student at a teragoya until he escaped from the school at the age of fifteen to begin a career in arms.

3 “Tinha por officio ensinar a ler e escrevir, e também tanger e cantar a alguns filhos de homens nobres. O qual, sendo persuadido por hum delles – que era christão – que ouvisse as cousas de nossa santa lei, fez tam bom entendimento que logo se fez christão com hum filho seu. O que sabendo o bonzo – seu cura – pretendeo com todas as forças fazello retroceder. E da mesma maneira alguns amigos gentios…. A este recado respondeo o christão que lhe agradecia a boa vontade que nisto lhe mostravão, que elle se tinha feito christão por entender bem que em nenhuma das seitas de Japam avia salvaçam, e que só esta [salvação] avia na lei dos christãos que elle recebera, e nella avia de morrer”; ARSI (Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu) Japonica Sinica section, 55, fl. 421 v, fragm. Henceforth cited as Jap.Sin. along with the number of the codex. 4 Cf. J. Ruiz-de-Medina, “El neologismo dójuku – datos históricos”, in Archivum Historicum Societatus Iesu Magazine (AHSI, Rome, first semester 1999). One can also consult my book Documentos del Japón 1547-1557, Appendix 3 “Dójuku, kanbó, komono”, and the entry *niños in the index of the book, Vol. 137 of the MHSI, Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu (Rome 1990) the first critical edition of 131 documents of the early period of the Church in Japan. Henceforth cited as Mon. Jap. II. 112 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

It is said that the incorporation of music of the Biwa into the narrative art was consolidated in the court of Miyako in the 13th century, possibly during the reign of the young Emperor Gouda (1275-1287), son of the Emperor Kameyama. To be blind was not an indispensable prerequisite to aspire to the title of Biwa Hóshi, however, thanks to the patronage of the aristocracy, the blind were undoubtedly the most conspicuous group of musicians. Ever since the (1392-1480) the musicians belonging to the highest category received the honorific title of Kengyó, that was originally conferred upon some court officials and certain authorities in Buddhist temples. Luís Fróis wrote:

“It is the custom of the lords of Gokinai [the area of the court] to be served in their houses and to have in them a blind youth for two purposes: in the first place for their recreation and to pass time listening to them sing and play and narrate the ancient stories of Japan. And secondly, to send them out with their messages, as they are generally very discreet and skilled in taking care of affairs”.5

II

1. The missionaries’ first contacts with the Japanese troubadours

Against this background of Japanese society the first groups of mission- aries made their appearance. Given the popularity of the Satsuma Biwa model, the first encounter that Xavier, Cosme de Torres and Juan Fernández had with the itinerant musicians of Japan must have taken place as early as 1549 in the streets of Kagoshima, the main port of the lord of Satsuma’s territories. In the Spring of 1551, then in Yamaguchi, one of these almost blind street troubadours, called Ryósai, unexpectedly appeared, perhaps, who knows, with his in hand, at the doorstep of the ruined Daidoji temple that Xavier had transformed into the first Christian church in Japan. Xavier and Juan Fernández intuitively guessed that this young troubadour would be an important element for their evangelical

5 “He custume dos senhores de Gokinai [la zona de la corte] serviren-se em suas casas e terem nellas hum cego mancebo pera dous effectos: o primeiro pera sua recreação e passatempo em os ouvirem cantar e tanger e contaren-lhe as historias antigas de Japão. O 2.º pera os mãodarem com seus recados fora, por serem geralmente muito discretos e hábiles pera tratarem negóceos”; Fróis, Hirado, 2nd Oct. 1587, Jap.Sin. 51, fl. 33 v. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 113 activities at the newly created church. Ryósai was born in 1525 in Shirashi, a coastal village on the island of Hirado, facing the island of Ikitsuki.6 Xavier’s intuition soon became a reality when the young troubadour embraced the Christian faith a few days later, taking the name of Lourenço and joined the mission, living together with the missionaries and efficiently assisting them in their preaching and in the catechesis. Three years later, when Xavier had already died in Sanshoan, Brother Pedro de Alcáçova wrote the following about Lourenço:

“[The Superior Cosme de Torres] is accompanied by a Japanese who can barely see, who knows God’s things very well by heart, [and] is of great assistance for the Father. Because when the Father begins some great debate, he immediately turns to him, and as he is very intelligent and is skilled at orating about God’s things, the Father leaves him to debate with the Japanese”.7

In 1555 Ryósai Lourenço donned the habit of a Jesuit brother for the first time. In 1593 Melchior de Figueiredo notified the General Aquaviva of his death:

“The Japanese Brother Lourenço was a man of little fortune in this world, and so deprived of vision in the one eye that he had that he was almost blind. And in this world he earned his liveli- hood doing the job that the blind do, i.e. to sing and play the ancient stories of Japan. He was a man of many talents and was endowed with a natural eloquence, and very contemptable in the behaviour of his limbs, who revealed himself to be a great preacher of the cathecism and thus gave sermons throughout the year… A Japanese nobleman, lord of a village, who converted and became a Christian because of Lourenço’s preaching, said in praise of the faith that he had embraced: «One of my main reasons for embracing the law of God as the true faith is the splendour and grace that God gives to the words of Lourenço’s preaching. Because it is not possible, humanly speaking, that I would change

6 J. Ruiz-de-Medina, Mon.Jap. II, doc. 127 §, p. 103. 7 “Está em sua companhia [do superior Cosme de Torres] hum japão que vê muito pouco, o qual sabe muito bem as cousas de Deos de cór, que hé grande ajuda pera o padre. Porque como o padre começa alguma disputa grande, logo a elle toma, e por ter grande juiso e língoa pera falar as cousas de Deos, deixa-o o padre disputar com os japões”; Mon.Jap. II, p. 428. 114 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

my life and subject myself in all affairs and advice to Lourenço, as he is such a low and despicable man in this world»”.8

Cosme de Torres had trusted him completely right from the very begin- ning, and in 1555 entrusted him with matters of great importance, such as the Superiors’ visit to the Buddhist monasteries of Tonomine and Momonoo in Yamato, and Hieizan to the north of Kyoto, for which purpose he provided him with a companion in the form of Barnabus, who had been a Buddhist bonzo in Tonomine. Lourenço of Hirado was not the only one who lived with the mission- aries in Yamaguchi, right from Xavier’s time. Later accounts narrate that Tobias, an 8 or 10 year old blind boy, also lived with them, “a poor blind boy who was a Christian since the time when the Father Master Francisco baptised him”, in 1551, and that “he was raised in the house from child- hood”, a stereotypical phrase to indicate that he lived under the same roof as the Jesuits.9 Reading the events and vicissitudes of Tobias’ relatively brief life, it is obvious that the blind boy was one of the first Christian disciples of the Biwa Hóshi Lourenço, being instructed both in the field of music as well as in the art of narrating epic and biblical stories.

2. The musical ambience inside and outside the church

We have mentioned the names of two blind Christians who flourished within the church as if by spontaneous generation. However, reality was very different. The European missionaries who arrived in Japan carried with them a rich liturgical tradition expressed in melodies that were acces- sible to the people, both inside and outside the temple. These melodies and popular hymns, so exotic to Japanese ears, were very well received in the newly created church, right from the very beginning. On Christmas day

8 “O irmão Lourenço jappão foi no mundo homem de pouca sorte, e tão caresido da vista de hum só olho que tinha que era quasi cego. E no mundo ganhava sua sustenção em executar o officio dos cegos, que hé cantar e tanger as antigas histórias de Jappão. Foi homem de muita habildade e eloquencia natural, e mui desprezível na compostura de seus membros corporais, o qual sahio grande pregador do cathecismo, e assi pregaçõis de todo o anno … Hum nobre jappão e senhor de huma villa, que se converteo e fez christão por as pregações de Lourenço, disse em louvor da fee que recebeo: «Hum dos principais argumentos que tenho para receber a lei de Deos por verdadeira hé o esplendor e graça que Deos dá às palavras da pregação de Lourenço, porque não hé possível, humanamente falando, que eu ouvera de trocar minha vida e sogeitarme em todo negócio e conselhos a Lourenço, por ser hum tão baixo e vil homem no mundo»”; Figueiredo, Goa, 20th Nov. 1593, Jap.Sin. 12 II, fl. 134. 9 Francisco Carrión, Jap.Sin. 46, fl. 28 v; Fróis, Jap.Sin. 51, fl. 33 v. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 115

1552 Baltasar Gago, Pedro de Alcáçova and Duarte da Silva, who had recently arrived in Japan, met with Cosme de Torres and Juan Fernández in Yamaguchi and decided to celebrate a sung Mass, despite the lack of sacred vestments and the absence of an organ. It was probably the first sung Mass that was ever held in Japan. Alcáçova described the occasion in a letter:

“The Midnight Mass was sung, in this manner: Father Cosme de Torres said the Mass, and Father Baltasar Gago the Gospel and epistles, dressed in an alb, and stole, as the deacon, and we [the three brothers] answered in the refrain… Even though our voices were not good, the Christians took great solace from hearing it… And even though the Japanese say that our singing is very tedious, it would appear that the love that the Christians have for God’s things made them like our singing. And, thus, they listened to the Mass with great devotion”.10

Years later, Fróis described, rather jocularly, how European and Japanese music was different and how its interpretation had few points in common:

“For us, the melody of the harpsichord, viola, flutes, organs, pipes etc. are soothing to the ear. To the Japanese, all our instru- ments are unpleasant and disagreeable … Amongst us, the music of different voices is pleasing and sonourous; the , as everyone shrieks in one voice, is the most horrendous that one can imagine. In all the nations of Europe there exists a throat. Amongst the Japanese, nobody trills. The harmony and proportion of our music of organ chants [polyphony, as opposed to plain or Gregorian chants] is held in great esteem. The Japanese consider it to be caxi- maxi [kashimashi, commotion] and do not like it at all… In Europe, boys sing eight notes higher than men. In Japan they all sing in the same note, shrieking in the note in which the treble is at rest”.11

10 “A Missa do Galo se dixe cantada, desta maneira: o padre Cosme de Torres dizia a missa, e o padre Baltasar Gago o evangelho e ipístola, revestido em huma alva, e estola, como diácono, e nós [os três irmãos] respondiamos as cousas do canto… Ainda que não forão com boas vozes, consolarão-se muito os christãos com na ouvir… E ainda que os japões dizem que hé enfada- mento nosso cantar, parece que o amor que os christãos têm às cousas de Deos lhes fazia gostarem do nosso canto. E assi ouvirão a missa com muita devação”; Pedro de Alcáçova, Goa, March 1554, Mon.Jap. II, doc. 88 §§ 16-17, p. 56. 11 “Antre nós hé suavissima a melodia do cravo, viola, frautas, orgãos, doçainas etc. Aos japões todos nossos instrumentos lhe são insuaves e desgostozos… Antre nós a música de diversas 116 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

3. Indigenous forms of music accepted by the Church

Fortunately, the proverbial predisposition of the Japanese to assimilate novel elements without losing sight of their traditions paved the way for musical innovation. In their turn, the foreigners showed an inclination to accept the melodic and recitative genre that was so typical of the Japanese, even though both Fróis as well as José Maria Gironella found it to be far from pleasing to the ear. In his daily interaction with Ryósai Lourenço, Cosme de Torres saw that popular Japanese music had faithfully trans- mitted mythical and profane legends and stories from generation to gener- ation, and took his first steps to adapting himself to his new environment in this land. From the very beginning of the mission some Christians had begun to write pericopes from the Gospel and from the Bible in general, in their own hand, translated into their language by brother Juan Fernández, with the help of native experts. Brother Duarte da Silva 12 soon followed in his footsteps as did, from 1559 onwards, Father Gaspar Vilela.13 Native masters of the art of poetry went one step further, transforming biblical episodes into verses. However, the main form of diffusion was by oral means. The scarcity of books, produced by xilography, was efficiently substi-

vozes hé sonora e suave; a de Japão, como todos se esganisão em huma só vox, hé a mais horrenda que se pode dar. Antre as nações d’Europa em todas há garganta. Antre os japões nenhum gargantea. A consonansia e proporsão da nossa múzica de canto d’orgão [polifonia, en contraposición al canto llano o gregoriano] estimamos em muito; os japões a têm por caxi- maxi [kashimashi, alboroto] e não gostão nada della… Em Europa os meninos cantão 8 pontos mais alto que os homens. Em Japão todos em igual ponto, esganiçando-sse no ponto em que o tipre está descansado”; Fróis, Contradições. 12 “We never knew him to be idle for even an hour, due to which he not only dominated the Japanese alphabet, but also that of China, that are very difficult. He invented the art of Japan, and compiled very copious language vocabularies [Nunca o soubemos huma ora estar ocioso, donde veo não somente alcançar as letras de Iapão, mas as da China, que são muito difficul- tosas. Elle enventou a arte de Iapão et fez vocabularios da lingoa muito copiosos]”. [Luís de Almeida, Bungo, 14th October 1564, on the death of Duarte da Silva, Cartas de Évora 1598, Vol. I, fls. 154 ss.]. 13 “At forty years of age, his hair is completely grey, as though he were sixty… He speaks the language of this court, that is the main and cleanest one of all Japan… And has been tran- scribing some devotional books and the good doctrine in this same language. Now he is in the process of doing the Flos Sanctorum for the consolation of the Christians, a lot of which has already been done [Com ser de 40 anos, está já todo branco como se fosse de sesenta… Fala a lingoa desta corte, que hé a principal e mais pulida de todo Japão... e tem tresladados alguns livros devotos e de boa douctrina na mesma lingoa. Agora vay fazendo o Flos Sanctorum pera consolação dos christãos, que já está meyo feyto]”. [Fróis, Miyako, 25th January 1565, Jap.Sin. 5, fl. 204 v]. “This year he transcribed the Frol Sanctorum and other devotional books into the [Japanese] language for the benefit of the souls [Tresladou este anno na lingoa o Frol Santorum e outros livros devotos pera proveito das almas]”. [Fróis, , 30th June, 1566, Cartas de Évora, Vol. I, fls. 206 v-207]. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 117 tuted by rhythm and the recitation of ballads and songs composed by Chris- tian converts “in their own manner”, as one frequently reads in the letters dating from the early years of the mission and in subsequent periods. The use of this indigenous music ensured that the texts of the Scriptures perme- ated the memories and hearts of these new Christians:

“The festival of the birth of our Lord is celebrated here with grand solemnity, because many mysteries of the Old and New Testament are enacted, such as the story of Adam to that of Noah, which has been translated into verse in the Japanese language, and almost all the Christians know these verses by heart and sing them while they walk and are in their festivals. We found that this was one of the best ways with these people, so that they stopped singing their heathen songs and sang those of the Lord. And in this manner they come to know much of the Scriptures by heart, which greatly helps them to have more faith”.14 “The [Christmas] repast was not like that which one normally has in other lands, but at night, accompanied by many stories from the Scriptures that the nobles in their devotion and discern- ment render into verse to be sung”.15

4. Music in theatre

The introduction of a dramatic technique with spaces for ballads was a well-known feature in the Christian history of Japan from the very begin- ning. This initiative, first witnessed in Yamaguchi and shortly after in Bungo, was the brainchild of Cosme de Torres, a former professor and tutor of adolescents and youngsters in the Estudios Generales of Randa (Mallorca, where he even reminded one of Raimundo Lulio), Valencia and Ulldecona (Tarragon). Cosme knew how to set new ideas into motion and characteris-

14 “A festa do nacimento do Senhor se celebra cá com grande solenidade, porque se repre- sentão muitos mistérios do testamento velho e novo, como hé a história de Adam até Noe, a qual está traduzida em verso em lingoa de Japão, os quaes versos quasi todos os christãos sabem de cor e os cantão quando caminham, e estão em suas festas. Foi este hum dos melhores modos que se podera achar pera com esta gente, e pera deixarem seus cantares gentilicos, e cantarem os do Senhor. E desta maneira ficão sabendo grande parte da escritura de cor, o que não poucos os ajuda pera terem mais fé”; J. B. de Monte, Bungo, 9th October 1564, Cartas de Évora, Vol. I, fl. 154. 15 “A consoada [do Natal] não foi como se costuma a fazer em outras terras, mas á noite, acompanhada de muitas historias da escritura que os fidalgos por seu gosto e devação fazem em versos pera os cantarem”; Fróis, Sakai 30th June 1566, Cartas de Évora, Vol. I, fls. 206 v-207. 118 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J. tically left the choice of theme, its development and realisation to his disci- ples. Brother Juan Fernández elucidated upon the activities of the Chris- tians of Bungo in the following words:

“About 20 days before last Christmas [1560] the Father said to two or three Christians that they should enact some kind of a play so that everyone could rejoice in our Lord on Christmas night, not telling them what they should do, but leaving it up to them. When Christmas night came around, they came up with so many inven- tions with regard to the things that they had heard about the sacred scriptures, that one should praise the Lord. First, they enacted the fall of Adam, and the hope of redemption: and for this purpose they placed an apple tree with some golden apples in the middle of the Church, beneath which tree Lucifer tricked Eve, and all this with their songs in Japanese… And after the fall they were cast out from Paradise by the Angel: which was the cause of much lamentation and weeping, because the material was so moving, and the figures were so devout and graceful that there was no one in the audience who was not moved. Shortly afterwards, Adam and Eve left with the clothing that God had given them, and an Angel immediately appeared comforting them with the hope that they would be redeemed… After this they enacted the two women who went to seek justice from Solomon: this enactment was good and caused much confusion amongst the women who in this land kill their children… And in the same way, many passages from the sacred scriptures… And they said all this in song, and the Christians would reply to them from the other side, helping them to say these songs”.16

16 “Obra de vinte dias antes do natal passado [1560] disse o padre a dous ou tres christãos que fizessem alguma representação com que a noite do Natal se alegrassem todos em o Senhor, e isto não lhe determinando o que avião de fazer, mas deixando-o nelles: os quaes quando veo a noite do Natal sayrão com tantas invenções ao propósito de cousas que elles tinhão ouvidas da sagrada escritura, que era pera louvar a Deos. Primeiramente representárão a cayda de Adam, e a esperança da redenção: e pera isso poserão em o meo da Igreja huma maceira com huns pomos dourados, debaixo de qual árvore enganou Lucifer a Eva, e isto com seus motetes em japão... e depois da cayda forão polo Anjo lançados do paraiso: o qual foi causa de muito mais choro e pranto, porque com a matéria tomàrão causa pera isso, e erão as figuras tão airosas e devotas que nam avia quem não chorasse. Dahi a pouco sahio Adam e Eva com a vestidura que Deos lhe dera, e apareceo logo hum Anjo confortando-os com a esperança que avião de ser remidos… Depois disto representárão aquellas duas molheres que pedirão justiça a Salamão: a qual representação foi boa pera confusão das molheres que nesta terra matão seus filhos… e assi outros muitos passos da sagrada escritura… E isto tudo dezia hum em cantigas, e respondião-lhe da outra parte os christãos, ajudando-lhe a dizer as mesmas cantigas”; Jap.Sin. 4, fl. 21 v, Portuguese version from Cartas de Évora, Vol. I, fl. 79. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 119

The imagination of the Christians of Hirado was not just limited to the Bible. On Christmas day 1564 they “staged a play in which they enacted the arrival of the fathers from Rome in Japan, moved by piety, considering the blindness in which the Japanese were subject to the demon in ignorance of their Creator” 17 and, as a grande finale to this one act play, “finished by singing the Ten Commandments and the general confession in their language. And later, in another play, they depicted the shepherds, who upon hearing the news of the birth went to adore the Redeemer…. playing instruments and dancing, with songs of Our Lady and Jesus Christ in their language”.18 That night must have been a spectacular success because the lords of the region,

“Koteda Don António and his brother Don Juan… were singing and playing instruments with the other Christians in a very familiar fashion. And Don António presented one Christian, who is a good singer, with a Japanese costume in silk, as a sign of his happiness, for which he first asked the Father, who was there watching them sing and play, for permission”.19

5. Vernacular accompaniments to the Latin liturgy

Even the Liturgy, dominated by Latin in those early years, was abun- dantly complemented by hymns and melodies in the Japanese language, accompanied by European instrumental music from 1561 onwards, when the Portuguese master Aires Sanches arrived in Bungo:

“On Saturdays, one sings Salve [Regina], with violas d’arco, and on Sundays and Saints’ days they also play the viola during Mass; and they say some songs, all of which is done with great solemnity and devotion”.20

17 “Fizeron hun auto en que representarão la vinida de los padres de Roma para Japão, movidos de piedad, considerando la cegera con que los japones estavão sujeytos al demonio ynorando a su Criador”; Juan Fernández, 10th February 1565, Jap.Sin. 5, fl. 207. 18 “Acabavão cantado los dez mandamentos y la confición geral en su lengoa. Y luego, en outro auto, representarão los pastores, que oyendo la noeva del nacimiento yban adorar al Redentor… tanjendo e bailando, con canticas de Nosa Señora y de jesu Christo en su lengoa”; Ibidem. 19 “Koteda don António e su hermano Koteda don Juan… estuvieron cantando e tanjendo con los outros christianos muy familiarmente. Y a hun cristão que es buen cantor, dio aly Dom António un vestido de seda achara japán, en senal de alegria, para lo quoal pidió primero licencia al Padre, que se alló allí viéndolos cantar y tanjer”; Ibidem. 20 “Aos sábados Salve [Regina] cantada, com violas d’arco, e aos domingos e santos também tangem as violas á missa; e disem alguns motetes, o que se faz tudo com muita solemnidade e devação”; Juan B. de Monte, Jap.Sin. 6, fl. 101. 120 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

On other occasions the role of musical instruments was reduced to a minimum:

“Brother João Fernández… led the way, dressed in a surplice, with his cap on his head. He is so thin that he could barely stand, merrily singing: “Dic nos [sic] Maria, quid vidisti in via?”. And an old Japanese man responded with a bowl and stick, which he played, as there were no other musical instruments in that land… They organ- ised themselves in the same church [Takushima] in two choirs, that of the men on one side and the women on the other… and performed some stories from the Old Testament rendered in prose… incorpo- rated in the mystery of that night [Christmas, 1563]”.21

In 1566, the main protagonist was a famous doctor of Miyako (Kyoto), a very cultured man who Gaspar Vilela “recruited” for the Church. He was

“a man of great standing [nobleman], from Sakai, the main city of the kingdom of Miyako, a man who was about 50 years of age, very good humoured and well versed in Japanese letters. He had been married in his land, and after converting he left his wife and house and children, desirous of serving our Lord, and came to find Father Cosme de Torres… He helped me [writes Figueiredo] in Ximabara [Shimabara] to catechise the heathens and preached on Sundays and festivals with great devotion and zeal for the benefit of the others as well as himself”.22

During Lent, 1566 and for the festival of the Resurrection

“our companion Paulo, had rendered into the Japanese language, in a certain kind of verse that the Japanese habitually sing, the

21 “O irmão João Fernández… Hia diante vestido em huma sobrepelis, com sua capela na cabeça. Hé elle tam magro que se não podia ter em pé, muito alegre cantando: “Dic nos [sic] Maria, quid vidisti in via?” E da outra parte lhe respondia hum japão velho com huma bazia e hum pao com que ia tamgendo, por na terra não aver outros estromemtos músicos… Puserão-se na mesma igreja [Takushima] en dous choros, hos homens ha huma parte, e as molheres da outra… e registaram por maneira de prosas algumas estorias do Testamento Velho… accomodadas ao mistério daquela noite [Natal, 1563]; Fróis, Hirado 3rd October 1564, Jap.Sin. 5, fl. 116. 22 “Hum homem honrado [fidalgo] natural de Sacay, principal cidade do reino de Miaco, homem de idade de 50 annos, muito bem disposto e grande leterado nas letras japonicas, o qual sendo casado em sua terra, depois de se converter deixou a molher e casa e filhos com deseio de servir o nosso Senhor, e se veyo a buscar o padre Cosme de Torres… Ajudava-me [escribe Figueiredo] em Ximabara [Shimabara] a cathecizar os gentios e pregava aos domingos e festas com muita devação e zelo de aproveitar a sy e aos outros”; Melchior de Figueiredo, Shimabara, 13th September 1566, Jap.Sin. 6, fl. 124. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 121

entire story of the burial of Christ, and that of the Angel’s answer to the Marias who went to visit him; which… the young sons and daughters of the Christians enacted, to the great satisfaction of everyone”.23

This doctor and scholar was called Yóhó Paulo, and in 1580, at the age of 64, he entered the ranks of the Society of Jesus as a brother along with one of his sons, Hóin Vicente, who was also a well known doctor in the capital. In short, before the written word was defused on a large scale, the echoes of the spoken word, recited and sung, went well beyond the confines of the handful of churches in those initial years of the Japanese mission.

“These songs were ordained in order that they forget their songs that they continually sing. To such an extent that in this land already one does not hear any songs other than those that they are taught in the church”.24

6. The catechesis in song

The European missionaries, particularly those from the Iberian Penin- sula, who were used to the catechetical pedagogy of easy rhythms and popular melodies taught the native catechists the fundamentals of what was at the time known as “the doctrine” by means of a catechesis in song, complete with questions and answers, as a complement to the liturgy. The learning of this catechesis facilitated the well-known retentive capacity of Japanese adults and children. Or at least that was the case according to what brother Luis de Almeida wrote in November, 1563 to the Jesuits in India about their activities in Kuchinotsu and Yokoseura, towns in the province of Nagasaki:

“In this place there must be around 200 children, of whom 60 or 70, and sometimes more, come to the doctrine, and all of them

23 “Nosso companheiro Paulo, tinha feito na lingoa de Japão, em certo modo de verso que costumão cantar os japões, toda a historia do sepulchro de Christo, e a da reposta do anjo aas marias que o forão visitar; a qual… representarão os meninos e meninas filhas dos christãos, com muita satisfação de todos”; Melchior de Figueiredo, Shimabara, 13th September 1566, Jap.Sin. 6, fl. 124. 24 “Estas camtigas se ordenarão pera que se esquecesem das suas que comtinuamente camtão. Hé de maneira que já neste lugar se não ouvem outras cantiguas senão as que na igreja lhes insinão”; Luis de Almeida, Jap.Sin. 5, fl. 97. 122 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

are very clean as they are the children of well to do men… The songs that they continually sing are those of the doctrine, or of the Passion, or those of stories from the Old Testament, and everything is rendered in ballads, in their style… I, along with the three Portuguese, left for the port of Cochinochu [Kuchinotsu]… Once the doctrine was over I ordered that the boys sing some songs – for love of the Portuguese – from the Sacred Scripture, and some 7 or 8 of them began to sing the story of Adam and the evils that resulted from sin, with so much feeling that one could not hope for more in boys of such a tender age. And in the same way the girls sang the mysteries of the Passion with great devotion… On Easter day, after dinner, the Christians came to church, dressed in fine clothes, in the manner of men from Miyako, and everyone began to say, each in their turn, much prose in praise of God and of the Virgin, that gave us all much to rejoice in the Lord”.25

7. The soloists

At the time, ailing and handicapped individuals were always well received in the Christian communities in Japan. We have already dealt with this topic on several occasions, particularly in our article “Charity and the Jesuits”,26 where we have dwelt upon this subject in much detail. The missionaries’ attention to those who were physically or spiritually in need was recompensed by the positive contribution that these individuals made to the mission’s evangelical activities. From remote fiefdoms, many well to do individuals as well as bonzos or ex-bonzos came to Bungo, seeking the salubrious environs of the Misericórdia of Bungo’s hospital, and

25 “Averá neste lugar 200 mininos, dos quaes vem 60 ou 70, e ás vezes mais, á doutrina, e todos muito limpos por serem filhos de homens abastados… As cantigas que comtinuamente cantão, ou hé da doutrina, ou da Paixão, ou das Histórias do Testamento velho, e tudo em trova, à sua maneira… Eu com os três portugueses nos partimos pera o porto de Cochinochu [Kuchinotsu]… Acabada a doutrina mandei aos meninos que camtasem algumas cantigas – por amor dos portugueses – da Sagrada Scriptura, e começarão alguns 7 ou 8 a camtar a historia de Adão e dos males que vierão do pecado, com tanto semtimento que se não podia dizer mais em mininos de tão pouqua idade. E pola mesma maneira as meninas cantarão com muita devação os mistérios da paixão… O dia de Páscoa, depois de jantar, vierão os christãos á igreja mui bem vestidos, á laia dos homens do Meaco [Miyako], e começarão a dizer todos por seu ponto muitas prosas em louvor de Deos e da Virgem, que a todos nos deu muita alegria no Senhor”; Almeida, Ibidem. 26 “Los jesuitas y la beneficencia”; Mon.Jap. III (Rome, 1996) p. 657. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 123 often returned to their homes transformed into proselytisers of the religion of the foreign missionaries. Today, we shall discuss the role of those individuals who were practi- cally normal, lacking only the sense of sight, a shortcoming that was compensated for by an enviable memory and a well-known ability to communicate with others by means of their voices and the sounds of the Japanese Biwa. The welcoming environment of the church encouraged the recently converted Christians to spontaneously present their recitative and musical talents within the confines of the church. Some, such as Ryósai Lourenço, were accomplished masters, and many others began to familiarise themselves with the requirements of this art, such as the child Tobias in Yamaguchi and an exceedingly young 8 year old Christian troubadour from the city of Hita, who was in complete possession of his five physical senses. The artists themselves prepared the narratives dealing with Christian themes. Although these very same neophytes habitually took the initiative, on other occasions, however, the missionaries were responsible for the impetus. Amongst them, the personality of the Portuguese Gaspar Vilela, born in 1526 in Aviz, near Évora, stands out. From a tender age he was educated in the monastery of St. Benedict by the monks of the Order of Aviz, and later specialised in liturgical ceremonies and vocal music. Right from his first days in Japan, as far back as 1566, at a time when he did not understand the language, he had the opportunity of hearing the ballads sung by Ryósai Lourenço, by then a Jesuit brother. From September 1559 onwards, Lourenço was his companion who assisted in the foundation of the mission in Miyako, the capital, as well as in the installation of a modest oratory, in 1561. Attracted, perhaps by Vilela’s voice, and no doubt by the somewhat harsher voice of brother Lourenço, a blind troubadour who was interested in the Christian doctrine appeared at the doorstep of this humble chapel. Thus was found a new Biwa Hóshi for the mission’s evangelical activities, to whom Vilela gave the name Joseph upon baptism. We find the following reference to him in a letter penned by Figueiredo:

“There are always new catechumens, not only from the same region [Bungo] but even from other Kingdoms, from amongst whom it is of interest to note two individuals from Miyako who converted to Christianity, Lucas and Joseph… Joseph is a blind man who came from Miyako to earn his livelihood by singing and playing instruments, as is the blind habitually do in these lands. He is the son of a well respected citizen of Miyako… and because there was an obstacle to his becoming a Christian, namely that the blind sing stories in praise of their own sects, he took care of this 124 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

matter in such a way as to avoid the problem altogether. Thus, he ceased to travel throughout all these kingdoms that he had traversed earning his living, and was baptised and returned shortly after to his hometown, fervently desiring to persuade his father and relatives of the truth that he had received”.27

One often wonders if some of the texts and the music of these songs have been preserved but, alas, the answer is negative. Nevertheless, we do know with a fair degree of certainty that the majority narrated biblical stories and the lives of saints. In 1611, referring to the beatification of Ignatius de Loyola, Rodrigues Girão wrote about the

“songs that were again composed in praise of the saint, and were sung between psalms to the sound of musical instruments, the singing prevailing in the interval that was made specifically for this purpose”.28

But Cosme de Torres and Vilela were not the only ones who took an interest in the blind troubadours who converted to being catechists. The annual letter of 1586, penned by Fróis, also refers to the non Christian blind trou- badours and later mentions that,

“in some of our churches we also make use of them after they become Christians, but for a different purpose, namely, to teach the Christian doctrine from village to village, to preach to some heathens and recount the lives of saints and matters of God to the Christians”.29

27 “Sempre de novo há cathecumenos, não somente da mesma terra [Bungo] mas ainda de Reinos estranhos, entre os quaes se fizerão dous christãos do Miáco, convem a saber, Lucas e Joseph… Joseph hé hum cego que do Miáco veo à ganhar sua vida por cantar e tanger, como costumão os cegos nestas partes, o qual hé filho de hum homem honrado do Miáco… E porque pera se fazer christão avia hum empedimento, que hé cantarem os cegos as historias de suas seitas em seu favor, elle se preparou de maneira que evitaria todo o inconveniente, e por isso deixaria de correr todos os reinos pera que vinha determinado de andar ganhando, e se bautizou e tornou logo pera sua terra, muito desejoso de mover seu pai e parentes á verdade que recebeu”; Figueiredo, Bungo, 27th September 1567, Jap.Sin. 6, fl. 195. 28 “Cantigas que de novo se composeram em louvor do santo, e se cantaram entre psalmo e psalmo ao son dos instrumentos músicos, precedendo-lhe seu descante na pausa que pera isso se fazia”; Girão, Nagasaki, 10th March 1612, Jap.Sin. 57, fl. 137 and Jap.Sin. 64, fl. 98. 29 “Em algumas igreias nossas tambem uzamos delles depois que se fazem christãos, mas pera outro fim differente, que hé andarem insinando pellas aldeas a doctrina christãa, pregarem a alguns gentios e praticarem aos christãos as vidas dos sanctos e cousas de Deos”; Jap.Sin. 51, fl. 33 v. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 125

In 1591 other itinerant artists approached the church. In Katsusa in Arima, according to Fróis, two or three blind sorcerers converted to the Christian faith who influenced a certain number of Christians.30 Perhaps Francesco Pasio had these troubadours in mind when he wrote in 1594 that

“Seeing that since September ’93, after Quanbaco dono [Kanbaku] became lord of Miyako they were freer, they began to assiduously cultivate the Christian communities under their care… Instruct- ing some blind [troubadours] so that, instead of teaching the other frivolities and stories that such blind [troubadours] habitually teach and sing, now, after being converted, they become masters of the Christian doctrine and go about teaching it from village to village”.31

The blind troubadours’ preaching resulted in a large number of conver- sions from amongst the masses, though they did not limit themselves to popular audiences, as we shall see later in this article.

8. The hierarchy of the blind: The academy of blind graduates

Christian documents of the time speak of a large number of Japanese who had lost their sense of sight and, in general, one can state that their life depended upon their particular family situation. The blind troubadours of a lesser social status were in the habit of turning to the goodwill of the populace, but it would be incorrect to equate them with the musicians that we nowadays see busking in the corridors of the Underground Metropolitan stations in large capital cities. A blind musician accompanying his ballads with a Biwa was a troubadour by circumstance who was widely accepted in Japanese social life in the 16th and 17th centuries. Some were more fortunate than others, and, quite naturally, there existed jealousies and rivalries amongst them with regard to the payments and contributions made by their audiences.

30 Fróis, História V, p. 148. 31 “Viendo que desde el setienbro de 93, por aver tornado Quanbaco dono [Kanbaku] al Miaco [Miyako] quedavão más libres, começaron a cultivar muy de propósito las cristiandades que tenían a su cargo… Instruyéndose algunos ciegos para que, en lugar de enseñar otras vanidades y historias que comúnmente en Japón los dichos ciegos suelan enseñar y cantar, ahora, después de convertidos fuesen maestros de la doctrina cristiana y la fuesen enseñando por las aldeas”; Pasio, Nagasaki, 20th October 1594, Jap.Sin. 31, fl. 92. 126 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

The conversion of the troubadour Joseph of Miyako, to whom we have referred earlier, was fortuitous and enabled the missionaries to come into contact with another peculiar feature of Japanese life. Luis Fróis, Francesco Pasio, Organtino Soldo, Lourenço Mexia, João Rodrigues Girão and many others referred to this phenomenon. Fróis wrote that,

“In Japan, the blind are held in great esteem, and have a certain kind of monarchy amongst themselves, based upon ancient laws and privileges. Due to the fact that the individual who is the head of all the others lives in Miyako, and they recog- nise his as their prince and superior, he is a very respected digni- tary. Because in their monarchy, the blind have different hierarchical degrees, according to which they can rise, being ranked according to their skills and the favour in which this blind individual, who is the head of them all, holds them. In order to rank them according to this hierarchy, he examines them and ranks them as he sees fit. And thus, in accordance with the hierar- chical ranks that he confers, the blind who receive them find that their reputation and the benefits they receive from all the lords of Japan increase correspondingly. And they also have authority over the other blind who are inferior to them. For this reason, these hierarchical ranks are very sought after and eagerly desired by them, and they give many tributes in order to obtain them. The highest hierarchical rank to which they can aspire is that which amongst themselves they call Quenguio [Kengyó]. Because apart from the fact that those who attain this rank have greater access and are honoured by all the lords of Japan, they have many other blind disciples under their protection and command, who rise to the ranks that they desire by their grace and favour… And, apart from the honour and respect that the Japanese lords bestow upon them, and the interests that they have with the other blind, they are great negotiators and are involved in very important dealings by these very same Japanese lords, with whom they live, enjoying much hospitality and great prestige. One of these Quenguios [kengyó] became a Christian in Meaco [Miyako], and is a man of great respect and very well known and held in great esteem by the Japanese lords, and it is said that he has close to three thousand blind – there are many blind in Japan – under his protection. He is a very prudent man and very well versed in the laws and sects of Japan… We hope by the grace of our Lord that by means of this The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 127

man we shall reap many fruits, because he has great access to and influence with the Japanese lords and speaks boldly and very favourably of our affairs”.32

In 1595 Organtino wrote that in Miyako alone there were 40 or more of these blind dignitaries, and Lourenço Mexia (c. 1545-1599), secretary to the Visitor Alessandro Valignano, explained that those who aspired to the rank of Kengyó were obliged to visit at least once a year

“this supreme head and master resident in Miyako, and are exam- ined in his presence, and according to the knowledge that they have acquired, thus climb the rungs of the different ranks. For which they are given certain insignias, caps and tassels, by which they are known. They spend four hundred and five hundred cruzados on this dignitary, and then they are accredited”.33

32 “Em Jappão são os segos tidos em grand reputasão, e por privilegios e leis antigas tem entre si huma certa maneira de monarchia. Porque tem no Meaco [Miyako] quem hé a cabeça de todos os outros, e a este reconhesem como o seu principe e superior, o qual hé pessoa de grande dignidade. Porque nesta sua monarchia tem os segos diversos graos de dignidades pollos quais vão sobindo agradoando-sse nellas conforme ao saber e favores que tem com este seguo, que hé cabeça de todos. O quall, pera dar estes graos de dignidades, os examina, e agradua como melhore lhe parece. E porque, conforme aos graos de dignidades que elle da, fiquão os segos que as recebem cresendo em reputação, e proveito, diante de todos os senhores de Jappão. E tem tãobem mando sobre outros segos que lhe fiquão inferiores. Daqui vem que estes graos de dignidades são mui procurados e cubisados delles, e pera os alcansar dão muitas peitas. Ho maior grao destas dignidades a que chegão hé hum que entre elles chamão Quenguio [Kengyó]. Porque alem de os que chegão a este grao tem grande entrada e lugar honrroso com todos os senhores jappõens, tem muitos outros segos como seus discipulos debaixo de seu mando e protesão, que por meio delles vão subindo aos graos que elles deseião… E estes, alem da honrra e respeito que lhe tem os senhores jappõens, e do interese que tem com os outros segos, são grandes negociadores, e são metidos em cousa de muita importansia pollos mesmos senhores japõis, com quem vivem mui bem acomodados e com grande crédito. Hum destes Quenguios [kengyó] se fez agora christão no Meaco [Miyako], que he homem de grande respeito e mui reconhecido e estimado dos senhores jappõis, o qual dizem que terá debaixo de seu emparo perto de tres mil segos – os quais há muitos em Jappão – o qual hé homem de muita prudencia e mui bem entendido nas leis e seitas de Jappão… Esperamos em nosso Senhor que por meio deste homem se ha de fazer grande fruito, porque tem grande autoridade e emtrada com os senhores jappõis e fala afoutamente e muito bem de nossas cousas”; Fróis, Nagasaki, 20th October 1595, Jap.Sin. 52, fl. 115. 33 “Esta suprema cabeça e mestre residente no Miaco, e diante delle são examinados, e segundo a siencia que tem acquirido, ass vão subindo em differentes graos. Pera o qual lhe dão certas insignias, barretes e borlas, por onde são conhecidos. Gastão nesta dignidade quatro- centos e quinhentos cruzados, e então ficão acreditados”; Lourenço Mexia, Macao, 15th November 1596, Jap.Sin. 13 I, fl. 29. 128 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

8.1. Christian troubadours in aristocratic mansions

Both Organtino as well as Mexia found themselves short of funds, and even Fróis estimated that expenses amounted to some 1,000 ducats, and that there were some 50 Kengyó who resided in Miyako, five of whom were Christians funded by the faithful:

“A blind man called Miguel became a Christian, a relative of the aforementioned nobleman [Juan, the factor of Saburódono, grandson of Nobunaga], from a good family and well versed in the stories of Japan. Who, a few months after being baptised, attained the rank of Quenguio with the favour and help of Saburódono… becoming a member of the congregation of Quenguios [Kengyó], that consist of about 50 blind men… According to what has already been written in past Annual Letters, we have five Chris- tians amongst this number of Quengios, who obtained the rank with the help of the Christians themselves. But not without substantial expense, because, in order to achieve this rank of honour one spends about a thousand ducats. These individuals are excellent and very convenient instruments for the propagation of God’s Law amongst the great lords, due to the freedom which they have to converse familiarly with them”.34

These historical letters do not deal monographically with the subject of the Biwa Hóshi in the mansions of noblemen, but they do allude to them to complement other narrative accounts. Thus, they tell us, for example, that in 1574 Ichijó Kanesada Paulo, the daimyo of Tosa (Shikoku), often used to summon the blind Tobias of Yamaguchi to his palace. In 1591 a blind cate- chist was in the personal employ of the daimyo Kuroda Kainokami Damião, and that in 1596 Fukushima Masanori, the feudal lord of Kiyosu in Owari, promised a Christian Kengyó a plot of land to erect a church. However, this patronage by aristocrats also had less agreeable collat- eral effects, which occasionally resulted in ostracism and expulsion from

34 “Hízose christiano un ciego por nombre Miguel, pariente deste sobredicho hidalgo [Juan, factor de Saburódono, nieto de Nobunaga], de buenas partes y docto en las ystorias de Japón. El qual pocos mezes después de recibir el bautismo subió a esta dignidad de quenguio con el favor y ajuda que le dio Saburódono… quedando miembro de la congregación de los Quenguios [kengyó], que son algunos 50 ciegos… Segundo ya se tiene escrito en las Anuas passadas, tenemos deste número de los quengios cinco christianos, que se hicieron con favor de los mesmos chris- tianos. Mas no con poco gasto, pues para tomar este grado de honra gastan cerca de mil ducados. Son estos excelentes y muy acomodados instrumentos para la propagación de la Ley de Dios entre señores grandes, por la libertad con que familiarmente los conversan”; Jap.Sin. 52, fl. 219. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 129 the brotherhood of the blind. In 1603 the governors of Kató Kiyomasa, the daimyo of Kumamoto, imprisoned a blind catechist who they finally banished after confiscating his meagre belongings. In the city of Himeji, metropolis of the lords of Harima, in which there were numerous Christian noblemen, an incident took place that could help us to understand the environment in which these troubadours functioned, that was so typical of Japanese society. The protagonist was an individual called Jómura who, a few months after being baptised, came up against the envy of his colleagues. Let us follow Rodrigues Girão’s account of events:

“In this city, a few months ago a blind man became a Christian along with his wife, whom the noble Christian warriors and other people called to their houses as he was poor… and they used to invite him, also providing him with some alms from time to time. And because it is still a custom amongst the heathens of Japan, after the death of a close relative, to feed the poor and distribute alms amongst them for the departed soul, when the other poor heathen blind of this city heard that the poor blind Christian called Jómura had been invited frequently and had more alms than before… suddenly one day there was an outcry at the house of the Christian Jómura with some thirty heathen blind men, and very indignantly they asked him why he stole the alms that were distributed for the dead without giving them the share that was theirs… The blind Christian replied that he had not committed any vile actions in this affair, but that as he was sometimes invited to various houses and they gave him alms there, it was not for the dead, but was from the Christians because he had become a Chris- tian… they would call him, invite him, and would give him some help from time to time to make his way through life. Upon hearing this, all the fury of the blind heathens became directed against the law of Christ, admonishing him for having become a Christian, and persuading him, and even harassing him, [saying] that under any circumstance he must recant under the threat of not giving him his share in division of alms from that day onwards, and of casting him out from amongst the ranks of the groups of blind, and would not allow him to ask for alms anymore in that city… Finally, when they saw his steadfastness, they excluded him there and then from their group and the brotherhood of the blind”.35

35 “Nesta cidade avia poucos meses que se tinha bautizado hum cego com sua molher, ao qual os soldados nobre christãos e os demais, por ser pobre, chamavão a suas casas… e o convi- 130 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

The vengeance of his colleagues is to a certain extent understandable, however, another incident that took place in 1612 and involved the supreme authority of the Academy of Blind Graduates in Miyako caused even more consternation. This time, it was Mateo de Couros who wrote:

“In Japan, the blind… have a supreme leader [kengyó] who all obey as their superior. When this individual came to know that a blind Christian lived in Sacay [Sakai]… he wrote him a letter, severely censuring him for having received our holy faith… and that he remedy the error he had committed by abandoning the law of Christ, under the penalty of stripping him of the rank that he had, as well as stopping the allowance or fees that they habitually distribute amongst them, from what those who rise to a new rank pay; and that he would give him two days in order to think it over. Once this period was over, the other ranked blind men of Sacay [Sakai] who were to execute the sentence of the supreme superior sent for him, and finally… they annulled his enrolment and stripped him of all his privileges so that he could not longer use any of the insignia that these people hold so much in esteem”.36

davão, provendo-o tambem de algumas esmolas de quando em quando. E porque he costume aindo dos gentios de Japam, a quem faleceo algum parente chegado darem de comer a pobres e repartirem por elles esmolas polla alma do defunto, ouvindo os outros cegos pobres gentios da dita cidade que o pobre cego christão chamado Jómura era convidado a miude e tinha mais esmollas que primeiro… hum dia, de repente, dão de assuada na casa de Jómura christão com trinta cegos gentios, e muy indignados lhe perguntarão porque furtava elle as esmollas que lhe davam pollos defuntos sem lhes dar a elles a parte que lhes cabia… Respondeo-lhes o cego christão que nehuma baixeza tinha cometido naquelle negocio, mas que o ser elle as vezes convidado em varias casas e darem-lhe nellas esmolas, não era por defuntos, senão que como se tinha feito christão, os christãos… o chamavão, convidavão, e lhe davão de quando em quando alguma aiuda pera passar a vida. Ouvindo os cegos gentios isto, toda a colera convert- erão contra a ley de Christo, reprendendo-o porque se fizera christão, e persuadindo-o, e ainda emportunando, que em todo caso tornasse atrás sob pena de dahi em diante o não admittirem mais na repartissam das esmollas, e de o lançarem do numero e quadrilha dos cegos, e não consentirem que as pedisse mais naquella cidade… Em fim, vendo elles sua constancia, ahi logo o excluiram do bando e confraria dos cegos”; Girão, 14th March 1609, Jap.Sin. 56, fl. 54. 36 “Em Japam os cegos… tem hum [kengyó] supremo a quem todos obedecem como a seu superior. Sabendo este que no Sacay [Sakai] vivia hum cego christão… lhe escreveo huma carta, estranhando-lhe muito ter recebido nossa santa fé… que emendasse o erro passado deixando a ley de Christo, sob pena se al fizesse, de o depor da dignidade que tinha; e lhe tiraria certa pitança ou propina que se costuma repartir por todos, do que pagam os que sobem a novo gráo; que pera deliberar bem lhe dava dous dias de espaço. Elles acabados o mandaram chamar os outros cegos agraduados do Sacay [Sakai] que aviam de executar a sentença do superior supremo, e enfim… o riscaram de sua matricula e privaram de todos os privilegios pera nam poder usar mais de insignia alguma das que aquella sorte de gente tem em estima”; Couros, Jap.Sin. 57, fl. 235 v. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 131

9. The troubadours’ activities during the persecution

In the wake of the final expulsion decreed by Tokugawa Hidetada in February 1614, the persecution of Christians spread throughout the nation and in some areas an interminable series of martyrdoms followed. Against this backdrop, the preaching by missionaries and dójuku continued in a clandestine manner. Remarkably, there were new conversions, in large measure due to the privileged condition of the blind preachers even though these individuals did not always have the same freedom that they had enjoyed previously:

In 1619-1620 “Father [Bento Fernandes] went from the kingdom of Canga [Kaga] to that of Noto, that borders it, to the North, to visit the Christians there, who are numerous, all of whom are subjects of Tacayama [Takayama] Minaminobo Justo, who… gained new strength to continue in it [the faith]… with similar assistance of ours, once every year, as well as in all of this by means of a blind Christian who was very well versed in the matters of our holy law… to such an extent that everyone there looks upon him as their father. This good blind man has a chapel inside his house, with an altar and images. The Christians meet there on Sundays and saints’ day, praying and also listening to the matters of God that the blind man preaches to them”.37

There was less freedom in the Christian city of Nagasaki, where the Governor

“arrested a blind man in this dark time for singing some Christian songs, sharply rebuking him, and ordered that from then on he should sing nothing but Japanese songs. And he did the same with a woman in whose house some other women had gathered to pray and carry out their devotions, rebuking her sharply and telling her

37 “Do reino de Canga [Kaga] foi o padre [Bento Fernandes] ao de Noto, que confina com elle, pera a parte do norte, a visitar os christãos que nelle há, que sam em bom numero criados todos de Tacayama [Takayama] Minaminobo Justo, os quaes… aquiriram novas forças pera comtinuar nella [fé]… com semelhantes ajudas dos nossos, de huma vez cada anno, como tambem com as que em todo elle tem por meo de hum christam cego muito bem entendido nas cousas de nossa santa ley… de modo que todos o tem ali por pay. Tem este bom cego no interior da sua casa huma capela com seu altar, e imagens. Nella se ajuntam os christãos os domingos e santos, a fazer oraçam e ouvir tambem as cousas de Deos que o cego lhes pratica”; Girão Jap.Sin. 59, fl. 311. 132 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

that she should spend her time spinning and sewing, and not in these matters”.38

This was possibly “a Christian youth who earned his living by singing certain Japanese stories”, a blind troubadour whom the owner of a brothel summoned to attend to a sick prostitute who knew the catechism and wanted to be baptised before dying.39 In 1625, when Gonroku was the Governor of Nagasaki (1615-1626), another blind man was temporarily imprisoned.40 In 1630 a blind catechist from Shónai in Mogami, present day Yamagata, met the same fate, captured in a hunt for Christians, giving himself up voluntarily to the persecutors in order to save these Christians and was eventually set free.41

10. Some personal names

We have mentioned that most of the time the missionaries’ letters refer to the blind preachers in an anonymous manner. Nevertheless, abundant docu- mentation has survived about some of these Biwa Hóshi, men who distin- guished themselves in the evangelising labours of the Church. We have already briefly spoken of Ryósai Lourenço, and his disciple, the child Tobias,42 and the nobleman Ugosa dono Joaquim. There were many others, such as Tomás, a preacher for the Franciscans in the province of Wakayama in 1606; 43 Gyuichi Andrés, from Owari, who died as a martyr in the Miyako prisons on Friday, 20th September 1619; Shóichi Joaquim, another blind cate- chist of the Franciscans, beheaded on the 17th of January 1626 in the city of Yonezawa, and Mancio of Arima, a heroic case that also took place in 1626.

38 “Prendeo neste meio tempo a hum cego por cantar algumas cantigas christãas, reprehen- dendo-o asperamente, e mandando que d’hai por diante não cantasse senão sô as de Japão. E o mesmo fez a huma molher em cuia casa se aiuntavam algumas outras a rezar e fazer suas devações, reprehendendo-a asperamente e dizendo-lhe que gastasse o tempo em fiar e coser, e não naquellas couzas”; APT Archivo de la Provincia S.J. de Toledo, section C-286 fl. 398. 39 “Hum mancebo christam que ganhava sua vida com cantar certas historias de Japão”; Jap.Sin. 60, fl. 6. 40 Léon Pagés, Histoire de la Religion Chrétienne au Japon, 2 Vols. (Paris 1869-1870), Vol. I, 603 41 Juan B. Porro, Jap.Sin. 62, fls. 246 ss. 42 Ebisawa, Arimichi: “Irmão Lourenço, the First Japanese Lay-Brother of the Society of Jesus and his Letter”, Monumenta Nipponica V (Tokyo, 1942), pp. 225-233. Kataoka, Yakichi, “Life of Brother Lourenço”, Japan Missionary Bulletin (Tokyo, 1949), pp. 122-125. 43 Friar Alonso Muñoz, , February 1607, to the head of the Franciscans of the Province of San Gregorio in the Philippines, letter preserved in the British Museum, Catalogue Harley 3570, fls. 381-396. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 133

The story of Mancio of Arima, at the height of the bloody persecution, further illustrates what has been mentioned before in this article about the Academy of Troubadours in Miyako. To quote the words of Rodrigues Girão:

“A Christian by the name of Mancio… as he has a good voice and is skilled at playing a certain kind of viola used in this nation, and in singing some ancient prose to its music, which the Japanese like very much, is very well received by the lord of Takaku [Arima]. When the lord left for the court, he told the blind man that he should go to Miyako this year, and wait for him there, because he wished to have them bestow a certain title and rank upon him, that is the main rank amongst the blind, like that of doctor in our universities… The lord promised to meet all his costs and the customary expenses that are necessary to get this degree, and the blind man went to Miyako and shortly after went to visit him. The lord received him well and told him that he remembered the promise he had made him… but that he would first have to leave the law of the Christians. The good blind man answered him very courteously, saying that he thanked him and greatly esteemed the good will that his lord showed him… but that even if they gave him all the revenues of Japan, he would not recant the faith and holy law that he professed. The lord tried in every possible manner… to bend his will and make him submit, but seeing that he would not budge from his position… he dismissed him disdain- fully saying that he would have had him executed there and then, but as he was outside his state he would not do so. And that if he came to him again he would order him to be killed as he did not obey his commands”.44

44 “Hum christão por nome Mancio… por ter boa voz e ser destro em tanger certo modo de viola usada desta nação, e cantar a ella humas prosas antigas, de que os japões muito gostão, he muito aceito ao tono do Takaku [Arima]. Partindo-sse o tono pera a corte, disse ao cego que fosse este anno ap Miyako, e aly o esperasse, porque lhe queria fazer dar certa dignidade e grao, que entre os cegos hé o principal, como hé o de doutor nas nossas universidades… O tono lhe prometia fazer as despezas e gastos costumados pera se agraduar, e hindo o cego a Miyako o foi logo visitar. Recebeo bem o tono e disse-lhe que estava lembrado da promessa que lhe fizera… mas que avia primeiro de deixar a ley dos christãos. respondeu-lhe o bom cego com muita cortezia que agradecia e estimava muito a boa vontade que sua senhoria mostrava… porem que ainda que lhe desse todas as rendas de Japão, não faria pee atraz na crença e lei santa que professava. Procurou o tono quanto foi possível… por o dobrar e render, mas vendo que nenhum aballo fazia nelle… o despedió esquivamente dizendo que logo aly o ouvera de justiçar, mas por estar for a do seu estado o não fazia. Que como tornasse pera elle o mandaria matar, pois não obedecia a seu mandado”; Girão, Jap.Sin. 63, fl. 82. 134 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

It is not known if Mancio attained the glory of martyrdom. Twenty years before him, Damião of Sakai, his colleague in the art of the Biwa and in the office of the catechist, became a martyr, drawn and quartered in Yamaguchi on 19th August 1605.45

11. The talent and personality of Damião of Yamaguchi, Biwa Hóshi and martyr

There is a curious phrase penned by Luís Fróis that could shed some light upon the human profile of the blind troubadours, our constant companions throughout the course of this article. He wrote thus: “Amongst us, the blind are very quiet. In Japan they are very pugnacious, they carry sticks and vaqizaxis [wakizashi, daggers] and are very amorous”.46 Undoubtedly, there were many exceptions to this generalisation made by Fróis, but it is perfectly profiles the case of the martyr Damião of Sakai, killed in Yamaguchi, who was surely not in the habit of sheathing his dagger. It seemed to me to be appropriate to conclude this article by reproducing some paragraphs from the letter penned by Fróis himself, written in 1589 and incorporated almost word for word in his História a decade later:

“After the college, storehouse and fathers and brothers who resided in the city of Yamanguchi [Yamaguchi] left that kingdom due to the edict of the tyrant [Hideyoshi, 1587], those old Chris- tians who were the first fruit of that land remained behind and were very grieved and desconsolate at this separation. However, Our Lord God consoled them in this interim by other means that they had not expected… In that city of Yamaguchi, there lived a married blind man who was a native of Sacai [Sakai], possessor of many talents and a great memory, very well versed in the sects of Japan, and he would preach to them as well as any illustrious preacher. A swindler well versed in witchcraft, he was well received by the people, so much so that he was able to earn a living by this craft, providing abundantly for his house. As he was endowed with

45 “Del martirio del ciego Damián”, Jap.Sin. 55, fls. 267-274. Relatio by Luis Cerqueira, Jap.Sin. 21 III, fl. 99; APT Estante 2, Caja 103, nº 9-1 and 9-2. Account of the martyrdom by Coelho-Fróis, Jap.Sin. 51, fls. 134-137 v. Cf. Fróis, História, Vol. V, Chapter 29. 46 “Antre nós os cegos são muito pacíficos. Em Japão muito brigozos, trazem bastões e vaqizaxis [wakizashi, dagas], e são muito namorados”; Fróis, Contradições. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 135 such a lively intelligence, shortly before the Fathers left Yaman- guchi he continued to come to our house to listen to our preaching, and as he perceived it in its entirety he was baptised and was given the name Damião, something with greatly displeased the bonzos and secular heathens. The income that he earned earlier began to cease, and he became impoverished, so much so that the Christians of Yamanguchi, (who are poor) help him to sustain himself… And due to his great talents and good natural knowledge, the Viceroy [Konda dono] sends for him very often. And beginning with the stories of Japan, in which he is well versed, he then proceeds with stories of God, that he performs according to the opportunities that present themselves… A few days ago this blind man came from Yamanguchi [to Nagasaki], that is more than a hundred and some leagues away… In order to inform the Vice-Provincial Father what was happening in Yamanguchi, saying that he wanted them to give him the words of the Gospels for Sunday and the main festivals of the year and some good, well chosen sermons, because if he heard them twice he would learn them by heart along with their authorities [cita- tions] in Latin… He gave us an account of some things that had happened in Yamanguchi after the Fathers’ departure, and partic- ularly of those in which he was involved, which corresponded to what we had already come to know before his arrival from other Christians who had come from those lands. In Yamanguchi, about a hundred people got together to amuse themselves in the countryside, amongst whom were to be found some 12 or 15 Christians and the blind man and a youth who was a page to the Viceroy, his personal one. And upon arriving close to a temple, they saw a large idol with many songs or verses in Japanese hung around it. The blind man, touching the idol, began to make fun of it, and told his companions: “Are you not aware that this idol, called Quannon [Kannon], is a woman, and she can neither give you salvation nor can she gain it for herself?”. The page went up to him, saying that Jesus Christ was also the son of a woman whom the Christians adored. The blind man said: “Supposing that it is as you say, this has other mysteries that many Christians don’t understand, let alone you who are a heathen”. And speaking about the origin of the fotoqe Quannon, said a number of ridiculous things about her. The page became enraged and said that he would ask the Viceroy to expel the Christians from Yamanguchi, and if not, that 136 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

the blind man would not remain in the city. Damião the blind replied: “The Sun does not rise and shine only in the city of Yamanguchi, but throughout the universe, and in Japan alone there are 66 kingdoms. If they don’t want to permit me in this one, there still remain another 65, and even if I live only one year in each one of them, that will still be 65 years of life”. The page, infu- riated, unsheathed his sword, saying that he would kill the blind man under any circumstance. A few Christians jested with him and took his sword from his hands, and gave a number of blows with it on a rock. The youth, offended by this affront, went running to the Viceroy, and without telling him of his faults in the affair, accused the blind man of many falsehoods. The Viceroy, irritated, sent for him, and another page who took the message, went around the city calling his name out loud as he did not know where his house was. The Christians, sad and distressed, said: “Poor Damião, they are now calling him to kill him”. The intrepid blind man went before the Viceroy who asked him if it was true that he had said such things and suchlike. The blind man said yes, and after the Viceroy had spoken for a while, Damião simply said: “Did the page tell you any more than what you have told me?”. He answered that he had not. “To be sure”, said Damião, “in what law of chivalry and spirit of valour is it written that a young soldier, because he does not understand what is said, unsheaths a very large sword and attacks a blind man who, to defend himself and resist had but a winnower in his belt? And the blows that were given with the sword that they took from his hands upon the stone bear witness to the fact that I am telling the truth”. The Viceroy upon taking the sword from him and examining it arrived at the conclusion that it had happened as the blind man had said and flung the sword out of the window, and told the page that he would kill him with it but due to the intervention of some reason he would not, but that he should go away immediately and never appear before him again. The Christians were very happy at this success, and the blind man relieved and out of danger…. We have already mentioned how in 87 in Yamanguchi, the college and storehouse being there, a great commotion took place on Easter day instigated by the foqexus [Hokkeshu], whose leader was a layman called Taketó who had earlier been a bonzo and who, even after the Fathers had left, instigating a number of false testimonies, would disturb the Christians and trouble them because of the hatred The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 137 he nurtured towards them and because he was garrulous and impu- dent. It so happened, by divine justice, that a bonzo nobleman who held the title of hóin, who is a great dignitary, came to that city of Yamanguchi. Possessor of an excellent knowledge of the main sects of Japan, he had been driven out from the monasteries of the negoros that this tyrant [Hideyoshi] ordered to be burnt and devastated at the beginning of his reign. And, having heard of the law of God, he wished to hear sermons and for many days had great altercations with Damião the blind, who was the one who preached to him as there were no Fathers or Brothers there until, finally convinced of reason, he became a Christian, and it soon turned out that he was a neighbour of this devilish Taketó. And having heard that he was an enemy of the Christians he went to have words with him. And he embarrassed him so much with the little knowledge that he had of the law of God at that point and his profound understanding of the laws of Japan that Taketó was unable to open his mouth in his pres- ence and, as he had begun to lose his reputation and the esteem that the foqexus [Hokkeshu] had for him, one day he disappeared from Yamanguchi and was never seen there again, that was great cause for rejoicing amongst the Christians, as he had greatly persecuted and oppressed them; and for the foqexus a great sadness and feeling of loss for one who had been a pillar and defender of their sect… Twenty days after the Fathers’ departure from Yamanguchi, there was an incident in which 30 women, for their amusement and recreation, went to see the houses in which the Fathers lived, as is the custom in Japan, which two farmers were guarding and, by chance, the blind man was also present. The women, to make fun of them and of the blind man, upon entering the kitchen while laughing said that there was a strong smell of roasted human flesh there… And with that they climbed up to the upper floor. Near this kitchen there was an oven in which bread was sometimes baked. And a youth who had accompanied these women… poked a stick inside the oven, and upon smelling the tip announced that it had the smell of human flesh. The blind man, who was already incensed by what he had heard the women say, swelled with rage and attacked the youth, who was standing before the oven, and, grabbing hold of him from behind, removed the dagger that he had in his belt, and struck him in the back a number of times with the handle, pushing him and attempting to shove him into the oven, saying that they should imme- diately bring him some fire because he would roast him alive there and then and feed him to those women… The youth, increasingly 138 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

convinced that the blind man was speaking in earnest, began to scream in a loud voice. Upon hearing the noise and screams the women who were on the upper floor quickly came running to help him. And when the blind man perceived that they were full of weak- ness, fear and pusillanimity, he thundered at them even more furi- ously and pretended to be enraged…. This served as example to many other people who came there later and none dared to speak nor utter any discourtesy in our house. In front of our house in Yamanguchi there is a monastery of the foqexu [Hokkeshu] bonzos who worship Xaca [Shaka, the Buddha], that is called Foncoquji [Honkokuji], and at a certain time of the year that is known as Fingan,47 that is like Lent for them, there is great competition to hear sermons, gather alms and frequent the temples. And because there were going to be a great number of sermons given at this monastery, an old Christian man from the time of Father Cosme de Torres, called Uchinda Simão [Uchida], a very good and god fearing man… warned the blind man, telling him: “Do not go there, because you are wrathful, and if you hear something that displeases you you will get enraged, you will be bothersome to the bonzos and you will cause trouble for us. For which reason I implore you again not to go there”. The preacher, on the first day and first sermon that he gave, said: “In the 8 books of the Foqeqio [Hokkekyó] that Xaca [Shaka] preached and his disciples wrote down, it is written that: Two thousand five hundred years later a law shall appear that will mock and hold mine in contempt, and the prefessores of this faith, layman, dressed in white slips, will do the funeral rites of the dead… Now you can see how this prophecy by Xaca has come true in the form of the Christians… adding other blasphemies against God our Lord and insults against the Church and Christianity. Someone soon gave an account of the entire process of this story to Damião the blind who with each passing moment grew increas- ingly incensed with the bonzos. The following day… Damião entered and very quietly sat amongst the audience. The choro (who is a dignitary amongst the bonzos) was already seated to begin his sermon with much authority and ostentation… and raising his eyes, pretending that

47 Fingan: Higan, Buddhist term to denote two periods of one week each at the spring and autumn equinoxes. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 139

he did not recognise him, asked who that man was. The audience replied, “It is Damião”. The bonzo told one of his dójuku to throw him out… Damião responded in a loud voice: “Why do you wish to limit what Xaca expanded upon? The sermon is not just for partic- ular individuals but for all to hear. If I want to save myself, why do you wish to impede me from doing so? If your doctrine penetrates my ears and my understanding, maybe fate will ordain me to become a foqexu”! However, the listeners made him leave the room, and the bonzo preacher ordered that the door be locked. The blind man, affronted by the insult that they had done unto him, went to find a stone, and when the bonzo was about to begin his sermon, the blind man began to bang vigourously on the door with the stone saying, “Open the door for me! I want to hear the sermon, which was meant to be heard and not to be hidden and concealed!”. The bonzo, annoyed by his demands, ordered that the doors be opened for him and that they bring him to the place where the bonzo was sitting to give his sermon, and asked him, “What did you come here for?”. Damião replied, “To hear you preach”… The bonzo: “Do you have anything else to say to me?”. Damião: “Yes, I do. Yesterday during your sermon here you stated some things about which I have many doubts. Give your sermon, and after listening, I will ask you to resolve them. And remember that Xaca fotoqe, whose doctrine you profess, [lived] two thousand five hundred years ago, and was a man like any one of us, who was not even able to save himself, let alone save mankind. And because I fear that you will not hear me out later, I would like to resolve for you, in the presence of these people, the doubts about your Xaca’s prophecy, which you have misinterpreted”… And as the bonzo was unable to answer him, he became infuriated with the blind man, and stepped down from the pulpit and withdrew from the hall and there was no sermon that day. And the blind man spoke to the audience saying, “Whenever anyone preaches here against the law of God and against the Christians, I will come to defend their cause and argue with the preacher.” The bonzo, from inside, repeatedly ordered that he be evicted from the room, but from that day onwards he did not dare raise his voice against the Christians anymore.” 48

48 See original text in appendix. 140 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

This has been a very long quotation, but is can help us to understand the environment in which the Christians of Yamaguchi lived at the end of the 16th and early 17th century. The profile of the Biwa Hóshi Damião of Sakai is perfectly outlined. We shall leave an interpretation of his valiant attitude, amply demonstrated by similar courage when he dismounted from the hack on which they carried him away on the night he was quartered, for another day. French sources used by Anesaki Masaharu 49 indicate that the city of Hagi was the site of the martyrdom of the blind man. However, it surely took place in Ipponmatsu, Yamaguchi, on the banks of the river Fushinogawa, near the thermal springs of Yuda, at the site where the city prison had recently been established. The Christian Bento found the head and an arm of the martyr the following day and sent them to Nagasaki. Due to the evidence of his martyrdom, he was included in the list of 188 martyrs of Japan that was recently presented to the Holy See for beatification.

49 Anesaki Masaharu, A Concordance to the History of Kirishitan Missions (Tokyo, 1930) 5 “1605. Aug. 16, at Hagi in Nagato – Beheaded by order of Mori, Damianus the blind”. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 141

APPENDIX

Original text of note 48

“Depois que o collegio, caza de provasão e mais padres e irmãos da rezidentia da cidade de Yamanguchi [Yamaguchi] se sairão daquelle reino polo edito do tirano [Hideyoshi, 1587], ficarão aquelles antigos christãos que erão as primicias daquella terra não pouqo sentidos e desconsolados deste apartamento. Porem Deos N.S. os consolou neste interim por outros meos delles não sperados… Avia naquella cidade de Yamaguchi hum cego cazado, natural do Sacai [Sakai], de grandíssimas abili- dades e felice memória, muito versado nas seitas de Japão, e pregava nellas como qualquer pregador insigne. Inbaidor instruido em feitiços, aceito ao povo, de maneira que com estas indus- trias ganhava sua vida, sustentava abastadamente sua caza, e como era de tão vivo engenho, pouco antes de se sairem os padres de Yamanguchi continuou em vir ouvir pregasão a nossa caza, e fazendo inteiro entendimento recebeo o baptismo e se lhe pós nome Damião, couza do que os bonzos e jentios sequlares muito se desagradarão. Começarão logo a cesar os ganhos que primeiro tinha, e elle veo a empobrecer, de maneira que os christãos de Yamanguchi, (que são pobres) o ajudão a sustentar… E por suas grandes abilidades e bom saber natural, o manda o visorey [Konda dono] chamar muitas vezes. E entrando com as istórias de Japão, em que está bem versado, sai depois com as de Deos, que segundo as ocaziões do tempo lhe vai praticando… Os dias pasados veio este cego de Yamanguchi [a Nagasaki], que são mais de cento e tantas légoas… Para referir ao padre vice-provincial o que lá passava em Yamanguchi, dizendo que desejava lhe pasasem a letra dos evangelhos das domi- nicas e festas principais do anno e algumas boas pregações escolhidas, porque se as ouvisse duas veces as tomaria de cor com suas authoridades [citas] em latim… Contou-nos aqui algumas couzas que lá socederão em Yamanguchi depois da saida dos padres, e particularmente as em que se elle achou, as quais da mesma maneira nos foram referidas, dantes que elle chegasse, por outros christãos que daquellas partes tinham vindo. Ajuntarão-se em Yamanguchi obra de cem pessoas para irem folgar ao campo, em que entravão 12 ou 15 christãos e o cego e hum mancebo, pajem do viso-rei, seu privado. E chegando perto de huma varela, virão hum ídolo de vulto com muitas cantigas ou versos em japão, dependuradas ao redor. Apalpando o cego o ídolo começou a zombar delle, e disse aos companheiros: “Vos outros não sabeis que este ídolo, por nome Quannon [Kannon], hé molher, e que vos não pode dar salvação, nem aproveitar para ella?”. Foi-lhe o pajem gentio há mão, dizendo que também Jesu Christo era filho de huma molher a qual os christãos adoravão. Disse o cego: “Posto que hé como dizeis, tem isso outros mistérios que muitos dos christãos não entendem, quanto mais vos, que sois jentio”. E trazendo-lhe a origem do fotoqe Quannon, disse della mil couzas rediculozas. Indignou-se o pajem e disse que havia de fazer logo com o viso-rei que deitasse os christãos for a de Yamanguchi, e quando não, que o cego não avia de ficar na 142 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J. cidade. Respondeo Damião o cego: “O sol nem nace nem resplandesse somente na cidade de Yamanguchi, mas por todo o universo, e em Japão somente há 66 reinos. Se me não quizerem aqi consentir neste, ainda ficão 65, e hum anno somente que viva em cada hum delles, ainda me restão de 65 de vida”. O pajem, indignado, arrancou do traçado, dizendo que em todo cazo avia de matar o cego. Agraçarão-se com elle alguns christãos e tomarão-lhe a espada das mãos, e derão com ella muitos golpes em huma pedra. O mancebo, afrontado desta injúria, foi-sse correndo ao viso-rei, e sem lhe dizer suas culpas, acuzou ao cego com muitas falsidades. O viso-rei, agastado, mandou-ho chamar, e outro pajem que levava o recado, por não saber a caza, hia-o chamando a altas vozes pela cidade por seu nome. Os christãos angustiados e tristes dizião: “Coitado de Damião, que agora o chamão para o matar”. O cego intrépido se foi por diante do viso-rei, o qual perguntando-lhe se era verdade que tinha dito tais couzas e tais, responde que si, e depois do viso-rei fallar hum pedaço, disse Damião só: “Disse-vos o pajem mais do que me tem referido?”. Responde que não. “Pois – disse Damião – em que lei de cavalaria e esforço de ánimo está escrito que hum mancebo soldado, por não entender o que se lhe diz, arranqe de hum traçado muito grande para hum cego, que para se defender e lhe rizistir tinha hum avano na cinta? E os golpes que se derão com a espada nas pedras, que lhe tomarão das mãos, são testemunhas de minha verdade”. Tomando-lhe o viso-rei a espada e vendo-a achou ser asi como o cego dizia, lansou a espada por huma janella for a, e disse ao pajem que com ella o ouvera de matar se não interviera alguma rezão que o detinha; mas que se fosse logo e nunca mais aparecesse diante delle. Ficarão os christãos mui alegres com este bom sucesso, e o cego consolado e for a de perigo… Já escrevemos na era de 87 como em Yamanguchi, estando ali o collegio e caza da provasão, se levantara dia de Paschoa huma grande perturbasão movida pelos foqexus [hokkeshu], dos quaes era cabeça hum sicular que primeiro fora bonzo, por nome Taketo, que ainda depois dos padres saidos, alevantando mil falsos testemu- nhos, perturbava os christãos e os dezenqietava pelo odio que lhes tinha e ser loquás e atrevido. Socedeo depois, por justo juizo devino, que veo ter aqella cidade de Yamanguchi hum bonzo nobre que tinha título de hoin, que hé uma dignidade grande; excelente letrado nas principais ceitas de Japão, o qual era desterrado dos moesteiros dos negoros que este tirano [Hideyoshi] mandou qeimar e asolar no prin- cípio do seu reinado. E ouvindo falar da lei de Deos quis ouvir pregasão e por muitos dias teve grandes altercaçois com Damião o cego, que era o que lhe pregava por não aver ali padre nem irmão, até que finalmente convencido da rezão se baptizou; e acertou logo de ser vizinho deste indiabrado Taketo. E ouvindo dizer como era inimigo dos christãos, foi-sse disputar com elle. E tanto o apertou com o pouqo que ainda então sabia da lei de Deos e o muito que emtendia das leis de Japão, que por Taketo, não poder abrir a boca diante delle e ir perdendo a reputasão e conceito que delle tinhão os foqexus [hokkeshu], hum dia desapareceo de Yamanguchi e não tornou ali mais, que para os christãos não foi peqena matéria de alegria, pelo muito que os perseguia e opresão que lhes dava; e para os foqexus tristeza e sentimento de perderem nelle tal columna e defensor de sua ceita… Passados 20 dias depois de saidos os padres de Yamanguchi, forão obra de 30 molheres por seu pasatempo e recreasão ver as cazas em que os padres se agaza- The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 143 lhavão, como hé custume de Japão, na qual estavão dous lavradores fazendo vigia, e o cego, que acaso acertou de se achar ali. As quais, por zombarem delles e do cego, emtrando na cozinha disserão rindo-se que cheirava ali muito a carne humana assada… E com isto se sobirão ao sobrado de riba. Estava perto da mesma cozinha hum forno em que se fazia algumas poucas vezes pão. E hum mancebo que vinha em compa- nhia destas molheres… Metia huma cana dentro no forno, e cheirando a ponta dizia ter cheiro de carne humana. O cego que já estava alterado do que tinha ouvido dizer aas molheres, emcheu-sse de cólera e arremeteo ao mancebo, que estava na boca do forno, e abraçando-sse por detras com elle tirou-lhe da cinta a daga que tinha, e com o punho lhe deo algumas pancadas nas custas, trabalhando e pondo força pelo meter dentro no forno, dizendo que lhe trouxessem logo fogo, porque o avia ali de asar vivo e dar a comer a aquellas molheres… O mancebo hia-se-lhe metendo em cabeça que o cego falava de sizo, começou com altas vozes a gritar. Ouvindo as molheres que estavão no sobrado de riba o rumor e gritos, acudirão de pressa. E quando o cego entendeo nillas mais fraqueza, temor e pusilanimidade, tanto com sembrante mais furioso lhe roncava e se finjia indignado… Servio isto de outra muita jente que ali veo depois, não se atrever nenhum a falar nem fazer nenhuma descortezia em nossa caza. De frente da nossa caza de Yamanguchi está hum moesteiro de bonzos foqexus [hokkeshu] que adorão a Xaca [Shaka, Buda], por nome Foncoquji [Honkokuji], e em certo tempo do anno que se chama Fingan, que hé para elles como coresma, há grande concurso de ouvir pregasões, fazer esmolas e correr as varelas. E porque neste mosteiro avia daver muitas pregasões, hum homem christão antigo do tempo do padre Cosme de Torres, por nome Uchinda Simão [Uchida], muito bom homem e temente a Deos… avizou ao cego diendo-lhe: “Não vades lá, porque sois colérico, e se ouvirdes couza que vos desagrade aveis-vos de alterar, sereis molesto aos bonzos e a nós dareis trabalho. Pelo que outra vez vos rogo que não vades lá”. O pregador, no primeiro dia e primeira pregação que fez, disse: “Nos 8 livros do Foqeqio [Hokkekyo] que Xaca [Shaka] pregou e seus discípulos escreverão, estáa escrito: Daqi a dous mil e qinhentos annos virá huma lei que desprezará escarne- cendo da minha, e os profesores desta ceita, seculares, vestidos com calsões branqos, farão as exeqias funerais aos defuntos… Agora vedes como se tem verifi- cada esta profesia de Xaca nos christãos… Acreçentando outras blasfémias contra Deos nosso Senhor e injúrias contra a igreja e christiandade. Não faltou quem logo referio todo o processo desta istoria a Damião o cego, que com cada couza destas tomou fogo contra os bonzos. Ao dia seguinte… Entrou Damião, e muito quietamente se asentou antre os circunstantes. Estava já o chõro (que hé huma dignidade dos bonzos) asentado para pregar com muita potestade e aparato… E alevantando os olhos, finjindo que o não conhecia, perguntou quem era aquelle homem. Responderão os circundantes: “Hé Damião”. Disse o bonzo a hum dójuqu seo que o fosse deitar fora… Respondeo Damião em vox alta: “Para que quereis coartar o que Xaca dilatou? A pregasão não hé para pesoas partiqulares, mas para que a oução todos. Se eu me quero salvar, por que mo quereis impidir? Se me entrar vossa doutrina nos ouvidos e entendimento, pela ventura que me farei foqexu!” Todavia, os ouvintes o fizerão sair para fora, e o bonzo pregador mandou fechar a porta. 144 Juan Ruiz-de-Medina, S.J.

O cego, tendo-sse por afrontado da injúria que lhe fizerão, foi buscar huma pedra, e estando já o bonzo para dar princípio há pregasão, começou o cego de fora a bater com a pedra na porta rijamente, dizendo: “Abri-me, que quero ouvir pregasão, a qual se fez pera ser ouvida e não pera se esconder e encubrir!”. O bonzo, molestado de sua importunasão, mandou que lhe abrissem e que o levassem junto do lugar onde elle estava asentado para pregar, e perguntando-lhe: “Para que viestes aqi?” respondeo Damião: “Para vos ouvir pregar”… O bonzo: “tendes mais outra couza alguma que me dizer?”. Damião: “Si, tenho. Hontem dissestes aqui na pregasão algumas couzas nas quais eu tenho muitas dúvidas. Pregai, e depois que ouvir, vos perguntarei a solusão dellas. E lembre-vos que Xaca fotoqe, cuja doutrina profesais, há dous mil e quinhentos annos que passou, e foi homem como cada hum de nos, que nem a si mesmo podia salvar, quanto mais ao genero humano. E porque temo que me não ouvireis depois, quero-vos eu, diante deste povo, solver a dúvida de vossa profesia de Xaca mal interpretada por vos”… E não tendo o bonzo que lhe responder, indignando-sse contra o cego, se deceó do púlpito sem aqelle dia aver pregasão, e se recolheo para dentro. E falando o cego com os circunstantes lhes disse: “Em qualquer ora que se aqui pregar contra a lei de Deos e contra os chris- tãos, virei defender sua cauza e argumentar contra o pregador.” O bonzo, de dentro, repetindo-lho muitas vezes, mandou que o fizessem ir, mas dali por diante se não atreveo a falar mais contra os christãos”.

Fróis, Katsusa, 20th September 1589, Jap.Sin. 51, fls. 134-137, quoted almost verbatim in his História. The Role of the Blind Biwa Hóshi Troubadours 145

Abstract

Vocal and instrumental music in ancient Japan – Percussion instruments – String instruments, played by plucking and picking, and wind instruments – Koto and Shamisen – The origins of the Biwa. Different kinds of Biwa – The Biwa’s popu- larity – The Biwa Hóshi masters – The sightless – The missionaries’ first contact with the Japanese troubadours – The first two Christian troubadours, Lourenço and the Child Tobias – The musical ambience inside and outside the church – Indigenous forms of music accepted by the church – Music in theatre – Vernacular accompani- ments to the Latin liturgy – The catechesis in song – The soloists – The hierarchy of the blind – The Christian troubadours’ activities during the persecution – Some personal names – The talent and personality of Damião of Yamaguchi, Biwa Hóshi and martyr.

Resumo

A música instrumental e vocal no Japão antigo – instrumentos de percussão – instrumentos de corda e sopro – koto e shamisen – as origens da biwa. As diversas variedades da biwa – a popularidade da biwa – os mestres biwa hóshi – os cegos – o primeiro contacto dos missionários com os trovadores japoneses – os primeiros dois trovadores cristãos, Lourenço e o menino Tobias – o ambiente musical dentro e fora da igreja – as formas musicais indígenas aceites pela Igreja – a música no teatro – os acompanhamentos vernáculos para a liturgia latina – a catequese cantada – os solistas – a hierarquia dos cegos – as actividades dos trovadores cristãos durante a perseguição – alguns nomes pessoais – o talento e personalidade de Damião de Yamaguchi, biwa hóshi e mártir.

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