An Introduction Peter Wade Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-03411-2 - Race: An Introduction Peter Wade Index More information

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Abraham, race of 67 anthropology biology 8 advertising difference, Nike campaign academic teaching of 86 anti-Semitism, biological racial (1995) 212 culture concept, Boas and 86 – 7 theory and 75 – 6 affi rmative action 2, 93 , 108 , 151 , scientifi c racism, critiques from 88 biological criteria, race and 8 155 , 160 , 161 , 169 , 184 , 185 , anti-racism in Europe 195 – 7 biologising, process of, cultural 186 , 188 , 189 , 190 anti-racist legislation in Europe 107 racism and 117 Afonso Arinos Act (Brazil, 1951) 3 anti-racist legislation in Europe Boas and separation of culture and Africa adoption of 195 85 – 6 , 87 black racial groups in 2 Anti-Semitic League 75 culture and, defi ning features of Bushman (Boschiman) 70 , 72 anti-Semitism, biological racial race 6 imperialism in 16 theory and 75 – 6 key aspect of racial thinking 63 independence for nations in 88 appearance, issues related to 7 racial defi nitions based on 5 ‘scramble for’ 59 Argentina, los negros terminology in racial thinking and 65 – 7 , 75 – 6 , 81 see also South Africa 127 bio-power 63 Afro-Cuban brujos (sorcerers, Aristotle 18 , 29 , 30 Black Death 33 ‘fetishists’) 80 Aryan race 87 black Liverpool, geographies of race Agassiz, Louis 72 Asian gangs in London 205 – 7 in 207 – 10 Algerians in France 210 – 13 Asian Leicester 204 – 5 black reaction to racial theory 79 – 80 Amaru, Andrés Tupac 48 assisted reproductive technologies blackness as transnational construct Amazonian alterity (otherness) 9 , (ARTs) 122 – 4 137 13 – 14 Atlantic slave trade 9 blanco (white) 39 American Anthropological Australia blood 20 , 130 , 218 Association 88 Aboriginal land in 61 ‘clean blood’ 32 – 4 , 41 , 192 American Declaration of Aborigines in 68 kinship and 73 , 122 Independence 16 adoption policy in 125 ‘native blood’ 77 American Journal of Physical asylum-seekers in 113 sexuality and 62 – 4 Anthropology 92 censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations sharing blood 60 Amerindian facial hair 42 in 108 symbolics of 62 , 63 Les Amis des Noirs (The Friends of non-white immigration, Blumenbach, Johann 67 the Blacks) 61 restrictions on 115 on human classifi cation 67 anatomy as location of racial racial immigration policies of 113 bodily differences 20 – 1 difference 70 terminology of racism in 2 bodily fl uids, bodies shaped by 42 ancestry Avicenna 34 bodily substance, conceptions of 10 concerns with 32 Aztec empire 38 Bolivia English ideas of whiteness and mixed populations in 138 darkness and 36 Baartman, Sara, case study of 69 – 71 mixed race people in, positivity genomic diversity and 97 – 8 Bacon, Francis 54 about 138 in Latin America, colonial Baconian science 55 Bonnivard, Odile 198 emphasis on 47 The Bell Curve (Herrnstein, R. and Bornu (northern Nigeria), black Andean challenges to Spanish Murray, C.) 93 African Muslim king of 35 rule 48 Bermuda, censuses in, ‘ethnic’ Bradford, Asian population of 199 Andean practices of performance and enumerations in 108 Brazil 44 embodiment 158 – 9 Bidil (heart disease drug) 96 affi rmative action on racism in Anguilla, censuses in, ‘ethnic’ biological determinism 78 151 – 2 enumerations in 108 notions of 86 Afro-Brazilian religious practices animism 87 biological difference 5 , 20 137

250 Index

Brazil (cont.) anti-racist objectives of independence for 59 Barbarians (social clique) at UERJ government 109 capitalism, exploitation of labour 153 censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations and 16 binary racial difference (white– in 108 Caribbean black racial binary) 154, 155 Children Act (1989) 125 British possessions in, indepen- census nomenclature in 2 Commonwealth Immigrants Act dence for 59 censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations (1962) 114 English colonies in 46 in 108 conviviality in 198 slave trade in 56 consumption habits of rich ‘driving while black’ (DWB) 112 Carmichael, Stokely 169 students, discriminative Elizabethan beauty standards 36 Cashinhua of Brazil 13–14 aspects of 153–4 English classification of Africans 36 Caspar, King of the Moors 35 demographics, statistics and 150–1 genomic project: People of the castas (breeds or types) 38–41 descriptive colour terms in 151 British Isles 102 casta paintings 41 domestic service in 149 ghettos in 199–200 caste and race genetic ancestry in 97–8 growth of immigration in 194 common elements as systems of independence for 58 Human Fertilisation and classification 11 Latin America 150–5 Embryology Authority 122–3 Cox’s perspective on 11 law faculty Athletic Society at illegal immigrants, focus on 115 castizo (Spanish–mestizo parentage) UERJ 154 immigrants in 195 41 lessons from 155 Immigration Act (1971) 114 categorisation mestiçagem, difference and 151–2 immigration history of 114 categories for ‘colour or race’ in mixed populations in 101, 138 immigration policies in 194 Brazil 128–9 mixed race people in, positivity integration in, factors militating collective categorisation, colour as about 138 against 198 basis for 39 ‘money whitens’ in 127 Islamic extremism in, threat of 219 of race, complex nature of 9 Neguinho da Beija Flor: black or Justice Ministry in 111 censuses white? 101 Metropolitan Police, London 111 in Anguilla 108 official discourse of 4 ‘institutional racism’ charge in Australia 108 official statistics, key points from against 111, 131 in Bermuda 108 150 moral qualities of black Africans, in Brazil 108 plastic surgery for ‘Negroid nose’ English theories about 36 in Britain 108 in 127–8 Nationality Act (1948) 114 in Canada 108 race and class, connection of 153 Nationality Act (1981) 114, 195 census nomenclature in Brazil 2 race-based affirmative actions, naturalisation of culture in 5 census terminology in United debates over 151 official discourse of 4 States 4 racial difference and racial mixture, racial and ethnic inequality in 197 ‘ethnic’ enumerations in 108 simultaneous coexistence of 151 racial disparities in justice system in Jamaica 108 racial discrimination in 150 of 112 in Latin America 108 racial immigration policies of 113 racial inequality in 197 in Saint Lucia 108 racial inequality in 150 recognition of multiculturalist in United States 108 racial quotas in practice 152–4 difference in 196 United States Bureau of Census 2 residential racial segregation in 151 terminology of ghetto in 200 Césaire, Aimé 118 Rio de Janeiro, State University of terminology of racism in 2 Chile, immigration restrictions, (UERJ) 152–4 Victorian society in, contradictions lifting of 113 Secretariat for Policies Promoting of class and gender in 74–5 China Racial Equality (SEPPIR) 108 British Empire, colonialism of 59 acceptance of validity of race in slavery in British Nationality Act (1981) 114, 195 92–3 abolition of 138 Buffon, George ‘barbarians’ and alien groups in 12 importance of 56 on human classification 67 inter-country adoptees from 125 Statute of Racial Inequality (2010) Burakumin in Japan 73 Japanese victory over (1894–5) 73 108 Bureau of American Ethnology 86 physical composition and cul- breeding, notion of 27 Burgersdicius, Franco 54 tural disposition in Chinese Britain Burma (Myanmar), independence antiquity 12 Adoption and Children Act (2002) for 88 stereotypes in, development of 12 125 Bushman (Boschiman) 70, 72 Western ideas, adoption of 13 Afro-Caribbean immigrants in 199 zu and zhong in 9, 11–13, 14–15 ancestry of, diversity in 102 Canada chola (acculturated indigenous anti-immigration political parties anti-racist objectives of woman) in Andes 149, 158–9 in 198, 215 government 109 ‘choleric’ humour (yellow bile) 42 successes of 198 censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations Christianity in 108 black African connection with 35

Index 251

in Europe, anti-Jewish sentiment ‘money whitens’ in 127 exclusion and enumeration by race in 19 mulatos, categorisation as 148 110–16 Jews as problem for 32 poverty immigration to Europe and 194–5 unity of humans in, ideas about 58 regional variations in 146–7 conviviality 198 chronology of race 3–4 structural association of Copernicus, Nicolaus 54 citizenship in Europe 195–7 blackness with 146 criminal justice, control and 111–12 class and race 136 race criollos (locally born people) 39, 41, 48 class differences, racial thinking categorical distinctions of 148 Cuba 44, 59 and 73 moral discourse about 147 Afro-Cuban brujos (sorcerers, in Latin America 145–7, racial discrimination in 139–43 ‘fetishists’) 80 151, 153 regional processes, direct racial immigration restrictions, lifting in United States 164 discrimination and 146–7 of 113 classification of race 4–6 segregation, patterns of 145 independence for 58 comparisons of classificatory settlements in, consolidation of Independent Party of Colour in 80 practices 9–15 nuclei in 142–3 post-revolutionary racism in 189 criteria for 20 sexual relations, mestizaje and 148 slavery in, abolition of 138 historical perspectives on 8–9 small towns in, racial discrimina- slavery in, importance of 56 Colombia 139–49 tion in 139 cultivated reason, civility and 61 Afro-Colombian population, social hierarchy 146 cultural background 1 recognition for 144 social movements in 144–5 ‘cultural censorship’ 139 Antioqueños of 140–1, 142, 143, stereotyping 141, 147 cultural essentialism 117 147–8 structural disadvantage in 145 examples of 118–19 black and indigenous communi- structural inequality 145–7 Négritude 118 ties, displacement of 145 Unguía, locus of mestizaje in 141, poverty, culture of 119 blackness in 147, 148 cultural fundamentalism 117 positivity about 147 urban communities in, racial ‘cultural minorities’, racism and 4 public profile of 144–5 discrimination in 141–3 cultural racism 27 Cali, overt racial discrimination white domination, process of addressing question of 6 in 145 colonisation and 141 assisted reproductive technologies Chocoanos of 140–3, 147 whiteness, moral association of 147 (ARTs) 122–4 Costeños of 140–1, 147 colonialism biologising, process of 117 country of regions 139 colonial categories of race 47–50 categories for ‘colour or race’ in direct racial discrimination 145 colonial Europeans 191 Brazil 128–9 domestic service in 149 colonies, empires and racial contesting concept of 117–19 economic stratification of 140 thinking 58–9, 81 control, exclusion and enumerat- ethnic and racial exclusiveness, colonised others, division of white ing by race 110–16 Antioqueños’ tendency Europeans from 192 criminal justice, control and towards 140 commodities for Europe, colonial 111–12 exploitative development in production of 191 culture, everyday world of 117–19 coastal region 144 ‘ethnic’ enumerations and 108 definition of race and 9 family relations, mestizaje and 148 Fanon’s perspective on race distinction between ladino and ¡Hola! magazine, depiction of elite and 16 indio in Guatemala 129 family life 149 innatist racial theories and 68 enumerating by race 131 housing market, racial discrimina- practices of racial thinking and 81 era of 5 tion in 142 regimes in Latin America, nature essentialising, process of 117 infant mortality, regional varia- of 138 football racism 106 tions in 146 role in Foucault’s analysis of immigration, control and 113–16, jobs, racial discrimination in racism 64 131 market for 142 sexual mixture, narrative of 101 inheritance and body in Colombia Law 70 (1993) in 144 Western modernity and 15 129–30 Medellin, Chocó migration to World War II and post-war decolo- institutional presence of race 107, 141–2, 148 nisation 87–8 131 mestizaje, domestic service and 149 coloniality 17, 22 interracial adoption 125–6 mestizaje (‘mixture’ of origins, Commission for Racial Equality (UK) Latin America, examples from peoples and cultures), racism 196 126–30 and 147–9 common humanity, ideal of 16 medical practice, use of racial mixed populations in 101, 138 concept of race 1, 3 categories in 109 mixed-race people in, positivity Condon, Paul 131 mixed-race people 120–2 about 138 conquest 7 multiculturalism, ‘inclusion’ and mixture and racism, simultaneity control enumerating by race 107–10 of 148 enumeration by race 131 naturalising, process of 117

252 Index

cultural racism (cont.) DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 90, anti-discrimination legislation, race race in an era of culture, recogni- 94–5, 97, 99 in 195 tion of 106–7 collection and storing of 105, 112 anti-racism 195–7 race–kinship congruity 119–20 forensic genetics 102–3 anti-racist legislation, adoption racialised body in Latin America Y-chromosome DNA 100 of 195 127–8 domestic service in Latin America 149 Asian gangs in London 205–7 science, society and 105–6 ‘domesticity, cult of’ 73 Asian Leicester 204–5 theories of 118–19 domination 7 black Liverpool, geographies of transnational adoption 125–6 Dominican Republic 59 race in 207–10 culturalist discourses 83 Du Bois, W. E. B. 79 Bradford, Asian population of 199 culture Dühring, Eugen 75 British Nationality Act (1981) 195 Boas and separation of biology and Durkheim, Émile 26 Christian Europe, anti-Jewish 85–6, 87 Dutch East Indies 77 sentiment in 19 colour and, ties between 5 citizenship 195–7 everyday world of, cultural racism economic class, social construction colonial Europeans 191 and 117–19 of 91 colonised others, division of white nature and racial thinking 76–7 Ecuador Europeans from 192 people caught between two IVF treatment in 124 Commission for Racial Equality cultures 200 mixed populations in 138 (UK) 196 Cuvier, Georges 66, 70 mixed-race people in, positivity commodities for, colonial produc- perspective on classification of about 138 tion of 191 humans 66 pishtaco in, symbol of whiteness, control, immigration and 194–5 dominance and rapaciousness conviviality 198 Damas, Léon 118 159 cultures, people caught between 200 Darwin, Charles 72, 84, 85 race as physical reality, notion in 158 diaspora, place and 208, 209 impact of thinking of 69 racial difference, enactment of foreign-born populations 193 Declaration of the Rights of Man and 158–9 ‘fortress Europe’ 194 the Citizen (1789) 61 Egypt in antiquity 17, 28 geographies of race in black decoloniality 17 elites in Latin America, status Liverpool 207–10 definition of race and 44 Germany, immigrants in 195 cultural racism and 9 embeddedness of race 218–21 histories of race in 191–2 problem of 1, 20–2 in social processes 160 immigration, race and nation in Defoe, Daniel 102 Encyclopædia Britannica (1798 191, 214–15 ‘degeneration’, stigma of 77 edition), entry for ‘Negro’ in 66 immigration, tensions created by demographic density in Latin English Defence League 110 192–4 America 44 Enlightenment 53 intergenerational conflicts 201 Descartes, René 26, 54 ideals of 16 intermarriage 200 Details of Calculation and Recording environment internal history to race in 192 (Pacioli, 1494) 55 environmental adaptation 6 Leicester, Asian population of 199, diasporas inheritance and 76 204–5 place and 208, 209 racial thinking and 65–7 Leicestershire, white Britons in transnational diasporas 201 environmentalism 66, 84 201–4 discrimination naturalising form of explanation 66 ‘Liverpool-born black’ (LBB) people Brazil, racial discrimination in 150 essentialisation, process of 117 208–9 Cali, overt racial discrimination Ethiopians 17, 28, 35, 70 London, Asian gangs in 205–7 in 145 ethnic diversity, state recognition Maritime Museum in Liverpool 208 Colombia, racial discrimination in of 109 minority groups, integrative 139–43 ethnic enumerations 107–8 ambitions of 193–4 direct racial discrimination in ethnicity minority reaction to racial Colombia 145 ‘ethnic group’ and, use of terminol- inequality 199 Europe, racial discrimination in ogy of 83, 89 multiculturalism 195–7 198 Hall on current concepts in 119 key debates about 196 institutional prohibition of 107 institutional racial thinking and 107 legislation on 195 institutional racism 111, 131 ethnocentrism 6, 13, 18 Muslim umma (transnational Israeli discrimination against Ethnological Society of London 86 religious community) 201 Palestinians 20 eugenics, era of 53 national security, immigration seen Law Against Racism and All Forms of eugenic practices 18 as threat to 192 Discrimination (Bolivia, 2010) 3 racial thinking 78–9 National Union of Seamen (NUS), diversity Europe efforts against black seamen 208 official recognition of 109 adoptees in population of 125 networks of material and intellec- of racial thinking 64 Algerians in France 210–13 tual exchange 191

Index 253

Notting Hill Carnival in London cultural difference in, institution- gender relations 21 199 alisation of 211 racial thinking and 51 post-colonial migration in, issues cultural exclusivity in 210–11 genes (genetic particles) 85 of 192–4 Educational Priority Zones (ZEPs) genetic ancestry 101 Race Relations Act (UK, 1965) 195 in 197 race and 98–9 racial discrimination 198 ghettos in 199–200 genetic difference, question of 95 racial inequality in 197–8 headscarf controversy in 213 genetic profiles minority reaction to 199 Holocaust denial in 195 gene flows and 95 racial stock 192 illegal immigrants, focus on 115 social criteria and 100 residential segregation 199–200 immigrants in 195 genetics Schengen Information System 194 immigration policies in 194 population and 84–5 segregation 199–200 integration in, factors militating race and 94–6 seventeenth-century ‘race wars’ 192 against 198 genomic data, analysis of 96–7 Solidarité des Français 198 National Assembly on ‘race’ in genomic mixture, circulation of South Asian Youth Organisation state legislation 107 images of 101 (SAYO) 206–7 National Front in 219 genomic research on mestizo people spatial isolation 211–12 political vocabulary of racism in 4 100 Switzerland, immigrants in 195 principle of laïcité (secularism) in genomics translocal and diasporic 213 nation, gender and sex in racialised connections 211–12 ‘race’, use of term in language of genomics 100–3 transnational connections 194 107 racialising of populations and transnational diasporas 201 racial and ethnic inequality 96–9 Visa Information System 194 in 197 geographies of race in black Liverpool see also Britain; France racial inequality in 197 207–10 European colonialism 4, 9 rejection of multiculturalism in Germany Hall’s perspective on 16 196 concentration camps 88 European imperialism, second wave religion in 212–13 cultural particularity in, ideas of 59 Franco-Prussian war (1870) 75 about 75 European Union (EU) 194, 215, 222 Freeman, Cathy 94 immigrants in 195 European elections 219 French Revolution 16, 61, 75 Nazi ‘Germanisation’ of 87 Positive/Negative list 194 Freyre, Gilberto 138 political vocabulary of racism in 4 race in, material on 219 Frontex security agency 195 ‘race’, use of term in language of Europeans, encounters with new further research, suggestions for 107 worlds 64 biology, culture and genomics 104 unification of (1871) 75 evolution cultural racism 131–2 Volksgeist (folk spirit or soul) 75 biological processes of 86 Europe, immigration and nation Volkskunde and Ethnologie in 86 evolutionary history 6 in 215 gestational surrogacy 124 organic and ‘super-organic’, human variation 52 Ghana 137 Kroeber and 86 Latin America, mixture and racism Gliddon, George 76, 81 ‘exotic’ specimens, display of 70 in 160 types of mankind 67–8 explicit naming of race 53 race 22 globalisation of race 221–3 exploitation, expendability and 17 race, introduction to 22 Gould, Stephen J. 93 Eysenck, Hans 93 racial thinking, Enlightenment to Gove, Michael 219 eugenics 82 governance, power and 62–3 facial features 6 South Africa, segregation and Great Chain of Being 55 flexible bodies and natures 42–3 desegregation in 190 Greece in antiquity 17, 27–31 food United States, segregation and acquired characteristics, inheri- food practices, embeddedness of desegregation in 190 tance of 29 race in ideas about 136–7 future of race 223–4 black Africans, slavery of 28 role in Spanish colonies 42–3 black Africans, visual images of 28 football racism 106 Gaitskell, Hugh 114 conflicting interpretations from foreign-born populations in Europe Galileo 54 28–9 193 Galton, Francis 76, 78–9 distinctions based on lifestyles forensic genetics, race and 102–3 gender 28–9 ‘fortress Europe’ 194 mixture and regional variation environmental theories 29 France 43–7 heredity, theories about 29 adoptees in population of 125 social construction of 91 lessons from 30–1 Algerians in 210–13 gender differences 6 nomos, rule of 28 anti-immigration political parties race and 73–5 physis, laws of 28 in 198, 215 gender dimension in late Victorian Guadeloupe, independence for 59 successes of Europe 198 Britain 73 Guam 59, 88

254 Index

Guatemala subordination and inferiority, European ideas of race, impact in 10 anti-racism and cultural difference, conquest and ideas of 51 independence for 88 discourse in 157 human diversity race-like essentialism of caste 11 Chimaltenango, Hale’s ethnogra- Darwin and understanding of 69 indios (indigenous peoples) phy of 155, 156–7 engrained notions of 30–1 categorisation as 39, 48 civil war in 156 environmental theories of 28 enslavement of 38–9 genocidal repression and Greek ideas about 30 Indonesia, independence for 88 ‘disciplinary assimilation’ in 156 historical perspectives on 84 inequality, justification for 61–2 indio permitido (authorised Indian) ideas about 25 inferiority, group ranking on basis 156 intellectual ideas about, changes of 5 ‘insurrectionary Indian’, power of in 64 ‘infrahumanity’ 16 157 moral–cultural traits 30 inheritance and body in Colombia ladino dominance, continuity of human genetic variation 95 129–30 156–7 Human Genome Diversity Project institutional presence of race 107, ladino victimhood, conception of 100 131 157 Human Genome Project 84, 90, 94 interbreeding in Latin America 38 ladinos (local term for a non- human rationality 54 intergenerational conflicts 201 indigenous person) in 155–6 Hume, David 71, 81 intermarriage in Europe 200 Latin America 155–8 perspective on inferiority of some International HapMap Consortium Maya activism in 157 peoples 65 97, 99 Maya communities in 155, 156 Huxley, Julian 89 interracial adoption 125–6 Maya movement in 156 Huxley, Thomas 72 interracial sex, prejudices against 120 mixed populations in 138 IQ (Intelligence Quotient) 93 mixed-race people in, positivity Iberians in Latin America, attitudes Irish about 138 of 46 English attitudes towards 73 neoliberal multiculturalism in 156 Ibn Khaldun 34 linking to Africans 71 racial ambivalence, darker side of ideological bases for racism and race Islamic empire 34 157 221 black African slavery, justification racial ambivalence in 155–8 immigration for 35 ‘reverse racism’, accusations of 156 Boas’s anthropometric work on conquest and enslavement, Guyane, independence for 59 immigrants 85 practices of 35 control and, cultural racism and Israeli discrimination against Haddon, Alfred 89 113–16, 131 Palestinians 20 hair type 6 DNA testing, use of 116 Italy, adoptees in population of 125 Haiti 59 illegal immigrants, focus on 115 independence for 59 policy on, legitimisation on basis Jamaica, censuses in, ‘ethnic’ Hawaii 59 of security 116 enumerations in 108 Herder, Johann von 75 race and nation in Europe 191, Japan heredity 214–15 adoption policy in 125 bodily differences and 21 restrictions in Latin America, lifting imperialism and colonialism of geography, Darwinian principles of 113 59, 73 and 84 tensions created in Europe by influence of European racial theory issues related to 7 192–4 on 72 pre-genetic concepts of 7 white and non-white, issues in Japanese empire 88 Herrnstein, Richard 93 Latin America of 136 race-nation concept in 73 hierarchy of races, evolutionist imperialism Jefferson, Thomas 71, 81 thinking and idea of 69 driven power of 59 perspective on differences between Hinduism 11 enslavement and 64 blacks and whites 65 Histoire naturelle des mammifères (Saint- imperial culture, inquisitors and 41 Jensen, Arthur 93 Hilaire, G. and Cuvier, G.) 70 racial thinking and 59 Jewish–Christian marriage, laws Hobbes, Thomas 54 role in Foucault’s analysis of banning 32 Homo, racial types defined as species racism 64 Jewish race, ideas of 20 within genus 68 ‘impurity’, caste status and 10 Jewishness 34 Hong Kong, terminology of racism Inca empire 38 racial thinking and 20 in 2 Incan ideas 48 Judaism, colour in ancient texts of 18 ‘Hottentot Venus’ 69 indentured labour 57 human biological variation, race India Kamin, Leon 93 and 90 adoption policy in 125 Kazakhstan, independence for 88 human difference British and racial theory in 72 King, Martin Luther 169 arguments concerning 50 caste in 9–11, 14–15 King, Rodney 112 skin colour and 51 caste system and race in 10 kinship–race congruity 119–120

Index 255

Knox, Robert 64, 81, 217 immigration restrictions, lifting las tres razas (the three races) 99, 101 Korea, Japanese colonial control of 113 whiteness in 135 of 73 imperial culture, inquisitors Law Against Racism and All Forms of Kroeber, A. L. 86 and 41 Discrimination (Bolivia, 2010) 3 Ku Klux Klan 110 Inca empire 38 Lawrence, Stephen 111, 198 Kultur (culture) 75 indios (indigenous peoples) Le Pen, Marine 219 Kushites 17, 28 categorisation as 39 Lebanon, independence for 88 Kyenge, Cécile 106 enslavement of 38–9 Leicester, Asian population of 199, interbreeding in 38 204–5 Laplanders 67 limpieza de sangre (cleanliness of Leicestershire, white Britons in 201–4 Latin America the blood) 41 liberalism Afro-Brazilian religious practices Marxist theories of class and race despotism and 62 137 136 groups of people, differences of Amerindian facial hair 42 mestizaje, domestic service and 149 condition between 62 ancestry in, colonial emphasis on 47 mestizaje (‘mixture’ of origins, implicit obedience and 62 Andean practices 158–9 peoples and cultures) in 138–9 liberal thought, coexistence with Aztec empire 38 mestizaje (sexual and cultural inequalities 61 blackness as transnational mixture) 40 liberty and problem at heart of 61 construct 137 mestizo people in, genomic racial thinking and 60–2 blanco (white) 39 research on 100 life, deployment of power over 63 bodily fluids, bodies shaped by 42 mestizo (white–indigenous parent- limpieza de sangre (cleanliness of the Brazil 150–5 age) 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45 blood) 41 casta paintings 41 Mexican Inquisition 40 lineage and racial thinking 67–8 castas (breeds or types) in 38–41 morisco (Mexican description) 40 Linnaeus, Carolus 55 castizo (Spanish–mestizo mulato (product of black and white on human classification 67 parentage) 41 union) 40, 41 ‘Liverpool-born black’ (LBB) people censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations nation, gender and sex in racialised 208–9 in 108 genomics 100–3 Locke, John 54, 61 chola (acculturated indigenous national identity, attempts to build London, Asian gangs in 205–7 woman) in Andes 149, distinctiveness in 138 Lynn, Richard 93 158–9 negro, categorisation as 40 ‘choleric’ humour (yellow bile) 42 New Granada (Colombia), Maimonides 34 class and race 136 classificatory practices in 40 Malaya, independence for 88 collective categorisation, colour as parental categories, mixed Malcolm X 169 basis for 39 offspring of 44–5 Mandela, Nelson 187 Colombia 139–49 phlegmatic natures 42 Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The colonial regimes in, nature of 138 places as connected 137–8 Fallacy of Race (Montagu, A.) 89 criollos (locally born people) 39, 41 populations in, racialising of 97–9 Maritime Museum in Liverpool 208 cultural racism, examples from populations in, responsibility for Marr, William and Anti-Semitic 126–30 racialising of 99–100 League 75 demographic density in 44 race in Andes communities 158–9 Martinique, independence for 59 domestic service in 149 racial categories 46–7 Marxist theories of class and race 136 elites in, status and 44 as relational 135 masking and silencing of race 3 flexible bodies and natures 42–3 racial divide in, bodies and 43 materiality of race 158, 217 food, role in Spanish colonies 42–3 racial identities in, definitional medical genetics 96 food practices, embeddedness of difficulties on 138 medical practice, use of racial race in ideas about 136–7 racial practices as relational 135–7 categories in 109 gender, mixture and regional raza cósmica (a ‘cosmic’, mixed medicine, genomics and 94–7 variation 43–5 race), concept of 138 medieval and early modern Europe genomic mixture, circulation of raza (race) in 38–41 31–2 images of 101 regional patterns of gendered Africans and others, views of 34–7 genomic research on mestizo mixture 46 ancestry 32 people in 100 sexual relations between black Africans and Christianity, genomics and racialising of Europeans and indigenous linking of 36 populations in 97–9 peoples 100 blackness, ascription to climate Guatemala 155–8 similarities with South Africa and of 36 ‘hijo de tigre sale pintado’ (the son of United States 190 blood and purity, medieval a tiger comes out striped) 119 slave trade in 56 concepts of 19, 33 Iberians in, attitudes of 46 slavery in 44 cultural characteristics, views immigration, white and non-white, abolition of 138 on transmission across issues of 136 slaves, legal categorisation of 39 generations 34

256 Index

medieval and early modern monotheism 87 natural selection, impact of theory of Europe (cont.) Montagu, Ashley 89 evolution by 69 gender relations, sex and 32 Montesquieu, Charles Louis de 71, 81 ‘natural slavery’, Aristotle’s defence genealogical modes of reckoning 34 Moors (Muslims) 32 of 29 genealogy, preoccupation with moral behaviour, bodily differences ‘naturalisation’ 31–2 and 21 focus on 5 heretical beliefs, passing on of 34 Morgan, Lewis Henry 86 process of 27 inheritance arrangements 31 morisco (Mexican description) 40 process of, cultural racism and 117 Islam, European preoccupation Morse, Edward S. 72 nature 7 with 36 Morton, Samuel 67 culture and race, racial thinking marital alliances 31 on human classification 67 and 76–7 race, emergence of term 32 mulato (product of black and white Jefferson’s perspective on 65 religious modes of reckoning 34 union) 40, 41 nature and culture 26–7 Mediterranean, Christian re-conquest multiculturalism anthropological perspectives on of 35 double-edged tool 110 26–7 Menchú, Rigoberta 156, 157 Europe 195–7 culture, emergence of 26–7 Mendel, Gregor 85 ghettoisation and 110 domains of 26–7 mestizaje (process of mixing origins group identities and 110 human nature 26 and cultures) 40, 138–9 ‘inclusion’ and enumerating by Lévi-Strauss on 26 domestic service and 149 race 107–10 nature–culture opposition 26–7 mestizo (people of white–indigenous institutional domain, racial differ- science, culture and 27 parentage) 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45 ence and 110 Nazism 87, 88 genomic research on 100 key debates in Europe about 196 ideologies of 3 Mexican–American war 59 legislation in Europe on 195 racial theories of 20, 87 Mexican Inquisition 40 multiculturalist educational racism and 88 Mexico policies 110 anthropological criticism of 89 mixed populations in 101, 138 state multiculturalism, trend subhuman races, identification of 87 mixed-race people in, positivity towards 109 negro, categorisation as 40 about 138 Munby, Arthur 75 networks of material and intellectual pre-Columbian populations in 97 on contradictions of class and gender exchange 191 racial identification and skin colour in Victorian society 74–5 New Granada (Colombia) 44 in 128 Murray, Charles 93 classificatory practices in 40 Mill, John Stuart 61 Musée de l’homme in France 70 rule and classification, system in The Mind of Primitive Man (Boas, F.) 87 Musée d’ethnographie 86 48–9 minority groups in Europe, integrative Muséum d’histoire naturelle 70 see also Colombia ambitions of 193–4 Muslim umma (transnational New World minority reaction in Europe to racial religious community) 201 black slaves in 56 inequality 199 coloniality and 37 minzoku (Japanese notion of nation colonies in, independence for 58 ethnicity) 72 gender and sex in racialised colonisation of 37–8 mitochondrial DNA 100 genomics 100–3 race, white colour as key feature Mitterrand, François 210, 212 social construction of 91 of 37–8 mixed-race people ‘Of National Characters’ (Hume, D.) 65 Western racial thinking and 19 Afrodeutsche (Afro-German) 121 national identity, attempts to build Newton, Isaac 54 Belgian Congo, mulâtres in 121 distinctiveness in 138 optics of 55 in Britain, narratives on 121 national security, immigration seen Nicaragua 59 China, húnxueˇr in 121 as threat to 192 Nike campaign (1995), advertising cultural racism 120–2 National Union of Seamen (NUS), difference 212 Deutsch–Türken (German–Turkish) efforts against black seamen 208 nineteenth-century changes in racial 9, 121 nationalism thinking 53 identification of 121 confrontation with 6 Nkrumah, Kwame 137 Japan, hafu in 121 development of 60 Nordic race 87 métis (mixed) in Francophone ‘organicist’ conception of national North America populations 121 belonging 118 ancestry in United States, legality United States, ‘biracial’ or ‘multi racial thinking and 60 and 47 racial’ people in 121 nationalities, notion of racial kinship ‘black’, strict and encompassing modernity between 73 definitions of 46 projects of domination and 21–2 nationality 1 bodies in, distinctive differences race and, links between 16–17 natural phenomena, explanations between 43 monogamy 87 for 54 colonial rule in, weight of 49–50 monogenesis 68 natural rights, equality in 16 concubinage 45

Index 257

English colonists in 43 The Philadelphia Negro biology and culture as defining gender, mixture and regional (Du Bois, W. E. B.) 79–80 features of 6 variation 45–6 Philippines 59 capitalism, exploitation of labour gender ratios among whites 45 independence for 88 and 16 ‘Hispanic’ identity in 47 Phillips, Trevor 196 caste and mixture, gendered patterns of 45 phlegmatic natures 42 common elements as systems of ‘mulatto’ children in 45 physical appearance 20 classification 11 race and gender, inherent caste status and 10 Cox’s perspective on 11 interweaving of 49–50 racial definitions based on 5 categorisation of, complex nature racial and sexual boundaries, physical difference 5, 20 of 9 challenges to 49 assumptions of 8 change and racial thinking 21 regional patterns of gendered physical features, differences in 6 chronology of 3–4 mixture 46 racial classification and 6 class and 136 sexual relations 45 physiological variation, scientific class differences and 73 slave trade in 56 assessment of 53 classification of 4–6 slaves in 45 Piaroa of Venezuela 13 classificatory criteria 20 social recognition of mixed Plato 30 colonial categories of 47–50 unions 45 Poland, acceptance of validity of race colonialism United States, racial categories in in 92 Fanon’s perspective on 16 46–7 polygamy 87 Western modernity and 15 Norway polygenesis 68 comparisons of classificatory adoptees in population of 125 polytheism 87 practices 9–15 inter-country adoptions 125–6 populations in Latin America concept of 1, 3 Notes on the State of Virginia racialising of 97–9 ‘cultural censorship’ on 139 (Jefferson, T.) 65, 81 responsibility for racialising of definition of, problem of 1, 20–2 Nott, Josiah 67–8, 76, 81 99–100 embeddedness 218–21 Notting Hill Carnival in London 199 post-colonial migration in Europe, in social processes 160 Nubians 17, 28 issues of 192–4 in era of culture, recognition of Powell, Enoch 114 106–7 official discourse of race 4 power European colonialism and, Hall’s Origin of Species (Darwin, C.) 69 bio-power 63 perspective 16 origins, race and 1 Black Power movement 169 explicit naming of 53 Ortiz, Fernando 80 black powerlessness, structural further research, suggestions for 22 processes and 168 future of 223–4 Pacific islands 88 governance, power and 62–3 genetics and 94–6 Pakistan, independence for 88 human encounters of 7 genomics and racialising of Palestine imperialism, driven power of 59 populations 96–7 conflicts between Jews and Arabs institutional life, power of race in globalisation of race 221–3 in 20 107 Hannaford’s restrictive definition Jewish–Arab violence in 88 ‘insurrectionary Indian’, power of of 31 pan-Africanism 137 157 historical perspectives on classifica- Papua New Guinea 26 life, deployment of power over 63 tion of 8–9 Paraguay, immigration restrictions, sovereign power 62 in history of Western modernity 15 lifting of 113 practical bases for racism and race 221 ideological bases for racism and parental categories, mixed offspring Primitive Culture (Tylor, E. B.) 87 race 221 of 44–5 promiscuity, progressions from 87 inward-looking history in Europe parental genes 7 proto-racism 15, 17, 18, 30, 31 of 192 Parisian banlieue (peripheral housing public opinion about race and IQ (Intelligence Quotient) and 93 estates) 199, 211, 212, 215 ethnicity 111 masking and silencing of 3 patriarchal order 74 public visibility of race 131 materiality of 158, 217 Pena, Sergio 97–8 Puerto Rico 59, 88 medicine, genomics and 94–7 permanence and fixity, assumptions independence for 58 modernity of 8 pukakunga (red-necked bird) 48 links between race and 16–17 persistence in science of race 92–3 ‘purity’, caste status and 10 projects of domination and 21–2 Peru 44 official discourse of 4 domestic service in 149 q’ara (Quechua word meaning naked persistence in science of 92–3 mixed populations in 138 or bald) 48 post-WWII concept of 5 mixed-race people in, positivity qolla (Inca utopian brotherhood) 48 practical bases for racism and about 138 race 221 phenotypical difference 5, 20 race race–kinship congruity 119–20 phenotypical variation 6 in Andes communities 158–9 racialising of populations 96–7

258 Index

race (cont.) spread of, racial thinking and 72 natural selection, impact of theory relational assemblages and 220 racial thinking 25, 30 of evolution by 69 relationality 218–21 anatomy as location of racial dif- nature, culture and race 76–7 ‘scientific facts’ about 27 ference 70 nineteenth-century changes in 53 as social construction 90–1, 218 anti-Semitism, biological racial patriarchal order 74 spheres of, overlapping of 83 theory and 75–6 polygenesis 68 sport and 93–4 Baartman, Sara, case study of 69–71 racial theories term and concept, power in institu- biology and 65–7, 75–6, 81 changes in 64 tional life of 107 biology as key aspect of 63 pervasive impact of 81 terminology of 1 black reaction to racial theory 79–80 spread of 72 theorisation of 217–18 Blumenbach and human science and 54–5 US racial categories 2 classification 67 sexuality in Western antiquity 17–19 Buffon and human classification 67 anatomy, blackness and 71 Western/Euro-American context class differences, race and 73 blood and 62–4 3, 9 colonial practices and 81 slavery, abolition of 57–8 Western projects of modernity and colonies, empires and 58–9, 81 slavery and 55–8 domination and 21–2 culture, nature and race 76–7 ‘soft inheritance’ and, ideas about see also class and race Cuvier’s perspective on classifica- 77 Race and Culture Committee (UK) 88 tion of humans 66 South East Asia, racial contagion Race Differences in Intelligence Darwin, impact of thinking of 69 in 77–8 (Lynn, R.) 93 ‘degeneration’, stigma of 77 ‘survival of the fittest’ 69 Race Relations Act (UK, 1965) 195 diversity of 64 transition from slavery to abolition Race Relations Act (UK, 1976) 1 ‘domesticity, cult of’ 73 and 58 race studies, analytical thinking in 15 environment and 65–7 transitions in 54 ‘race wars’, European discourses environment, inheritance and 76 types and 67–8 about 63 eugenics, era of 78–9 racial typology theory 85 ‘race wars’ in Europe (seventeenth gender differences, race and 73–5 development of 64 century) 192 gender dimension in late Victorian racialisation, Mignolo’s perspective Races of Europe (Ripley, W. Z.) 72, 76 Britain 73 on 17 racial categories gender relations and 51 racialised appearance, concerns with in Latin America 46–7 Gliddon’s types of mankind 67–8 120 as relational 135 hierarchy of races, evolutionist racialised body in Latin America racial democracy, critiques of 139 thinking and idea of 69 127–8 racial determinism, notions of 86 Homo, racial types defined as racialising of populations 96–7 racial difference species within genus 68 racism disadvantage and, reproduction Hume’s perspective on inferiority anti-Semitism and 19–20 of 131 of some peoples 65 biological racism, state-driven 63 perception of 103–4 identification of, difficulties with confrontation with 6 racial discrimination in Europe 198 106 European roots of race and racial divide in Latin America, bodies imperialism and 59 racism 16 and 43 inequality, justification for 61–2 Foucault’s perspective on 63 racial hierarchy, post-war shift in in institutional domain 106 group identification and 4 ideas about 88 Japan, influence of European racial Isaac’s perspective on 18, 31 racial identification, flexible aspects theory on 72 ‘racial democracy’ and, coexistence of 127 Jefferson’s perspective on differ- of 159 racial identities in Latin America, ences between blacks and ‘scavenger ideology’ of 22 definitional difficulties on 138 whites 65 Shanklin’s definition of 5 racial inequality liberalism and 60–2 terminology of 2 class inequality and 189 lineage and 67–8 racist thinking in Europe 197–8 Linnaeus and human Afro-Cuban leadership against in Europe, minority reaction to 199 classification 67 racism 80 racial markers 21 minzoku (Japanese notion of scientific racism, retreat of 84 racial matching in ART practice 123 ethnicity) 72 Ray, John 55 racial practices as relational 135–7 monogenesis 68 raza cósmica (a ‘cosmic’, mixed race), racial profiling 112 Morton and human classification 67 concept of 138 racial stock in Europe 192 Munby and contradictions of class raza (race) in Latin America 38–41 racial theories and gender in Victorian society relationality, race and 218–21 pervasive impact of 81 74–5 religion, race and 1 racial thinking and changes in 64 nationalism and 60 Renaissance 35 religion, ethnicity, class differences nationalities, notion of racial reproductive success, traits and 72–6 kinship between 73 for 84–5

Index 259

residential segregation in Europe slavery racial formation in 161 199–200 abolition of 57–8 racial inequality after apartheid Rome in antiquity 17, 27–31 in Latin America 138 186 attitudes to black people in 18 causes of abolition of 57 Rugby World Cup (1995) 187 black Africans, slavery of 28 in Latin America 44 rural reserves (‘Bantustans’ or black Africans, visual images of 28 as normal practice 17 homelands) 185 conflicting interpretations from questioning of moral legitimacy separate development, policy of 28–9 of 58 185 lessons from 30–1 racial thinking and 55–8 Separate Representation of Voters Rose, Steven 93 replacement by wage labour 57 Act 185 Royal Anthropological Institute 86 transition from slavery to similarities with Latin America and Rushdie, Salman 206 abolition 58 United States 190 Rushton, J. Philippe 93 slaves, legal categorisation of 39 Skills Development Act (1998) 185 Russia Smith, Samuel Stanhope 66 Transvaal, gold and diamond anti-immigrationist lobby in 115 social construction mining in 184 Federal Migration Service 116 definition of 91 Truth and Reconciliation immigrant population of 115–16 race as 90, 218 Commission (1996–8) 187 imperialism and colonialism of 59 social criteria, genetic profiles and 100 universities in, race and inequality inter-country adoptees from 125 social Darwinism 80 in 188–9 Japanese victory over (1904–5) 73 social life, regulation of 62 South Asian Youth Organisation Soviet Union and empire of 88 social meanings, attribution of (SAYO) 206–7 physical variations to 8 South East Asia, racial contagion in Saint-Hilaire, Geoffroy 70 socially inherited characteristics 5 77–8 Saint Lucia, censuses in, ‘ethnic’ Société ethnologique de Paris 86 sovereign power 62 enumerations in 108 socio-biological indeterminism, Soviet Union 88 Saint Maurice 35 notions of 86 Spain Sartre, Jean-Paul 118 ‘soft inheritance’, ideas about 77 adoptees in population of 125 Satanic Verses (Rushdie, S.) 206 Solidarité des Français 198 Agricultura cristiana (Juan de Schengen Information System 194 South Africa Pineda) 33 science African middle class, growth blood purity laws 33 advance of 54 of 186 gamete donorship law in 123 basis for 54 African National Congress (ANC) Jewish pogroms in 19 evolutionary approaches 55 185, 187–8 limpieza de sangre (cleanliness of natural world and 55 Afrikaner nationalism 185 the blood) 33 persistence of race in 92–3 Anglo-Boer Wars (1899–1902) 185 Muslim–Christian conflict in 33 racial thinking and 54–5 apartheid in 4, 184–5 racism in, considerations of 34 ‘scientific facts’ about race 27 Black Economic Empowerment raza (race) lineage in 19, 32, social context and 105 affirmative action and 185 33, 37 society and 105–6 policies of 4 Spanish–American war 59 truth and 54 ‘Cape Coloureds’ in 184 spatial isolation in Europe scientific racism 105 censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations 211–12 battles against 92 in 108 species and body, importance of segregation in Europe 199–200 economic inequality 186 movement between 63 self-identification 106 post-apartheid situation 185–7 Spencer, Herbert 69, 72 Senghor, Léopold 118 Employment Equity Act (1998) 185 spheres of race, overlapping of 83 sexual relations Group Areas Act 185 Spirit of the Laws (Montesquieu) 65 between black and white historical perspective 184 sport and race 93–4 people 43 identity and difference post- Sri Lanka, independence for 88 between Europeans and indigenous apartheid 187–8 Statute on Racial Equality (Brazil, peoples in Latin America 100 Natives Land Act (1913) 184 2010) 2 sexual reproduction 7, 21 Natives (Urban Areas) Act (1923) subordination 7 sexuality 185 superiority, group ranking on basis analytics of 62 Office for Race Classification in 4 of 5 anatomy, blackness and 71 ‘pass-book’ system 185 ‘survival of the fittest’ 69 blood and 62–4 political control in, radical change Sweden, adoptees in population Sheba, Queen of 35 in 183 of 125 sickle-cell anaemia 96 Population Registration Act (1950) Switzerland, immigrants in 195 skin colour 6, 7, 10, 18, 28, 51, 127, 108, 185 Syria, independence for 88 128–9, 180, 209 poverty 186 slave trade 56 blackness and, structural link Taiwan, Japanese colonial control in Latin America 56 between 186 of 73

260 Index

Tay–Sachs disease 96 caste and class in segregated Mexican Americans 162–3, telegony, belief in 120 Southern towns 164–6 179–80 theories of cultural racism 118–19 census terminology in 4 Mexican workers in Chicago theorisation of race 217–18 censuses in, ‘ethnic’ enumerations factory 181–3 Tokutomi Soho 73 in 108 Natchez, Mississippi, ethnographic tolerance, religious and racial 19 Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) 163 studies in 164–6 topology 219 civil rights, mobilisation for 169 National Association for the trait selection 85 Civil Rights Act (1964) 2, 169 Advancement of Colored transitions in racial thinking 54 Civil War in (1861–5) 163 People (NAACP) 168, 169 translocal and diasporic connections class and race, complex nature of national unity, racial segregation 211–12 combinations of 172–3 and determination of 164 transnational adoption class differences within caste sys- Native Americans in 162 cultural racism 125–6 tem 165–6 neighbourhood improvement original culture, concerns class factors in racial segregation associations 171 with 126 164 New York City decentralisation transnational connections 194 colour-blind practice, liberal policies 173 transnational diasporas 201 democracy and 170 New York Public Housing las tres razas (the three races) in Latin Declaration of Independence Authority 174 America 99 (1776) 61 non-European migration 115 truth, science and 54 demographic change in 161–3 North Kenwood-Oakland, Chicago Tylor, Edward B. 86, 87 desegregation in, economic gains 176–7 types, racial thinking and 67–8 of 169 official discourse of 4 Types of Mankind (Gliddon, G.) 67–8 Dominican women and racialised Operation Wetback (1954) 113 aesthetics 180–1 policing of black population, Ukraine, independence for 88 educational inequities 167 lynchings and 166 UNESCO 88–90 Elmhurst, New York 173–4 political disenfranchisement 167 scientific statements on race 89, exclusion, mechanisms of 166 Puerto Rican ‘nation’ in Chicago 92, 93 Fair Housing Act (1968) 171 181 United Nations (UN) 88, 89 Federal Housing Administration race United States 171 as key divide in South, criticisms adoptees in population of 125 gentrification 177 of 167 adoption policy in 125 Great Depression (1930s) 167 resonance of theme in 168 ‘Anglo-Saxonism’ in 163 Hispanic population in 162–3 race riots in Harlem and Watts 169 anti-discrimination legislation 172 ‘hyperghettos’ 172 racial binaries and Latino identity anti-racist objectives of govern- illegal aliens in 115 183 ment 109 Immigration and Nationality Act racial categories 2 Asian population in 163 (1965) 113 racial demography of (1860) 162 avoidance of use of term ‘race’ in imperialism of 59 racial disparities in justice system 107 independence for 59 of 112 ban on Chinese immigration 113 Indianola, Mississippi, ethno- racial etiquette, ritual of 166 ‘birth culture’ of adoptees in, graphic studies in 164–6 racial formation 161 question of 126 interracial marriage, prohibition ‘Jim Crow’ segregation and 168 black Corona, New York 174–6 of 165 racial identities, deep-rootedness black families, barriers to moving ‘Jim Crow’ system, imposition in of 170 to white neighbourhoods 171 South of 164–5 racial segregation 4, 164 Black Power movement 169 Ku Klux Klan 164 pressures for maintenance of 172 black powerlessness, structural landowners, dependence on 166 racialised aesthetics, Dominican processes and 168 Latino-Americans 163 women and 180–1 black reaction and desegregation Latinos racist immigration policies 61 168–70 brownness and 179 segregated nation, construction of black–white North–South demographic and economic 163–4 difference 161–2 position of 179 segregation Bracero programme (1942–64) 113 impact of black–white binary maintenance of 166–8 Briggs, Detroit 177–8 on 180 in practice, ghettoisation and Brown v. Board of Education US racial binaries and Latino 170–3 (Supreme Court, 1954) 168 identity 183 sexual relations, caste system and Bureau of American Ethnology 86 Lefrak City housing complex emotive domain of 165 Bureau of the Census 2 175–6 similarities with Latin America and California Proposition 187 in 115 liberal democracy in 17 South Africa 190

Index 261

slavery in, importance of 56 whiteness in 135 Wari of Brazilian Amazon 14 Southern Christian Leadership ‘Yankee City’ (W. Lloyd Warner Warner, W. Lloyd 89 Conference 169 study) 89 Weismann, August 77 Southern ‘Reconstruction’, post- Uruguay, immigration restrictions, Western/Euro-American context, Civil War 164 lifting of 113 race and 3, 9 Southern Tenant Farmers’ Union Western projects of modernity 167 Vargas, Getúlio 113, 138 and domination, race and Student Non-Violent Coordinating varna (original castes) 10 21–2 Committee (SNCC) 169 Vasconcelos, José 138 whiteness in Latin America 135 tenant farming, economy of 166 Venezuela World War II, post-war trade unionism, resistance to 167 mixed populations in 138 decolonisation 87–8 upward mobility, education and racial immigration policies pressures for 167 of 113 xenophobia 6, 118 US–Mexico border, racialised differ- Venter, Craig 94 ence on 163 Vietnam, independence for 88 Zapotec community in Mexico Voting Rights Act (1965) 169, 174 virachoca (Incan deity) 48 97, 99 ‘welfare moms’ 172 Visa Information System 194 Zidane, Zinedine 212 ‘white flight’ phenomenon 172 Volk (people) 75