Interpreting Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73, and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 in Light Of, and As a Response To, Thai Buddhist Interpretations Studies in Systematic Theology

Interpreting Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73, and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 in Light of, and as a Response to, Thai Buddhist Interpretations Studies in Systematic Theology

Series Editors Stephen Bevans S.V.D., Catholic Theological Union, Chicago Miikka Ruokanen, University of Helsinki and Nanjing Union Theological Seminary

Advisory Board Wanda Deifelt, Luther College, Decorah (IA) Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena (CA) Jesse Mugambi, University of Nairobi Rachel Zhu Xiaohong, Fudan University, Shanghai

VOLUME 10

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.nl/sist Interpreting Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73, and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 in Light of, and as a Response to, Thai Buddhist Interpretations

A Contribution to Christian-Buddhist Dialogue

By Kari Storstein Haug

LEIDEN • BOSTON 2012 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Haug, Kari Storstein. Interpreting Proverbs 11:18-31, Psalm 73, and Ecclesiastes 9:1-12 in light of, and as a response to, Thai Buddhist interpretations : a contribution to Christian-Buddhist dialogue / by Kari Storstein Haug. pages cm – (Studies in systematic theology ; v. 10) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-21011-0 (hardback : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-90-04-22712-5 (e-book) 1. Wisdom literature–Criticism, interpretation, etc. 2. Bible. O.T.–Buddhist interpretations. 3. Theravada Buddhism–Thailand. 4. Christianity and other religions–Relations–Theravada Buddhism. 5. Theravada Buddhism–Relations–Christianity. I. Title.

BS1455.H38 2012 223'.060882943–dc23 2011053139

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This book is printed on acid-free paper. CONTENTS

Acknowledgements...... ix

1. Introduction ...... 1 Biblical Interpretation and Interreligious Dialogue ...... 1 Primary Sources and Method...... 11

PART I THAI BUDDHIST INTERPRETATIONS OF PROVERBS 11:18–31, PSALM 73, AND ECCLESIASTES 9:1–12

Introduction to Part I ...... 33

2. Thai Buddhist Interpretations of Proverbs 11:18–31 ...... 35 Introduction ...... 35 “Do Good, Receive Good; Do Evil, Receive Evil” ...... 37 “The More You Give, the More You Get” ...... 43 “As You Sow, God Gives the Fruit” ...... 50 “There Is No Way to Escape [the Consequences of Acts]” ...... 57 “Humans Control Their Own Destiny” ...... 63 “We Are Good, but Might Be Punished in This World” ...... 68 “Women Must Have Wisdom” ...... 71 “This Text Teaches People to Do Good” ...... 73 Intermediate Conclusion ...... 77

3. Thai Buddhist Interpretations of Psalm 73 ...... 85 Introduction ...... 85 Why Do the Wicked Prosper, While the Good Suffer? ...... 86 Trust in God ...... 109 Combining the Two Themes ...... 116 Intermediate Conclusion ...... 124

4. Thai Buddhist Interpretations of Ecclesiastes 9:1–12...... 131 Introduction ...... 131 “Use Your Time in the Best Way Possible” ...... 132 vi contents

“There Is Time and Opportunity for All”...... 143 “Everything Is in the Hands of God” ...... 146 “All Meet the Same เคราะ (Khraw, Fate)” ...... 155 Intermediate Conclusion ...... 161

5. Conclusion to Part I: Thai Buddhist Interpretations ...... 167 Introduction ...... 167 The Understanding of the Main Themes and Issues ...... 167 Resources Used in the Interpretation of the Texts...... 169 How the Interviewees Related to the Texts...... 170

PART II INTERPRETING PROVERBS 11:18–31, PSALM 73, AND ECCLESIASTES 9:1–12 IN LIGHT OF, AND AS A RESPONSE TO, THAI BUDDHIST INTERPRETATIONS

Introduction to Part II ...... 179

6. Interpreting Proverbs 11:18–31 in Light of, and as a Response to, Thai Buddhist Interpretations ...... 181 Introduction ...... 181 Interpreting Proverbs 11:18–31 in Textual Context ...... 182 Interpreting Proverbs 11:18–31 in Response to Thai Buddhist Interpretations ...... 220 Intermediate Conclusion ...... 227

7. Interpreting Psalm 73 in Light of, and as a Response to, Thai Buddhist Interpretations ...... 231 Introduction ...... 231 Interpreting Psalm 73 in Textual Context ...... 232 Interpreting Psalm 73 in Response to Thai Buddhist Interpretations ...... 252 Intermediate Conclusion ...... 260

8. Interpreting Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 in Light of, and as a Response to, Thai Buddhist Interpretations ...... 265 Introduction ...... 265 Interpreting Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 in Textual Context ...... 266 contents vii

Interpreting Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 in Response to Thai Buddhist Interpretations ...... 288 Intermediate Conclusion ...... 299

9. Conclusion to Part II ...... 303 Introduction ...... 303 “As You Sow, You Will Reap” ...... 303 Other Issues ...... 307

Conclusion ...... 309 Suggestions for Further Research...... 312

Appendix ...... 315 Sources and Bibliography ...... 317 Index of Biblical References ...... 329 Index of Subjects ...... 336 Index of Names ...... 340 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The present book is a revised version of my doctoral thesis. First of all, I would therefore like to thank the School of Mission and Theology (MHS) in Stavanger for granting me a four-year research fellowship (September 2003–September 2007), thus enabling me to carry out the research presented in this book. Thanks to my colleagues at MHS, who have read parts of the study, and given valuable comments. In addition, I wish to thank the staff at the MHS library for providing friendly, competent and effifcient service. I wish to give a very special thanks to the nineteen interviewees, who shared their time, knowledge, opinions, and insights with me. Let me also express thanks to the Luther Seminary in Thailand for providing library facilities and an offifce when I did my fifeldwork in Thailand from Juneto September 2005. Thanks to the staff, teachers and students at Thai Studies Centre, the Faculty of Art, Chulalongkorn University, for their interest and help with regard to my studies and fifeldwork. I further wish to express my gratitude to Professor Parichart Suwanbubbha (Mahidol University), who spent time discussing the study with me, and introduced me to people and institutions valuable to my research. Thanks to Orawan Thamjaruwat for her research assistance and competent work with the transcriptions of interviews. Further, I would like to express a heartfelt thank to my two PhD-super- visors, Professor Magnar Kartveit and Professor Thor Strandenæs (both MHS), for their constructive questions and comments during the different phases of the research. A special thanks to my main supervisor, Thor Strandenæs, for time, advices, enthusiasm, and encouragements. I am also grateful to the evaluation committee, Professor Kajsa Ahlstrand (Uppsala University), Dr. Seree Lorgunpai (Thailand Bible Society/Bangkok Institute of Theology) and Professor Knut Holter (MHS), for their constructive comments and critical questions. Thanks to Maarten Frieswijk and Els Meijer at Brill for excellent service and support, and to the person/s who wrote the review report for valuable comments and advices. To Kristoffer and Katrine, thanks for all the love and fun. To Karl Johan, thanks for encouragement and support, and for always being there for me. chapter one

INTRODUCTION

Biblical Interpretation and Interreligious Dialogue

Problem and Motivation How can reading and interpretation of biblical texts contribute in the interreligious dialogue between Christians and Buddhists in Thailand? How can biblical texts be interpreted in a way which both communicates with Thai Buddhists, and opens up for further dialogue about biblical issues and themes? These are fundamental questions to this study. In my opinion, all genuine dialogue is based on a respect for, and willingness to listen to the other participants in the conversation. Further, I believe that in order for communication and understanding to take place, there is a need for some common ground or at least some mutual interests as a basis for the interaction. Therefore, I will explore whether an answer to the two questions related above could be a threefold approach where fifrst, Thai Buddhists are invited to read and interpret selected biblical texts; second, the texts concerned are examined in the light of the themes and issues emerging from the Thai interpretations; third, points of convergence and difference are established in order to provide a platform for further dialogue about the themes and frameworks of thinking highlighted in the process. In order to make this investigation manageable within the limits of a single study, I have chosen to delimit my discussion to the problem of how three Old Testament wisdom texts—Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73, and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12—can be interpreted in light of, and as a response to selected Thai Buddhist interpretations. By an interpretation in light of Thai Buddhist interpretations I mean: an approach where the themes and issues emerging from the Thai Buddhist readings of the texts form the main focus in my investigation of the texts in their textual context. By stating that I plan to address how the texts can be interpreted as a response to the Thai Buddhist interpretations I signal that I have a constructive aim with my study. Based on a study of the biblical texts in light of the themes and issues raised by the Thai readers I wish to discuss how the texts can 2 chapter one be interpreted in a way, which takes the issues and concerns of the Thai Buddhist readers seriously, and at the same time respects the limits of interpretations available, given the texts’ own textual contexts. The reason for choosing the problem of interreligious dialogue in Thai- land as the setting of the discussion is threefold. First, and most importantly, even though there is a relatively comprehensive amount of literature on the religious encounter between Christianity and Buddhism in Thailand, studies on the method and practice of interreligious dialogue in Thailand are scarce (see the sub-section named “The encounter between Christianity and Buddhism in Thailand”). Second, the actual practice of interreligious dialogue has been met with mixed reactions, both from the side of the Christian churches and the Buddhist Sangha (the Buddhist community).1 This, in my opinion, illustrates a need for a thorough discussion of what kind of methods and approaches which could be used to facilitate better understanding and further dialogue. The third reason is personal. I have lived and worked in Thailand for about eight years, and have been challenged by the need for further reflfection about interreligious dialogue in Thailand. In addition, the fact that I have some prior knowledge of Thai language, culture and religion, is, I think, valuable with regard to this kind of research. There are three reasons why I have chosen to focus on how interpretation of biblical text can contribute to interreligious dialogue in Thailand. First, there is the point, which is emphasised by the Thai Buddhist monk Buddhadasa Bhikkhu, in his lecture on Christianity and Buddhism, namely that any comparisons between Christianity and Buddhism ought to take as its starting point the teaching points of the respective religions, as they are presented in the textual sources of the respective religions.2 Second, the research of Seree Lorgunpai has convincingly demonstrated that a study of biblical texts (in his case the book of Ecclesiastes) may offer both some

1 See for example Herbert R. Swanson, Khrischak Muang Nua: A Study in Northern Thai Church History (Bangkok: Chuan Printing Press, 1984). 164. Thailand in Transition: The Church in a Buddhist Country (Brussels: Pro Mundi Vita, Centrum Informationis, 1973), 48. 29–30. Seri Phongphit, “The Cooperation between Christians and Buddhists (Thailand as Model),” in Christianity Among World Religions, eds. Hans Küng, Jürgen Moltmann, and Marcus Lefébure (English Language Editor) (Edinburgh: T.&T. Clark LTD, 1986). 69. The Sangha is in its original sense “the ‘Community’ of monks and nuns with the Buddha as its teacher”. Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 73. In modern Thailand it also denotes an institution—the organisation of the Thai monastic order. This institution does not include a nun order. 2 Buddhadasa Bhikkhu, Christianity and Buddhism, trans. Venerable Punno et al., Sin- claire Thompson Memorial Lecture, Fifth Series (Bangkok: Sublime Life Mission, 1967). 22. introduction 3 common ground for dialogue, and give Thai Christians a tool for communicating with Thai Buddhists.3 Third, with the exception of the studies of Seree Lorgunpai, the question of how interpretation of biblical texts can contribute to contextualisation and interreligious dialogue in Thailand is hardly addressed in scholarly literature (see the section “The encounter between Christianity and Buddhism in Thailand”). The reasons for choosing Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73, and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 are elaborated on later in the introduction (see the section “Primary sources and method”). The type of empirical research I have chosen is qualitative oriented research; in this case in-depth interviews with a limited amount of people.

The Research Questions The two basic research questions in this study are: 1. How do Thai Buddhists understand and interpret three Old Testament wisdom texts—Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73 and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12? 2. How can the texts be interpreted in light of, and as a response to, Thai Buddhist interpretations and understandings of the texts and their themes? In order to answer the fifrst question, the following subsidiary questions must fifrst be researched and answered. These questions will be addressed inpartI (chapters 2–5) of this study. – How do Thai Buddhists interpret and understand Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73 and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 in light of the texts themselves, and in light of the Buddhist context of the interpreter? This will be explored through the following questions: – What themes, issues and problems do Thai Buddhists fifnd in the texts? Or put differently, what matters and concerns come into focus when the texts are read from a Thai Buddhist perspective? – How do Thai Buddhists perceive these matters and concerns, both in the texts and within their own context? – According to Thai Buddhists, what are the main similarities and differences between the texts’ discussion of these issues and their own Buddhist understanding of the same themes?

3 Seree Lorgunpai, “World Lover, World Leaver: The Book of Ecclesiastes and Thai Buddhism” (Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1995). cf. also Seree Lorgunpai, “The Books of Ecclesiastes and Thai Buddhism,” The Asia Journal of Theology 8, no. 1 (1994). 4 chapter one

– What main questions, objections and critical comments do Thai Buddhists raise to the texts? – What resources and main frameworks of understanding do Thai Bud- dhists draw on in their interpretation of the texts? Do they, for example, make use of Buddhist doctrines, knowledge about Christian teaching and doctrines, their own cultural values, and/or other resources? – How do Thai Buddhists relate to and engage with the texts? That is, what are their ways of interpretation? – How do they view the texts? Are they regarded as philosophical treaties, guidelines for life, or something else? – What kind of methods do they use in order to fifnd meaning in the text? Having answered these questions I will have established both the Thai interviewees’ understandings of the texts, their own questions to the same texts, and their comparison of them to Buddhism and their own belief; further, how they themselves think about these issues, what resources they draw on in their interpretation, and fifnally, how they relate to the texts and their themes. In order to answer the second question, the following subsidiary questions need to be researched and answered. These questions will be addressed in part II (chapters 6–9) of this study. – From the point of view of an interpretation of the texts in their textual contexts, how do these texts answer the questions and issues raised in the Thai Buddhists’ interpretations? – In view of the answers to the preceding question, and of the results from part I, how can the three texts be interpreted as a response to the Thai Buddhists’ own interpretations? The answers to these questions will be sought in the research and are likely to contribute to answering how biblical texts can be interpreted in a way which both communicates with Thai Buddhists and opens up for a dialogue with them about biblical issues and themes.

The Relevance of the Study As implied by the preceding presentation of the problem, the focus in this book is not primarily how the texts can be understood in their historical context, but rather what their signififcance can be in the meeting with a contemporary Thai Buddhist context. As such the study is a contribution to the fifeld of contextual Bible interpretation, with special regard to introduction 5

Buddhist Thailand, that is, an interpretation which gives meaning to, and communicates with Thai Buddhists. But as the study also investigates how Buddhists encounter texts from the Christian tradition, it also gives insight into Buddhist encounter with Christianity in Thailand. Further, the study will give insight into what can be gained from such an approach to religious encounter and whether such an approach may be one way in which dialogue between people of different faiths could be conducted more widely. In other words, the results of this study might further contribute to the methodological considerations concerning interreligious dialogue.

A Brief Introduction to the Thai Buddhist Context In this sub-section I will brieflfy introduce the relevant Thai Buddhist context. I will, however, not present the teaching of Thai Buddhism in general, as my focus is on the themes and issues which the Thai interviewees raise with regard to their interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73, and Eccle- siastes 9:1–12. Further important frameworks of understandings and points of teaching, which the interviewees utilise and refer to, will be presented and explained alongside my analysis of the Thai Buddhist interpretations and understandings of the texts and their themes and are therefore not included here. Thai Buddhism belongs to the Theravada tradition of Buddhism.4 It is the main religion in Thailand. Approximately 94% of the population gives Buddhism as their religious affifliation.5 Not formally a state religion, it is, as Yoneo Ishii notes, “in practice treated as such.”6 The king must, according to

4 Theravada Buddhism is the dominating Buddhist tradition in the Southeast Asian countries Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Laos and Sri Lanka. Yoneo Ishii, Sangha, State and Society: Thai Buddhism in History, trans. Peter Hawkes, Monographs of the Center for South- east Asian Studies Kyoto University English Language Series, vol. 15 (Honolulu: The Univer- sity of Hawaii Press, 1986). xiii. For an introduction to Buddhism in Southeast Asia see Donald K. Swearer, The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1995). For further references to literature on Thai Buddhism, see Chalermsee Olson, “Essential Sources on Thai Theravada Buddhism,” Behavioral & Social Sciences Librarian 16, no. 1 (1997). Somparn Promta, “Buddhist Studies in Thailand,” in The State of Buddhist Stud- ies in the World 1972–1997, eds. Donald K. Swearer and Somparn Promta (Bangkok: Center for Buddhist Studies Chulalongkorn University, 2000), Frank E. Reynolds, “Tradition and Change in Theravada Buddhism: A Bibliographical Essay Focused on the Modern Period,” in Tradi- tion and Change in Theravada Buddhism: Essays on Ceylon and Thailand in the 19th and 20th Centuries, ed. Bardwell L. Smith, Contributions to Asian Studies (Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1973). 5 Phra Dhammapitaka (P.A. Payutto), Thai Buddhism in the Buddhist World: A Survey of the Buddhist Situation Against a Historical Background (Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Founda- tion, 2001). 14. 6 Ishii, Sangha, State and Society: Thai Buddhism in History. xiii. 6 chapter one the constitution, be a Buddhist, and is the patron of the Sangha.7 Buddhism is supported by the state in various ways, and is taught in all government schools. It is further reckoned as one of the three pillars of Thai identity, which are religion (i.e. Buddhism), king, and nation.8 Thai Buddhism is often described as quite traditionalistic, and as being an agent for preserving traditional thinking and values in society.9 At the same time, since the early 1970s several movements have emerged, which aim at making Buddhism more relevant with regard to meeting the problems and issues faced in a modern society. Four of the most inflfuential movements are Buddhadasa and the Suan Moke movement, the Engaged Buddhist movement, the Dhammakaya movement, and the Santi Asoke movement. The last movement is excluded from the Thai Sangha, while the Dhammakaya movement is in conflfict with the Sangha.10 When describing Thai Buddhism in Thailand it is possible to distinguish between doctrinal Buddhism and popular Buddhism. Doctrinal Bud- dhism refers to Buddhism as it is taught and practised on the basis of the Pali scriptural tradition and authoritative commentaries to these.11 Popular

7 For the administration of the Buddhist order in Thailand, see Phra Dhammapitaka (P.A. Payutto), Thai Buddhism in the Buddhist World: A Survey of the Buddhist Situation Against a Historical Background. 29–32. For a presentation and discussion of the Sangha’s relation to society and state, see Ishii, Sangha, State and Society: Thai Buddhism in History. 8 Robert Slagter and Harold R. Kerbo, Modern Thailand, The Comparative Societies Series (Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2000). 88–89. 9 Jaakko Mäkelä, Khrischak Issara: The Independent Churches in Thailand, Their Histori- cal Background, Contextual Setting, and Theological Thinking (Åbo: Åbo Akademi University Press, 2000). 23, Donald K. Swearer, “Thai Buddhism: Two Responses to Modernity,” in Tra- dition and Change in Theravada Buddhism: Essays on Ceylon and Thailand in the 19th and 20th Centuries, ed. Bardwell L. Smith, Contributions to Asian Studies (Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1973). 78. 10 Some examples of literature on these movements are: Marja-Leena Heikkilä-Horn, Buddhism With Open Eyes: Belief and Practice of Santi Asoke (Bangkok: Fah Apai Co., Ltd., 1997), Peter A. Jackson, Buddhadâsa: Theravada Buddhism and Modernist Reform in Thailand, 2nd ed. (Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2003), Steven Piker, “Buddhism and Modernization in Contemporary Thailand,” in Tradition and Change in Theravada Buddhism: Essays on Ceylon and Thailand in the 19th and 20th Centuries, ed. Bardwell L. Smith, Contributions to Asian Studies (Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1973), Suwanna Satha-Anand, “Religious Movements in Contemporary Thailand: Buddhist Struggles for Modern Relevance,” Asian Survey XXX, no. 4 (1990), Swearer, “Thai Buddhism: Two Responses to Modernity.”, Donald K. Swearer, “Sulak Sivaraksa’s Buddhist Vision for Renewing Society,” in Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia, eds. Christopher S. Queen and Sallie B. King (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1996). 11 A good example of teaching based on authoritative sources is Phra Prayudh Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Revised and Expanded Version (Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidya- laya University, 2546/2003. (In Thai)). introduction 7

Buddhism is Buddhism as it is understood and practised by the ordinary adherents of the religion, but also by many monks and mae-chiis (nuns).12 Popular Buddhism differs in emphasis from doctrinal Buddhism.13 Relating this distinction between popular and doctrinal religion to Melford Spiro’s well known categorisation of the soteriological system of Buddhism,14 doctrinal Buddhism includes nibbanic Buddhism, while popular Buddhism includes what he calls kammatic Buddhism. That is, in nibbanic Buddhism, the focus is on being freed from the rounds of rebirth and gain enlightenment, whereas in kammatic Buddhism the focus is on gaining a better life in this and next life. In addition, popular Buddhism in Thailand includes to a large extent a belief in the world of spirits and magic. Spiro describes this stream as apotropaic Buddhism.15 According to my understanding, Spiro’s categorisation may be useful to highlight the fact that for most Thais, including many monks, the goal for the present life is not to reach Nibbana, which is regarded as being out of reach for the ordinary people, but to do merit (good kamma) in order to secure a better life in the here and now, and in the next rebirth.16 Notwithstanding this point, I do, however, agree with Chai Podhisita, who argues that nibbanic and kammatic Buddhism are closely related, because

12 In the Thai Sangha there are no Bhikkhunis, ordained female nuns. There are however quite a few women who live as mae chiis in the temples, that is living an ascetic life, studying the scriptures and following the precepts. For a good introduction to mae chiis in Thailand, see Monika Lindberg Falk, Making Fields of Merit: Buddhist Nuns Challenge Gendered Orders in Thailand (Göteborg: Göteborg University, Department of Social Anthropology, 2002). 13 Cf. Swearer, The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia. 6–7. 14 Melford E. Spiro, Buddhism and Society: A Great Tradition and its Burmese Vicissitudes (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1982). 12. Spiro’s categorisation is based on his study of Burmese society and religion. 15 Spiro, Buddhism and Society: A Great Tradition and its Burmese Vicissitudes. 12. For a discussion of beliefs in magic and spirits, see for example Jane Bunnag, Buddhist Monk, Buddhist Layman: A Study of Urban Monastic Organization in Central Thailand, eds. M. Fortes et al., Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology, vol. 6 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), Niels Mulder, Inside Thai Society: An Interpretation of Everyday Life, 4th ed. (Bangkok: Editions Duang Kamol, 1994), S.J. Tambiah, Buddhism and the Spirit Cults in North-East Thailand, eds. M. Fortes et al., Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), B.J. Terwiel, Monks and Magic: An Analysis of Religious Ceremonies in Central Thailand, 2nd. ed., Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Monograph Series, vol. 24 (London: Curzon Press, 1979). Suntaree Komin, “The World View Through Thai Value Systems,” in Traditional and Changing Thai World View, ed. Amara Pongsapich (Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 1998/2541). 16 Cf. Slagter and Kerbo, Modern Thailand. 84. Chai Podhisita, “Buddhism and Thai World View,” in Traditional and Changing Thai World View, ed. Amara Pongsapich (Bangkok: Chu- lalongkorn University Press, 1998/2541). 33–35. 8 chapter one in order to reach Nibbana, an important step on the way is “to discipline one’s behaviour, perform good acts, accumulate merit, and so on”.17 Another way of describing the relation between the two soteriological systems is found within the Buddhist teaching itself. In doctrinal Buddhism one distinguishes between the lokiya path of the ordinary people, and the lokuttara path, which is followed by persons who have renounced their civil life to follow the Noble Eightfold Path. The fifrst path focuses on gaining a better rebirth, while the other on reaching Nibbana.18

The Encounter between Christianity and Buddhism in Thailand There are quite a few studies addressing different issues regarding the encounter between Christianity and Buddhism in Thailand. The available literature, as far as I know it, can be divided into four broad categories. First, there is literature on contextualization and church planting from a Chris- tian theological point of view. Second, there are historical studies of the encounter between Christianity and Buddhism. Third, there are empirical studies on the encounter between Christianity and Buddhism. Finally, there is literature discussing, from a Buddhist point of view, the Buddhist meeting with Christianity. I will in the following brieflfy present these four areas of research. First, literatureoncontextualizationandchurchplanting. Most of the published literature is written by non-Thais (see below), but there are quite a few unpublished studies written for different theological degrees by students and teachers at theological institutions in Thailand. Two relatively new doctoral dissertations, written by the church leaders/the theological teachers Ubolwan Mejudhon and Nantachai Mejudhon, discuss what they call ‘the Way of Meekness’. Their concern is that in the presentation of the Christian churches’ message, the gospel has to be connected with cultural values and ways of communication. They give interesting contributions to the understanding of how one might communicate the gospel in a Thai culture. The content of the message is not, however, discussed in these studies.19

17 Podhisita, “Buddhism and Thai World View.” 36. See also Sallie B. King, “Conclusion: Buddhist Social Activism,” in Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia, eds. Christopher S. Queen and Sallie B. King (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1996). 414. 18 See Jackson, Buddhadâsa: Theravada Buddhism and Modernist Reform in Thailand. 85. 19 Nantachai Mejudhon, “Meekness: A New Approach to Christian Witness to the Thai people” (Doctor of Missiology, Asbury Theological Seminary, 1997), Ubolwan Mejudhon, “The Way of Meekness: Being Thai and Christian in the Thai Way” (Doctor of Missiology, introduction 9

One important study, which discusses how, in terms of content, the Chris- tian message can be communicated to Thai Buddhists, is the booklet of the former Buddhist monk, Wan Petchsongkram, titled Talk in the Shade of the Bo Tree.20 Various missionaries to Thailand have published studies on contextualization in a Thai context. These studies also give important impulses to the ongoing work of developing indigenous Thai theology.21 Second, historicalstudiesofencounterbetweenChristianityandBuddhism. In this category we fifnd quite a few studies on Thai church history, which in their analysis of the growth and development of various churches, give important insight into the history of the Buddhist-Christian encounters. One prominent example with regard to the history of the Church of Christ in Thailand is the work of Herbert Swanson: Khrischak Muang Nua.22 Third, empirical studies on the encounter between Christianity and Bud- dhism. These studies are mainly focused on the question of how Christian- ity in Thailand has been inflfuenced by the Thai religious context. Agood example is the work of Parichart Suwanbubbha. In her doctoral dissertation, based on an empirical study, she analyses how Thai Christians are inflfuenced by the idea of kamma.23 Her study, together with many other studies in this area, very convincingly demonstrates how the Thai cultural and religious contexts both form and inform the local theology.24

Asbury Theological Seminary, 1997). Cf. also Ubolwan Mejudhon, “Evangelism in the New Millenium: An Integrated Model of Evangelism to Buddhists Using Theology, Anthropology, and Religious Studies,” in Sharing Jesus in the Buddhist World, eds. David Lim and Steve Spaulding (Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2003). Other studies that discuss methods of evangelisations and church planting with regard to the Thai context are for example: Shin Hong-Shik, Principles of Church Planting as Illustrated in Thai Theravada Context (Bangkok: Kanok Bannasan, 1989), Alex G. Smith, Siamese Gold. A History of Church Growth in Thailand: An Interpretive Analysis (Bangkok: Kanok Bannasan, 1999). 20 Wan Petchsongkram, Talk in the Shade of the Bo Tree, trans. Frances E. Hudgins. Cf. also Francis M. Seely, “Thai Buddhism and the Christian Faith,” SouthEastAsiaJournalofTheology 10, no. 2/3 (1969). 21 Davis, Poles Apart? Contextualizing the Gospel, Paul A. Eakin, Buddhism and the Chris- tian Approach to Buddhists in Thailand (1960), Herbert G. Grether, “The Cross and the Bodhi Tree,” Theology Today XVI, no. 4 (1960), Anders Hovemyr, “Towards a Theology of the Incar- nation in the Thai Context,” The East Asia Journal of Theology 1, no. 2 (1983), Kosuke Koyama, Waterbuffalo Theology (London: SCM Press Ltd., 1974). 22 Swanson, Khrischak Muang Nua: A Study in Northern Thai Church History. Cf. also Saad Chaiwan, “A Study of Christian Mission in Thailand,” East Asia Journal of Theology 2, no. 1 (1984), Prakai Nontawasee, “Confrontation of Phii-Ka and Christianity: A Case Study,” International Review of Mission LXXVI (1987). 23 Parichart Suwanbubbha, “Grace and Kamma: A Case Study of Religio-Cultural Encoun- ters in Protestant and Buddhist Communities in Bangkok and its relevant environs, Thailand” (Doctor of Theology, The Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago, 1994). 24 See for example: Erik Cohen, “Christianity and Buddhism in Thailand: The ‘Battle of 10 chapter one

Fourth, literature on the Buddhist encounter with Christianity. In this category, which does not encompass very many studies, the focus is mainly on interreligious dialogue, and on how Christianity can be viewed, or is viewed from a Buddhist perspective.25 A very interesting study for my discussion is the lecture by Buddhadhasa on Buddhism and Christianity. In this lecture, he uses biblical texts as a starting point for his comparison between Chris- tianity and Buddhism.26 In spite of this relatively comprehensive amount of literature on the religious encounter between Christianity and Buddhism, the question of how interpretation of biblical texts can contribute to contextualisation and interreligious dialogue in Thailand is hardly addressed. One notable exception is the doctoral dissertation of Seree Lorgunpai.27 In his work he com- pares the theological content of Ecclesiastes with central themes in Thai Buddhism. He has also, in an article, analysed principles concerning the ownership of (agricultural) land in the Old Testament and used these principles to throw light on a debate concerning land reform, ownership and

the Axes’ and the ‘Contest of Power’,” Social Compass 38 (1991), Erik Cohen, “Christian- ization and Indigenization: Contrasting Processes of Religious Adaption in Thailand,” in Indigenous Responses to Western Christianity, ed. Steven Kaplan (New York: New York Uni- versity Press, 1995), Philip J. Hughes, “Christianity and Culture: A Case Study in North- ern Thailand” (Ph.D thesis, South East Asia Graduate School of Theology, 1982), Philip J. Hughes, “The Assimilation of Christianity in the Thai Culture,” Religion 14 (1984), Steve Taylor, “Gaps in beliefs of Thai Christians,” Evangelical Missions Quarterly 37, no. 1 (2001), Edwin Zehner, “Merit, Man and Ministry: Traditional Thai Hierarchies in a Contemporary Church,” Social Compass 38, no. 2 (1991). Herbert Swanson, Northern Thai Protestant Atti- tudes Towards Other Faiths: Analysis of a Questionnaire, (accessed 10.01 2008); available from http://www.herbswanson.com. 25 Seri Phongphit, “The Cooperation between Christians and Buddhists (Thailand as Model),” in ChristianityAmongWorldReligions, eds. Küng; Hans and Jürgen Moltmann (Edin- burgh: T. & T. Clark LTD, 1986), Sulak Sivaraksa, “Christianity in the Reflfection of Bud- dhism,” in Christianity Among World Religions, eds. Hans Küng, Jürgen Moltmann, and Mar- cus Lefébure (English Language Editor) (Edinburgh: T.&T. Clark LTD, 1986), Sulak Sivaraksa, “What can Christians Contribute to an Understanding of Buddhism in Thailand?,” Swedish Missiological Themes 90, no. 1 (2002), Parichart Suwanbubbha, “Towards a Culture of Reli- gious Diversity and Communal Harmony,” in Current Dialogue (World Council of Churches, 2004). 26 Buddhadasa Bhikkhu, Christianity and Buddhism. Cf. also my presentation and analysis of his Bible interpretation in Kari Storstein Haug, “Did Jesus Teach about Wisdom and Kamma?: A Critical Analysis of a Buddhist Bible Interpretation,” Swedish Missiological Themes 94, no. 1 (2006). Donald K. Swearer gives a Christian response to Buddhadasa in Don- ald K. Swearer, Dialogue: The Key to Understanding other Religions, ed. Howard Clark Kee, Biblical Perspectives on Current Issues (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The Westminster Press, 1977). Chapter 7. 27 Lorgunpai, “World Lover, World Leaver: The Book of Ecclesiastes and Thai Buddhism”. introduction 11 disposal of land, in modern Thailand.28 In addition to Lorgunpai’s work a few other studies can be found. Maen Pongudom has compared creation myths from northern Thailand with the stories of creation in Genesis.29 I have also been co-author of an article about reading the second commandment in a Thai context.30 From the Buddhist side, I have already mentioned the lectures of Buddhadasa as an important contribution to how biblical texts can be used in dialogue. In addition, it might be noted that in the work with Bible translation into Thai language and the discussions related to this, there is material with relevance for my study.31 However, when seen together this material is limited, and illustrates the need for a study into how reading and interpreting biblical texts can contribute to the religious encounter between Christianity and Buddhism in Thailand.

Primary Sources and Method

In this section I will present the primary sources of the study and the method for handling these sources. The primary sources of the study are, fifrst, the three texts from the Old Testament wisdom literature, and second, the interviews with Thai Buddhists about their interpretation and understanding of the biblical texts and their themes. This is a study within the systematic theological discipline Theology of Mission, and more specififcally within the areas of contextual Bible study and interreligious dialogue. Even though there is no common agreement on what a contextual theological method should include, most scholars are likely to agree that the distinctive feature of this method is the study of the interchange between a given context and the Christian interpretation of faith.32 In this study this interchange will be studied with an emphasis

28 Seree Lorgunpai, “Land Reform in Thailand and the Ownership of Land in the Old Testament,” ATESA Occasional Papers 12 (1993). 29 Maen Pongudom, “Creation of Man: Theological Reflfections based on Northern Thai Folktales,” East Asia Journal of Theology 3, no. 2 (1985). 30 Kari S. Haug and Knut Holter, “No Graven Image? Reading the Second Commandment in a Thai Context,” Asia Journal of Theology 14, no. 1 (2000). 31 Howard Hatton, “Translating YHWH: Experiences in Thailand and Micronesia,” The Bible Translator: Practical Papers 43, no. 4 (1982), Hatton, “Translation of Pronouns: A Thai Example.”, Francis M. Seely, “Some Problems in Translating the Scriptures into Thai,” The Bible Translator 8, no. 2 (1957). 32 Jan-Martin Berentsen, Tormod Engelsviken, and Knud Jørgensen, eds., Missiologi i dag, 2nd. ed. (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 2004). For a discussion concerning the issue “Bible 12 chapter one on Bible interpretation in a Thai Buddhist context, and it will therefore be necessary to use methods found within both humanistic and social sciences’ research traditions. First, text-analytical methods will be used in order to analyse the three texts from the Old Testament wisdom literature in their textual contexts. Second, in order to collect and analyse empirical examples of Thai Bud- dhist interpretation of the biblical texts under study here, methods from the social sciences will be used. More specififcally, in this study I will employ qualitative interviews and corresponding methods for analysing the material. Third, literature about Thai Buddhism, culture and society will be analysed in order to relate the Thai Buddhist interpretations to a wider Thai context.

The Biblical Texts The Reasons for Selecting Old Testament Wisdom Texts as Material As my aim is to study how biblical texts can be interpreted in a way which both communicates with Thai Buddhists, and opens up for a dialogue with them about biblical issues and themes, I wanted to choose texts from the Bible, whose themes could be both recognizable and challenging to the context. At the same time, I thought it would be a good idea to choose texts which were connected thematically in some way or other. The reason for this was twofold. First and foremost, because I think it would be diffifcult in the course of the individual interviews to cover many non-related topics in a comprehensive and thorough way. Second, because many themes would also result in a very complex analysis which might not be viable within the limits of a single study. In the wisdom literature of the Old Testament I found texts that covered both criteria; that are, having a connecting scarlet thread as well as themes which I assumed would be both recognizable and challenging for the interviewees. In addition, my own experience as a teacher at Lutheran Institute of The- ological Education (LITE) in Bangkok contributed to the choice of texts.33 The students there, who were Christians, but mostly came from Buddhist background, became very engaged when the topic was the Old Testament wisdom literature. They felt that in this literature, familiar issues emerged, relevant to their Buddhist upbringing and context. and culture”, cf. pp. 236–239. Stephen B. Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology, ed. Robert J. Schreiter, 2nd. ed., Faith and Cultures (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2003). 33 LITE is now called Luther Seminary in Thailand (LST). introduction 13

Moreover, when reading Buddhadasa Bhikkhu, one of the very few Thai Buddhist monks who have engaged himself critically and dialogically with biblical texts, I was puzzled by his argument that the Old Testament had little, if anything to contribute to the Buddhist-Christian dialogue.34 His statement, I found to be fundamentally wrong, and wanted to demonstrate that quite contrary, reading Old Testament texts can contribute in a signififcant way to dialogue between Thai Buddhists and Christians.

A Short Introduction to the Old Testament Material The wisdom literature in the Old Testament consists of wisdom books (Proverbs, Job and Ecclesiastes), wisdom psalms (for example Pss 1, 25, 37, 49, 73, 146) and some texts and stories inflfuenced by wisdom thinking (for example Gen 37–50; 1Kgs 3:4–27; 4:20–34). Within this material I have chosen to focus on the following three texts: 1. Proverbs 11:18–31—Theme: As you sow, you will reap. 2. Psalm 73—Theme: Why must the just suffer? 3. Ecclesiastes 9:1–12—Theme: All meet the same destiny. These texts are important, because together they represent both the optimistic and pessimistic viewpoints of wisdom. The expectation about order and justice in life, like it is expressed in the saying “As you sow, you will reap”, is a central topic in the part of the Old Testament wisdom literature, which has an optimistic view of causation, like Proverbs. This way of thinking also forms the background for the discussion within the more pessimistic oriented wisdom literature, like for example Ecclesiastes, Job and Psalm 73, where such an easy formula for life is problematised. Text number 1 expresses the straight forward cause and effect thinking, while texts number 2 and 3 in different ways gives expression to, that life as it is experienced, not necessarily fifts into such a clear cut formula. The texts are also selected because the way of thinking which is expressed in the saying: “As you sow you will reap” is very familiar to and central in Thai interpretation of life. Normally, all children learn from a very young age the following proverb: “do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil” (ทําดีได ้ดี ทําชวไดัv ้ชวัv ).35 This proverb gives expression to a popular understanding of the

34 Buddhadasa Bhikkhu, Christianity and Buddhism. 26. He did, however, fifnd it relevant and fruitful to use texts from the Gospels. 35 The fact that this saying is well known and often used is noted by many scholars of Thai culture and religion, see for example: Petchsongkram, Talk in the Shade of the Bo 14 chapter one law of kamma,36 which is a central part of Thai understanding of reality. It will therefore be interesting to study how and to what extent Thai Buddhists will read Proverbs 11:18–31 within the framework of kamma, and what they will consider as the important themes and issues of the texts. Furthermore, I am interested to know how Thai Buddhists will relate to texts like Psalm 73 and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12, which in different ways question this central assumption of a connection between acts and consequence.

Text Analysis In my interpretation of the texts, the results from the empirical study of Thai Buddhist interpretations of Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73, and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 will inform what main questions I address the texts with. Then I will investigate whether and how the texts might be regarded as responding to these questions, given the textual contexts of the texts. By textual context I fifrst mean the texts’ contexts within the books they belong to, andsecond the texts’ literary contexts in the wisdom literature of the Old Testament. Central issues, as text-structure and text-concerns and matters, will be discussed. Further, the literal and linguistic conventions of the texts will be studied, as well as the fifeld of associations the texts create when they are read in light of the wisdom literature of the Old Testament. This approach to the text analysis is based on the main presuppositions that there are certain limits to what meanings biblical texts can have, given their textual context, but that the texts open up for different interpretations in the meeting between the texts and their contexts, and contemporary readers and their contexts.37

Tree. 100. Charles F. Keyes, “Merit-Transference in the Kammic Theory of Popular Theravada Buddhism,” in Karma: An Anthropological Inquiry, eds. Charles F. Keyes and E. Valentine Daniel (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1983). 262–263. John R. Davis, Poles Apart? Contextualizing the Gospel (Bangkok: Kanok Bannasan (OMF Publishers), 1993). 63. Suntaree Komin, Psychology of the Thai People: Values and Behavioral Patterns (Bangkok: Research Center National Institute of Development Administration, 1991). 202. 36 The concept of kamma and the law of kamma will be explained in chapter 2. The reason that I use the word ‘kamma’ instead of ‘karma’, which may be more familiar in the West, is that Buddhism in Thailand is part of the Theravada school and thus uses the Pali canon of the Buddhist scriptures. The word kamma comes from Pali, while karma is Sanskrit. 37 Cf. John Barton, Reading the Old Testament: Method in Biblical Study, 2nd. ed. (London: Darton, Longman &Todd, 1996), Anthony C. Thiselton, New Horizons in Hermeneutics: The Theory and Practice of Transforming Biblical Reading (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan Pub- lishing House, 1992). They both emphasise that the texts own horizon must be respected in order for a “productive interaction of horizons” to occur. The quote is from Thiselton, New Horizons in Hermeneutics: The Theory and Practice of Transforming Biblical Reading. 8. introduction 15

The Role of the Researcher An important methodological question that arises in light of the method of this study is the question about the role of the researcher. This is a critical question for at least three reasons: First, I wish to collect and analyse empirical material of Thai Buddhist interpretations. Second, I aim at interpreting the texts in their textual contexts. Third, I wish to interpret the texts in a way which can communicate in a contemporary Thai Buddhist context. The question concerning my own situatedness with regard to the fifeldwork will be addressed below in the section on the interviews. Regarding the two other points my principal considerations are as follows: The aim to interpret the texts in their textual contexts raises the question if it is possible at all to gain an historical understanding of the texts, or whether all interpretations are totally dependent on the interpreter’s own cultural lenses. In my view the background of an interpreter will inflfuence his or her understanding of a text. Hence, a completely unbiased and objec- tive reading of texts is not possible. However, I will claim that there are more or less qualififed and adequate interpretations of texts, and thatbya thorough exegetical work one is able to say something valid about the meanings which the texts most likely had for their fifrst readers. In my opinion it is necessary to try to understand the texts on their own terms, and try to understand the horizons of the texts, in order to reach valid interpretations in a current context.38 Concerning the third issue, the question emerges if it is possible for a non-Thai to interpret texts in a way that communicates with Thai Buddhists. I think that it is possible, and that such a contribution can be valuable, provided certain conditions are given. First, it is important that I do not naively identify my own interpretation with a Thai interpretation. My aim is not to give a Thai reading, but to study what possible interpretations the texts open up for in light of Thai Buddhist interpretations of the texts, and to further discuss how the texts can be interpreted as a response to their interpretations. Second, the interpreter must show in praxis that he/she has thorough knowledge of the culture and be able to document it throughout the analysis. Finally, transparency in all levels of interpretation is crucial, thus enabling others to check the validity of the interpretations.

38 I understand the concept ‘valid interpretation’ in line with Jan-Olav Henriksens defifnition: “… en tolkning som både er historisk korrekt og kan ha betydning for mennesker i dag.” (an interpretation, which is both historically correct and signififcant for people of today), Jan- Olav Henriksen, “Utblikk,” in Tegn, tekst og tolk: Teologisk hermeneutikk i fortid og nåtid, ed. Jan-Olav Henriksen (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1994). 267. 16 chapter one

The Interviews A presentation and discussion of how Thai Buddhists read and interpret Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73 and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 will be a main part of this study. As Thai Buddhist interpretations of these texts were not already available, this material had to be established before an investigation into the material could be undertaken. This was done through a qualitative oriented interview-based research in Thailand from June to September 2005, where I gathered empirical examples on Thai Buddhist interpretations of the three texts in question. In the following I will present my methodological considerations concerning the preparation, implementation and analysis of this interview- based research.

The Interviews: Aim and Type The aim of the interviews was to explore the interviewees’ interpretations and understandings (see the sub-section titled “The research questions”, for more details). Therefore, I designed the form of the interviews in such a way as to allow for both elaborated reflfections and detailed answers, and for it to be flfexible with regard to the possibility of asking different follow-up questions in different interviews. I thus opted for using the form open-ended and semi-structured interviews.39 In other words, an ‘exploratory interview’ as Steinar Kvale defifnes it: “An exploratory interview is open and has little structure. The interviewer in this case introduces an issue, an area to be charted, or a problem complex to be uncovered.”40 In this type of interviewing, the interview takes the form of a conversation guided by questions and answers, reflfections and elaborations.41 From the understanding of interviews as conversations, and as such, as communica-

39 For a concise introduction to the history of interviewing and different kinds of interviews, see Andrea Fontana and James H. Frey, “The Interview: From Structured Questions to Negotiated Text,” in Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Materials, eds. Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2003). 40 Steinar Kvale, Interviews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing (Thou- sand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1996). 97. 41 It should be noted, however, that the research interview differs from everyday conversations, as it has a professional purpose, and as the interviewer controls the conversation to a certain extent, by for example deciding what topics to follow up on, and when to shift to a new topic. Having made this point it is also important to emphasise that in this kind of interviews it is equally important to be flfexible and willing to follow where the interviewees lead, in order to gain an in-depth understanding of their perspectives. Tim Rapley, “Interviews,” in Qualitative Research Practice, eds. Clive Seale et al. (London: Sage, 2004). introduction 17 tive events, it follows that interviews are regarded as co-operative products of the interaction between the persons participating in the interview.42 This understanding must then lead to further reflfections on how to conduct the interview in a way which to a suffifcient degree takes the interview as aco- operative and communicative event into account and makes use of it in a productive way. How this is possible will be discussed below, both with regard to the preparation and analysis of the interviews.

The Preparation of the Interviews The Interview Guide—What to Ask and How to Ask Due to the exploratory aim and character of the interviews in this study, the interview guide was not prepared with the purpose of containing a detailed list of specififc questions, but rather a few core questions, centred onthe areas which I aimed at exploring during the course of the conversations. The three Old Testament wisdom texts formed the pivotal point of each discussion, as I wished to explore how the interviewees understood and interpreted the texts, and to discuss themes in the text with the interviewees. Follow-up questions were frequently used to invite the interviewees to go more extensively into matters and issues which they brought up during the interviews. These questions were not formulated beforehand, as they were dependent on the direction in which the interview proceeded. In preparing the interview guide a crucial question was, of course, what to ask. As I see it, the answer to this question depends on what the aim of the study is, and consequently on the investigation’s basic research questions. I agree with Karin Widerberg, who states that: “The interview guide must be the concrete translation of that which one aims at analysing” (my translation).43 The research questions and the formulated aims for this part of the study were thus decisive for my reflfections on the content of the interview guide’s core questions.44 Having a good idea of what to ask is, however, not suffifcient to secure a good material and a good analysis. The question of how to ask is equally important, both for the outcome of the interviews and for how the created

42 Charles L. Briggs, Learning How to Ask: A Sociolinguistic Appraisal of the Role of the Inter- view in Social Science Research, Studies in the Social and Cultural Foundations of Language, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). 102, Rapley, “Interviews.” 16. 43 “Intervjuguiden skal være det konkret oversatte uttrykket for det man ønsker å anal- ysere.” Karin Widerberg, Historien om et kvalitativt forskningsprosjekt (Oslo: Universitetsfor- laget, 2001). 60. 44 For the core questions, see appendix. 18 chapter one material should be analysed. The reflfection of how to ask is, in my opinion, part of a broader discussion of the importance of taking into accord the interview as a communicative event in the preparation, implementation and analysis of interview-based research. This I shall venture to reflfect on in the following. Communicative Norms and Strategies When interviews are understood as co-operative products of the persons participating in the interview, it follows that questions and answers in a given interview are dependent on and shaped by the actual interaction that takes place in the frame of an interview situation. Thus in order both to create a communication situation which secures a good conversation about the themes and issues which the researcher aims at having elucidated, and to analyse the material in a way which takes into account the actual context created by the interview situation, it is crucial to have knowledge about the norms and strategies which govern the different elements in the interview as a communicative event.45 As communicative norms and strategies vary from culture to culture it is, in my opinion, imperative when the interviewees and the interviewer come from different linguistic, cultural

45 A communicative event consists of different elements, like for example, scene, participants, message form, channels, codes, referent, key and sequence (Scene, referring to: the setting, purpose, topic and the genre of a communicative event. Participants, referring to: the primary participants in the interaction, including the social roles they assume in the interview and their interactional goals; that is, the motivation of each of the participants for engaging in the interview. Message form, referring to: the signals, both auditory and visual, that serve as sign vehicles in the communication. Channels, referring to: physical and psychological circuits between participants. Codes, referring to: linguistic and non-verbal signs and the conventions that determine how and in what contexts these signs are used (location etc). Referent, referring to: the something else that is represented by the sign vehicle; roughly equivalent to Peirce’s ‘object’ and Saussure’s ‘signifife’. Key, referring to: the tone or a mood of a communicative event. Sequence, referring to: the order in which events or acts occur within a communicative event). Furthermore, in a communicative event different kinds of content are communicated both verbally and non-verbally. First, in a communicative event usually a matter or topic is discussed or communicated. Second, there is an ongoing communication about the participants’ relationship to each other. Finally, in a communicative event there is an ongoing communication on how the basic message is to be interpreted, called meta-communication. See for example Briggs, Learning How to Ask: A Sociolinguistic AppraisaloftheRoleoftheInterviewinSocialScienceResearch. 40–41, Øyvind Dahl, Møtermel- lom mennesker: Interkulturell kommunikasjon (Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk, 2001). 49–50, and Roy Scollon and Suzanne Wong Scollon, Intercultural Communication: A Discourse Approach, ed. Peter Trudgill, 2nd ed., Language in Society, vol. 21 (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2001). 32–33. For a brief introduction to the different schools within communication studies, see John Fiske, Introduction to Communication Studies, ed. John Fiske, 2nd. ed., Studies in Cul- ture and Communication (London: Routledge, 1990). introduction 19 and social backgrounds, that the researcher includes into the preparation and implementation of his or her fifeldwork a study of the norms and strategies for communication in the society in question. ‘Communicative norms’ I understand as the norms that guide communicative events.46 They are the rules that determine who may participate in a communicative event, what kind of information may be conveyed and how language is used. This means that communicative norms are defifned by the interrelation between social roles, the overall social situation, and the type of communicative event in question,47 and as such are also dependent on the more general structure and cultural values of the society in question.48 By ‘strategies for communication’ I mean the different ways people choose to communicate in the different communicative events, including how they use meta-communication.49 The choice of strategies of communication is based on, usually an implicit, knowledge of the norms and values of communication in a given society. How may a study of communicative norms and strategies best be done? First and foremost, I would like to emphasise the importance of language acquisition. I think that in order to really understand the communicative norms and strategies in a language other than the researcher’s mother tongue it is necessary to study the language in question, and practise using it in actual interactions. Through the successes, but especially through all the mistakes, made in the process of language learning, one will learn a lot about norms and strategies for communicating in the society in question. And, due to the fact that local norms and strategies for communication are very often expressed through linguistic forms, it is only by using the local language that it is possible to integrate them into the interview situation. Further, I think that the method outlined by Charles Briggs in his book Learning how to ask is useful with regard to researching communicative norms and strategies.50 Briggs suggests starting with an initial study which

46 Briggs, Learning How to Ask: A Sociolinguistic Appraisal of the Role of the Interview in Social Science Research. 3. 47 Ibid. 41. Briggs here deals with norms of interaction, but as far as I understand his discussion this concept is used synonymously with communicative norms. 48 See for example Dahl, Møter mellom mennesker: Interkulturell kommunikasjon. Chapter one. 49 Concerning ‘metacommunication’: see for example: Ibid. 49–50 and Scollon and Scol- lon, Intercultural Communication: A Discourse Approach. 76–79. 50 Briggs, Learning How to Ask: A Sociolinguistic Appraisal of the Role of the Interview in Social Science Research. See chapter 5. 20 chapter one focuses on; fifrstly, how social roles inflfuence on the way people communicates; secondly, how the social situation informs the use of language and communicative strategies, and thirdly, what is considered as good and proper communication in different communicative events.51 In addition to this, Briggs stresses that the researcher should especially note what the meta-communicative features of the society in question are. This is important, because through knowledge about meta-communicative features one acquires insight into the different ways people, mostly implicitly, give clues for understanding and interpreting that which is communicated.52 Further- more, the issue of how people ask questions should be observed and analysed. In interview-based research, where question asking is the main form of initiating communication, it is crucial to know how to ask questions properly, and when to ask what type of questions, and to whom. Finally, as interview is used by the researcher as a way of acquiring knowledge, care should be taken in to understand the way knowledge is acquired in the society in question, and the norms underlying this process.53 Therefore, in order to acquire communicative competency, observation and practice over time is needed. In my case, it was to my advantage that I had lived and worked in Bangkok, Thailand, for almost eight years prior to engaging in fifeldwork. I thus did not start from scratch as to communicating in a Thai context. I have a relatively good command of the Thai language,54 and have broad experience communicating with Thais from different social groups and in different situations. The following four points are elements I consciously took into account when doing interview-based research in Thailand. Firstly, as Thailand is a hierarchical structured society, I was very conscious about what social role I should try to negotiate for myself in the

51 Joel Sherzer and Ragna Darnell have developed a useful guide for the ethnographic study of speech-use, see John J. Gumperz and Dell Hymes, eds., Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication (Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd, 1986). 548–554. 52 A good introduction into the main cues worth looking for is found in John J. Gumperz, Discourse Strategies, Studies in Interactional Sociolinguistics, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). 130–152. 53 The outline guide for identifying discourse systems suggested by Scollon and Scollon gives useful questions to ask, which may help to discover in what kind of communicative events knowledge is acquired, see Scollon and Scollon, Intercultural Communication: A Discourse Approach. 183–185, 283. 54 For introduction to the Thai language in English, see for example James Higbie and Snea Thinsan, Thai Reference Grammar: The Structure of Spoken Thai (Bangkok: Orchid Press, 2003), David Smyth, Thai: An Essential Grammar (London: Routledge, 2002), Tipawan Thampusana-Abold, Thai for English Speaking Learners: Grammatical and Cultural Ap- proaches (Bangkok: Editions Duang Kamol, 1995). introduction 21 interviews.55 I interviewed people of different social statuses, and therefore I had to negotiate my role in relation to each of these statuses and reflfect on what would be the appropriate way of communicating in each case. This is important because the hierarchical structure in Thai society inflfuences interaction in decisive ways. One’s position in a relationship to another person will inflfuence on the level or register of language which is proper touse, for example which pronoun to use in addressing oneself or the person one communicates with.56 Furthermore, the hierarchical relationship between persons in a communicative event inflfuences on who can say what, and in what way. For example, communication in Thai culture is top-down. The person of lower status is expected to listen, learn, and not to ask too many questions, especially not critical questions.57 On the other hand, the person who is higher on the social ladder is regarded as having the necessary knowledge by virtue of his or her status and is not expected to ask people lower down in the hierarchy to instruct him/her.58 In addition to social status in general, I had to consider the question of gender. In a Buddhist society, where especially monks have strict rules concerning contact with females, I had to take care not to breach any of the implicit and explicit rules governing a lay-woman’s conversation with monks. More generally, I had to consider how the cultural norms and expectations related to gender in the Thai context inflfuenced the relationship and actual interaction in the interview situation. Secondly, I consciously related to the rule of kreng jai in interviewing. The system of kreng jai is related to the value of individualism in Thai society, and has a decisive inflfuence on communication. The main rule in all interaction is to protect and preserve each other’s ego, that is, to kreng jai each other. If this rule is violated, the relationship is in danger of being destroyed, since the one who has his or her ego hurt will experience loss of

55 Decisive factors in deciding who is higher on the social ladder are, for example, power, wealth, professional status, age, gender, merit and birth (descent). 56 For a short introduction to the use of pronoun in Thai language, see Howard A. Hatton, “Translation of Pronouns: A Thai Example,” Practical Papers for the Bible Translator 24 (1973). For a comprehensive discussion of ‘high and low Thai’, cf. A.V.N. Diller, “High and Low Thai: Views from Within,” in Papers in South-East Asian Linguistics No.9: Language Policy, Language Planning and Sociolinguistics in South-East Asia, ed. David Bradley, Pacififc Linguistics series A (Canberra: Australian National University, 1985). Thai language has different levels of language, whose use depends on the social situation and the relationship between the participants in the communicative situation. 57 Henry Holmes, Suchada Tangtongtavy, and Roy Tomizawa, Working with the Thais: A Guide to Managing in Thailand (Bangkok: White Lotus Co., Ltd, 1995). 26, 34–35, 85–86. 58 Ibid. 63. 22 chapter one face, and hence loss of honour.59 I presupposed that the interviewee would kreng jai me and try not to make me loose face, for example, by asking me to clarify a question if it was not understood. Also, I avoided posing leading questions, as they would probably only be affifrmed. In addition, I took care not to ask questions that could be interpreted as critique or as a confrontation with the interviewee’s opinions or beliefs. Thirdly, the fact that I as interviewer interacted with the interviewee in a conversational form meant that in some way or other we were building a relationship. Therefore, I had to take into account that the norms for relationships and the maintenance of such were likely to inflfuence the interview. In addition to hierarchy and individualism, relationship is a very important value in Thai society. The ideal relationship is problem-free, relaxed, polite and pleasant, and most Thais will have a pragmatic attitude to other values, which are considered of secondary importance to the value of relationship, in order to maintain a relation.60 I was therefore aware of the fact that at least some of the interviewees would be sensitive to what I would like to hear, and steer their answers and comments in that direction. Finally, I had to take the meta-communicative features of communication in Thailand into account in order to be able to interpret responses correctly, but also as a means of communicating properly and in an understandable way.61 For example, I had to consider carefully the use and interpretation of gestures, physical distance, and variations in language. Whom to Ask As the aim of the fifeldwork was to collect empirical examples of Thai Buddhists’ Bible interpretation, I consequently selected Thai Buddhists for interviews. By Thai Buddhists I mean people of Thai nationality who, when asked about their religious affifliation, stated that they were Buddhists. Within this group I interviewed two main categories of people. The fifrst group I call ‘professional Buddhists’. By this I mean people who have made

59 Komin, Psychology of the Thai People: Values and Behavioral Patterns. 133–135. 60 Ibid. 143–149. Holmes, Tangtongtavy, and Tomizawa, Working with the Thais: A Guide to Managing in Thailand. 21–23. 61 The meta-communicative repertoire used in communicative events in the Thai context is complex and includes a wide spectre of signals, from gestures, facial expressions, prosody and linguistic patterns, to the way the participants present themselves through clothes and accessories. A famous example is the smile, which is said to contain thirteen different meanings, depending on how the speaker intends the basic message of the smile to be understood. Holmes, Tangtongtavy, and Tomizawa, Working with the Thais: A Guide to Managing in Thailand. 25. introduction 23

Buddhism their way of living, i.e. monks and nuns,62 or earn their living as religious specialists—in my material, university teachers in Buddhism. The second group I call ‘ordinary Buddhists’. That is lay persons or ordinary believers, who do not make their living from being religious specialists. The reason for choosing these two groups was fifrst, that I wanted to secure that some of the interviewees had in-depth knowledge of doctrinal Buddhism, second to ensure variety with regard to experience in religious practice, and third, to make sure that I had both ordained monks, mae chiis and lay people represented in my material. In addition, I was interested in studying if there would be any differences between these two groups with regard to the interpretation of the biblical texts. The main criterion for the selection of interviewees was variety within the two main categories presented above, with regard to age, education, occupation, marital status and gender (see below for more details on the interviewees).

The Analysis Analysis as a Hermeneutical Process I agree with Rapley, who emphasises that “… analysis is always an ongoing process that routinely starts prior to the fifrst interview.”63 That is, in light of the problem and aim of the study, and of the examination of relevant literature, analytic themes and questions are formulated. These are brought into the interview where they in the course of the conversation are tested, elaborated on, and/or reworked. After the interview, the analysis continues when the researcher engages in a comprehensive interpretation of different aspects of the collected material.64 In other words, the analysis of qualitative oriented research interviews is equally a hermeneutical process, comprising the preparation, implementation and fifnal analysis of the interviews. Thus all phases contribute to the meaning and knowledge production and one must show awareness of the close connection between all phases. In my work I have thus tried to be consciously aware of this process both in the preparation, implementation and fifnal analysis of the interviews. First, the interview-guide was developed in light of what the study aims to discuss and analyse. Further, the implementation of the interviews, including how questions were formulated, took into account Thai communicative norms and strategies. Finally, it has been my explicit aim to make analysis

62 By ‘nun’ I mean ‘mae chii’. 63 Rapley, “Interviews.” 67. 64 Cf. Ibid. 67–68. 24 chapter one part of the interview situations.65 I have thus throughout the interviews followed up on the interviewees’ statements and answers with questions that opened up for further reflfections and elaborations. In addition I have been especially aware of what key categories and terms the interviewees made use of in their interpretations and comments and therefore asked them for further elaborations on these. In analysing the collected material I utilised a hermeneutical approach. By this I mean an in-depth interpretation of the transcribed interview text where the text primarily is understood within in its own frame of reference, including its character as interaction or communicative event, but also within the wider framework of religio-cultural understandings to which the interviewees relate and refer to in the course of the interviews. I took as my point of departure the single interview. I typically read the whole interview fifrst to get a general impression of the major themes and issues related to my research questions, and then returned to the different utterances in order to analyse in more detail their meaning and signififcance. As the meaning of the parts is dependent on the meaning of the whole, and vice versa, the interpretation took the form of a back and forth process, where through the process I got a better sense of the different nuances of meaning conveyed in the text. In addition, when interpreting both the whole and the parts, I was conscious about the interview as an interaction where different communicative norms and strategies were at play. I thus analysed the interaction in order to gain a deepened understanding of the interview text. This included using meta-communicative features to identify the clues that the speaker had provided for understanding the different statements. Thus, during the period of analysis I referred to the notes I had written about the actual interview situations, and in some cases I also listened to the tape-recordings of the interview.66 Furthermore, I also analysed the interviews in light of the wider context of Thai Buddhism in Thailand, including its relation to and understanding of Christianity. That is, with regard to the interviewees’ explications of how they as Buddhists understood the themes of the texts, I related their understandings and emphasises to how the same issues are discussed from

65 Cf. Steinar Kvale, Det kvalitative forskningsintervju, trans. Tone M. Andersen and Johan Rygge (Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk, 1997/2001). 112. 66 As a text, the transcribed text is not able to include all the different kinds of content which were communicated in the interview. Both communication of relationship and meta- communicative features are to a large extent communicated with non-verbal signs, or by using intonations and inflfections in a way which is diffifcult to capture in a transcription. introduction 25 a doctrinal point of view by Thai Buddhists scholars. But I also referred to research on Thai Buddhism as it is actually believed and practised. This discussion contributed to the analysis of the interview material in a twofold way. First, in some cases it contributed to the discussion and clarififcation of the meaning of the interviews, by giving a context within which to understand the different terms and categories that are used in the interviews. Second, it placed the different examples of understanding highlighted in the interviews within the wider context of Buddhism in Thailand. Reading the different interviews together I looked for both similar and contrasting interpretations and understandings. I was interested in getting a picture as comprehensive as possible of the interviewees’ understanding of the texts and themes therein. It has not been a major point in this study to explain the variations in interpretations. The material is too limited to be able to say something valid about that. I have, however, at some points identififed tendencies in my material which seem to confifrm or tobein contrast with fifndings in other research. Accessing the material as a whole, I have also focused on how the interviewees related to the texts and the themes therein. In doing this, I have gone beyond an analysis of the interviewees’ own understandings, as I have explored how they interacted hermeneutically with the texts and their themes. Analysis of Situatedness An important question to consider when doing qualitative research is how the interviewer’s situatedness inflfuences on the interview situation and hence on the material collected. The interviewer’s situatedness might be considered a problem, but in my opinion it is only a problem as long as it is not consciously recognized and taken into account when conducting and analysing the interviews. In the following I will relate some of the points I found important to consider when reflfecting on my own situatedness. As many foreigners are coming to, and living in Bangkok for diverse reasons, my role was not defifned in advance when I contacted people witha request for interviews. I usually presented myself as a researcher and Ph.D. student, but the question came fairly fast; why do you speak Thai? I then told about my previous work in Thailand as a missionary, teaching biblical studies at the Lutheran Institute of Theological Education in Bangkok. In my experience, missionaries are generally viewed positively by the Thais, as they are regarded as religious workers or professionals, who teach people to do good, and who even do good works themselves. But, of course, individuals might have both good and bad experiences with missionaries. 26 chapter one

It was, nevertheless, important for me to reflfect on how my role as previous missionary and teacher in theology could inflfuence the interviewees’ perception of me, and how it would inflfuence our communication. Would, for example, the interviewees think that I planned to convert them, or would some feel very uncomfortable by having to comment on biblical texts in the presence of a religious ‘expert’? Having this in mind, I stressed the point that my aim was to get their perspectives on the texts and learn more about how they viewed the different themes of the texts. As for the professional Bud- dhists, and for those interviewees who had higher education, they all went well into the role as my teachers. Some of them, especially the monks, even tested out my knowledge of certain key Buddhist teaching points, probably in order to know on what level to give their instruction. As for some of the interviewees with lesser education, they were more deferential with regard to the Bible—“we do not know this very well—you are the expert”. I thus took care to emphasise both at the beginning, but also regularly throughout the interviews how much I valued their perspectives on the texts. In addition, I stressed that I could not know how they viewed the text, but was very interested in learning more about it. Further, I soon realised that when I stressed that I wanted to learn from them concerning their own belief, many felt that they had to contribute substantially concerning Buddhist doctrines. This made some of the interviewees a bit insecure, and also led them to not always stating what they themselves believed, but rather what ‘Buddhism teaches’. I tried to be conscious about this problem and often added the question: what do you think?, after an elaboration on Buddhist doctrines. I am aware, however, that in some cases I may not have been successful in getting the interviewees’ own opinion, but more what they believed to be correct Buddhist teaching.

Carrying out the Interviews The Interviewees I interviewed nineteen adult Thai Buddhists living in Bangkok. One of the interviews was held with two people at the same time, so the number of interviews counted is eighteen.67 The precise number of people to be interviewed was not set before I started the interviews. But after I had

67 The reason I interviewed two people together in one interview was due to the fact that they were monks and felt it more comfortable to be two together in an interview conducted by a woman. introduction 27 achieved the variation I was looking for with regard to the interviewees, and realised that new interviews did not seem to bring new perspectives, I found eighteen interviews to be suffifcient for my purpose. I interviewed seven ‘professional Buddhists’, three women and four men. Three of the men were ordained as monks and two of the women as mae- chiis (nuns). Their age varied from 28–55, and the educational level went from six year primary education to Ph.D. The ‘ordinary Buddhists’ interviewed numbered eight women and four men. The interviewees were between 20 and 55 years old. Some had children, others not. Their educational background varied from four years primary school to Ph.D, and various occupations were represented, like for example student, shop-keeper, maid, government offifcial, professor, economist. In both groups marital status varied from single to married, and divorced. All the people interviewed lived, studied or worked in Bangkok at the time of the interview.68 In order that the interviewees should be able to express themselves freely, I have given them fifctive names so as to protect their anonymity:69

Professional Buddhists Sex Age Occupation Dr. Phichai m. 49 Professor Dr. Somsri f. 55 Professor Mae Chii Narumon f. 49 Nun Mae Chii Phornthip f. 41 Nun Phra Phongsak m. 28 Monk Phra Songkran m. 29 Monk Phra Suthep m. 33 Monk

Ordinary Buddhists Sex Age Occupation Dr. Phimpan f. 39 Professor Dr. Saichai f. 51 Professor Mrs. Aporn f. 45 Maid Mr. Deecha m. 20 Student Mr. Chakkri m. 44 Artist Mrs. Chanpen f. 34 Economist

68 Six of the interviewees were born and had lived their whole life in Bangkok. Four of the interviewees had moved to Bangkok as children, two moved to Bangkok when they were around thirty years old, while the rest (seven) had come to Bangkok in their late teens or early twenties in order to study or work. Those who were not ‘Bangkokians’ by birth came from different provinces in Thailand, from all regions of the country, but with a majority from the north-eastern part of Thailand. Bangkok is the capital of Thailand and is situated in the central region of Thailand. 69 The term mae chii is already presented. Phra is here used as title for the monks, but is in my use of it not meant to indicate the rank of the monk within the Buddhist Sangha. 28 chapter one

Ordinary Buddhists Sex Age Occupation Mrs. Chittra f. 32 Entrepreneur Ms. Laddawan f. 24 Student Ms. Laksami f. 29 Student Mrs. Manee f. 42 Shop-keeper Mr. Santi m. 49 Artist Mr. Wibun m. 34 Consultant Recruitment I had lived and worked in Thailand for about eight years some time before I came to Bangkok in order to do the interviews for this research. In addition, while I was in Thailand doing the fifeldwork, I followed courses at the Chulalongkorn university programme in Thai studies. I thus knew quite a few people from different milieus, who assisted me in the work of recruiting actual candidates for interviews. That is, I usually did the initial contact and recruitment of candidates myself, but I used my various contacts to get suggestions about actual candidates. I knew three of the persons whom I interviewed from my former stay in Thailand, but the rest of them were unknown to me prior to the interviews. During the initial contact, which was either made by telephone or in person, I presented myself and the project and what the purpose of the interview was within the research project. I also made clear that all information about the interviewee would be treated as confifdential information and that full anonymity would be secured. I usually met with the interviewees twice, including the initial contact, if that was made in person. During our fifrst meeting I gave them the three Bible texts and made a further appointment, letting the interviewees decide time and place for the interview according to their convenience.70 I also made clear that they could, at any time, before, during or after the interview, withdraw from the project. In addition I gave them the necessary information on how to reach me, both in Thailand, and when I had returned to Norway. A couple of times the interviewees wanted to be interviewed during our fifrst meeting. Then I allocated some time for them to readthe texts fifrst, and then proceeded to conducting the interview, but inmost cases we made a new appointment for the interview. The Actual Interviews All the interviewees, with one exception, chose to be interviewed either in or close to their working place (the temples included). In all the interviews

70 The texts were taken from the following Thai version of the Bible: Thai Holy Bible (in Thai), (Bangkok: Thailand Bible Society, 1994). introduction 29 places were found which secured confifdentiality. We could not be over- heard, and in some cases not be seen by other people or passers-by. In all the interviews with men, however, a place was selected where people could see what happened, but not listen in on the interviews. Two of the monks were most comfortable being interviewed together, as monks are not supposed to have private conversations with women. All the interviews were conducted in Thai. With the interviewees’ con- sent, the interviews were tape-recorded. Before starting the interview I repeated the information already given in the initial contact or at our fifrst meeting. At the end of the interview I asked them to fifll in a form with some personal information. After the interview, each of the tape-recordings was transcribed by a Thai research assistant. PART I

THAI BUDDHIST INTERPRETATIONS OF PROVERBS 11:18–31, PSALM 73, AND ECCLESIASTES 9:1–12 INTRODUCTION TO PART I

In this part of the study I will address the fifrst main research question (see ch. 1), namely; how do Thai Buddhists understand and interpret the three Old Testament wisdom texts, Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73, and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12? In order to answer this question the empirical material of this study, which is based on interviews with nineteen Thai Buddhists, will be analysed with regard to the following three subsidiary questions: First, according to the Thai Buddhist readers, what are the texts’ main themes, issues, and problems, and how do they understand and perceive these themes and problems themselves? The discussion of this question will also include an investigation into what kinds of similarities and differences the interviewees found between the texts’ presentation of the themes, and their own understanding of these. In addition, main questions, objections and critical comments, which the Thai Buddhists raise to the texts, will be accounted for. Second, what resources and main frameworks of understanding do Thai Buddhists draw on in their interpretation of the texts? References to popular sayings, personal experience, Buddhist scriptures and similar resources will be noted. Further, I will also study which religious and cultural framework of understanding the interviewees make use of. Third and fifnally, how do Thai Buddhists relate to and engage with the texts? That is, how do the interviewees view the texts, what are their strategies of interpretation, and how do they make sense of the texts? The Thai Buddhist interpretations of the biblical texts will be discussed in three chapters. One chapter is devoted for each of the three texts under discussion in this study. The chapters will be organised according to the main themes and issues which the interviewees found to be central in the texts. Hence, the issues related to the second and third subsidiary questions will be addressed as they appear in the discussion of the themes of the texts. In the conclusions to the different chapters (named “intermediate conclusion”), I will sum up the results with regard to the two fifrst subsidiary questions under the following headings: One, “main themes and issues”; two, “resources and main frameworks of understanding”. The results concerning question three will only be presented in the fifnal conclusion to part one. The reason for this is that the way in which the interviewees related to the text, 34 introduction to part i did not differ very much from text to text, therefore, in order to avoid many repetitions, I save the results for the fifnal conclusion of part one. In the fifnal conclusion, I will organise my presentation and discussion according to the three subsidiary questions discussed. This in order to identify clearly what kind of answers the study has given to the main questions addressed in this part of the study. In the following three chapters, when presenting and analysing the Thai Buddhist interpretations of the three wisdom texts, I will use quotes from the interviewees in order to give insight into the basis of my argumentation and enable the reader to evaluate my analysis. The interview material is in Thai, but I have translated the quotes I use into English. The quotes are referred in Thai, in the footnotes. chapter two

THAI BUDDHIST INTERPRETATIONS OF PROVERBS 11:18–31

Introduction

Proverbs 11:18–31 was, according to the majority of the interviewees, the easiest of the three texts to read and understand. The main reason for this, the interviewees argued, was that its teaching is comparable to their own way of understanding the relation between act and consequence. Ms. Laksami’s comment about the text might serve as an example of how most of the interviewees regarded the text: [Proverbs 11:18–31] has the character like: when we have read it already, we can take it and use it [in] our lives […]. Ecclesiastes, or even the Psalm, they are like saying […]: if one loves God, what will one then receive, or something like this, but this [i.e. Proverbs] more has the character of: if you do evil, in the meaning: if you do like this yourself, you will receive this. It is quite similar to Buddhism […] I thus feel that when reading [this], it is easier to understand than the other [texts].1 In the interviews with Thai Buddhists about their reading and understanding of Proverbs 11:18–31 eight themes or main issues came to the fore. First and foremost, all the interviewees argued that the main theme of the text was that there is a correspondence between act and consequence, and that this theme can be compared to the teaching of the law of kamma in Thai Buddhism (see the section named “Do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil”). Second, when interpreting the text the interviewees mentioned different verses which they felt illustrated this overarching theme (for example verses 18–21). But by and large they did not go into details concerning the interpretation of single verses, with the exception of verses 24–26 which take up the theme of giving and sharing (see the section named “The more you give, the more you get”).

1 มันมีลักษณะทีvคล ้าย ๆ ว่า อ่านแล ้วนีv เรานํามาใชในการดําเนินช้ วิตไดี ้ […] บทปัญญาจารย์ รือว่า แม ้กระทัvง สดุดีนีvอะ มันจะเหมือน ๆ คล ้าย ๆ ว่าพูด […] ถ ้ารักพระเจ ้า ก็จะได ้อย่างโง ้นอย่างงีw อะไรทํานองนีw ซงซึv งึv แต่อันนีwมันจะมีลักษณะว่า ถ ้าคุณทําชวัv ในลักษณะทีvว่า ถ ้าคุณทําอย่างงีwด ้วยตัวคุณเอง คุณก็จะได ้ผลอย่างงีw ซงซึv งึv มันอาจจะใกล ้เคียงกับพุทธก็ได ้[…] เลยรู ้สกว่าึ อ่านแล ้วเข้าใจง่ายกว่า อัน อันอืvน. Ms. Laksami, (Bangkok, 24. August 2005). 36 chapter two

Third, relating to the theme of the relation between act and consequence they also noted that some of the verses (especially 20–21) in the Proverbs text indicated a role for God with regard to this relation. Discussed by most of the interviewees was thus the role of God in the act-consequence relation as compared to the role of the law of kamma (see the section named “As you sow, God gives the fruit”). A fourth theme or issue—also related to the act-consequence nexus, and the kamma framework of understanding, which emerged as the result of the Thai Buddhist readings, was the issue of the inevitable consequences of acts (see the section named “There is no way to escape the consequences of acts”). At the same time, however, one of the interviewees contended that the text’s main theme is the freedom of humankind to be in charge of their own lives, also basing his interpretation on the understanding that the text emphasises a close coherence between act and consequence. This issue will be discussed as the fiffth theme of the text (see the section named “Humans control their own destiny”). There were, however, two verses that, according to most of the interviewees, did not—at least at fifrst glance—seem to fift into the pattern established by the other verses, concerning the connection between act and consequence, namely verses 22 and 31. Regarding verse 31 it was noted that this verse seems to express the experience of doing good, while receiving bad consequences. In other words, that it highlights the issue of incoherence between act and consequence. This sixth theme of the text will be elaborated on in the section named “We are good, but might be punished in this world”. Seventh, the second verse (verse 22), was, with one exception, regarded by the interviewees who commented on it, as not fiftting in very well with the stress in the other verses—on a corresponding relation between act and consequence. But they noted a similarity in this verse to Thai proverbs emphasising what characterises a good woman (see the section named “Women must have wisdom”). Eight and fifnally, the interviewees not only highlighted what they regarded as the most important themes and issues emphasised in the text, but they also pointed out what they regarded as its main function, namely that it encourages and teaches people to do good. This was further compared to the function of religion in general, and Buddhism in particular (see the section named “This text teaches people to do good”). In the next sections I shall further elaborate on each of these eight themes. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 37

“Do Good, Receive Good; Do Evil, Receive Evil”2

All the interviewees argued that the corresponding relation between act and consequence is a major theme in Proverbs 11:18–31. The text says that those who do good must receive good in return; those who do evil will receive evil in return. As for the details, they illustrate this. If read by Buddhists they might understand it more easily [if expressed] as “do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil”.3 It is about do good, receive good—“do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil” […] every verse can be summarised—they all mean the same—as: If one does good, then in return one will receive that which is good.4 In both these quotes it is maintained that the correspondence between act and consequence emphasised in the Proverbs text can be expressed in the Thai saying: “Do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil”. This is a popular saying and, as noted already (in ch. 1), well known among the Thais. In the interviews it was frequently quoted, both as an apt summary of the main meaning of the Proverbs text, and as an illustration of the similarity in teaching between this text and Buddhism.5 I will thus take the interviewees’ use of the saying in their interpretation of the text as my point of departure in the discussion of how the interviewees understood the relation between act and consequence in the text, and how they compared it to a Buddhist understanding.

The Corresponding Relation between Act and Consequence First, the saying sums up what the interviewees found as the main emphasis in the text, namely that there is a clear connection between acts and consequences, where the character of consequences is dependent on the character of acts. A person, who does good deeds, will thus receive good

2 In Thai: ทําดีได ้ดี ทําชวไดัv ้ชวัv . This is a Thai saying quoted by many of the interviewees in connection with the interpretation of the Proverbs text. 3 เรืvองซงบอกว่าึv คนทําดี ก็ต ้องได้รับดีตอบแทน คนทําชวัv ก็จะได ้รับความชวตอบแทนัv สวนรายละเอียดอืvน่ ๆ นีv ก็ ก็จะเป็นเรืvองประกอบ ถ ้าเป็นชาวพุทธอาจจะอ่านเข ้าใจได้ง่ายกว่า ทําดีได ้ดี ทําชวไดัv ้ชวัv . Dr. Phichai, (Bangkok, 3. August 2005). 4 น่าจะเป็นเรืvองทําดีได ้ดีนะ ทําดีได ้ดี ทําชวไดัv ้ชวัv […] ก็ทุกอันจะเป็น สรุปลงไปทีv ตรงหมดเลย ก็คือ ถ ้าทําดี ก็จะได ้สงทีvดีตอบแทนิv . Dr. Phimpan, (Bangkok, 26. August 2005). 5 The saying was quoted by thirteen of the interviewees. In addition, one of the interviewees quoted it in a slightly different form. Two of the interviewees did not quote it, but they affifrmed, based on my question, their knowledge of it. The three monks did not quotethis saying, but they compared the teaching of the text to another saying, which emphasises the same relation between act and consequence, namely, “as you sow, you will reap”. 38 chapter two consequences, and a person who does evil, will receive the corresponding evil consequences of his or her acts. According to the interviewees this general principle is conveyed through the different sayings in the Proverbs text.6 Second, the saying “do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil” was used to illustrate and argue that the teaching in the Proverbs text can be compared to the Buddhist teaching of kamma and the law of kamma. In brief, the argument went as follows: The saying in the Thai context is used as a popular summary of the law of kamma. Therefore, as the saying both sums up the main teaching of the Proverbs text and expresses the law of kamma in a Thai Buddhist context, the teaching of the text can be said to be similar to the Thai Buddhist teaching of kamma. I will in the following take a closer look at this argument. But to begin with, I will give a short presentation of kamma and the law of kamma, mainly based on the Thai monk-scholar Payutto’s discussion of the topic.7

Kamma and the Law of Kamma Kamma is a Pali8 word which can be translated as action, but in essence kamma is the intention on which actions are based.9 Kamma is thus often defifned as intentional actions. From this it follows that actions without intention are not regarded as kamma.10

6 Cf. the two quotes above. 7 In the review article “Buddhist Studies in Thailand” P.A. Payutto is presented as one of the two most important interpreters of Buddhism in modern Thailand. Somparn Promta, “Buddhist Studies in Thailand,” in The State of Buddhist Studies in the World: 1972–1997, eds. Donald K. Swearer and Somparn Promta (Bangkok: Center for Buddhist Studies Chu- lalongkorn University, 2000). 21. His famous work Buddhadhamma is, for example, used Mahachulalongkorn Buddhist University in Bangkok as a textbook in the education of monks. Cf. Grant A. Olsen’s introduction in Phra Prayudh Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Natural Laws and Values for Life, trans. Grant A. Olson (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1995). 9. 8 As mentioned already in ch. 1, Pali is the language used in the scriptures of the Theravada Buddhist tradition. For an introduction to the language see for example Rune E.A. Johansson, Pali Buddhist Texts: Explained to the Beginner, 3rd ed., Nordic Institute of Asian Studies. Asian Studies Monograph Series, vol. 14 (Richmond Surrey: Curzon, 1981). 9 P.A. Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching, trans. Bruce Evans, 2nd. ed. (Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation, 1996). 6–8. This book is an English translation of one chapter in Phra Prayudh Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Revised and Expanded Version (Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2546/2003. (In Thai)). Payutto takes the following verse from the Anguttara Nikaya (A.III.415) as his point of departure when discussing the importance of intention: “Monks! Intention, I say, is kamma. Having willed, we create kamma, through body, speech and mind.” Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching. 6. 10 Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching. 10. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 39

Kammic acts can be either good or bad. While the word kamma in itself is a neutral word—referring to intentional actions, but without saying anything about their moral quality—the terms akusala kamma and kusala kamma are the precise terms used in Buddhist teaching, to express whether an act is good or bad. Akusala kamma is the precise term for bad kamma, denoting acts, through body, speech and mind,11 acts which are based on unskilful or unwholesome intentions. That is acts rooted in greed, hatred and delusion.12 Kusala kamma on the other hand, is the precise term for good kamma. It denotes acts, through body, speech and mind, which are based on skilful or wholesome intentions. That is, acts rooted in non-greed, non-hatred and non-delusion13 or, in other words, acts motivated by non-attachment, benevolence and understanding.14 Among ordinary followers of Buddhism, however, the technical terms kusala kamma and akusala kamma are not very often used to describe good and bad kammic acts.15 In my interview material, acts, which are regarded as good kamma, are often just plainly referred to as ‘good acts’, sometimes as ‘good kamma’, and also quite often as ‘merit’. With regard to acts, which are bad, they are often referred to simply as ‘kamma’. This restricted use of the term kamma is both confifrmed in the literature discussing Thai Buddhism,16 and was also referred to by a couple of the people I interviewed. Dr. Phimpan for example stated that: Kamma means action, and there is both good kamma and bad kamma, but in the understanding of the layman, of ordinary people, kamma becomes—it is like—it is that which is not good.17

11 Actions, defifned as kamma, can be performed through body, speech and mind and can accordingly be classififed as mental kamma, verbal kamma or bodily kamma. Ibid. 11. 12 Ibid. 11. The Pali expressions are: lobha, raga, dosa. Keyes translates these as: greed, lust, and anger. F. Keyes, “Merit-Transference in the Kammic Theory of Popular Theravada Buddhism,” in Karma: An Anthropological Inquiry, eds. Charles F. Keyes and E. Valentine Daniel (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1983). 263. 13 Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching. 11. 14 Damien Keown, Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996). 39–40. 15 Cf. Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Revised and Expanded Version. 171. 16 Chai Podhisita, “Buddhism and Thai World View,” in Traditional and Changing Thai World View, ed. Amara Pongsapich (Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 1998/2541). 43. Suntaree Komin, Psychology of the Thai People: Values and Behavioral Patterns (Bangkok: Research Center National Institute of Development Administration, 1991). 176. 17 กรรมแปลว่าการกระทํา แปลว่า action นะฮะ ก็มีกรรมดีกรรมชวัv แต่วาในความเข ้าใจของ layman ของคน ทัvวไปนีvอะ กรรมมันกลายเป็น เหมือนกับว่ามันเป็นสงทีvไม่ดีิv . Dr. Phimpan. 40 chapter two

In addition, it should be noted that in ordinary use the term kamma not only is used about actions, but often about the result of actions, as well.18 What then is the teaching of kamma with regard to the relation between act and consequence? We believe—Buddhism believes—that if we do good, we cause the birth of good kamma, [and this] kamma will then give good result. If we do evil, that is, [then we] do bad kamma, because kamma translates action. Therefore, when we have already done evil, we will [eventually] receive the result of that evil. That is, everything is the kamma [i.e. result] of kamma. We are born under the law of kamma.19 According to Buddhism, the corresponding relation between act and consequence in the realm of human behaviour and action is explained as being due to the workings of the law of kamma. The law of kamma is considered a law of nature, and its fundamental premise is that when there is a cause there must also be an effect. The basic relation between act and consequences is thus a cause and effect relation, where the effect is inherent in the cause, just as the fruit in the seed. As the law of kamma governs all human intentional activity and behaviour, every intentional action bears fruit according to the law of kamma. Every action has a corresponding effect or consequence, both in this life and in the next. The effect is not determined by a god or by society, but springs out naturally from the act or action itself. Furthermore, the effect corresponds with the act. Thus the relation between act and consequence is not arbitrary; there is a close connection between act and result.20

The Teaching of the Text Compared to the Thai Buddhist Teaching of Kamma As we have seen already, most of the interviewees used the saying “do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil” to sum up the main theme of Proverbs

18 By many scholars of Buddhism, this use is criticised as being wrong and imprecise. Walpola Sri Rahula, for example, argues as follows: “But in the Buddhist theory of karma, it has a specififc meaning: it means only ‘volitional action’, not all action. Nor does it meanthe result of karma as many people wrongly and loosely use it. In Buddhist terminology karma never means effect; its effect is known as the ‘fruit’ or the ‘result’ of karma (kamma-phala or kamma-vipaka).” Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (Bangkok: Haw Trai, 2545/2002). 32. 19 เราเชอว่าืv ทางพุทธศาสนานีvอะ เชอว่าืv ถ ้าเราทําความดีไว ้นีvอะ เราก็จะทําให ้เกิดกรรมดี กรรมก็จะให ้ผลทีvดี ถ ้าเราทําความชวัv ก็คือ ทํากรรมชวัv เพราะว่ากรรมแปลว่าการกระทํา เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะ พอเราทําความชวแลัv ้วนิอะ เราก็จะได ้รับผลจากความชวนัwนัv คือทุกอย่างนีvอะ เป็นกรรมแห่งกรรมไปหมด คนเราเกิดมานีvอะ ภายใต ้กฎแห่งกรรม. Dr. Phimpan. 20 Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching. 1–15. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 41

11:18–31. This saying was further explained to be an expression of the Thai belief in kamma and the law of kamma. Dr. Phimpan, for example, stated: “‘Do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil’, in fact this belongs to the system of kamma.”21 That the saying in Thailand is considered as giving expression to the Buddhist doctrine of kamma is confifrmed by Payutto. In his famous work Buddhadhamma, he argues that the saying is derived from the proverb in the Buddhist scripture which sums up the Buddhist doctrine of kamma most clearly. In Payutto’s translation from Pali it goes as follows: หว่านพืชเชนใด่ ได ้ผลเชนนัwน่ (ผู) ้ ทําดี ได ้ดี (ผู) ้ ทําชวัv ได ้ชวัv , which translates into English as: “as the seed, so the fruit. (Whoever) does good, receives good; (whoever) does evil, receives evil”.22 The second part of this proverb has then given rise to the saying “do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil” (ทําดี ได ้ดี ทําชวัv ได ้ชวัv ). Then, having found the saying (“do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil”, which in their opinion is clearly associated with the doctrine of kamma) to be an apt summary of the main theme of the Proverbs text, most of the interviewees proceeded to argue that the teaching in the text can be compared to the teaching of kamma in Buddhism. Mrs. Chanpen, for example, put it this way: Every verse in the Bible [Mrs. Chanpen here refers to the Proverbs text] in fact talks about the result, the result [one] will receive. Regardless of [one is] receiving [it] from God or from the world, there is cause and effect all the time. Therefore, if one is to compare, one ought to be able to compare it with kamma; it is similar to kamma.23

Objections to the Law of Kamma as an Explanation of the Relation between Act and Consequence There were, however, a couple of the interviewees, notably the two youngest of them,24 Ms. Laddawan and Mr. Deecha, who did not want to explain the relation between act and consequence in terms of the law of kamma, even

21 ทําดีได ้ดี ทําชวไดัv ้ชวัv นีvอะ คือจริง ๆ แล ้ว มันก็อยู่ในระบบเรืvองกรรม. Dr. Phimpan. 22 Payutto, Buddhadhamma:Revised and Expanded Version. 190. This saying is from S.I.227 (S = Samyutta-nikaya). 23 ทุกข ้อในพระคัมภีร์ จริง ๆ ก็คือพูดถึงผลลัพธ์ ผลลัพธ์ทีvได ้ ไม่ว่าจะได ้จากทางพระเจ้า หรือจะได ้จากทางโลก มันก็มี cause แล ้วก็ effect ตลอด เพราะฉะนัwนถ ้าเปรียบได ้ คือน่าจะเป็น เทียบได ้เรืvองกรรม เหมือนกรรม. Mrs. Chanpen, (Bangkok, 24. August 2005). 24 In her empirical study of Thai values one of Komin’s fifndings is that young people, together with highly educated persons tend to believe less in rebirth and kamma than other groups. Komin, Psychology of the Thai People: Values and Behavioral Patterns. 214–217. In his 42 chapter two though they admitted that it was the most common way of explaining this relation in Buddhism, and also compared the sayings in Proverbs 11:18–31 to the teaching of kamma. They both affifrmed that acts have corresponding consequences, but as they did not believe in the idea of rebirth and repay of kamma, they did not explain the relation in terms of the law of kamma. Instead they explained the fact that acts have consequences mainly as due to what happens in ordinary human relations, both on a material and psychological level. They both argued that how acts have consequences is easily seen in everyday life, in interrelation with other people. If, for example, you do good towards others, they do good towards you, said Ms. Laddawan,25 while Mr. Deecha gave the example that if you work, you get a salary—which in turn can be used for your own happiness and comfort.26 Further, Mr. Deecha stated that when persons act, the acts send its fruits, either directly or indirectly. That is, there are not always outer results of acts, which explain, for example, why very good people can be poor. The most important result of acts, however, is the inner result like, for example, the happy and satisfifed feeling one receives in the heart when doing good. In fact, this kind of result is the most important.27

Summing up, we have seen that, according to the interviewees, a major theme in Proverbs 11:18–31 is the corresponding relation between act and consequence. Further, the interviewees all agreed that what is taught in this text—about this relation between act and consequence—is similar to what is expressed in the Thai saying “do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil”, which again is said to sum up the workings of the law of kamma. As, however, two of the interviewees did not believe in rebirth, they did not want to explain the act-consequence relation in terms of kamma, but rather in terms of common human experiences of a connection between a person’s act and the consequences of this act.

study of religious ceremonies in central Thailand, Terwiel noted that it is recognized by the older people that young people do not worry about the form of their future rebirths, because death still seems far away to them. Unlike older people they do not grasp every opportunity to increase their store of good kamma, for example by attending the temple. Terwiel, Monks and Magic: An Analysis of Religious Ceremonies in Central Thailand. 72–73. 25 Ms. Laddawan, (Bangkok, 18. August 2005). 26 Mr. Deecha, (Bangkok, 23. September 2005). 27 Ibid. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 43

“The More You Give, the More You Get”28

So far we have seen that the general impression the interviewees got when they read the text from Proverbs 11:18–31 was that it stresses the corresponding relation between act and consequence, and that the different sayings in the text were regarded as being examples of this general point. One of the examples of this connection between act and consequence, which were commented on by quite a few of the interviewees,29 was the example of giving and sharing, found in verses 24–26. We will thus discuss the theme of giving and sharing in this section, both as an example of the act-consequence relation, and as a topic in its own right. Before entering this discussion we may ask, why were these verses especially elaborated on? In my opinion this is due to their subject matter; namely, giving and sharing, which we will see are very important Thai Bud- dhist values, closely related to the concept of merit. Further, it should be noted that it was only the female interviewees who brought up this topic, when discussing the text.30 The reason for this might be that the daily responsibility for giving food to the monks mainly belongs to the women; they might thus be more attuned to the value of giving than men. The following quote from Dr. Somsri may serve as an introduction to the theme discussed in this section: Luang Poh31 has written “the more you give, the more you get. The more you keep back, the more you lack”, which is similar to this [verse 24]. It says, the more you give, the more you get—“some people, the more they give, the richer they get” [quoting verse 24]. The more you give, the richer you get. This is how it is today, as well. I do merit, I collect money by selling merit-newspapers. I also offer money, offer money to help the temple, and then [I have success in my work, earn a lot of money], but whenever I am worried about my money they disappear from me. This is like Buddha

28 ยิvงให ้ ยิvงได. ้ This is part of a saying which Dr. Somsri quoted, referring to the teaching of her mentor monk. 29 Dr. Saichai, (Bangkok, 28. July 2005), Dr. Somsri, (Bangkok, 19. September 2005), Mae Chii Narumon, (Bangkok, 22. September 2005), Mae Chii Phornthip, (Bangkok, 20. September 2005), Mrs. Chanpen. 30 The issue of merit in more general terms was discussed by many of the interviewees, the men included. 31 Luang Poh is the title of an abbot or the title of an old monk. Wandee Wajanathaworn- chai, “The Grace of God in a Karmic Context: Pastoral Care and Counselling to Thai Women with Special Reference to the Question of Suffering” (Study in Master of Philosophy in The- ology, Stavanger: School of Mission and Theology, 2002). 7. 44 chapter two

teaches; when we keep our money to ourselves, we don’t share with anyone, we don’t give to anyone; in a little while, they [the money] are gone. […] “the more you give, the more you get”.32 From this quotation two important points emerge, which we will take as a point of departure for our next discussion. First, the main issue emphasised in verse 24 is, that those who give or share of their riches, will receive riches in return, while those who keep their riches to themselves will eventually loose them. Second, the issue of giving and sharing are linked to the concept of merit,33 and to the practice of making merit. It was thus agued that the points emphasised in the text are similar to what Buddhism teaches about merit.

Giving and Sharing Starting with the fifrst, Dr. Somsri argued that verse 24 emphasises that there is a connection on the one hand between giving and receiving, and on the other between not sharing and thus loosing what one already has. This understanding of the verse was shared by the other interviewees who commented on this verse.34 Further, it was argued that verse 25 follows up on the fifrst part of verse 24, emphasising the importance of generosity and sharing.35 Finally, some of the interviewees also included verse 26 in this group of verses, emphasising the theme of giving and sharing, and pointing out that those who share are regarded as good and will be blessed, while those who do not share are wicked, and will be cursed.36

32 หลวงพ่อเขียนว่า “ยิvงให ้ ยิvงได ้ ยิvงหวงยิvงอด หมดก็ไม่มา เราไม่หวงกัน เราไม่อด หมดก็มาเรืvอย ๆ” ก็ตรงกะตรงนีwอะ บอกว่ายิvงให ้ยิvงได ้ บางคนยิvงจําหน่ายยิvงมัvงคัvง ยิvงให ้ไป ให ้ไป ก็ยิvงรวย เหมือนทุกทุกวันนีwอะนะ พีvทําบุญได ้ พีvหาเงินขายหนังสอพิมพ์บุญไดื ้ พีvก็บริจาค บริจาคชวยวัดช่ วยอะไร่ [I have success in my work, earn a lot of money] แต่เมืvอไหร่เราหวงเงินนะฮะ นีvนีvจากตัวเองเลยนะฮะ คําทีv ทีvพระพุทธเจ ้าสอนอะนะฮะ พอเราหวง พอเรามีเงิน เราเก็บไว ้ใชของเราคนเดียว้ เราไม่เผืvอแผ่ใครเลย ไม่ให ้ใครเลย อีกหน่อยมันก็หมด มันก็ไม่มา นะฮะ […] ยิvงให ้ยิvงได ้นะ ยิvงให ้ยิvงได ้นะ. Dr. Somsri. The text in the brackets is a general summary of her quite specififc description of the rewards her merit-making resulted in. I decided notto include the details, in order to protect her anonymity. 33 The Thai word for merit is บุญ ‘bun’, which is derived from the Pali word punna. 34 They were, in addition to Dr. Somsri, Mae Chii Narumon, Mae Chii Phornthip, Mrs. Chanpen. 35 In the fifrst clause ‘A generous heart’ is interpreted to mean a person of good heart, who likes to give or share with others, and who will receive riches in return. Dr. Somsri, Mae Chii Narumon, Mae Chii Phornthip, Mrs. Chanpen, Ms. Laksami. The expressions concerning water in the second clause is interpreted to mean either acts in general—good (Dr. Phichai) or bad (Mae Chii Narumon), or to give to or help others (Dr. Somsri, Ms. Laksami). In either case the clause is read as stressing that there will be result in close correspondence with the act. Dr. Phichai, Mae Chii Narumon, Mae Chii Phornthip, Mrs. Chanpen. 36 Dr. Somsri, Mae Chii Narumon, Mae Chii Phornthip, Mr. Deecha. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 45

This emphasis on giving and sharing—and its consequences—was further said to be similar to Buddhist teaching. Examples of this similarity were given, for example, by two of the interviewees who quoted sayings from senior monks about the connection between giving and receiving, keeping and loosing: Give everything, receive everything; keep everything, loose everything.37 The more you give, the more you get. The more you keep back, the more you lack.38 As for the second issue, the interviewees, who commented on these verses, emphasised that they were concerned with merit and merit-making.

Merit and Merit-Making Why then, are these verses understood to be about merit and merit-making? In short, the answer to this question is as follows: The interviewees regarded these verses as being concerned with merit because one; they stressed the issue of giving—one of the most important ways of doing merit, and second; they stressed that good result will follow from the act of giving. I will now proceed to giving the grounds for, and elaborate on, this answer in two sections. First I will present the interviewees’ understanding of what merit is, and then discuss how they understand the result of merit. The following statement from Dr. Phimpan will serve to introduce these two points. [If there is a person, who] makes a lot of merit, that is; gives food to the monks, chants, visits the temple, gives alms, and then in her life she receives that which is good continually […] people will say; this is because of the good kamma she does.39

What Is Merit? From Dr. Phimpan’s statement above it appears fifrstly, that merit is regarded as good acts or good kamma, while at the same time some specififc examples are given to what might count as merit-making. Henceher statement is quite typical for how merit is viewed in Thailand. Let us have a look at the following statement:

37 ให ้หมด ได ้หมด เก็บหมด สูญหมด. Mae Chii Narumon. 38 ยิvงให ้ ยิvงได ้ ยิvงหวง ยิvงอด. Dr. Somsri. 39 ทําบุญเยอะ คือ ใสบาตร่ สวดมนตร์ ไปวัด ทําทาน พวกนีwอะ แล ้วในชวิตเคี ้า เกิดเค ้าได้อะไรดี ๆ มาตลอด […]คนก็จะบอกว่า นีvอะเป็นเพราะกรรมดีทีvเขาทํามา. Dr. Phimpan. 46 chapter two

To make merit is important, but the Thais say that to make merit is to give things, do you see?—Give objects, give alms. […] I would like to emphasise ourselves more, that is; emphasise the acts of persons. […] Think good is merit, speak good is merit, do good is merit; this is kusala kamma. If [one] thinks [that which is] not good, speaks [that which is] not good, does [that which is] not good, it is akusala, it is sin.40 While merit can include mental, verbal and bodily kamma, and be defifned as kusala kamma,41 there is a tendency both in the interviews and in Thai society more generally to emphasise certain acts when talking about merit. This regards for instance, the examples given by Dr. Phimpan in the quote above, like the giving of alms, giving food to the monks etc. All three monks who were interviewed confifrmed this tendency. They themselves, however, explained the concept of merit in more detail, and within the system of kamma, as seen in the quote above. Notwithstanding the tendency to identify certain acts as especially meritorious, one of the interviewees argued that this might be something which is in the process of changing in Thai society. Older people might believe that to do good means to give food to the monks, make merit, to visit the temple regularly, to have a son ordained. But the contemporary generation they don’t think like this. They don’t think it is necessary to enter the temple in order to do good. The older generation thinks that if you want to do good, want to come to heaven, [then] you must go to the temple, must go through the monks. But the new generation, I think that […] they can do good everywhere, it depends on whether I choose to do it or not.42

40 ทําบุญสําคัญ แต่คนไทยบอก ทําบุญก็คือการให ้ของ เห็นมะ ให ้วัตถุ ให ้ทาน […] อาตมานีwคงมาเน ้นทีvตัวเรา มากกว่า คือเน ้นทีvตัวการกระทําของตัวมนุษย์นีvอะ […] คิดดีเป็นบุญ พูดดีเป็นบุญ ทําดีก็เป็นบุญ นีvคือกุศลกรรม ถ ้าคิด ไม่ดี พูดไม่ดี ทําไม่ดี มันก็เป็นอกุศล มันเป็นบาป. Phra Songkran, (Bangkok, 14. September 2005). 41 Payutto emphasises that the word merit as it is generally used has meaning only on the lokiya level, where it means the same as kusalakamma. Kusalakamma, however has meaning also on the lokuttura level. The word merit therefore does not cover the full meaning of kusala kamma. Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Revised and Expanded Version. 169–171. This distinction was not mentioned or discussed in the interviews. 42 ผู ้ใหญ่นีvอะจะเชอว่าืv การทําความดีคือการใสบาตร่ แล ้วก็ การไปใสบาตร่ การไปทําบุญ การเข ้าวัดสม่าเสมอํ การทีvจะมีลูกชายบวช แต่ว่าคนรุ่นปัจจุบันมานีv เค ้าเค ้าไม่ได ้คิดอย่างนัwน เขาคิดว่า การทําดีอะ ไม่จําเป็นจะต ้องอยู่ในวัด เสมอไป เพราะว่าในรุ่นเก่าจะคิดถึงแต่ว่า ถ ้าคุณจะทําดี คุณจะไปสวรรค์ คุณต ้องไปวัด ต ้องผ่านพระ แต่ว่าคนรุ่นใหม่นีw ผมเชอว่าืv […] เขาสามารถทํา ทําดีได ้ทุก ๆ ทีv มันขึwนกับว่า ฉันเลือกทําหรือเปล่า. Mr. Chakkri, (Bangkok, 23. August 2005). thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 47

The Result of Merit A second point emphasised in the quote from Dr. Phimpan was that there will be good result from merit-making. This was further elaborated on in other interviews. To begin with, the result may be thought of as being material riches in some form or other. It might for example be a success at work or a good income. I have already quoted from Dr. Somsri, but here repeat part of the quote: The more you give, the richer you get. This is how it is today, as well. I do merit, I collect money by selling merit-newspapers. I also offer money, offer money to help the temple, and then [I have success in my work, earn a lot of money].43 Adding to these examples, the two nuns mentioned specififc things which they receive when on travel, like housing, clothes and food—all as examples of results from merit-making.44 Besides this, however, it was also emphasised that what one receives from making merit by giving might be other riches than mere material goods: People who read them [verses 24–25], but don’t think, might become confused; “Why! ‘The more generous you are, the richer you get’, how is that possible? The more generous one is, the less one has left! The more you give to others, the less you have left!” […]. In fact we think that wealth means riches in terms of material belongings, but in fact a wealth which is better is riches in terms of people loving us. […]. We do some good [deeds], and they see our goodness, and then they return that goodness towards us—something like this. That is true wealth.45 Friendship, love and respect were mentioned as riches one might receive in return for giving and sharing.46 In addition it was mentioned more generally that a person who gives might be rich in merit and goodness. “Those who like giving charity, like giving—like making merit, they certainly receive riches, at least [they become] rich in merit, rich in goodness.”47

43 ยิvงให ้ไป ให ้ไป ก็ยิvงรวย เหมือนทุกทุกวันนีwอะนะ พีvทําบุญได ้ พีvหาเงินขายหนังสอพิมพ์บุญไดื ้ พีvก็บริจาค บริจาคชวยวัดช่ วยอะไร่ [I have success in my work, earn a lot of money] Dr. Somsri. 44 Mae Chii Narumon, Mae Chii Phornthip. 45 คนทีv ถ ้าอ่านแล ้วไม่คิด อาจจะงง ๆ ว่า เอ๊ะ! ทําไมล่ะ ยิvง ยิvงใจกว ้าง มันจะยิvงมัvงคัvง ได ้ยังไง ยิvงใจกว ้าง มันยิvงไม่เหลืออะไรเลยสิ ยิvงให ้คนอืvน มันยิvงไม่เหลืออะไร […] จริง ๆ แล ้วนีv เราคิดว่า การมัvงคัvง คือ มัvงคัvงในแง่ ทรัพย์สมบัติเท่านัwน ในแง่วัตถุ แต่จริง ๆ แล ้ว ความมัvงคัvงนีvอะ มันดีกว่า ถ ้าเป็นความมัvงคัvง ในแง่ทีvคนมารักเรามา […] เราทําดีอะไรบางอย่าง แล ้วเขาเห็นความดีของเรา แล ้วเขาทําความดีอันนัwน กลับคืนมาสูทีvเรา่ อะไรทํานองนีw นัvนคือ ความมัvงคัvงทีv ทีvแท ้จริง. Ms. Laksami. 46 Mae Chii Phornthip. 47 คนทีvชอบให ้ charity ใชมัwย่ ชอบให ้ ชอบทําบุญอะนะ เค ้าก็ย่อมได ้รับความมัvงคัvง อย่างน ้อยก็รวยบุญ แฮะ 48 chapter two

The result received or lost is thus seen to be both of a material and a non material kind. Concerning the time when the result will be experienced, there are two different emphasises in the interviews. Some tend to focus more on result in this life, for example Dr. Somsri and Ms. Laksami in the quotes above—while others, like Mae Chii Narumon focus more on the next life: Give everything, receive everything; keep everything, loose everything. Give everything, and then receive everything—that is merit! Whatever amount you give, you receive, but if you keep everything, [if you] have 100 million Baht,48 when you die, will you receive it? The whole amount will disappear, because the 100 million Baht we had will not follow us. This is similar to this proverb [verse 24]. It means, the more you give, the richer you become, not only in this life—it is fruits which follow [you]. But if you keep everything, you loose everything […]. Therefore religion says: the main merit is to […] give alms, thus give a lot! Those who are rich today, those who were born rich, [they are rich] because they gave [in a former life]. Born in this life, before they worked at getting things, a house awaited them; a car awaited them—because they had [already] given charity. Thus it is similar to this proverb.49 As can be seen from this quote, Mae Chii Narumon focuses more on the result in the next life. She argues that what you give you’ll receive in next life, while the money you just keep will be of no use for you after death. It is thus much wiser to spend them on charity and thus to receive riches in next life—just like those who are born rich in this present life, as a result of their having given a lot during their last life.50 Furthermore, she indicates that the state of one’s existence now might be the outcome of accumulated merit from a previous life. The more meritorious kamma one has accumulated from the past, the better and happier will

รวยความดี แฮะ. Dr. Somsri. It should be noted that merit can also be seen as the result of good acts: “Merit is the result of good acts—good kamma. Therefore, merit is the result of good kamma.” (บุญนีv มันเป็นผลของการกระทํา กรรมดี เพราะงัwน บุญเป็นผลแห่งการทํากรรมดี). Mrs. Chanpen. 48 Baht is the name of the Thai currency. 49 ให ้หมด ได ้หมด เก็บหมด สูญหมด ให ้หมดนะ ก็จะได ้หมด ก็คือบุญนัvนเอง คุณให ้เท่าไหร่นะคุณได ้หมดเลย แต่ถ ้าคุณเก็บหมด มีเงินร ้อยล้านน่ะ คุณตายไป ได ้มัwย สูญหมดเลย เพราะว่าเงินร ้อยล้านค้างอยู่ ไม่ได ้ตามเราไปนะ นีvแหละค่ะ ตรงกับภาษิตอันนีw หมายความว่า ถ ้ายิvงให ้ก็ยิvงมัvงคัvงร่ารวยํ ไม่ใชเฉพาะชาตนีwนะ่ มันเป็นผลติดตาม แต่คุณเก็บหมด คุณสูญหมด […] ดังนัwนทางศาสนาจึงบอกว่า บุญอันแรกคือ […] การให ้ทาน ยิvงให ้มาก คนร่ารวยํ ปัจจุบันนีwนะ ทีvเกิดมาร่ารวยํ เพราะเขาให ้นัvนเอง เกิดมาชาตินีwยังไม่ได ้หาอะไรมากเลยนะ บ ้านรอแล้ว รถรอแล ้ว เพราะพวกนัwนบริจาคไว ้ จึงตรงกับภาษิตอันนีwนะฮะ. Mae Chii Narumon. 50 Ibid. Mae Chii Phornthip argued similarly that people are poor, because they were not generous in their former life. She further added: “look at verse 24; if you do not share, you’ll become poor.” thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 49 the state of one’s existence be in the present world. This belief plays a very important role in how the Thais view their world,51 as we will especially see in the interpretation of Psalm 73.

The Place and Importance of Merit and Merit-Making in Thai Buddhism For the majority of Thai Buddhists religious action is thought of as merit- making.52 This is also found to be the case not only for the lay-Buddhist, but also for the ordinary Buddhist monk,53 who might understand his actions as merit-making, including such actions as adhering to the discipline (vinaya) and disseminating the teaching (dhamma).54 The reason why merit-making is so important is that most Thai Buddhists do not consider the goal of Nibbana as available for ordinary people, hence they concentrate securing a happy future in this life and a better rebirth in next, by doing merit.55

The interviewees regarded most of the single proverbs in the Proverbs text to be examples of the overarching theme of the text, namely the relation between act and consequence. In this section we have seen how special notice was given in this regard, especially among the female interviewees, to the theme of giving and sharing found in verses 24–26. The emphasis in the text on giving and sharing, and its resulting good consequences, was thus fifrstly regarded as an example of the corresponding relation between act and consequence. Secondly it was compared to the Thai Buddhist understanding of merit, where giving is considered as one of the most important ways of doing merit. We have further seen how the interviewees understood the concept of merit and its importance, and how they regarded the text to

51 Podhisita, “Buddhism and Thai World View.” 36. 52 Keyes, “Merit-Transference in the Kammic Theory of Popular Theravada Buddhism.” 267. 53 Jane Bunnag, Buddhist Monk, Buddhist Layman: A Study of Urban Monastic Organiza- tionin Central Thailand, eds. M. Fortes et al., Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology, vol. 6 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973). 20. 54 Keyes, “Merit-Transference in the Kammic Theory of Popular Theravada Buddhism.” 267. 55 Seree Lorgunpai, “World Lover, World Leaver: The Book of Ecclesiastes and Thai Buddhism” (Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1995). 264. Swearer emphasises that the goals of Buddhist are in short both ultimate, that is nibbana and proximate: a better rebirth, a better social and economic status in this life. Both are affifrmed in the Pali texts and they are intertwined. Donald K. Swearer, The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1995). 6. 50 chapter two emphasise the very same thing. The reason why it was mainly the female interviewees who commented especially on these verses might be, I think, that it has mainly been the responsibility of the women to make merit in daily life by giving food to the monks. They might thus be more attuned to its importance.

“As You Sow, God Gives the Fruit”56

When noting the similarities between the teaching in Proverbs 11:18–31 (concerning the correspondence between act and consequence) and the Buddhist teaching of kamma, quite a few of the interviewees observed that some of the verses (verses 20–21 were especially mentioned) indicate that God plays a role in the act-consequence relation. Ms. Laksami, for example expressed very clearly that which quite a few of the interviewees noticed, namely that in some verses it looks like the result of an act depends solely on the individual who acts, while other verses emphasise that the result is a punishment or reward from God. When reading [one] feels that […] the results, which are born out of good and evil acts, come from the person who did these acts, but at the same time the results are due to God punishing or rewarding.57 Thus another important theme which emerged in the Thai Buddhist readings of Proverbs 11:18–31 was the role of God in the act-consequence relation. Interviewees who commented on how God is presented in the text all argued that he is pictured as one who distributes rewards and punishments, or as one, who in some way or other, is behind the consequences which persons receive due to their acts. But opinions differed as to how God’s role was to be more closely defifned regarding the relation between act and consequence. Two main ways of understanding and interpreting this role emerged from the interview material. As these different interpretations can be seen most clearly from how the interviewees compared the role of God to the law of kamma, this comparison will be the central focus of my discussion. Hence, in the following I will present the two different

56 เนืvองจากว่า ท่านปลูกต ้นไม้ยังไง พระเจ ้าก็จะให้ผล. “On account of you sowing, God will give the fruit.” Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 57 ทีvอ่านนีvอะ จะรู ้สกว่าึ […] ผลทีvเกิดจากการทําดีทําชวนีvอะัv มาจากตัวของเขาทีvทํา ทําพฤติกรรมอันนัwนเอง แต่ในขณะเดียวกันนีvอะ ผลนัwนนีvอะมาจาก พระเจ ้าลงโทษด ้วย หรือพระเจ ้าให้รางวัลด ้วย. Ms. Laksami. In her opinion verse 25 is a good example of the actor being responsible for the consequences, while verse 20 expresses the idea that consequences are somehow due to God’s intervention. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 51 interpretations of the role of God in the Proverbs text, as they were suggested by the interviewees. At the same time I will discuss how the role of God is viewed in relation to the law of kamma. Additionally—since some of the interviewees in the discussion of God and the law of kamma compared God to Dhamma–I will include a short section on this issue as well. Finally, I will highlight some of the crucial questions which the interviewees felt were raised by the question of God’s role with regard to the relation between act and consequence.

The Role of God and the Role of the Law of Kamma Are Similar First, quite a few of the interviewees who commented on the role of God in the text, argued that the role of God and the role of the law of kamma seem to be similar.58 God is like the idea of kamma in [Buddhism; he] confifrms the result which is received; […] do good, surely receive good; do evil, surely receive evil.59 In Christianity there is God, and God has the right to punish; isn’t it so? In the Buddhist way, we say, we don’t think of Buddha as one who are going to punish us, but we say that those who do that which is akusala [i.e. bad kamma] will receive the result of kamma; isn’t it so? Therefore it is similar, but the wording is different.60 According to this view the role of God and the law of kamma is the same. That is, both God and the law of kamma are thought of as that which causes acts to have corresponding results, in line with the saying “do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil”. The interviewees argued that in Buddhism it is taught that if one acts good or badly, it is good and bad kamma respectively, and that good and bad results are received accordingly—in accordance with the law of kamma. This is then comparable to the understanding that God rewards those who do good and punishes those who do evil, which is just another way of expressing the same meaning. In the Proverbs text the term God is used—for example that God rewards and punishes, while in Buddhism the terminology is from the teaching of kamma; acts have consequences due to the law of kamma.

58 Dr. Phichai, Dr. Saichai, Dr. Somsri, Mr. Chakkri, Mr. Wibun, (Bangkok, 18. August 2005), Mrs. Chanpen. 59 พระเจ ้าก็เหมือน เรืองกรรมของ ยืนยันแน่นอนว่า สงิv ผลทีvได ้ […] ทําดีย่อมได ้ดี ทําชวย่อมไดัv ้ชวัv . Mrs. Chanpen. 60 ถ ้าในคริสตศาสนา มีพระผู ้เป็นเจ ้า ซงพระผูึv ้เป็นเจ ้า ก็ค่อนข ้างจะมีสทธิลงโทษิ ใชไหมฮะ่ ถ ้าในทางพุทธนีvอะ เราก็บอกว่า เราไม่ได ้คิดถึงพุทธเจ ้าว่าจะเป็นคนทีvจะมาลงโทษเรา แต่เราพูดว่า คนทีvทําสงทีvเป็นอกุศลิv ก็ได ้รับผลกรรม ใชไหมฮะ่ ดังนัwนมันก็จะคล ้าย ๆ กัน แต่ว่า wording ก็คนละอย่าง. Dr. Saichai. 52 chapter two

It follows from the understanding that God and the law of kamma play a similar role that the basis for the consequences which persons receive is their own acts. This was explicitly emphasised by Dr. Phichai, who argued that God’s decision is neutral, based on the character of the acts and not on other factors.61 The expressions of God’s likes and dislikes in verse 20 were also, by those who advocated this interpretation, understood in line with this. God loves those who do good deeds and rewards them, while he despises and punishes those who do evil. The word ‘redemption’ in verse 21 was understood in the same way as reward. God redeems the good, that is; he forgives their sins, and this is considered as a reward for being good and turning away from evil. Dr. Somsri, for example, put it this way: if you do good, God will help or redeem, but if you do wicked, you’ll be cursed.62 Even though many of the interviewees considered the role of God and the law of kamma as the same, this does not mean that they automatically identififed God with the law of kamma. In fact, only one of the interviewees explicitly argued that God is a law of nature like the law of kamma.63 God was mostly conceived of as something personal, material, concrete in contrast with the impersonal, immaterial, abstract law of kamma. It was suggested by some of the interviewees, however, that God can be interpreted as a personififcation of the law of kamma. That is, both Mr. Wibun and Phra Songkran argued that the concept of God as a rewarding and punishing person might be a help to understand the rather abstract idea of the workings of the natural law, called the law of kamma. But for them it further followed that when a person has understood the idea of the law of kamma, there is no longer any use for the concept of God.64

God and the Law of Kamma Do Not Play a Similar Role in the Act-Consequence Nexus The second way of interpreting the role of God as compared to the role of the law of kamma, was to point out that they do not play a similar role.65

61 Dr. Phichai. He stated: “I think that Buddhism and Christianity are similar in that they believe that there must be something which does the duty of recording the acts of persons, and that this thing does not have biases, but record in a just way.” (ผมคิดว่าศาสนาพุทธกับ ศาสนาคริสต์นีvอะคล ้ายกันตรงทีvเชอว่าืv ต ้องมีบางอย่างทําหน ้าทีvบันทึกการกระทําของมนุษย์ โดยสงนีwไม่มีอคตินะครับิv ถึงจะบันทึกได ้เทีvยงตรง). 62 Dr. Somsri. Cf. also Mrs. Chanpen. 63 Mr. Chakkri. 64 Mr. Wibun, Phra Songkran. 65 Dr. Phimpan, Mae Chii Phornthip, Ms. Laddawan, Ms. Laksami, Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 53

The result here is received from God, isn’t it? It is not received from, [or] because of our own acts […]. But Buddhism states: surely as you act, you will receive—as you sow, you will reap. But on account of your sowing, God will give the fruit […]. This is different [from Buddhism].66 “God will give the fruit … This is different.” But according to the interviewees, how is this different from a Buddhist understanding? Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak argued that in this text it is emphasised that the results of acts come from God, not from persons themselves, while in Buddhism, according to the teaching of kamma, persons are themselves responsible for both good and bad acts, and their corresponding results.67 To use the same image of sowing as they make use of in the quote above, one could say that if Buddhism states “as you sow, you will reap”, the text says (in some verses): “as you sow, God gives the fruit”. This further means, according to both the two monks and some of the other interviewees, that a person is dependent on something outside him-or herself. In the text God is pictured as one who controls persons’ destinies, while in Buddhism humans control their own destinies through the workings of the law of kamma.68 This is in Phra Suthep’s and Phra Phongsak’s understanding underlined by the use of the word ‘redeem’. Redemption (verse 21) is not a concept used in Buddhism— “we have to help ourselves”, they stated—there is no God to help.69 According to this interpretation of the text, the consequences that persons receive are not fifrst and foremost based on the persons’ own acts,but on God and his judgment. It is the impression of the interviewees who highlighted this issue that the results of acts seem to be a question of faith, or put in another way; that the relation of the individual to God is important to the result that God gives. This can partly be deduced from the way God is pictured in verse 20, namely as one who has feelings towards both the righteous

66 ผลในทีvนีwก็หมายถึงว่า ได ้รับจากพระเจ ้า ใชมัwย่ ไม่ได ้รับจาก จากเพราะการกระทําของเราเอง […] แต่ถ ้า พุทธศาสนา บอกว่า แน่นอนท่านทําอะไร ท่านก็ได ้อย่างงัwน ปลูกต ้นไม้เชนไร่ รับผลเชนนัwน่ แต่เนืvองจากว่า ท่าน ปลูกต ้นไม้ยังไง พระเจ ้าก็จะให้ผล […] มันจะต่างกัน. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 67 Ibid. Phra Phongsak argued, however, that from a Buddhist perspective, in order to be able to understand God, one might try to think of him in terms of a law of nature or as kamma, but that, in his opinion, such an understanding would not be in line with the Christian understanding of God, where God cannot be compared to a law of nature. 68 Dr. Phimpan, Mae Chii Phornthip. The Thai scholar Suchitra Onkom puts it this way: “If we know the causes and conditions of things we do not have to seek help from external agents, from gods. The Buddha’s teaching shifted the emphasis from clinging to an external controlling factor to understand the workings of nature, causes and effects, and effectuation changes through human actions.” Suchitra Onkom, Creating Sustainable World Peace, 3rd. ed. (Bangkok: Rajabhat Institute Dhonburi, 2004). 42–43. 69 Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 54 chapter two and the wicked.70 But the main reason why they considered faith in God to play an important role with regard to the outcome of acts was, according to Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak, that they read the Bible with the basic presupposition that the relationship between God and people is fundamental to all its teaching. In their opinion then, the text may be read as conveying that those who believe will come to heaven, while those who do not believe must go somewhere else outside heaven. This, it is pointed out, is different from Buddhism, where persons, independent of their beliefs, receive the fruit of their own acts in accordance with the law of kamma. It should be noted, however, that none of the interviewees who argued that faith was important, were willing to draw the conclusion that wicked people might come to heaven. It was supposed that in order to be rewarded a person had to be good, in addition to believing in God.71 In short, according to this point of view, God and the law of kamma are not the same, and cannot be said to play the same role either, since results, according to law of kamma, are the direct result of the individuals’ own acts, while in this text the result does not spring directly from the act, but is dependent on God’s judgment—and his judgment is not only based on the character of acts, but is dependent on the actors’ relation to God.72 It should be noted, however, that also in this group there were persons who argued that faith in God could be a preliminary help both with regard to encourage people to do good and later to understand the law of kamma.73

God and Dhamma Finally, it should be noted that when discussing the relation between act and consequence, three of the interviewees also compared God with Dhamma.74 Or, more precisely, when they discussed what secures that acts

70 Ms. Laksami. 71 Cf. for example Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 72 This argument echoes the teaching of Payutto: “For Buddhism, the results of following or not following the moral code are part of a natural process; that is, the results of actions have their own natural justice called the law of kamma. These fruits of action have their genesis in the mind and then extend out to a person’s character and lifestyle—be it in this life or the next. As for the theistic religions, the good and bad fruits of observing the moral code (or divine commandment) becomes a matter of retribution—good results, such as ascending to heaven, become rewards, and bad results, such as descending into hell, amount to punishments. And the good and bad rewards depend upon consideration and judgment from above.” Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Natural Laws and Values for Life. 248. 73 Phra Songkran, Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 74 Dr. Saichai, Dr. Somsri, Mrs. Chanpen. This is also a major point of comparison in Buddhadasa Bhikkhu, Christianity and Buddhism. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 55 have corresponding results, they alternated between stating that it is due to the law of kamma or Dhamma and further compared the role of God to both. The reason why the interviewees can use Dhamma and the law of kamma interchangeably is found in the Buddhist teaching of natural law. In Bud- dhist ontology it is a basic premise that everything functions according to the law of cause and effect. This law of cause and effect is called a natural law (niyama in Pali), and can, according to Phra Prayudh Payutto be divided into fifve categories.75 The law of kamma is the fourth of these fifve, described as the natural law governing the area of human behaviour. The fiffth category is the law of Dhamma, which governs the relation and interdependence of all things.76 That is, the law of Dhamma encompasses all the other categories and everything else not included therein. Dhamma can thus be used interchangeably with the law of kamma to describe the relation between act and consequence. By comparing God to Dhamma, and not only to the law of kamma, the interviewees are, in my opinion, stating that God is more than a law who governs the area of human affairs; he is rather understood as the basic law behind all reality.

Critical Questions or Remarks Based on the discussion of God’s role with regard to the relation between act and consequence two of the interviewees, Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak, raised the following questions. First, it was remarked, quite critically as I interpret it, that according to Christianity, good people may not come to heaven if they do not believe in God. This is judged as being very different from Buddhism, which teaches that all people will receive their due consequence regardless of religious belonging and beliefs. It is my feeling that God has the role of being the one who gives blessings to people […]. Those who believe, [those who] have trust in God, will for sure come to heaven—this is my feeling, while those who do not believe must … in the day of judgment they will not come to heaven, they must go another

75 These are: 1) Utuniyama, the natural law governing physical objects and the nature. 2) Bijaniyama, the natural law governing heredity. 3) Cittaniyama, the natural law governing the workings of the mind. 4) Kammaniyama, the natural law governing the area of human behaviour. 5) Dhammaniyama, the natural law governing the relation and interdependence of all things. Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching. 1–2. 76 Ibid. 2. 56 chapter two

place outside heaven. […] But from this perspective [I would like] to ask [concerning] those who have no religion or [belong to] another religion: If they do good, always help people, never are greedy, never do harm to others, [if their] mind always has loving-kindness towards others, if they see animals, they help … In this case—they don’t trust, they don’t believe that that there is a God—[and I] ask; will they come to heaven [at all]? In the Buddhist way, however, everybody—regardless of what religion they belong to—if they do good […] they receive the result of the kamma they themselves have done. Regardless of them having religion or not, it [i.e. their good acts] will send the result to them, without anyone being behind it at all. This is a great difference.77 Second, it was argued that if the result of acts is dependent on God’s judgment the question of suffering and evil becomes very diffifcult. The law of kamma [means] that the results of acts [depend on] individual persons; they are not related to someone else at all. But if […] God is a judge, it is not [like] the law of kamma. Therefore, for example, consider some people, some people who are born [blind or handicapped], they do not want to be blind or handicapped, but why do they have to be like this? […] If God […] has decided them to be like this, is that right? […] According to Buddhist theory it [being born blind or handicapped] is not dependent on something else than themselves, [that is,] it is only dependent on] their kamma, their old kamma, which they have done.78 The question of God’s role with regard to suffering is one of the often raised objections to the theistic religions from Buddhists monks and scholars,79 and the quote affifrms this fact.

77 ตามความรู ้สกแลึ ้ว พระเจ ้ามีบทบาทในฐานะ อา เป็นคนทีvจะคอยอวพพรให ้[…] คนทีvเชอก็ืv […] จะมีศรัทธาต่อ พระเจ ้าก็จะได้ไปสวรรค์อย่างแน่นอน อันในความรู ้สกนะึ สวนคนทีvไม่เช่ อก็จะตืv ้อง อ่า พูดถึงในวันพิพากษาก็จะไม่ได ้ ไปสวรรค์ จะต ้องไปทีvอืvนนอกจากสวรรค์ […] ถ ้าในมุมมองนีv คนทีvไม่มีศาสนากับศาสนาอืvน ถามว่า ถ ้าเขา ทําความดี ชวยเหลือมนุษย์ทุกครัwง่ เอ่อ เขาไม่เคยโลภ ไม่เคยทีvจะทําร ้ายผู ้อืvนเลย จิตนา มีเมตตากรุณาต่อผู ้อืvนตลอด เห็นสตว์ก็ชั วย่ ถามว่ากรณีนีw เขาไม่ได ้ศรัทธา ไม่ได ้เชอในเรืvองของพระเจืv ้า แล ้วเขาจะได้ไปสวรรค์มัwย แต่ทาง พุทธศาสนาแล ้ว ทุกคนไม่ว่าจะเป็นศาสนาใดก็ตาม ถ ้าหากว่ากระทําความดีแล ้ว ไม่ว่าใครอยู่เบืwองหลัง ไม่เบืwองหลังก็ ตาม แต่ผลกรรมของเขาทําเองนัwน เขาจะมีศาสนาหรือไม่มีก็ตามแต่ มันจะสงผลต่อเขาเองทัwงนัwนโดยไม่มีใครอยู่เบืwอง่ หลังเลย นีvความแตกต่างมาก. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 78 กฎแห่งกรรมคือผลของการกระทําของบุคคลเอง แต่ละคน ไม่ได ้เกีvยวกับผู ้อืvนเลย แต่ถ ้าหากว่า […] พระเจ ้า เป็นผู ้พิพากษา ไม่ใชกฎแห่งกรรม่ ฉะนัwน เชน่ สงเกตดูั บางคน บางคนเกิดมา เขาไม่อยากตาบอดเลยอะ เขาไม่อยากพิการเลย แล ้วทําไมเขาต ้องเป็นอย่างงัwน […] ถ ้าพระเจ้า […] พิพากษาเขามาอย่างงัwน ถูกต ้องแล้วหรือ […] ในทัศนะของพุทธศาสนาไม่ได ้ ไม่ขึwน แต่ว่าต ้องขึwนต่อสงอืvนิv แต่ว่าเขาเอง กรรมของเขา แต่กรรมเก่า. Ibid. 79 Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Revised and Expanded Version. 154. Cf. also Lorgunpai, “World Lover, World Leaver: The Book of Ecclesiastes and Thai Buddhism”. 188. For a brief account of what the Buddha has to say about God, see Khantipalo Bhikkhu, Buddhism Explained: An Introduction to the Teachings of the Lord Buddha with Reference to the Belief in and the Practice of those Teaching and their Realization (Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 1994). 50–55. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 57

In this section I have articulated how the interviewees viewed the role of God with regard to the relation between act and consequence. This was done by comparing the role of God to the role of the law of kamma. Two main lines of understanding were found in the interviews. By one group of interviewees, the role of God was understood as being similar to the role of the law of kamma, which is to ensure that all acts are followed by their inherent correspondent consequences. This means that the basis for the consequences which people receive is their own act. In contrast, another group of interviewees argued that the role of God and the role of the law of kamma are not similar. In their opinion, God is an independent agent, who allocates results of acts according to his own will and bases it on what kind of relation the actor has to God. As the consequences of acts do not follow automatically from the act, but are dependent on other factors, this way of understanding the relation between act and consequence can not be said to be similar to the law of kamma.

“There Is No Way to Escape [the Consequences of Acts]”80

A fourth main theme or issue, which emerged as the result of the Thai Bud- dhist readings, was the issue of the inevitable consequences of acts. It was argued that especially two of the verses in Proverbs 11:18–31—verses 21 and 31—emphasise very clearly that there is no way to escape the consequences of acts. One of the interviewees, Dr. Phichai, stated as follows: Buddha said that man may go to up to heaven or enter a boat to stay in the middle of the ocean, but wherever he goes, he does not escape the hand of the law of kamma […]. I think that what is said here, from one perspective is very similar. That is, one who does good or evil must receive its consequences for sure. [One might] try to avoid it, but [can] not escape. In fact, if one believes in God, the saying that there is no way to escape is very clear, isn’t it? It is not possible to escape. In fact, one cannot avoid it. Wherever you flfee, you can’t escape—[at least] I think so, as in verse 21 “Be sure of this: The wicked will not go unpunished, but those who are righteous will receive help.” The wicked must receive punishment for sure. It is not possible that the wicked should not receive the results that are born from their own wickedness.81

80 ไม่มีทางพ ้นได้. Dr. Phichai. 81 พระพุทธเจ ้าท่านบอกว่า มนุษย์ไปอยู่บนฟ้าก็ได ้ ล่องเรือไปอยู่กลางทะเลก็ได ้ แต่ไปอยู่ทีvไหน ไม่พ ้นเงืwอมมือ ของกฎแห่งกรรม […] ผมคิดว่า เอ่อ สงทีvพูดเอาไวิv ้ในนีw ในแง่หนึvง มันคล ้าย ๆ กัน ก็คือว่า คนทําดีหรือ ทําชวจะไดัv ้รับผลอย่าง แน่นอน พยายาม หลีกเลีvยงยังไงก็ไม่พ ้น ทีvจริง ถ ้าเชอเรืvองพระเจืv ้านีvอะ การบอกว่า ไม่มีทางพ ้น ได ้ก็ยิvงชดั ใชไหม่ ก็พ ้นไม่ได ้จริง ๆ หลีกเลีvยงไม่ได ้หนีไปยังไงก็ไม่พ ้น คิดอย่างนัwนเหมือนข ้อยีvสบเอ็ดิ “จงแน่ใจเถิด ซงคนชึv วรัv ้ายจะไม่มีโทษนัwน หามิได ้ แต่บรรดาผู ้ทีvเป็นคนชอบธรรมจะได ้รับการชวยเหลือ่ ” คนชวก็ตัv ้องได้รับโทษ แน่นอน เป็นไปไม่ได ้ทีvคนชวจะไม่ไดัv ้รับผลทีvเกิดจากความชวของตัวเองัv . Dr. Phichai. 58 chapter two

The three main points which Dr. Phichai argues here are: First, the Proverbs text emphasises that there are no ways for persons to escape the consequences of their acts, as God is securing that acts have consequences. Second, stressing that acts inevitably will have consequences, the text teaches similarly to Buddhism. Three, in Buddhism, however, it is not God, but the law of kamma which is thought to be that which secures the inevitable consequences of acts.82 I will in the following deal with these three points.

The Inevitable Consequences of Acts The fifrst point, that there is no way to escape the consequences ofacts, is elaborated on even further by a couple of the interviewees. Dr. Phichai argued that nobody can hide from, or flfee God or—according to Buddhist teaching—the law of kamma. To this point of view, another of the interviewees, Dr. Somsri, noted that the acts themselves can neither be hidden from God, nor escape the law of kamma. Even though they can be hidden from the world, they cannot be hidden from God, or escape the law of kamma.83 Then, on the basis of verse 31, it is argued that while sometimes it might look as if the wicked may escape the result of their sins or evil acts in this life, that does not mean that they will not receive the consequences of their acts at all. If the consequences of acts are not experienced in this life, then for sure the ones who act will instead reap the fruits of their acts after death.84

There Is No Way to Escape the Consequences of Kamma The second and third main point which can be drawn from Dr. Phichai’s statement, is that the stress on the inevitable consequences of acts is similar to Buddhist teaching, specififcally the teaching of kamma. This point of view was confifrmed by the other interviewees who commented on this issue.It was strongly emphasised that it was Buddha’s clear teaching, that according to the teaching of kamma, all acts—hidden or not—have consequences,

82 The same points are emphasised by Dr. Somsri, Mae Chii Narumon, Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 83 Dr. Somsri. This is on line with what the Buddhist scholar Somparn Promta writes in his article about the concept of rights in Buddhism. There he states: “There is no human action that escapes the supervision of this law of kamma. All acts of kamma will be ‘recorded’ to await the time for their fruition, regardless of whether those acts are done secretly or openly.” Somparn Promta, “A Concept of Rights in Buddhism,” The Chulalongkorn Journal of Buddhist Studies 1, no. 1 (2002). 32. 84 Dr. Phichai, Mae Chii Narumon. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 59 and that this teaching thus is the basis for the understanding that there is no way to escape the consequences of acts. Mae Chii Narumon, for example, put it this way:

Buddha said that humans, when they make kamma, they accept the result of that kamma: Do good, they must receive good; do evil they must receive evil […]. Whatever kamma you make, wherever you do evil, [whether] you try to escape in a forest, [or] on a mountain, [or] in a river, [or] in a seven-store palace, [in any case,] not letting you receive the fruit of your kamma, is defifnitely out of the question.85

Both the quote from Mae Chii Narumon here and from Dr. Phichai (in the introduction) might allude to the following verse from the Dhammapada “That spot in the world is not found, Neither in the sky nor in ocean’s depths, Nor having entered a cleft in the mountains, Where abiding, one would be released from the bad deed.”86 Another verse from the Buddhist scripture, which emphasises the point made by the interviewees here, and which Payutto refers to when he is arguing that all kammic acts will necessarily have consequences,87 is the following: “All kamma, whether good or evil, bears fruit. There is no kamma, no matter how small, which is void of fruit.”88 This point is thus seen to have sound scriptural basis and is much emphasised in the literature on kamma.89 In addition to stating that due to the law of kamma, acts will inevitably have consequences, the interviewees elaborated on why it is not possible to escape the consequences of acts. The interviewees argued along three main lines.

85 พระพุทธเจ ้าจะบอกว่า มนุษย์ ทํากรรมใดไว ้ เขาย่อมรับผลกรรมอันนัwน ทําดีเขาต ้องได้ดี ทําชวเขาตัv ้องได้ชวัv […] ทํากรรมอันใดไว ้ก็ตาม ทํากรรมชวไวัv ้ทีvไหนก็ตาม คุณจะหนีไปอยู่ป่า ภูเขา แม่นา ้ํ อยู่ใน ปราสาทเจ็ดชนัw จะให ้คุณไม่รับผลกรรม ไม่มีเด็ดขาด. Mae Chii Narumon. Cf. also Sunthorn Na-Rangsi who argues that there is no way to escape or avoid the undesirable consequences of the evil karma which one has done. Sunthorn Na-Rangsi, The Buddhist Concepts of Karma and Rebirth (Bangkok: Mahamkakut Rajavidyala Press, 1976/2519). 50. 86 TheDhammapada, trans. John Ross Carter and Mahinda Palihawadana, Oxford World’s Classic (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987). Verse 127. 87 Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching. 7–8. 88 Jataka IV.390. 89 In addition to Payutto, see for example Na-Rangsi who strongly emphasises that “the fundamental principle of the law of karma is that one will reap what one has sown by way of good and evil … There is no possibility of avoiding or escaping from the undesirable consequences of evil karma which one has done … Karma in its moral sense is retribution, a moral law, the working of which cannot be escaped.” Na-Rangsi, The Buddhist Concepts of Karma and Rebirth. 49, 84. 60 chapter two

Kamma Is Personal First, it was argued that a person’s store of kamma is personal, that is; it belongs to the individual person. Hence it is not possible for another person to take someone else’s kamma. It is the individual person, who has to experience the result of his or her own kamma. Everyone have their own personal kamma, because we make kamma all the time, if not good kamma then bad kamma. When we do kamma, that kamma belongs to us. Imagine that [I] kill someone and then give the sin to khun90 Kari instead; it is not possible, is it?91 A person’s kamma belongs to him- or herself, and will bear consequences according to the law of kamma.92 Other persons cannot take on the sin or merit of others.93 This point of view echoes the following words from the Dhammapada:94 By oneself is wrong done. By oneself is one defifled. By oneself wrong is not done. By oneself, surely, is one cleansed. One cannot purify another; Purity and impurity are in oneself [alone].

Kamma Can Not Be Neutralised or Nullififed Second, it was emphasised that it is not possible to neutralise, or take away, bad kamma or sin through doing a lot of good kamma or merit. Those who have done evil cannot do good by washing away the wickedness […]. Whoever does like that [i.e. do evil] must receive the consequences of it. If one thinks: “Today, I will kill someone, and then tomorrow I will do merit washing away the sin”, [then one should know that] they cannot pay for each

90 Polite title used before the fifrst names of both men and women. 91 ทุกคนมีกรรมเป็นของตนเอง เพราะเราต ้องทํากรรมตลอด ไม่กรรมดีก็กรรมชวัv เมืvอเราทํากรรม กรรมก็เป็นของ เรา สมมติว่า สมมติไปฆ่าคนตายมาแล ้ว แล ้วให้คุณคาริบาปแทนอะ มันก็ไม่ได ้ ใชมัwยคะ่ . Dr. Somsri. 92 Cf. the following verse from Anguttara-nikaya III.71: “Women, men, laypeople and those gone to homelessness (i.e. monks and nuns) should regularly reflfect that, ‘We are the owners of our kamma, the heirs of our kamma, born of our kamma, descended from our kamma, supported by our kamma. Whatever kamma is done by us, whether good or bad, we will receive the results thereof’.” Quoted in Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching. 104. 93 This statement must be somewhat qualififed. In popular Buddhism there is a tradition of merit-transference, even though none of the interviewees mentioned this. Keyes, “Merit- Transference in the Kammic Theory of Popular Theravada Buddhism.” 94 The Dhammapada. Verse 165. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 61

other. It is [like this:] Sin and merit are kept and collected; merit is collected in one portion, sin in another; you must [fifrst] pay back kamma, the sin you have done, [then] the goodness will give happiness afterwards; it is like this.95

The conclusion however, is that it is not possible to escape the consequences of bad acts through doing a lot of good acts. When this is said, however, a couple of the interviewees pointed out that it might be possible to escape the consequences of bad acts for a while by doing a lot of good kamma. This point is clearly made by Dr. Phimpan:

We also have the belief that if in our former life we did kamma which is not good, but then in this life we do an enormous lot of merit, we are able to escape the kamma from our former life which is not good, because […]—in Thai language we have a proverb—“kamma did not catch up”, […]. When we do good [deeds], it is like we are running and then our bad kamma does not catch up. […] Therefore, Buddhism believes that merit is able to help people from kamma which is not good, or make heavy become light.96

While not disagreeing with what is said above about the inevitable consequences of acts, Dr. Phimpan did, however, think that it is possible to run in front of bad kamma by doing a lot of merit.97 The basic idea that all acts have consequences is, however, the same, but doing merit opens up for a way to escape the consequences of acts—at least for a while.

95 คนทําชวไม่สามารถจะทําดีลบลัv ้างความผิดได ้ […] ใครทําลักษณะเชนนัwนก็ต่ ้องได้รับผลเชนนัwนนะคะ่ อาฮะ ถ ้าคิดว่า วันนีw ชนัw ชนฆ่าคนัw แล ้วพรุ่งนีwชนไปทําบุญลัw ้างบาป มันชดใชกันไม่ได้ ้ค่ะ เพียงแค่ว่าบาปบุญนัwนจะเก็บสะสมไว ้ สะสมไว ้ บุญก็สะสมไว ้จุดนึง บาปก็สะสมไว ้อีกจุดนึง แค่นัwนน่ะ คุณก็ต ้องไปชดใชกรรม้ บาปทีvคุณทําไว ้ ความดีนัwนมัน ต ้องไปเสพสุขทีหลัง ลักษณะเชนนัwน่ . Mrs. Chittra, (Bangkok, 19. September 2005). 96 เรายังมีความเชออีกว่าืv ถ ้าสมมติ ชาติก่อนเราทํากรรมไม่ดีไว ้นีvอะ แล ้วชาตินีwเราทําบุญแบบมโหฬารมหาศาล มากเลย คือทําบุญเยอะมาก เราสามารถทีvจะหลีกหนีกรรม กรรมไม่ดีในชาติก่อนได ้ เพราะว่า […] ภาษาไทยถึงมี สํานวนว่า “กรรมตามไม่ทัน” […] พอเราทําดีไปนีvอะ ก็เหมือนกับเราวิvงไปเรืvอย ๆ ใชไหมคะ่ แล ้ว แล ้ว กรรม กรรมชวของเรานีvอะัv มันไม่ catch up ไง […] เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะ พระพุทธศาสนายังเชอว่าบุญนีvอะืv จะชวยรักษาคนนีvอะ่ จากกรรมไม่ดีได ้ หรือว่าทําหนักให ้เป็นเบา. Dr. Phimpan. Mae Chii Phornthip also emphasised this point. 97 See also the statements of Suntorn Na-Rangsi: “Buddhism maintains that vice can be counteracted by virtue. It is true that what has been done cannot be undone, but one can correct himself by turning to the right way, by performing righteous actions if he happens to have done something wrong and unrighteous in the past.” Further, “Buddhists are of the view that, although the result of evil karma cannot be altered, it does not mean that one has nothing to do with it. A person’s evil karma can be counteracted by improving himself in the way of goodness. The more meritorious karma is accumulated, the stronger and better adapted he becomes for facing the results of his previous evil actions. The intensity and the destructive power of unwholesome karma can be diluted only by wholesome karma, as in the case of water diluting strong acid.” Na-Rangsi, The Buddhist Concepts of Karma and Rebirth. 227, 86. 62 chapter two

The Result of Kamma Can Go from One Life to Another A third point, mentioned in the interviews, and supporting the argument that there are no ways to escape the consequences of kamma, was that the results of kamma can go from one life to another. [Kamma] sends its result both in the past and to the future […]. For example, if [a person is] born handicapped, in that case one will not accuse someone or something for causing it, but will say, it is [due to] the kamma that he or she has done.98 This belief has two implications. One, it might be that the result of kammic actions is not experienced in this life, but will be experienced in a next life.99 Second, a person’s present life is an evidence of the inevitability of the consequences of acts, as the way a person is born is thought to be caused by kamma performed in a former life. This second point is a major belief in Thai society, as attested by Suntaree Komin in her empirical study on Thai beliefs and values.100

Implications of the Inevitable Consequences of Kammic Acts It follows then that, due to the law of kamma, nothing is accidental in the past, present or future. When humans act there will be results following, effects following. There is nothing which happens by accident, whether it is in the past, present or future. There is always a connection. The result, the result of kamma comes according [to the acts].101

98 [Kamma] สงผลทัwงในอดีตอและอนาคต่ […] เชนเกิดมาแล่ ้วพิการ อันนัwนจะไม่โทษว่า ใคร มัน ดลบันดาล แต่ว่า จะพูดว่า กรรมทีvทํานัvนแหละ. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 99 Cf. Suchitra Onkom who argues that Buddhist teaching emphasises that “a person’s actions will always reflfect on his personal life. If the consequent fruition of actions doesnot arise in the present life, it will surely come in a later one.” Onkom, Creating Sustainable World Peace. 46. 100 “Thai respondents from all groups and all educational and socio-economic backgrounds were found to be strictly fatalistic. This attitude was expressed in belief in kamma, that all happenings in life are consequences of one’s own deeds in previous lives. It is something that nobody can do anything about.” Suntaree Komin, “The World View Through Thai Value Systems,” in Traditional and Changing Thai World View, ed. Amara Pongsapich (Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 1998/2541). 215. Cf. also Na-Rangsi, The Buddhist Concepts of Karma and Rebirth. v: “A true Buddhist will not blame others, however many unfortunate events he may experience in his life, for he realizes that whatever happens to him, good or bad is the result of his own actions performed in the past.” 101 การทีvมนุษย์ทําอะไรลงไปอย่างหนึvง มันจะมีผลตามมา มี effect ตามมา มันจะไม่มีอะไรเกิดขึwนโดยบังเอิญ อ่า ไม่ว่าจะเป็นอดีต ปัจจุบันหรืออนาคต มันจะมีความสมพันธ์กันตลอดั ผล ผลกรรมจะต่อเนืvอง. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 63

Throughout the interviews it was thus stressed that all acts have consequences according to the law of kamma. Nothing is accidental in the past, present or future—it is just a matter of time when the consequences come. Persons’ kamma belong to themselves, and good and bad kamma cannot be erased or neutralise each other. Peoples’ situation in life is due to their former kamma, and everybody has to meet up with the consequences of their own acts, in this life or next.

In this section we have seen that another theme which the interviewees found in the text is the theme of the inevitable consequences of acts. Three main points were emphasised with regard to this theme. First, it was argued that the text (especially verses 21 and 31) stresses that there are no ways to escape the consequences of acts, as God secures that all acts have consequences. Second, it was pointed out that the stress in the text on the inevitable consequences of acts is similar to what is taught in Buddhism, which thirdly, emphasises that all acts have consequences due to the workings of the law of kamma. This third point was further elaborated on in terms of why it is not possible to escape the consequences of kamma. Three main answers were given. That is, one, no one can take another person’s kamma, as kamma is personal. Two, even though persons do a lot of good deeds now, they can not escape the result of former bad acts, as all kamma, both good and bad will bear fruit in its time. It is possible however, to delay the results of bad acts by doing a considerable amount of good. The third reason given to why it is impossible to escape the consequences of acts is that the result of kamma can go from one life to another. Finally, a major implication of this understanding of the inevitable consequences of acts is that nothing which happens in a person’s life is accidental; it can be explained as the result of that person’s own acts.

“Humans Control Their Own Destiny”102

One of the main issues that were raised on basis of the Proverbs text was that there is no way to escape the consequences of acts. At the same time, however, it was stressed that humans are in charge of their own life. One of the interviewees argued in fact, that this is the main theme of the text.

102 มนุษย์นีvอะควบคุมชะตากรรมตนเอง. Dr. Phimpan. 64 chapter two

I think that this text as a whole is a saying that aims at making people believe fifrmly in their own abilities. That means; whatever people do, people must be/are the owners of that which they themselves have done […]. This [text] is like stating: everything that you do has consequences directly on yourself, from birth to death, therefore you must choose between good or evil; isn’t that so? If [you choose] good it will be one thing, if [you choose] evil it will be another. This Proverbs [text] is an attempt to make humans stand straight by their own acts.103 In the following I will present the argumentation for this interpretation and show how this is argued to be similar to Buddhist teaching of kamma, but different from an understanding of God as an agent, who rewards and punishes the actors.

The Freedom of Humans to Control Their Own Destiny The argument for this interpretation went as follows: The text, for example verse 19, states that for those who are fifrm in righteousness, goodness will abide, while evil will abide with those who do evil. This implies that persons can be in charge of their own lives; do good and good will follow, do evil and evil will follow. It was further asserted that this is similar to the Buddhist teaching of kamma, which states that when persons ‘make kamma’, that kamma will in turn make their destiny. There is no one outside a person who is in control over him or her, but he or she controls their own actions, and thus their own destiny.104 The stress is on self-help and self-reliance.105 According to Phra Songkran, God was not a major theme in Proverbs 11:18–31, but the interviewee was very clear on the point that the idea

103 อาตมามองว่า เรืvองนีwนีvอะ ทัwง ทัwงชุด เป็นการพูดทีvจะให ้มนุษย์นีvอะ เชอมัvนในศืv กยภาพของตัวเองอะนะั คือหมายถึงว่า อะไรก็ตามทีvมนุษย์ทํานีvอะ มนุษย์ต ้องเป็นเจ ้าของสงทีvตัวเองทําิv นะฮะ […] อันนีwอะ คล ้ายๆ กะจะบอกว่า สงทีvคุณทําทุกอย่างนีvอะิv มันมีผลต่อคุณโดยตรง ตัwงแต่เกิดจนถึงตาย งัwนคุณจะเลือกอะไรระหว่างดีกับชวล่ะัv ใชมัwย่ ถ ้าดีมันก็จะเป็นอีกอย่างนึง ถ ้าชวมันก็จะไปอีกอย่างนึงัv นะฮะ สุภาษิตนีvเป็นความพยายามทีvจะทําให ้มนุษย์ เอ่อ ขึwนตรงอยู่กับการกระทําของตัวเอง. Phra Songkran. 104 “If someone makes kamma, that kamma will be that which makes the person become according to what he/she herself/himself has done. There is no one coming to control, but humans themselves control their own actions.” ถ ้าใครทํากรรมอะไร มัน กรรมนีvมันจะเป็นตัว ทําให ้มนุษย์เป็นไปตามทีvตัวเองกระทํา ไม่ได ้มีใครมา control แต่มนุษย์นีvอะ control การกระทําของตัวเอง นะฮะ. Ibid. 105 Some scriptural passages cited by Payutto in this regard are: “You must do the practice yourselves. The Tathagata only points the way.” Dhammapada verse 276. “Bhikkhus, be a refuge unto yourselves, do not cling to anything else. Take the Dhamma as your refuge, take nothing else as your refuge.” Digha-nikaya II.100. Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching. 103–104. cf. also Na-Rangsi, The Buddhist Concepts of Karma and Rebirth. 217ff., 234–235. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 65 that human beings are in charge of their own life is incompatible with faith in God.106 You are your own refuge. Who else can be our refuge, other than what we must do by our own hands? Buddhism will think the individual human is God, we are God […]. You must rely on yourself, whether you fail or succeed, it depends on yourself. If you are going to praise, prostrate, salute, glorify, you have to glorify yourself. In theism you might have to praise God, but we [think], if you are going to thank, salute, prostrate, you have to prostrate [to] yourself, salute yourself, respect yourself, praise yourself.107 In his opinion, God is not a central theme in Proverbs, but in Psalm 73 and Qohelet 9:1–12. Dr. Phimpan argued, however, that dependence on God is also expressed in Proverbs 11:18–31 and she therefore has a different take on the issue of what the text teaches concerning being in charge of one’s own destiny. This [Verse 20] differs from Buddhism for sure, because we don’t have the concept of God, we don’t have; we don’t have this idea that there is someone controlling the destiny of people. We hold that humans control their own destiny, through the system of kamma, but we don’t have to dependent on or please a god or an angel.108 The point that humans can control their destiny is also commonly emphasised in the literature on Buddhism by Thai scholars.109 As a consequence there is no need of a God to lean on.110

106 This is clearly emphasised by Payutto, who argues that “any belief in a future life should help to alleviate or completely do away with any dependence on higher powers or things occult. Belief in a future life means belief in the effifcacy of one’s own actions (kamma)”. Dependence on any external power will only hinder progress in life and personal development. Those who have allowed themselves to slide into such dependencies should strive to extract themselves from them and become more self-reliant. Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching. 54. 107 ตนเองเป็นทีvพึvงของตน คนอืvนใครเล่าจะเป็นทีvพึvงให ้เราได้ นีvอะ นอกจากเราต ้องทําด ้วยมือของเราเอง พุทธจะ มองเลยว่าตัวมนุษย์นีvแหละคือพระเจ ้าล่ะ นะฮะ ตัวเรานีvแหละคือพระเจ ้า […] คุณต ้องพึvงคุณ คุณเอง ถ ้าคุณจะล ้ม ถ ้าคุณจะประสบความสําเร็จ มันก็ขึwนอยู่กับคุณเอง ถ ้าคุณจะสดุดี ถ ้าคุณจะกราบ คุณจะไหว ้ คุณจะยกย่อง คุณก็ต ้อง ยกย่องคุณเอง คุณอาจจะต ้องไปสดุดีพระเจ ้าในเรืvองของเทวนิยม แต่กับเรา ถ ้าคุณจะขอบคุณ จะไหว ้ จะกราบ คุณต ้องกราบคุณเอง ไหว ้คุณเอง เคารพตัวเอง ยกย่องตัวเอง สดุดีตัวเอง. Phra Songkran. 108 อันนีwนีvอะ ก็คือ ต่างจากพุทธศาสนาแน่นอน เพราะว่าของเราไม่มี concept เรืvองพระเจ ้า เราไม่มี เราไม่มี ลักษณะทีvว่า มี มีผู ้ control destiny ของคนหรืออะไร เราถือว่ามนุษย์นีvอะควบคุมชะตากรรมตนเอง ผ่านระบบ ของกรรม แต่เรา เราไม่จําเป็นต ้องทําตัวให ้เป็นทีvพึงพอใจของเทพเจ ้าหรือว่าเทวดา. Dr. Phimpan. 109 Payutto, for example, emphasises that the practical value of kamma is, among other things, that “it puts the future, in the form of personal responsibility, back into the hands of each individual.” Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching. 100. 110 “With his teaching of the Law of Karma, the Buddha was the pioneer of humanism. We can say that this teaching was a declaration of human freedom; humankind could determine 66 chapter two

That people control their own destiny through their own acts does not mean, however, that humans are totally independent. Nature is the one who brought us forth. Nature is the one who created us—is the one who pronounced us forth from the four elements; earth, water, wind and fifre—is the one who makes us who we are. And then, when naturehas brought us forth, humans do not depend upon anyone, but humans must depend on nature, must have a way of living which is in accordance with nature. Don’t break the laws of nature.111 The law of kamma, which is a natural law, will, independently of human thoughts and ideas, ensure that good acts are followed by good consequences, and bad acts followed by bad consequences. People cannot decide that it will not be like this. Suntaree Komin confifrms this view and explains it as follows: Absolute freedom in the sense that something is not regulated by any law is unthinkable. When a thing is conditioned by external causes, it is dependent. When it is conditioned by internal causes which are part of its own nature, it is free. In the Thai view, a man’s nature is limited by his karma. […] But within the limits of his own nature, a human being is free.112 A question that arises based on the two last sections is how the idea that humans are in charge of their own destiny is to be understood in relation to humans not being able to escape the consequences of their own acts, especially as thought of in terms of results of former kamma. One of the interviewees felt that the concept of the law of kamma and rebirth was very fatalistic and had thus dissociated himself from the belief in kamma. Kamma is something that circulates until we have repaid it all. Therefore [I] don’t use [the word] kamma. And then, another thing I think is; if there is kamma it is something that comes from last life. But I think it is more like destiny. I will rather change the word kamma to the word destiny, that is, I think that destiny is controlling the way of each of us, but persons have the right to choose what path we will follow. Therefore, if one uses

their own destinies through their own actions (karma), and no longer have to resort to the gods or the supernatural forces to which, up till then, they had looked for refuge.” Onkom, Creating Sustainable World Peace. 43. Here we see the reason why belief in God is regarded as a lower, not yet developed line of belief. 111 ธรรมชาติเป็นคนให ้เรามา ธรรมชาติเป็นคนสร ้างสรรค์เรา เป็นคนเสกเรามา นะฮะ จากธาตุสีv ดิน-นา ้ํ -ลม-ไฟ เป็นคน ปรุงแต่งเรามา แล ้วเมืvอธรรมชาติให ้มาแล้ว มนุษย์จึงไม่ได ้ขึwนตรงกับใคร แต่มนุษย์จะต ้องขึwนตรงกับธรรมชาติ ต ้องมีวิถีชวิตทีvสอดคลี ้องกับธรรมชาติ อย่าไปฝืนกฎธรรมชาติ. Phra Songkran. 112 Komin, “The World View Through Thai Value Systems.” 212–213. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 67

the word kamma, it is something which forces one to meet with this and that, and we must do it. Therefore I rather use the word destiny, because it implies that we can choose our own way.113 The majority view however, was that even though kamma is thought of as forming our life to a certain extent, that does not mean that peoples’ lives and futures are fully determined by kamma. Buddhism believes that we are reborn many times. In our former life, we might have done kamma which is not good. If we have done kamma which is not good in our former life, in this life we are, for example born poor, handicapped and so on, which are conditions that are not wished for. Buddhists view that it is because of us formerly doing kamma which is not good. But we are able to change the cause of our life, in that in this life, even though we don’t have favourable conditions, we are able to do good in order to get a better life in this life, and in next life. Therefore, Buddhism believes in the law of kamma, but at the same time, Buddhism believes that we humans have power to control our own kamma.114 This quote is quite representative for how the interviewees talked about this issue, either directly or indirectly. It is the fact, they argued, that the present lives of humans are determined by former kamma. But every one has the freedom to act now, and can thus through present acts change the way of one’s life. Quite a few of the interviewees emphasised that done is done; we cannot change the past—therefore the sensible thing to do is to focus on today and do good deeds. One of the interviewees gave the example of being ill; if one is ill, one will mainly concentrate on doing that which makes you healthy again. There is no use in complaining—one should rather act.115 These fifndings are along the same line as Keyes found in his studies of kamma. He argues that Theravadins “seem to speculate more about karmic

113 กรรมมันจะเป็นอะไรทีvหมุนวนไปวนมา จนกว่าเราจะชดใชกรรมหมด้ ก็เลยจะไม่ค่อยใชว่ากรรม้ แล ้วก็ อีกอย่าง หนึvงทีvผมคิดก็คือ ถ ้ากรรมนีvมันจะเป็นอะไรทีvมันตกมาแต่ครัwงก่อน แต่ผม ความคิดผมนีvจะเป็นอะไรทีv เหมือนกะ โชคชะ จะเรียก ใชคําว่ากรรมนีvเปลีvยนเป็นคําว่าโชคชะตามากกว่า้ ก็คือจะคิดว่า โชคชะตานีvอะกําหนดทาง เดินมาให ้คนแต่ละคน แต่คน คนนีvอะมีสทธิzทีvจะเลือกทางเดินนัwนว่าิ เราจะเดินไปทางไหน เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะ ถ ้าใช ้ คําว่ากรรม มันจะเป็นอะไรทีvต ้องมาบังคับคนว่าต ้องเจออย่างงีw แล ้วก็ต้อง ต ้องทํานะ ก็เลยจะใชคําว่า้ โชคชะตามากกว่า ซงโชคชะตานีwสามารถทีvจะเลือกทางเดินของึv ของเราได. ้ Mr. Deecha. 114 ศาสนาพุทธนีvอะ เชอว่าืv เราเกิดมาหลายชาติ ใชไหมคะ่ เรานีvอะ ในชาติก่อนนีvอะ เราอาจจะทํากรรมไม่ดี ถ ้าเราทํากรรมไม่ดีในชาติก่อน ชาตินีwเราก็จะเกิดมาอย่างเชน่ ยากจน พิการ ทัwงหลายแหล่ ทีvเป็นสภาพทีvไม่พึงปรารถนา นีvอะ คนทางพุทธนีvอะ เขามองว่า เป็นเพราะว่าเราทํากรรมไม่ดีมาก่อน ใชไหมคะ่ แต่ว่า เขาสามารถทีvจะเปลีvยน cause of life ของเราได ้ โดยการทีv อย่างในชาตินีw ถึงเรามีสภาพทีvไม่พึงปรารถนา แต่กรรมเก่าของเรานีvอะ เราก็สามารถปฏิบัติกรรมดี เพืvอว่า ให ้เรามีชวิตทีvดีขึwนในชาตินีwี อยู่ในชาติต่อไปได ้ เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะ พุทธศาสนาเชงิ ในเรืvองกฎแห่งกรรม แต่ว่าในขณะเดียวกัน พุทธศาสนาก็เชอว่าืv มนุษย์เรานีvอะมี power มีอํานาจทีvจะเป็นผู ้กําหนด กรรมของตนเอง. Dr. Phimpan. 115 Mr. Wibun. 68 chapter two prospects than they do about retrospects”. They thus emphasise “actions that are believed to enhance one’s karmic prospect, that is, to actions which produce merit”.116

In short, according to one of the interviewees the text emphasises that humans are in charge of their own lives. His argument for this is based on two premises. First, the understanding that the text emphasises that there is a corresponding relation between act and consequence, and that consequences are due to the acts of persons. The second premise is that the role of God and the role of kamma are understood to be of a similar kind, because if God is understood as an agent, who allocates rewards and punishment to people, persons are not really free. From this it follows that humans can control their own destiny through how they choose to act. It is specififed, however, that the fact that people control their own destinies through their own acts does not mean that they are totally independent; they are still conditioned by nature. But within the limits of their nature, humans are free. I concluded this section by discussing how the relation between the understanding that there is no way to escape the consequences of acts and the assertion that humans are free to form their own destinies were understood in the interviews. The main understanding of the interviewees of the relation was that even though kamma is thought to form the condition of life, this does not mean that peoples’ lives are fully determined by the law of kamma.

“We Are Good, but Might Be Punished in This World”117

Sixth, there are two verses, according to the interviewees, which at least at fifrst glance, do not seem to fift into the pattern established bytheother verses concerning the connection between act and consequence, namely verses 22 and 31. In this section we will have a look at how verse 31 is understood in the interviews.

116 Charles F. Keyes, “Introduction: The Study of Popular Ideas of Karma,” in Karma: An Anthropological Inquiry, eds. Charles F. Keyes and E. Valentine Daniel (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1983). 13–14. See also Payutto: “For those who believe, they should ensure that their belief is based on an understanding of the truth of cause and effect. That is, they should see results in a future life as ensuing from the quality of mind developed in the present one, giving emphasis to the creation of good kamma in the present”. Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching. 54. 117 เราเป็นคนดี แต่อาจจะถูกทําโทษในแผ่นดินโลก. Dr. Somsri. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 69

Is There Incoherence between Act and Consequence? It is argued that the verse 31, in addition to emphasising that the wicked will be punished, seems to express the experience of doing good, but still receiving evil consequences or punishment in this life.118 Thus this verse highlights that even the good might not be happy in this world, they might even be poor and despised. Some of the interviewees found this verse to express their own experience, for example Dr. Somsri: [This is] like the society of today, it is like me. We are good, but might be punished in this world, but only in this world; it is only in this world they [the wicked] can do it to us, but in next life, we will be fifne; if [we] are Christians, we will be with God […], but they will fall into hell.119 In her opinion, one of the reasons that good people suffer might be that there are wicked, powerful persons, who make life hard for those who do that which is right. The same point is argued by Dr. Phichai: “I understand that it is possible that this good person might be punished by those who have power, and who are not good persons, isn’t it so?” Both of them think however, that in next life the good will receive the good results of their acts, while the wicked will be punished, whether it is due to the workings of the law of kamma or God.120 In trying to explain what seems to be at odds with the stress in the rest of the text, namely that acts have corresponding results, two of the interviewees suggested that the righteous must suffer because God is testing their endurance and faith. Mrs. Chanpen, for example, argued that if we believe in God, we have to look at it from the perspective that God is testing us. God wants us to be strong, to have endurance and faith. That God lets us have problems is due to his own reasons.121 This is supported by Dr. Phichai who argued that God might have a plan with the suffering which a person experiences.122 From a Buddhist point of view, most of the interviewees interpreted this verse within the framework of the teaching of kamma and thus explained this experience in terms of old kamma.

118 The Thai translation of Prov 11:31 goes as follows: “If the righteous are punished on earth, how much more the wicked and the sinner!” 119 เหมือนสงคมในทุกวันนีwอะั นะ เหมือนตัวพีvเองอะ เราเป็นคนดี แต่อาจจะถูกทําโทษในแผ่นดินโลก แต่ใน แผ่นดินโลกนีwเท่านัwนแหละ บนโลกนีwทีvเขาจะทําเราได ้ นะ นะฮะ แต่พอโลกหน ้านีvอะ นะ เราก็จะดีแล ้ว ถ ้าเป็นคริสต์ก็ เราก็ไปอยู่กับพระเจ ้า […] แต่พวกเค ้านีvต ้องตกนรก. Dr. Somsri. 120 Dr. Phichai, Dr. Somsri. Dr. Somsri further argued that there are 3 types of kamma: Kamma that gives result in this life, in next life and no result. 121 Mrs. Chanpen. 122 Dr. Phichai. 70 chapter two

This is kamma and the result of that kamma. In some cases good persons receive much good in this life, but like I said, humans have a past, not only a past like in yesterday or last year, but a past far away, before this [life]. There is not only one life; they must thus receive the consequences [from former lives].123 In other words, in this life you receive the consequences of a former life. So if a person who does a lot of good now, suffers, it might be due to former bad acts—whose consequences now ripen. Mae Chii Narumon illustrated this point by telling about a very pious Dhamma teacher, who was jailed innocently for fifve years, charged with being a traitor to the country. So sometimes the good receive the result of kamma—are punished, but those who know Dhamma are not unhappy, they know that all have their own kamma. When one receives the result of kamma one does not know, but when it is used up, it is used up. But the evil, if they do not receive the result in this life—then in the next life, for sure.124 Or as Dr. Phichai put it: From a Buddhist viewpoint kamma is just and you receive what you deserve.125 One of the interviewees, however, did not immediately relate this verse to the teaching of kamma, but explained the suffering of the good as due to natural catastrophes. The good […] might be punished in what, in nature. For example flfood, volcanic eruption, they might receive hardship, but with regard to the evil, they will receive even more hardship than this.126 That is, in this case kamma was not automatically blamed.127 As we will see in the discussion in connection with Psalm 73 (ch. 3), even though kamma is used to explain what happens in persons’ lives, both good and bad, not all that happen in life is regarded as being due to kamma. Finally, Mr. Deecha who does not believe in kamma was impressed by the verse because he felt that it expresses what is just, namely that the wicked will be harder punished than the good. Even though the good will meet with bad things, the wicked will meet them even more.128

123 อันนีwก็ กรรมและผลของกรรมนัvนแหละ คนดีก็ได ้รับ ผลในบางขณะ ดีมากในชาตินีwอะ แต่อย่างทีvบอกว่า มนุษย์ มีอดีต ไม่ใชอดีตเฉพาะเมืvอวาน่ ปีทีvแล ้ว ไม่ใช่ อดีตนู ้น ถัดไป ไม่ใชชาติเดียว่ เขาจึงจําเป็นต ้องได้รับผลวิบากอันนัwน. Mae Chii Narumon. 124 Ibid. Cf. also Dr. Saichai: She stated that verse 31 expresses the experience of life that sometimes the good experiences hardship or is punished. A Buddhist will explain this as a result of kamma from a former life. 125 Dr. Phichai. 126 คนดี […] อาจจะถูกทําโทษใน ในอะไร ในธรรมชาติ อย่างเชน่ นาท่วม ้ํ ภูเขาถล่ม อันนีwอาจจะได ้รับความลําบาก แต่ว่าถ ้าเกิดคนชวนัwนน่ะัv ยิvงได ้รับความลําบากยิvงกว่านีw. Mae Chii Phornthip. 127 Ibid. 128 Mr. Deecha. Cf. Mr. Chakkri who says it is part of life to meet with suffering. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 71

In verse 31 the interviewees found a verse that at least at fifrst glance seemed to break with the emphasis on a correspondence between act and consequence predominant in most verses. Another theme found by the interviewees was thus the issue of good persons receiving punishment or bad things in their lives. In the interviews the situation was recognized and solutions offered as to how to resolve the question. It was suggested that within the context of belief in God this could be explained as being due to God testing the endurance and faith of the righteous. It was further argued that, from a Buddhist point of view, this could be seen as the result of old kamma, as all acts will have consequences according to the law of kamma. Not all, however, resorted to the teaching of kamma to explain this situation. It was also explained as due to the fact that in this world there are wicked people, and that they might make life hard for good people. Finally, one of the interviewees pointed to natural catastrophes as cause for hardship in good peoples’ life.

“Women Must Have Wisdom”129

About half of the interviewees commented especially on verse 22, most of them fifnding that this verse had another character than the other versesin the text. Dr. Phimpan, for example, argued as follows: Verse 22 is not related to the concept of kamma […]. It has more the character of being similar to a Thai proverb, […] it is a proverb [emphasising that] a women who has beauty only, but no intelligence has no value or use. […] This is not about kamma […], it is not about that we receive the consequences of our acts, but it has a similar character to that which Thais call proverbs. [A proverb] is a well-known shrewd statement, it is something that offers a point of view, but it is not a religious doctrine.130

129 “This [verse 22] has the character of stating that women must have wisdom.” (อันนีwมัน เป็นลักษณะทีvบอก ผู ้หญิงต ้องมีปัญญา). Dr. Saichai. 130 อันทีv 22 นีvอะ ไม่เกีvยวกับเรืvองกรรม […] มันจะเป็นลักษณะคล ้ายกับสุภาษิตของไทยมากกว่า […] เป็น proverb เป็นสุภาษิต ว่านีvอะ ผู ้หญิงทีvทีvมีแต่ความงาม แต่ไม่มีความฉลาด มันก็ ไม่ ไม่ ไม่มีค่า ไม่มีประโยชน์อะไร […] อันนีwไม่ได ้เกีvยวกับเรืvองกรรม […] มันก็ไม่ใชเรืvองของว่า่ เราได ้รับผลจากการกระทําของเรา แต่ว่า มันก็เป็นลักษณะทีv สอดคล ้องกับสงทีvคนไทยเรียกว่าิv สุภาษิต คือเป็นคําคม เป็นอะไรทีvให ้ ให ้แง่คิด แต่ไม่ใชเป็นหลักทางศาสนา่ . Dr. Phimpan. There exist quite a few collections of Thai proverbs, most of them in Thai, but two small collections of proverbs which present both the Thai original and an English translation is the following: Duangtip Somnapan Surintatip, Have Fun with Thai Proverbs (Bangkok: R 3 K Company Limited, 1999). Abha Bhamorabutr, Thai Proverbs (with their literal meanings), 2nd ed. (Bangkok: 1982). 72 chapter two

The verse was characterised as a proverb,131 not as a religious doctrine. To this Dr. Phichai added that this verse is probably an expression of personal opinion, which has found its way into this religious text. Moreover, it is argued that this verse does not, unlike the other verses in the text, relate to the teaching of kamma in Buddhism. The main meaning of the verse, according to the interviewees who commented on it, was that beauty alone is worthless if it is not followed by intelligence or wisdom.132 The interviewees tended to agree with this, but a couple of them also raised some objections. Mae Chii Narumon, for example, argued that this point of view was too limited. In her opinion, a beautiful woman, who is not very intelligent or wise, may still be of honour to her husband. It is thus too strong to state that she is of no value. Dr. Saichai objected to the saying from another angle, fifnding the focus on intelligence or clev- erness to be more similar to modern western values than eastern values. From her point of view, what is most valuable in a woman is beauty and virtue. Even though most of the interviewees did not regard verse 22 as being related to the emphasis on the correspondence between act and consequence which are found in the rest of the text—and thus not comparable to the teaching of kamma—one of the interviewees, however, did interpret the verse within the context of the doctrine of kamma: Verse 22 is related to kamma like this: ‘A beautiful women’, this is related to kamma. Because—why is she beautiful? Because she has done kamma, that is, she has been smiling and easy-going. […] Buddha said; if you have been a smiling and easy-going person and not an easy angered one, you will be born beautiful […]. [But the woman in verse 22 is] without intelligence. To be intelligent, what kamma have you done then? Intelligence means that you have studied and searched for knowledge […]. This woman she has been easy-going and smiling, but lazy [as to] reading books and searching for knowledge, therefore she is beautiful, but stupid.133 In Dr. Somsri’s reading, this verse, along with the other verses in the Proverbs text, becomes an example of the corresponding relation between

131 This was also explicitly argued by Mr. Deecha. 132 This was argued by for example Dr. Phimpan, Dr. Saichai, Mae Chii Narumon, Mr. Deecha. 133 ข ้อ 22 จะเกีvยวกับกรรมว่า สตรีงามนีvอะ มันเกีvยวกับกรรม เพราะว่าทําไมเค ้าถึงงาม เพราะเค ้าทํากรรมมาก็คือ เค ้าเป็นคนทีvยิwมแย ้มแจ่มใจ […] พระพุทธเจ ้าบอกว่า ถ ้ายูยิwมแย ้มแจ่มใส ไม่ ไม่มักโกรธ คือไม่ขีwโกรธ ฮมฮึv มึv อย่างงีwอะ นะ คุณก็จะเกิดมาเป็นคนสวย […] ปราศจากความเฉลียวฉลาด ความเฉลียวฉลาดน่ะ คุณทํากรรมอะไร ความเฉลียวฉลาดหมายถึงคุณพึงศกษาหาความรูึ ้ […] ผู ้หญิงนีvเค ้ายิwมแย ้มแจ่มใสจริง แต่ขีwเกียจเรียนหนังสอื ไม่หา ความรู ้เลย เพราะงัwนก็สวยแต่ว่า โง่. Dr. Saichai. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 73 act and consequence which she and the other interviewees found that the text stresses, and which further was compared to the teaching of kamma in Buddhism. According to Na-Rangsi the law of kamma in Buddhism has been worked out in such a way that a specififc kamma can be rationally related to a specififc result. For example, a short life is the result of a killing of living beings in a previous life. He further argues: “Thus it is to the merit of Buddhism that the mystery in the functioning of karma is made less mysterious.”134

“This Text Teaches People to Do Good”135

It was commonly stated throughout the interviews that Proverbs 11:18–31 teaches people to do good. Mae Chii Phornthip, for example, formulated it like this: “[This text] teaches people to do good, teaches people to have virtue.”136 Hence, the interviewees’ comments were not only on the main themes in the text, but also on what it encourages its readers to do. Thus the text was regarded relevant for peoples’ daily life. “The Proverbs here […] are about practice.”137 “They can be used in daily life.”138 The following quotation sums up the most important points concerning this issue. The character of Proverbs is very similar [to Buddhism]. […] It is about ethics, that is; it teaches people to do good. Therefore, no matter if it is Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism or Islam, it is similar. Proverbs is comparisons […], it makes people turn their heart to do good […]. All the verses teach [one] to do good, through offering comparisons like, if you do like this, you will receive good […]. Thus it is very similar to Buddhism.139 Two important points are made here. First, the text teaches people to do good, and is thus about ethics. Two, the teaching to do good is something

134 Na-Rangsi, The Buddhist Concepts of Karma and Rebirth. vii. Cf. also pp. 81–86. 135 สอนให ้คนทําความดี. Stated by many of the interviewees. 136 […] สอนให ้คนทําความดี สอนให ้คนมีศลธรรมิ . Mae Chii Phornthip. 137 สุภาษิตนีvอะ […] เป็นเรืvองการประพฤติปฏิบัติ. Dr. Phimpan. 138 มันสามารถทีvจะใชในช้ วิตประจําวันไดี . ้ Mr. Deecha. 139 ลักษณะของสุภาษิตนีvแทบจะเหมือนกันเลย […] เป็นเรืvองของจริยธรรม เป็นเรืvองของ ethics คือสอนให ้คน ทําดี เพราะฉะนัwนไม่ว่าเป็นพุทธ เป็นคริสต์ หรือว่าเป็นศาสนาพราหมณ์ ฮนดูิ หรือว่าเป็นอิสลามอะไรก็เหมือนคล ้าย ๆ กัน สุภาษิตนีvคือเป็นคําเปรียบเปรย […] ให ้คนน้อมจิตใจไปสูความดี่ […] คือลักษณะก็คือการสอนให ้คนทําความดี ด ้วยการเทียบเคียงให ้เห็นว่า การทําอย่างงีwได ้ดี […] ซงจะคลึv ้าย ๆ กับพุทธศาสนา. Mr. Santi, (Bangkok, 4. September 2005). 74 chapter two many religions, including Buddhism and Christianity, have in common. I will in the following discuss how these two points are presented and discussed in the interviews.

The Encouragement to Do Good First, the point stressed both in the quotation and throughout the interviews is that the text teaches people to do good, or as Ms. Laddawan put it: “do good, avoid evil”.140 In the interviews this point was emphasised by different expressions. A couple of the interviewees, including Mr. Santi (in the quotation above), used the word จริยธรรม, ‘ethics’, in describing the teaching of the text. Directly translated it means ‘the teaching of behaviour or conduct’.141 Other ways of expressing the same idea were for example: “[This text is about] conduct according to the concept of Christianity”,142 “general rules”,143 “like precepts”,144 [it is about] deciding what is good, […] what is not good, and what we should do or not do.”145 The text was said to be a tool for people to be used with regard to how to live their lives.146 In discussing this theme, the main emphasis was not on the question of what should be regarded as good or not. Even though some of the interviewees mentioned different examples of good and bad from the text—with prominence given to the issue of giving and sharing or the lack thereof—on the whole they did not go very much into details concerning this question. The general impression was that the examples in the text were good and in accordance with their own feelings and thoughts of what is good or not. Answering the question from their own point of view, some of the interviewees referred to the teaching of kusala and akusala kamma, or emphasised the importance of following the precepts or making merit. Dr. Saichai is one of those who emphasised this (see the quote below).147 In addition she also argued, that on a higher level of Buddhist practice, to do good is regarded as that which serves to obstruct or cut the defiflements of a person.

140 ให ้เราทําความดีอะ ละเว ้นความชวัv . Ms. Laddawan. 141 Dr. Saichai, Mr. Santi. 142 เรืvองการประพฤติของคน ตาม concept ของ ของ ของศาสนาคริสต์. Dr. Phimpan. 143 หลักเกณฑ์ทัvว ๆ ไป. Dr. Saichai. 144 เหมือนเป็นศลเลยี . Ms. Laddawan. 145 การตัดสนใจว่าอะไรดีิ อะไร อะไร อะไร อะไรไม่ดี แล ้วอะไรทีvเราคู ควรจะทําหรือไม่ทํา. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 146 Mrs. Manee, (Bangkok, 26. July 2005). 147 Some others were for example Dr. Phimpan, Ms. Laksami, Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 75

What is good kamma? The answer according to Buddhist doctrine is to act with a kusala [wholesome] mind. Then it is good kamma. Act by a pure mind and hope for good results, because we have the theory that kamma is in the heart. If one says that one is a Buddhist, then one follows the fifve precepts, [and] makes merit by giving alms. Or on a higher level, to do good is to […] obstruct our defiflements.148 Many of the interviewees, however, when discussing what is good or not, did not mention the precepts or discuss kusala or akusala kamma, but emphasised that making merit is good, or argued like Mr. Deecha (see below), namely that to do good, is that which makes you and your surroundings happy, while to do that which is not good, is to create problems for others and be egotistic.149 To do that which is not good,150 is to make other people receive trouble, to be egotistic, not [to] help your neighbour […]. To do good for me means to make my mind and heart happy, [and] make the people around me have happiness.151 Further, we could ask; according to the interviewees, in what ways does the text teach and encourage people to be good, and how is it compared to Buddhist thought? The main answer to this question is that it teaches people to do good by pointing out the corresponding results of good and bad deeds, thus encouraging people to do good and avoid evil. Phra Suthep and Phra Songkran, for example, argued as follows: Whether [the results of acts] are the result of kamma in Buddhism or, like one expresses it in Christianity, [due to the fact that] God gives, what is for sure [is that this text] encourages people to do good.152

148 กรรมดีคืออะไร ถ ้าตอบตามหลักของพุทธศาสนาจริง ๆ ก็คือว่า ทําด ้วยกุศลจิต ก็จะเป็นกรรมทีvดี ทําด ้วย จิตบริสุทธิzและหวังผลทีvดี เพราะว่า เราก็มีเป็นทฤษฏีว่า กรรมอยู่ทีvใจ ถ ้าบอกว่าเป็นคนพุทธ แล ้วถือศลหี ้า ทําบุญ ให ้ทาน หรือในระดับสูงขึwนมา การทําดีนัvนก็คือ […] การขัดเกลากิเลสของตัวเอง. Dr. Saichai. The fifve precepts referred to here are the fifve lay precepts, which are: (1) I undertake the training-precept to abstain from onslaught on breathing beings. (2) I undertake the training-precept to abstain from taking what is not given. (3) I undertake the training-precept to abstain from misconduct concerning sense-pleasures. (4) I undertake the training-precept to abstain from false speech. (5) I undertake the training-precept to abstain from alcoholic drink or drugs that are an opportunity for heedlessness. Cf. Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values and Issues (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). 66. 149 For example Mr. Chakkri, Mrs. Aporn, (Bangkok, 25. July 2005), Mrs. Manee. 150 Literal translation would be: To do not good. 151 การทําไม่ดีก็คือการทีvทําให ้คนอืvนได ้รับความเดือดร ้อน การเห็นแก่ตัว ไม่ชวยเหลือเพืvอนมนุษย์่ […] สวน่ กระทําความดีนัwน การกระทําความดีในทีvนีwของผมก็จะหมายถึง การทําให ้จิตใจสบาย ทําให ้คนอืvนหรบ คนรอบ ๆ มี ความสุข ครับ. Mr. Deecha. 152 หรือว่าเป็นผลกรรมของท่านเองในทางพุทธศาสนา หรือว่าในทางคริสต์บอกว่าพระเจ ้าให้ แต่ว่าแน่นอนว่า ทีvนีv สนับสนุนให ้คนทําความดีแล ้ว. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. See also the quotation from Mr. Santi, which introduces the discussion. 76 chapter two

The argument is that regardless of where the results come from, acts have consequences; hence people are encouraged to do good deeds. On the other hand, the text also admonishes people to avoid evil through its emphasis that all acts will have corresponding results.153 This, according to Dr. Saichai, is similar to what Buddhists think: [In Buddhism we] fear sin because if we do something which is not good, we are the ones who must receive the result […], both in this life and next […]. This is the reason why, from one side, the Thais love making merit, or [why] the old like to say “don’t do like this, it is sin”.154

All Religions Teach People to Do Good The second main point concerning this topic is that Buddhism and Chris- tianity, as well as other religions, teach people to do good: “The basic teaching of religions, especially Christianity and Buddhism, doesn’t differ very much, that is, they stress that we should do good, avoid evil.”155 “Every religion teaches everybody to do good.”156 The statement that all religions teach people to be good is a statement that I heard repeatedly, both during fifeldwork, and also when I lived and worked in Thailand. This assertion can also be found in the writings of Thai scholars. Suchitra Onkom, for example, argued concerning the teaching of Buddha, Jesus and Mohammed that “it is obvious that these three great religious teachers had the same teaching in common: avoiding all evil and cultivating good with an open compassionate heart”.157 Upon fifnding stress on the correlation between act and consequence, the interviewees were evidently confifrmed by the text that all religions have the same focus, that is to make people do good. In other words “all religion is good since it contributes to a higher morality in society”.158

153 Ms. Laddawan. 154 กลัวบาป เพราะว่า ถ ้าเราทําสงไม่ดีนีvอะิv เราต ้องเป็นคนทีvรับผลนัwนเอง […] ทัwงในชาตินีwและชาติหน ้า […] อันนีwก็เป็นเหตุว่าทําในในแงหนึvง คนไทยก็ชอบทําบุญ หรือว่า คนโบราณนีv ก็ชอบพูดว่า อย่าทําอย่างนีwเลยบาป. Dr. Saichai. 155 คําสอนของแบบหลักศาสนา โดยเฉพาะของคริสต์กับปุ๊ก ก็ไม่น่าจะต่างกันเท่าไหร่นัก คือเขาก็เน ้น เน ้นให้เรา ทําความดีอะ ละเว ้นความชวัv . Ms. Laddawan. 156 ทุกศาสนาสอน สอนให ้ทุกคนทําดีอะฮะ่ . Mrs. Chittra. The same point, that every religion teaches to be good, or do good, is also stressed by Mr. Santi, Mrs. Chanpen, Mrs. Manee. 157 Onkom, Creating Sustainable World Peace. 8. 158 Thailand in Transition: The Church in a Buddhist Country (Brussels: Pro Mundi Vita, Centrum Informationis, 1973). 20. thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 77

As the text emphasises that both good and bad acts will meet with corresponding results, the interviewees read Proverbs 11:18–31 as a text which encourages people to do good, and avoid doing evil. Corresponding with this the text was further regarded as being concerned with religious practice, not only religious teaching. The examples of good and bad acts given in the text were seen as completely in line with what the interviewees thought of as good and bad, and were not a major topic of discussion. Further, in understanding the text as teaching people to do good, it was seen as confifrming a basic assumption about religions in Thai society, namely that all religions teach people to do good.

Intermediate Conclusion

Main Themes and Issues The Understanding of the Main Themes and Issues in Proverbs 11:18–31 The basic theme of Proverbs 11:18–31 is, according to the interviewees, the corresponding relation between act and consequence. That is, the text through its different sayings was seen to emphasise that the moral character of acts, as either good or bad, determines the character of their outcome. Accordingly, good acts will be followed by good results, while bad acts will result in bad consequences. Finding this being the main emphasis in the text, the interviewees further argued that the text could be compared to the teaching of kamma in Buddhism, which similarly stresses that the relation between act and consequence is a cause and effect relation. With one exception, all the other themes and issues found in the text were seen to be expanding on, or relating to, this basic theme. First, the interviewees highlighted different examples of the correlation between act and consequence in Proverbs 11:18–31. One of the examples given special notice was the connection between givingand receiving, found to be emphasised in verses 24–26. It was argued that these verses like Buddhism emphasise that the act of giving is a meritorious act, which will result in the giver receiving good returns in some form or other. In contrast, being stingy was considered as an example of a de-meritorious act which will have bad consequences. Second, the text was not only regarded as stating that acts and consequence are closely related, but was also seen as raising the question of how this relation is thought to function, that is, how the consequences of acts are thought to come about. From the point of view of most of the 78 chapter two interviewees, the obvious answer to this was the law of kamma, while the text, as they saw it, somehow related this issue to God (verses 20–21). The question was twofold: How can one understand the role of God with regard to the act-consequence relation, and how is the role of God related to the role of the law of kamma? Two main answers were given. On the one hand the role of God was interpreted as similar to the role of the law of kamma. According to this understanding, God was regarded as holding the role of a facilitator. That is, consequences are regarded as being inherent in the acts themselves, like a fruit in its seed. The role of God is only to secure or facilitate that the process proceeds according to its own nature. On the other hand, some maintained that the role of God and the law of kamma are different. Rather than understanding him as a facilitator, the proponents of this interpretation seemed to think that the role of God is more to be compared to that of a judge. He gives rewards or punishments depending on the character of the acts and the relation between the actor and himself. Third, the text was also found to emphasise that, not only do acts have corresponding results, but they will inevitably have consequences (verses 21, 31). There is no way to escape the consequences of acts. As the text is seen to emphasise that God will secure that all acts have consequences, the interviewees found it comparable to the teaching of Buddhism, where the law of kamma is the guarantor that all acts have consequences. Fourth, also based on the basic understanding, that the text emphasises the existence of a corresponding relation between act and consequence, and where consequences are regarded as being due to the acts of person, it was contended that one of the text’s themes is the freedom of humans to control their own destiny, which is a central issue in Thai Buddhism. This interpretation of the text, however, was contested by those interviewees, who found that the Proverbs text presents God as one who by his own decision allocates the consequences of persons’ acts. In their opinion, God emerges as someone who controls the destiny of people, hence people can not be said to be totally in control of their own destinies. Further, there were two verses which at least at fifrst glance were seen to be at odds with the stress in the rest of the texts, namely that acts have corresponding results. To begin with, the fifrst half of verse 31 was seen to highlight the issue of the punishment of good persons, which could be regarded as a break with the dominant theme of the text. Most of the interviewees, however, were of the opinion that this could be explained. It could be explained from the point of view of the text, of Christianity, and of Buddhism, in such a way that it did not seriously challenge the main thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 79 supposition of coherence between acts and consequences. Then, verse 22 was felt to have a different character than the other verses, because it did not give an example of the act-consequence relation, but rather discussed the most important qualities of a woman. These were named as intelligence or wisdom, and the verse interpreted as stating that women must have wisdom. One of the interviewees, however, also interpreted this verse as an example of the connection between act and consequence, using the verse to explain how a person’s character and appearance are determined by kamma from a former life. Finally, as the text as a whole emphasises that good acts will result in good results, and bad acts in bad consequences, the implication was drawn that the function of the text is to encourage and teach people to do good—that this text encourages people to do good—, something which it, according to the interviewees, has in common with the teaching of Buddhism as well as other religions.

Main Comparisons In the preceding section, I have presented how the interviewees interpreted Proverbs 11:18–31. This included a presentation of how they as Buddhists understand the different themes found in the text. But in order to make clear what similarities and differences the interviewees found between the text and their own understanding, I will here brieflfy sum up the main comparisons. Similarities between the Text and Thai Buddhism Agreed on by All Who Commented on These Issues Proverbs 11:18–31 was by and large viewed as a text which teaches similarly to Buddhism. The main similarities pointed out were as follows: – Acts have corresponding consequences. – Awareness and knowledge of the relation between act and consequence encourage people to do good and avoid evil. – The examples given in the text on what is regarded as good and wicked deeds and behaviour are in line with what is taught in Thai society. – Giving is an important value and is regarded as a meritorious act, enhancing a person’s merit. Some Issues Which Some of the Interviewees Found to Be Similar to Thai Buddhism or Thai Thinking, While Others Regarded as Different As we have seen in the discussion of the interviewees’ interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31, in some cases the interviewees differed in their inter- 80 chapter two pretations of, or opinion about, a certain topic. Here the most important are noted: – How consequences of acts are brought about. One group of the interviewees found the text to express the same as Buddhism, that is, consequences are inherent in the acts. God is understood as another name of the natural law of kamma, or at least plays the same role as it. Another group of the interviewees, however, found that concerning how acts are brought about there are important differences between the teaching of the text and Buddhism. God was interpreted as a personal agent allocating the consequences of acts to the actor. – Human beings are responsible for their own destiny. This was by some seen as an important implication of the teaching in the text concerning the correlation between act and consequence, while others found that the text emphasises that ultimately God is responsible for the outcome of human acts. – The interpretation of verse 22. Most interviewees compared it to Thai values concerning women, and argued that it similar to Thai understanding. That is, an emphasis on the idea that beauty alone is worthless if it is not followed by intelligence or wisdom. One of the interviewees, however, related this verse to the teaching of kamma, and how a person can be seen to form one’s own personality and appearance. Differences between the Text and Thai Buddhism Agreed on by All Who Commented on These Issues In the Proverbs text there was no theme or issue which all the interviewees found different from their own understanding as Thai Buddhists. Of course, it was emphasised that Buddhists do not believe in God. But as some interpreted ‘God’ as just another name of the law of kamma or Dhamma, or as playing the same role as them, the question of God was by this group of interviewees not regarded as a real difference. The differences which some of the interviewees noted have already been pointed out in the section above.

Critical Comments, Objections, and Questions As this text was mainly seen as teaching similarly to Buddhism in Thailand, as understood by the interviewees, there were few critical questions or remarks. However, the two monks, who found the text to be different from Buddhism concerning how consequences are brought about, raised a couple of questions regarding the justice and goodness of God. As they were thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 81 of the understanding that a person’s relationship to God might play a role with regard to whether that person receives the ultimate reward—heaven, or not, they implicitly stated that this is not just. In contrast, Buddhism, they contended, teaches that all good people will receive the good consequences of their acts regardless of religious belongings and beliefs. Further they raised the question of how to understand the problem of suffering and evil, if God is the one who is behind the consequences which persons receive. They asked that if the results of acts are dependent on God’s judgment, then how is one to understand, for example, that some people are born blind and handicapped? In their opinion there is no easy answer to this in Christianity, while for a Buddhist there is a clear cut answer; it is due to peoples’ former acts. An indirect devaluation of faith in God can be discerned in two of the interviewees’ comment on the concept of God as a help for ordinary people to understand the abstract law of kamma. Behind this comment lies the understanding that faith in God expresses a less refifned understanding and insight, and that when more wisdom is gained, faith in God will become superflfuous.

Resources and Frameworks of Understanding Main Resources and Frameworks of Understanding Utilised in the Interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31 In their interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31 the interviewees utilised different resources. As we have seen in this chapter, these included Thai sayings and proverbs, personal opinions, Buddhist doctrines and the interviewees understanding of them, Buddhist precepts, allusions to Buddhist scriptural passages, references to Buddhist scriptures, references to modern science, Thai cultural values, and knowledge and understanding of Christian teachings. Based on the resources mentioned above, quite a few frameworks of understanding made use of by the interviewees can be identififed. The prominent framework of understanding in the interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31, however, was the understanding of the role of kamma (including the concept of merit and sin), and the law of kamma with regard to the act-consequence nexus. The teaching of kamma and the law of kamma con- stituted the main framework which the interviewees used in the interpretation of the text. Finding that the text emphasised both the inevitable connection between act and consequence, and the coherence between them, the interviewees argued that its teaching is similar, or comparable to the 82 chapter two teaching of kamma in Thai Buddhism. Further, when interpreting that the text stresses the coherence between act and consequence, it means that it both emphasises that humans are in charge of their own lives and encourages them to do good and avoid evil; this is seen to build on, or being related to the teaching of kamma. In addition, the kamma framework made the interviewees especially aware of two verses; that is verse 22 and 31. Verse 31 implies that the good may suffer on earth. Thus the question was raised, how this apparent incoherence between act and consequence could be explained. The answer, from a Buddhist point of view, is that it is due to old kamma. Verse 22 was regarded by most of the interviewees as being more similar to Thai proverbs than to religious teaching. The comment on this verse makes it apparent that Proverbs by and large is understood to be within the religious framework of the law of kamma. The same framework, the teaching of kamma, also made the interviewees question the role of God in the text, because if acts have consequences due to the law of kamma, what is then the role of God in this regard? As we have seen, there were different attempts among the interviewees to come to terms with this problem. Even though the teaching of kamma was the dominant framework of understanding in the interpretation of the text, there were also other frameworks of understanding drawn upon on in the interpretation. In the interpretation of the concept of God it is obvious that some of the interviewees had a pre-understanding of how the Christian God is to be understood, and how the relationship between God and humans is thought to function. Fur- ther, quite a few of the interviewees seem to draw on a framework of understanding of how to understand the role of religions and how they relate to each other. Finally, we have seen how two of the interviewees would not use the law of kamma to describe the relation between act and consequence, but drew on other frameworks of understanding, such as reference to science or practical wisdom when they attempted to compare the themes of the text to their own understanding.

Inner-Buddhist Differences Regarding the Frameworks of Understanding Related to in the Interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31 In the discussion of the interviewees’ interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31 it has become evident that there are also different opinions and understandings among the interviewees concerning how they, in light of their own background, viewed the themes highlighted by the text. That is, in some thai buddhist interpretations of proverbs 11:18–31 83 cases there were differences of understanding within one framework of understanding, for example on the understanding of kamma, while in other cases different frameworks of understanding were referred to in the explication of the same issue. Hence, I will in the following brieflfy sum up the main differences with regard to the frameworks of understanding used in the interpretations of the text: – The main difference with regard to the understanding of the relation between act and consequence was that two of the interviewees did not explain this relation as being due to the law of kamma. In fact, they stated that they did not believe in kamma and rebirth at all. They still regarded themselves as Buddhists, and believed that there is a connection between act and consequence, but as to how this is brought about, they offered other explanations than explanations in terms of kamma. That is, common sense explanations, rational explanations and explanations in terms of fate or destiny. – In the framework of understanding of kamma, there were both a more dogmatic and a more popular understanding at play with regard to what kamma is, and how it works. This was visible for example in the discussion of merit. – Further, in the understanding of merit, there were different opinions as to what characterises a meritorious act. – Concerning the comments on God, apart from revealing that there were different levels of knowledge concerning Christian faith and belief, they also showed that there were different frameworks of understanding at play with regard to the comparison between Bud- dhism and Christianity. Some identififed God with the law of kamma or Dhamma, some argued that God is only a human construction, helpful for understanding abstract concepts like the law of kamma, while others regarded the religions as fundamentally different. These were the main result of the investigation into Thai Buddhist interpretations of Proverbs 11:18–31. They will form the basis for the discussion in chapter 6, where I will discuss how the Proverbs text, from the point of view of its textual context, can be interpreted in response to the interpretations given by Thai Buddhist. In the following chapter (ch. 3), however, I will proceed with a study of the interviewees’ interpretation of Psalm 73. chapter three

THAI BUDDHIST INTERPRETATIONS OF PSALM 73

Introduction

Psalm 73 was the text which engaged the interviewees the most. Even though the language was regarded as a bit diffifcult to understand, and references to history and God made the text foreign,1 the text and its themes evoked a lot of comments, questions, opinions, and also to a certain extent emotions. When reading and interpreting Psalm 73, the interviewees highlighted three main themes, which they found were central to the text. The fifrst was the problem of why the wicked prosper, while the good suffer (see the section named “Why do the wicked prosper, while the good suffer?”). In the interviewees’ opinion, the psalm both exposes the experience of a lack of correlation between act and consequence, and invites the question how this incoherence can be explained or resolved. The second main theme was the issue of trusting in God and the importance of such trust (see the section named “Trust in God”). This theme was seen as being closely related to the fifrst theme, since trust in God was regarded as central both to understanding the problem of the psalm (the fifrst theme) in a correct way, and in coping with a situation where there seems to be a lack of correlation between act and consequence. The two themes were further combined in a comprehensive discussion of how to cope with a situation like the one presented in the psalm. Thus in the fifnal section (see the section named “Combining the two themes”) I will present how the interviewees thought the psalmist ought to have coped with his situation; and further, how they as Buddhists ought to react and behave when—in conflfict with the expectation of coherence between act and consequence due to the law of kamma—the wicked prosper and the good meet with hardship.

1 Mr. Deecha, for example, stated as follows (he included the Ecclesiastes text in this comment): “[I] understood some [of it], and did not understand some [of it], because the Thais do not have the teaching of God, and we do not know that which relates to the history of Christianity [in the texts].” (ก็จะเข ้าใจบ้างไม่เข ้าใจบ้างเพราะว่าคนไทยจะไม่มีเรืvองพระเจ ้าเรา เราก็จะไม่มี ไม่รู ้เกีvยวกับประวัติคริสต์.) Mr. Deecha, (Bangkok, 23. September 2005). 86 chapter three

Why Do the Wicked Prosper, While the Good Suffer?

The fifrst major theme which the interviewees emphasised in the interpretation of Psalm 73 was the problem of why the wicked prosper, while the good suffer. In this section I shall focus on how the interviewees understood that the text discussed this problem and also how they related their interpretation of the text to their own understanding of the issues involved. I will take as my point of departure a short presentation of how the interviewees more specififcally formulated the problem of the psalm, and what kind of feelings they found that the question of the psalmist, or his way of questioning, conveyed. Then I will show how the interviewees found the situation, which forms the background for the problem of the psalm, as being recognizable in contemporary Thai society, and how they evaluated the psalmist’s reaction to the situation. Further, I will present both the solutions as well as the explanations, which the interviewees argued that the psalm offered to the problem. I also include their suggestions to how the problem might be resolved and explained. Finally, I sum up the section.

The Problem of the Psalmist By and large, the interviewees noted that in the fifrst part of Psalm 73 (verses 1–16) those who act wickedly are presented as successful and happy, while the one who speaks in the psalm meets with hardship and suffers— even though he does that which is right and good. According to the interviewees, a major theme in the psalm is thus the question which arises in light of this experience; namely the question why the wicked prosper, while the good suffer. There were different ways of rephrasing the problem found within the psalm, but one quite typical example is the following: Why [is it that] the evil, the more evil they do, the richer they get? He [the psalmist] does that which is righteous, but why does he end up having nothing good?2 Further, as most of the interviewees understood the psalmist to be a believer in God, many of them also read the question in the psalm as being directed to God, questioning him how it could happen that the righteous suffer, while the unjust prosper.

2 ทําไม คนชวก็ยิvงัv ยิvงทําชวัv ก็ยิvงรวย เขาทําในสงทีvทุกอย่างชอบธรรมิv แต่กลับ ทําไมกลับไม่มีอะไรดีเลย. Mr. Wibun, (Bangkok, 18. August 2005). thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 87

In the fifrst part he is like saying; how is it possible that the unjust prosper, look richer and richer? It is natural that he will feel like […] God, how can you do this, just let this situation happen?3 The Jews were teaching that God exists, that God will look after them. At the same time, when they looked at their lives, they had the feeling that they are good [persons], they are people acting in accordance with the teaching of God. But why is their life then not very good, when other groups, who are oppressing them—this group [who] are the unjust—[have] comfortable [lives], [are] rich?4 From these two quotes the following questions emerge: How could God let the unjust have success? How can it be that the unjust oppressors of the faithful prosper? Why is God not taking care of his faithful followers?5 This last question was further radicalized by a couple of the interviewees who asked what this implies. Does it mean that God is not interested in those who do good deeds;6 does it mean that he is evil?7 All in all, these questions show that the question in the psalm was also reformulated into a theodicy problem, concerning the role of God in relation to the experience of the psalmist.

The Psalmist’s Feelings Besides commenting on what kind of questions the interviewees found that the psalmist raised—based on his own experience—, many of them also emphasised that this experience seems to have had a strong emotional

3 ตอนต ้นนีvอะ เขาพูดเหมือนกับว่า เออ นีvอะ มันเป็นไปได ้ยังไงทีvคนอธรรมนีvอะ ดูรุ่งเรืองขึwน แล ้วนีvอะ มันก็ มันก็เป็นธรรมชาติทีvเขาจะต ้องรู ้สกว่าึ […] พระเจ ้านีvอะ ทําไมถึงทําอย่างงีw ถึงปล่อยให ้เหตุการณ์อย่างงีwเกิดขึwน. Dr. Phimpan, (Bangkok, 26. August 2005). 4 ชาวยิวนีv เขาสอนกันว่า พระเจ ้ามีอยู่ และพระเจ ้าก็จะดูแลเขา ในขณะเดียวกัน เวลาเขามองชวิตเขานีvี เขามี ความรู ้สกึ ทีvว่า พวกเขานีvเป็นคนดี เป็นบุคคลซงปฏิบัติตามคําสอนของพระเจึv ้า แต่ทําไมชวิตเขาถึงไม่ค่อยดีี ในขณะ ทีvพวกอืvนซงกดขีvเขานีvึv พวกนีwเป็นพวกอธรรม สบาย ร่ารวยเชํ ยวี . Dr. Phichai, (Bangkok, 3. August 2005). 5 Mr. Santi formulated the problem as follows: “The writer of this makes it clear; the arrogant why do they receive good? […] If one puts it strongly it means that the arrogant, the haughty, they receive good, become clever, even richer, fatter, [they] always have enough food and income. And then why [is it that] we who are faithful to God, why must we have hardship like this?” (คนเขียนตรงนีwก็คือสะท ้อนให้เห็นว่า เออ คนจองหองนีv ทําไมมันได ้ดีวะ […] ถ ้าพูดแบบหยาบ ๆ แรง ๆ อะนะ แปลว่าคนจองหอง คนหยิvงยโสได ้ดี แล ้ว กลับฉลาด ร่ารวยเอาอํ ้วนพีเอา มีกินมีใชเอา้ แล ้วทําไมพวกเราทีvซอสืv ตย์ต่อพระองค์แลั ้วทําไมถึงต ้องลําบากอย่างงีw). Mr. Santi, (Bangkok, 4. September 2005). 6 “[The psalmist] tries to do good […], but is God interested?” (ก็พยายามทีvจะทําดี แต่พระเจ ้า จะสนใจหรือเปล่า). Mrs. Manee, (Bangkok, 26. July 2005). 7 “[The psalmist] raises the question, is it true; why is God so evil? Why? How?” (ตัwง คําถามอะว่า จริงเหรอ ทําไมพระผู ้เป็นเจ ้าถึงใจร ้ายอย่างนีw ทําไม อะไร แบบนีw). Dr. Saichai, (Bangkok, 28. July 2005). 88 chapter three effect on the psalmist: “[This psalm] talks about the conflficted heart of a person, [who] tries to reach God.”8 First, it was pointed out that it looks like the psalmist feels troubled or conflficted, because of what he experiences and observes.9 He trembles and feels insecure, seeing the wicked prosper, while he, who is good, suffers; how is one to understand this situation?10 Second, the psalmist is seen to be depressed or in low spirit. According to a couple of the interviewees, he feels dejected and discouraged because he, who is good, suffers—even though God knows it.11 Third, it was argued that the psalmist is pictured as being very jealous of the wicked.12 Based on the interview material it is thus sensible to conclude that the interviewees did not read the psalm as a person’s impassionate reflfection over his own experience, but rather as a personal struggle with his own feelings and questions, based on the situation in which he fifnds himself, and what he sees around him. Moreover, the interviewees noted that he did not keep the feelings and questions to himself, but directed them towards God. Accordingly, by some of the interviewees, the fifrst part of the psalm is characterised as a lament to God: “[The psalmist] laments to God, why is it like this [for me], why are other people like that?”13

Recognizing the Problem and the Feelings of the Psalmist In the interviews the problem of the psalmist was also related to the Thai context. Three points of convergence between the Thai context and the text were pointed out. In addition one major difference was noted. First, it was affifrmed throughout the interviews that the situation described in the psalm has parallels in contemporary Thai society, and

8 พูดถึงความขัดแย ้งต่างๆ ในจิตใจของคนนะ พยายามเข ้าถึงพระผู ้เป็นเจ ้า. Ibid. 9 Ibid. 10 The expression, which I have translated as ‘to feel insecure and tremble’ is: รู ้สกหวัvนไหวึ . Mr. Wibun. 11 In the interviews the word ท ้อแท้, ‘to feel dejected or downcast’, is used by for example Dr. Somsri, (Bangkok, 19. September 2005), Mrs. Aporn, (Bangkok, 25. July 2005), Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak, (Bangkok, 1. September 2005), use the word ท ้อใจ, ‘to be discouraged’. 12 “He was jealous of them” (ไปอิจฉาเค ้า). Dr. Somsri, Mae Chii Narumon, (Bangkok, 22. September 2005), Mrs. Chanpen, (Bangkok, 24. August 2005), Ms. Laksami, (Bangkok, 24. August 2005). It should be noted that jealousy or envy are examples of unskilful mental kamma. cf. Suchitra Onkom, Creating Sustainable World Peace, 3rd. ed. (Bangkok: Rajabhat Institute Dhonburi, 2004). 44. 13 คร่าครวญกับพระเจํ ้าว่าทําไมเป็นแบบนีw ทําไมคนอืvนเป็นแบบนัwน. Ms. Laddawan. Cf. also Dr. Phichai, Mrs. Chanpen. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 89 gives rise to questions similar to those found in the psalm: “This question comes in every time and generation.”14 In other words, it was emphasised that the same problem and question were found in Thai society as in the Psalm. Ms. Laksami, for example, put it like this: There are many of this kind of people [i.e. the wicked who prosper] in society; isn’t it so? Do bad—[like] politicians who are corrupt, but turn up happy and comfortable.15 At the same time, poor people do extremely much good, but why are they still poor? Why [should one] do good and not receive good, and why [should one] do evil and do not receive any bad consequences in return?16 This point was further strengthened by many of the interviewees, emphasising that the problem, as expressed by the psalmist, could be compared to a common Thai saying—“do good, receive good, where do we fifnd that? Do evil, receive good, this we fifnd everywhere”.17 Buddhism teaches “do good, receive good, where do we fifnd that?”. They say “do evil, receive good, this is everywhere”. […] That is, they might see that goodness is done without seeing any results. Those who do evil, sell drugs, [after] one day, two days they are rich already, but [some] do good all the time and don’t see that they [receive] good.18 Second, some of the interviewees argued that not only the situation and the question, but also the lament of the psalmist itself can be recognized in Thai society. It was noted that the lament expressed in the psalm might

14 คําถามนีw มีมาทุกยุคทุกสมัย. Dr. Saichai. 15 Corruption is a widespread problem in Thailand, not at least in politics. In recent years there has been more focus on both the problem and how to solve it. A good study, although not entirely up-to-date, on the problem of corruption within the political context in Thailand is: Pasuk Phongpaichit and Sungsidh Piriyarangsan, Corruption and Democracy in Thailand, 2nd. ed. (Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 1996). 16 คนประเภทอย่างงีwมีเยอะในสงคมั ใชไหม่ ทําชวัv เป็นนักการเมือง หลอกกิน คอร์รัปชนัv แต่ก็กลับสุขสบาย ในขณะทีvคนจน อ่อ ทําดีแทบตาย แต่ทําไมยังจนอยู่ได ้ ทําไม ทํา ทําดีแล ้วไม่ได ้ดีจริงๆ แล ้วทําชวัv กลับไม่ได ้ผล เลวร ้ายกับเขาเลย. Ms. Laksami. Dr. Saichai stated it similarly: “It is like Buddhists questioning: Why are those who do evil still rich and [enjoy a] good [life]?” (มันก็เหมือนคนพุทธ ว่า question ทําไมคนทําชวแลัv ้วยังร่ารวยํ และดี). Dr. Saichai. 17 In Thai the saying goes as follows: ทําดีได ้ดีมีทีvไหน ทําชวไดัv ้ดีมีถมไป. Those interviewees who mentioned or commented on this saying were: Dr. Phichai, Dr. Phimpan, Mr. Chakkri, (Bangkok, 23. August 2005), Mr. Deecha, Mrs. Aporn, Mrs. Manee, Ms. Laddawan, Phra Songkran, (Bangkok, 14. September 2005), Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 18 พุทธศาสนา “ทําดีได ้ดีมีทีvไหน” เขาพูด “ทําชวไดัv ้ดีมีถมไป” […] ก็คือ เค ้าอาจจะมองว่า ทําความดีแล ้วไม่เห็น ผลประโยชน์อะไรเลยอะ คนทีvทําความชวัv ขายยาบ ้า วัน สองวันรวยแล ้ว แต่ทําความดีมาตลอด ไม่เห็นจะดีเลย. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. Cf. also Dr. Phichai who stated: “[This verse—Dr. Phichai quoted verse 12—is] similar to what the Thais say: ‘Do good, receive good; where do we fifnd that?’.” (เหมือนกับทีvคนไทยพูดว่า “ทําดีได ้ดีมีทีvไหน”). Dr. Phichai. 90 chapter three be commonly shared by people who, like the psalmist, feel that they have done good, but in spite of this experience hardship and suffering in their daily life. This [lamenting because the good suffer, while the wicked prosper] is common. Like the poor for example. They feel the same way, [namely] that why have they done good their whole life, but must live in a condition like this? […]; why are there no good results to be seen? Some—it depends on the person—, may loose their trust in Buddhism, that is they loose interest […], but some, regardless of what happens, still have trust that [they should] continue doing good, so that next life might be better.19 The third point of convergence found in the interview material was on the level of personal experience. One of the interviewees did not read the psalm just as a description of a situation, or as another person’s question or lament, but identififed herself with the psalmist and his experience. [This is] similar to [the relation between] people from Isaan20 and the Thais. […] When I was young and came to Bangkok, they would regard us as lower than them. They were ordinary people like us, but they thought that they were better than us. It is like what is in here [in the Psalm]. […] I feel like him [the psalmist], it is like that […]. They feel that they are thoroughly good, and they […] are arrogant; but they also have happiness, are comfortable, while we feel; do we really do good, do we really do good? And we analyse ourselves [and conclude]; we do good—or is it not good enough?21 Notably, the poorest of the interviewees—the one lowest on the social ladder, Mrs. Aporn, read herself right into the situation of the psalmist. She argued that, like the psalmist, she is oppressed and looked down upon. It is

19 อันนีwเป็นปกติ ใชฮ่ ะ่ เพราะว่า อย่างพวกคนจนนีvอะ เค ้าก็จะรู ้สกเหมือนกับว่าึ ทําไมเขาทําดีทัwงชวิตี เค ้าถึงต ้องอยู่ ในสภาพอย่างงีw นะฮะ ก็เหมือนกัน เหมือนกัน ว่าเนีvยะ เออ ทําไม ไม่ ไม่เห็นได ้ผลดี แต่ว่าบางคนนีvอะ มันก็แล ้วแต่คน บางคนนีvอะ ก็สนศรัทธาในเรืvองศาสนาพุทธไปเลยิw […] แต่บางคนนีvอะ ไม่ว่าจะเกิดอะไรขึwนนีvอะ เขาก็ยังมีศรัทธาว่า เออ ทําความดีไว ้ เผืvอชาติหน ้าจะได ้ดีขึwน. Dr. Phimpan. 20 Isaan is the Thai name of the north-eastern part of Thailand. It is the poorest region of the country, and many people from Isaan have to migrate into the capital, Bangkok in order to earn a living. Mrs. Aporn’s experience of being looked down upon is shared by many people from this region living in Bangkok. A good introduction to the life and culture of the Isaan region is found in Seri Phongphit and Kevin Hewison, Village Life: Culture and Transition in Thailand’s Northeast (Bangkok: White Lotus Press, 2001). See especially their chapter 6 for a discussion of the migration into Bangkok. 21 เหมือนกับคนอีสานกับคนไทย […] เมืvอสมัยทีv [she used her name here] สาว ๆ ใชไหม่ ทีvเข ้ามาใน กรุงเทพฯ เขาจะมองว่าเราต่ากว่าเขาใชํ ไหม่ แต่เขาก็เป็น ปะถุชนคนธรรมดา เหมือนกับเรา แต่เขาคิดว่า เขาก็สูง ศกดิzกว่าเราใชั ไหมคะ่ ก็เหมือนกันกับทีvอยู่ในนีw […] รู ้สกเหมือนกับเขาึ ว่าเป็นอย่างนัwนจริง […] เขารู ้สกว่าเขาึ ดีทุกอย่าง แล ้วเขาก็ […] เป็นจองหอง อะไรอย่างนีw แต่เขาก็มีความสุขดี ความสบาย แต่เรารู ้สกว่าึ เราทําดีจริง หรือเปล่า เราทําดีหรือเปล่า แต่เราก็มาสํารวจตัวเอง อีกทีว่า เอ๊ะ เราก็ทําดีแล ้ว หรือว่ายังไม่ดีพอ. Mrs. Aporn. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 91 also her experience that the rich and arrogant do what they please, treat the poor badly, and look down upon them. Nevertheless they have happy and comfortable lives, while the poor, like Mrs. Aporn, have hard and diffifcult lives. The question and the lament thus arise; why is it like this? We thus see that the problem of the psalm was recognised in different ways by the interviewees. Most of them recognised as familiar the situation and the question based upon it. Some recognised the lament in other people’s lives, while one of the interviewees identififed personally both with the situation and the attached question and feelings. In addition to noting similarities between the text and the Thai context with regard to the situation, question and feelings of the psalm, Dr. Phichai noted one major difference. The difference does not concern the level of experience, since also he confifrmed the similarity between the experience of the psalmist, and contemporary Thai experience. But Dr. Phichai pointed out the difference between Psalm 73 as a text and the texts of the Buddhists scriptures. According to him there is no parallel to this kind of text in the Tipitaka.22 In other words there is no precedence for questioning and lamenting like the psalmist does in the Buddhist scriptures. There is not this kind of speech in the Buddhist scriptures, there is nobody who is blaming Buddha: “you teach ‘do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil’, I do good, but do not see any good result.” There is nobody speaking like that with Buddha.23 This might be the basis of the critique which was raised by some of the interviewees not only to the psalmist, but also to contemporary Thais. This critique will be addressed in the next section.

Characterising the Question and the Feelings of the Psalmist So far we have seen how the interviewees interpreted the psalm with regard to the situation and the problem of the psalmist and how they pointed out points of convergence and divergence with their own context. Some of the interviewees went one step further and also characterised or critically

22 Tipitaka is the Pali name of the Buddhist Canon. It means ‘Three Baskets’, referring to the three parts of the Canon, which are: Vinaya Pitaka (The Collection of Disciplinary Rules), Sutta Pitaka (The Collection of the Buddha’s Discourses), and Abidhamma Pitaka (The Collection of Philosophical Treatises). Russell Webb, ed., An Analysis of the Pali Canon (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2001). 1. 23 ข ้อความแบบนีwจะไม่มีในคัมภีร์ศาสนาพุทธ จะไม่มีคนไปต่อว่าพระพุทธเจ ้าว่า ไหนทรงสอนว่า ทําดีได ้ดี ทําชวัv ได ้ชวัv ข ้าพเจ้าทําดี ไม่เคยเห็นได ้ดีเลย ไม่มีใครไปพูดแบบนีwกับ พระพุทธเจ ้า. Dr. Phichai. 92 chapter three evaluated the psalmist’s reaction to his situation. That is, they suggested or indicated what the psalmist’s question and feelings could be understood as an expression of. In the interviews there were four main characterisations of the psalmist’s reaction to the experience of his own suffering and the happiness of the wicked. First, it was argued that, in expressing himself the way he does in the fifrst part of the psalm, the psalmist shows lack of faith or trust in God, or at least he shows that his faith is not fifrm. In the second part he concludes that God is good, maybe because there have been results already or maybe he now has a fifrm trust; but here [in the fifrst part of the psalm] he might be in doubt or not believe.24 Second, the psalmist’s reaction was also understood as indicating lack of wisdom, or as the outcome of delusions. This, if [I am to] put it bluntly, is foolishness, ignorance, because if he [the psalmist] knew, had wisdom, he would not have been jealous; he would have known that this group [the wicked] will not [receive] good for very long. Soon, their kamma will catch up [with them].25 Being jealous of the wicked, the psalmist demonstrates his lack of wisdom. If he had wisdom, he would have known that their wicked acts necessarily will have consequences. Along the same line, another of the interviewees argued that the psalmist appears to be naïve and to be questioning God, because he still does not know God’s plan.26 In addition, Mrs. Chanpen argued that the lament of the psalmist results from his not understanding what kind of returns he could expect. She argued that the reason why the psalmist laments and questions is his expectation of material returns, while if he had had right understanding he would have known that the non-material returns are the most important. Furthermore, it was contended that one could argue the same way from a Buddhist point of view. That is, the question why the good suffer and the wicked prosper is not asked, or should not be asked, if a person really trusts in, or understands the law of kamma.

24 สวนสุดท่ ้ายเขาก็สรุปว่าพระเจ ้าดี เพราะอาจจะเกิดผลขึwนมาแล ้ว หรือเขาอาจจะมีศรัทธาทีvมัvนคงแล ้ว แต่ตอนนีw เขาอาจจะคลอนแคลน หรือว่าไม่เชอืv . Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. Cf. also Dr. Saichai, Mr. Chakkri. 25 ตัวนีwอะ ถ ้าพูดให ้ตรงแล้วคือความโง่ ความไม่รู ้ นัvนเอง นะฮะ เพราะว่าถ ้าเค้ารู ้ เค ้ามีปัญญานีvอะ เค ้าไม่อิจฉา หรอก เค ้ารู ้ว่าไอ ้คนพวกนีwอะ อะมันดีไปได ้ไม่นาน เดีyยวกรรมก็ต ้องตามมัน. Dr. Somsri. 26 Dr. Phimpan. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 93

If they [Buddhists] believe and understand truly what the law of kamma is, they will not question, because Buddha explained that—he said that, sometimes kamma goes from one life to another. They [who do wicked, but receive good] might have done good deeds earlier, in their former life. Therefore, in this life they are born rich. But in this life, [as] they do not create/build goodness, they spend the money they have saved in their former life. They are still rich, but in the end they will receive the bad consequences [of their present bad acts], but they might not receive them yet.27 Third, the psalmist’s reaction was interpreted as a lack of self-insight, or as proving that he was not as good as he himself might have thought. Here we must consider, this person is he good, that is, is he really good? We must ask [about] his goodness, how good is he? […] If he is really good, there will not be a speech like this. If he is really good, he would truly believe in God, that is, [believing that in] whatever suffering or diffifculties [he meets] he has happiness in that it is God who has given him to be like this, he is content, he has happiness in his situation.28 Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak emphatically argued that a reaction like the psalmist’s, on the one hand is not acceptable for persons who believe in the law of kamma, and on the other hand shows that the person in question is not really good. In the Buddhist way, whatever suffering we have, it is the result of kamma we have done; it is a question of past. And in the present, do we do good? We will not complain “do good, receive good; where do we fifnd that?” if we are really good. We will not complain, but, our hearts only have happiness, and giving, that is true goodness, [therefore, we should] let it pass, renounce it. But one who speaks like this is not yet that good, he still has questions.29 The true attitude here is to let it pass, which means that one can face everything with the feeling that what will be, will be. Finally, however, one of the interviewees argued that the psalmist’s speech should not be interpreted as being a lack of something, but rather

27 ถ ้าเขาเชอและเขาเขืv ้าใจจริง ๆ ว่า กฎแห่งกรรมแปลว่าอะไร เขาก็จะไม่ question เพราะว่าพระพุทธเจ ้า อธิบายนีvอะ นะฮะ เขาบอกว่า โอเคนะ บางทีไอ ้กรรมเป็นเรืvองทีvข ้ามภพชาติ เขาอาจจะเคยทําความดี ทําไว ้เยอะมาก ในชาติทีvแล ้ว ดังนัwนในชาตินีw เขาก็เกิดมารวย แต่ชาตินีwเขาไม่ได ้สร้างความดีต่อ เขาก็เสวยใชเงินทีvสะสมในชาติ้ ทีvแล ้วมา เขาก็ใช ้เขาก็ยังรวยอยู่ ใชไหมฮะ่ แต่ในทีvสุด ผลร ้ายนีvเขาได ้รับ แต่อาจจะยังไม่รับตอนนีw. Dr. Saichai. 28 ทีนีwก็ต ้องมอง คนนีwคือคนดีทีvเข ้าถึงจริง ๆ คือดีจริงหรือเปล่า ต ้องถาม ไอ ้คําว่าดีของเค ้า คือดีขนาดไหน […] ถ ้าดีจริง ๆ จะไม่มีคํานีw อะไรทีvอย่างงีwเลย ถ ้าหากว่าเขาดีจริง ๆ เค ้าเชอพระเจืv ้าแบบสุด ๆ คือจะทุกข์หรือยากอะไร เขาก็มีความสุข ในการทีvเป็นเพราะพระเจ ้าประทานให้เขามาอย่างนัwน เขาพอใจทีvจะเป็น เขามีความสุขอยู่ตรงนัwน. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 29 ถ ้าทางพุทธศาสนาก็คือ เราจะมีความทุกข์อะไรก็ตามแต่ เป็นผลของกรรมเรา เรากระทํา มันเป็นเรืvองของอดีต แล ้วปัจจุบันเราทําดีมัwย เราจะไม่โทษเลยว่า “ทําดีได ้ดีมีทีvไหน” แต่ว่าเราดีจริงมัwย ถ ้าเราดีจริง เราไม่โทษ อะไรทัwงนัwน จิตใจเราไปถึงแต่ความสุข มีแต่การให ้ นัvนแหละคือความดีทีvแท ้จริง ปล่อยวางได ้ เสยสละไดี ้ แต่คนทีvพูดเชนนีwคือคนทีv่ ดีไม่ถึง อ่า ดีไม่ถึง คือยังสงสยอยู่ั . Ibid. 94 chapter three be understood quite forward as an expression of the psalmist’s innermost feelings.30 Dr. Phichai expanded on what he meant in the following way: [In his/her diffifcult situation, the speaker of the psalm] makes a chant of lament. From one perspective, this kind of speech is a release of what is in the heart, but in fact: “I [the psalmist] do not believe like this”. […] This [kind of speech] doesn’t mean that the speaker does not believe in God.31 Here the reaction of the psalmist is described as a release of what is in the heart. Dr. Phichai further compared the reaction of the psalmist to the reaction of a person, who has been waiting for a friend who comes late to an appointment. When her friend eventually comes, the person who has been waiting is really angry and complains: “Why are you so late?” But after she has let out her feelings, they are still friends and go out for a meal together. It is the same way with the psalmist; he is not throwing away his relationship with God, even though he expresses his feelings quite clearly to God. In Dr. Phichai’s opinion then, the outburst in the psalm does not show the psalmist’s lack of faith, but rather the personal relationship which is between man and God. To this, another of the interviewees argued that the psalmist’s outburst shows the passion and love there is between God and man in Christianity.32 This is further seen as being quite different from Buddhism, where there is nowhere one may direct one’s strong feeling of frustration. […] Kamma in Buddhism has no self. It is not possible to say where kamma is, isn’t it so? Therefore, when someone does good, and does not receive goodness in return, they might feel that it is not right that it should be like this; but they don’t know where to explode, because the law of kamma has no self like God. Therefore, this is the reason why there is no text lamenting like this in the Buddhist scriptures, because one doesn’t know whom to address; but God has a self; thus when these kind of feelings emerge, we can speak with God.33 Among those who characterised the psalmist’s reaction to his situation it is thus apparent that, with one exception, the lament and question of

30 Cf. for example Ms. Laddawan. 31 แต่งบทสวด รําพึงรําพันไง ในแง่นึง ในการพูดแบบนีwเป็นการระบายสงทีvอยู่ในใจิv ออกไป แต่จริง ๆ ตัวเอง ไม่ได ้เชออย่างนัwนืv […] ไม่ได ้แปลว่าคนพูดนีwไม่นับถือ พระเจ ้า Dr. Phichai. Cf. also Ms. Laksami. 32 Mrs. Chanpen. 33 กรรมในศาสนาพุทธนีv ไม่ได ้มีตัวตน บอกไม่ได ้ว่า กรรมอยู่ทีvไหน ใชไหมครับ่ คานีwเวลาทีvคนบางคนเขาทําดี แล ้วเขาไม่ได ้รับ ความดีตอบเลย เขาอาจจะรู ้สกึ ไม่ถูกอะทีvเป็นแบบนีw แต่เขาไม่รู ้ว่าจะระบายไปทีvไหน เพราะกฎแห่ง กรรมไม่มีตัวตนเหมือนพระเจ ้า เพราะฉะนัwน นีvคือเหตุผลทีvว่า จะไม่มีข ้อความประชดประชนั แบบนีwในคัมภีร์ศาสนาพุทธ เพราะไม่รู ้จะพูดไปทีvใคร แต่ แต่ แต่พระเจ ้ามีตัวตน นัwนเวลาทีvเรามีความรู ้สกนึกคิดยังไงึ เราก็พูดกับพระเจ ้าได้. Dr. Phichai. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 95 the psalmist were characterised as something negative, as a lack of something—lack of faith, lack of wisdom or lack of self-insight. In the section “Trust in God” we will see how the interviewees argued that trust in God would have been the proper response to the psalmist’s reaction. In the same way, it was argued that a Buddhist would not, or should not, complain and question like the psalmist if he or she truly believed in the law of kamma.

Solution Offered to the Psalmist’s Problem As we have already seen from the interviewees responses, the problem why the wicked prosper, while the good suffer, is an important theme in Psalm 73. Quite a few of the interviewees also found that the psalm offers a solution to the problem, or that the psalm suggests how the problem of the psalmist is going to be resolved. Further, they compared their interpretation of the text’s solution to their own understanding of how similar problems are resolved within Buddhist teaching.

The Solution of the Psalm The interviewees who commented on this issue held that the solution offered in the psalm to the question presented above was that all acts eventually will receive corresponding results. God shows the way to people; those who do good, receive good; those who do that which is not good, will not receive good results.34 The interviewees generally understood the second half of the psalm (from verse 17 and onwards) as emphasising that the psalmist was assured that his good actions, or his being good, would eventually be met with corresponding results, and that the wicked would receive results befiftting their evil acts. This assurance was further seen to be received in the temple or a place of solitude (verse 17).35 The psalmist is seen to have his trust in the justice of God restored. He has got trust in God already, [namely] that […] God is just. In the beginning it looked like God is not just; but what is true, is that for those who act badly,36 he has already prepared a slippery path. In fact, he [the psalmist] has begun

34 พระเจ ้านีvอะชทางใหีw ้ให ้กะคน คนทีvทําดีก็ได ้ดี คนทีvทําไม่ดีก็จะได ้ไม่ได ้รับผลดีตาม. Mr. Deecha. 35 Cf. for example Mr Wibun, who stated: “When he [the psalmist] enters into a silent place and prays to God he receives an answer.” (เมืvอเขาไปใน ในทีv ทีvอันสงบเงียบ แล ้วก็ แล ้วก็ภาวนา ถึงพระเจ ้า เขาก็จะได ้รับคําตอบ). 36 A literal translation would be: ‘those who do not good’. 96 chapter three

to understand God […], has already given his life to God. […] To sum up: [one] must have faith in God and then God himself will let us understand that [whoever] does good must receive good, the evil must receive evil.37 The text was thus interpreted to emphasise that good and bad acts will have good and bad consequences, respectively. In other words, trust in God and the moral order were restored. This was, in the interviewees’ opinion, the fifrst important insight the psalmist gained in the temple. But, asthey understood the text, the psalmist also gained a second important insight, namely that the results of acts might not appear immediately. When he [the psalmist] enters into a silent place and prays to God he receives an answer, [that] which lies in front of the arrogant, [i.e.] those who only do evil—that which is not good, [by] taking advantage of others—is that they will receive its fruit for sure. God will give [them] the results; it is only that they have not yet seen them.38 Hence, even though acts are thought to have corresponding consequences, the result might not follow directly after the act. It is therefore not suffifcient to look at the present situation, one has to have the future in view; “one has to look at the end of the path”39 where it will become clear that all acts will be met with corresponding consequences. When he [the psalmist] prayed to God, he thought [i.e. understood] that those who are rich, but not righteous, when it comes to the day of judgment, they must receive evil consequences for sure; that is, [in] the next world, like the Buddhists believe.40 Mostly, the interviewees understood the end of the path to mean what happens after death, and argued that this is similar, or comparable to their own understanding, namely that the result of kamma may not be experienced until next life. In the next life, however, one will have to pay back the kamma one has done.41

37 เค ้าก็เกิดศรัทธาในพระเจ ้าแล้วว่า […] พระเจ ้านะยุติธรรม ตอนแรกก็ดูเหมือนว่าพระเจ ้าไม่ยุติธรรมไง แต่ทีvแท ้ ไอ ้คนทีvทําไม่ดีอะ วางทางลืvนไว ้ให้แล้ว นะฮะ แต่ว่าจริง ๆ แล ้วนีvอะ เค ้าเริvมเข ้าใจพระเจ้าแล้ว […] มอบชวิตี ให ้กับพระเจ ้าแล้ว […] สรุปก็คือ ต ้องมีศรัทธาเชอพระเจืv ้า แล ้วพระเจ้าก็จะแสดงให้เห็นเองว่า คนดี ทําดีย่อมได ้ดี คนชวก็ตัv ้องได้ชวัv . Dr. Somsri. 38 เมืvอเขาไปใน ในทีv ทีvอันสงบเงียบ แล ้วก็ แล ้วก็ภาวนาถึงพระเจ ้า เขาก็จะได ้รับคําตอบ เพราะว่าผลทีvรออยู่เบืwอง หน ้าสําหรับคนทีvหยิvงยะโส คนทีvทําแต่สงทีvชิv วัv สงทีvไม่ดีิv สงทีvเอาเปรียบิv ย่อมได ้รับผลนัwน แน่นอน พระเจ ้าก็ พระเจ ้าย่อมให ้ผล เพียงแต่ว่ายัง ยังไม่เห็น. Mr. Wibun. 39 มันต ้องมองให้สุดสาย. Dr. Somsri. 40 เมืvอเวลาเขาภาวนาถึงพระเจ ้า เขาก็คิดได ้ว่า พวกทีvได ้รับความมัvงคัvง โดย โดยไม่ชอบธรรมนีvอะ เมืvอถึงวัน พิพากษาโลกแล ้ว เขาต ้องได้รับผลร ้ายแน่นอน นัvนคือโลกหน ้าเหมือนชาวพุทธเชอืv เหมือนกัน. Mr. Wibun. 41 The fact that not all acts have consequences in this life was also used by one of the interviewees as an argument for the necessity of believing in a next life. He argued that “if thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 97

The Solution of the Psalm Compared to Buddhist Understanding Why [is it so] that when doing good, one does not receive good, and when someone does bad, there is no evil consequences for him/her? […] A Buddhist thinks that concerning “do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil” this is not only [to be understood] on a worldly level, that is, in this world. There is a next world as well. It goes like this: In this life you do evil, in this life you might receive good results, but when you have died, you have to pay back kamma in next life or in hell.42 Throughout the interviews, the Buddhist teaching of kamma was regarded as comparable with the solution to the problem of the psalmist offered in the text. That is, both the teaching that according to the law of kamma all acts have corresponding consequences, and that the results of acts might not come immediately after the deeds were seen to be similar to the solution offered in the Psalm. But as in the case with the Proverbs text the question was raised, how the role of God was to be understood as compared to the law of kamma. God and the Law of Kamma The two main points of view concerning this question, which were discussed with regard to Proverbs 11:18–31 (5.4), were reinforced in the discussion of Psalm 73.43 From one point of view it was argued that the role of God and the law of kamma is the same. The only difference is that in Buddhism that which secures the consequences of acts is called the law of kamma, while in this text it is named God. In both cases the basis for the consequences received are persons’ own acts; God or the law of kamma is just that which automatically facilitates the process of retribution. there is no next world, the result from our actions in this world has not yet been born; like [for example, when] the wicked act and then receive happiness, comfort, [but] do not yet receive evil. That shows, if the theory of kamma is correct, then [the wicked acts] must bear result, but why have they not? This shows that there must be one more step; that is, there must be a next world.” (ถ ้าเกิดว่าไม่มีโลกหน ้า ผลจากการกระทําของเราในโลกนีwมัน ยังไม่เกิด อย่างทีvคนชวทําัv แล ้วก็ได้รับความสุข ความสบาย ยังไม่ได ้รับความชวเลยัv แสดงว่า ถ ้าเกิดทฤษฎีของกรรมถูกต ้อง มันต ้อง เกิดสิ แต่ทําไม ไม่เกิด แสดงว่า มันต ้องมีอีกขัwนตอนหนึvง คือ ต ้องมีโลกหน ้า). Mr. Wibun. 42 ทําไม ทํา ทําดีแล ้วไม่ได ้ดีจริง ๆ แล ้วทําชวัv กลับไม่ได ้ผลเลวร้ายกับเขาเลย […] คนพุทธนีvอะ จะมองว่า ไอ ้เรืvองทําดีได ้ดี ทําชวไดัv ้ชวนีvอะัv มันไม่ใชแค่ระดับโลก่ คือในชาตินีwอะ มันมีชาติหน ้าด้วย คล ้าย ๆ ว่า ชาตินีwคุณทําเลว ในโลกนีwคุณได ้รับผลทีvดีก็จริง แต่เมืvอคุณตายไปแล ้ว คุณต ้องไปชดใชกรรมในชาติอืvน้ หรือในนรก. Ms. Laksami. One of the ways of categorising kamma with regard to its fruition is to state that it has three types; kamma ripening during the present lifetime, kamma ripening in the next life, and fifnally kamma ripening in a further life. cf. Onkom, Creating Sustainable World Peace. 45. 43 How the interviewees understood the similarities and differences between God and the law of kamma has already been discussed in ch. 2. 98 chapter three

God prepares a slippery path for them. In fact, it is they themselves who have prepared it. God does according to what they have done […]. Because they have done evil God must prepare a slippery path for them. […] God must decide through righteousness; if we do good, God prepares a good path for us […]; it is our work, it is our own kamma; isn’t it? God must do according to the kamma they have done, because God is a judge who is just; isn’t it so?44 From another point of view, however, it is pointed out that even though both God and the law of kamma have the role of ensuring that acts have corresponding results, the two are different because God is to be considered an agent, not an impersonal law like the law of kamma. In Buddhism we don’t believe in an agent, we don’t believe that there is a God, […] therefore we don’t trust in any agent, but we trust in goodness, trust in the system of kamma.45 In trusting or relying on the law of kamma, Buddhists ultimately rely on themselves with regard to what kind of consequences they are going to receive. It is their own acts that decide what kind of consequences will follow. In trusting or relying on God, however, some of the interviewees argued, people are no longer relying on themselves, but on something outside themselves. “[This] is about faith in God […] and thus not similar to Buddhism […], because Buddhism teaches [one] to rely on oneself.”46 In connection with this text from Psalm 73 the question of trust in God, however, came into the fore much stronger than in the interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31. How the interviewees interpreted trust in God, and how they related it to the solution of the psalm presented above, will be discussed in the next main section.

Explanations Offered to the Psalmist’s Problem Even though the problem of the psalmist seems to have a solution, and to be resolved in the future, it could be argued that the solution presented in the previous section does not really explain the present situation, as it is presented in the psalm. In the interviews, however, the situation in the

44 พระเจ ้าวางทางทีvลืvนให ้ จริง ๆ ก็คือตัวเขาแหละทําไว ้ นะ พระเจ ้าก็ทําไปตามทีvเขากระทํา นะฮะ […] เพราะเขาทําชวพระเจัv ้าก็ต้องวางทางลืvนไว ้ให้เค้า […] พระเจ ้าก็ต้องวางตรงนีwไว ้ตัดสนดิ ้วยความยุติธรรม ถ ้าเราทํา ทําความดีไว ้ พระเจ ้าก็วางทางดีไว ้ให้เรา […] มันการกระทําของพวกเรา เป็นกรรมของตัวเราเอง ใชมัwยคะ่ พระเจ ้าก็ ทรงทําไปตามกรรมทีv ทีvเขาทํานัvนแหละ นะฮะ เพราะเวลา เอ่อ เพราะพระเจ ้าเป็นผู ้พิพากษาทีvยุติธรรม ใชมัwยคะ่ นะฮะ. Dr. Somsri. 45 ในพุทธศาสนานีvอะ เราไม่เชอในเรืvองของืv agent เราไม่เชอว่ามีืv มี God […] เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะ เราไม่ได ้trust ใน agent ใด ๆ ทัwงสนิw แต่เรา trust ในความดี trust ในระบบกรรม. Dr. Phimpan. 46 เป็นเรืvองทีvเชอในพระเจืv ้า […] ซงตรงนีwจะึv จะไม่ตรงกับ พุทธศาสนา นะ […] พราะว่าศาสนานีw ศาสนาพุทธนีwจะ จะสอนให ้ ให ้พึvงตนเอง. Mae Chii Phornthip, (Bangkok, 20. September 2005). thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 99 psalm was discussed and explained, even though the text was not seen to give direct answers to this. Some of the interviewees offered suggestions on how to understand the situation in the psalm based on their understanding of how this might be understood from a Christian point of view. But most of the interviewees discussed how they, as Buddhists, would explain situations similar to the one in the psalm. In the following, I will present the three main types of explanations which they offered concerning the problem in the text. That is, explanations from the point of view of Christian belief (as understood by the interviewees), explanations in terms of kamma, and other explanations.

Explanations from the Point of View of Believers in God (as Understood by the Interviewees) In the following we will look at the suggestions in the interviews on how the question of the psalmist might be understood from the point of view of a believer in God. Three of the interviewees argued that the reason why people suffer, even though they are righteous and do what is good, is that God might be testing them. Mrs. Chanpen, for example, put it this way: If we believe in God, we have to look at it from the perspective that God is testing us. God wants us to be a strong person. God therefore lets us have problems. God must have his own reasons.47 The suffering of the righteous is somehow seen to come from God, who is testing the righteous. That is, God is thought of as testing whether these persons’ faith is fifrm, and also through this aims at making them stronger.48 That God is behind the suffering of the righteous, and that he has his own reasons for this (see the quote above), is also stressed by another of the interviewees, Dr. Phichai. He argues that the experience of suffering, caused for example by illness, might lead to the question in the psalm and the feeling that God is not looking after the righteous. But, in his opinion, God might send suffering in order to help a person. He takes a movie as example, in which one of the central points was that God created a child with asthma in order to save the life of the child later on. In other words God might send suffering for the greater good of a person.

47 ถ ้าเราเชอพระเจืv ้า เราต ้องมองในแง่ทีvว่า พระเจ ้าทดสอบเรา พระเจ ้าต้องการให้เราเป็นคนเข ้มแข็ง พระเจ ้าถึงให ้ เราลําบาก พระเจ ้าต้องมีเหตุผลของพระองค์. Mrs. Chanpen. 48 Cf. also Mr. Wibun, Ms. Laddawan, Ms. Laksami. 100 chapter three

The understanding that Christians may view persons’ suffering or situation in life as caused by God is also shared by Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. But they were of the opinion that this belief makes it much more diffifcult to accept the situation which one is in. If persons believe in thelaw of kamma, they know that the situation is due to their own kamma (see next section), while if the result is dependent on God, on his judgment, then it might be much more diffifcult to see the connection to the individual, and people might ask; why does this happen to me, is it just? In other words, they indicate that an explanation in terms of God is not suffifcient to solve the problem raised, whether God is just or not. Finally, one of the interviewees said that the problem might rise because people do not understand what God really gives. Mrs. Chanpen argued that when the psalmist laments that he suffers, while the wicked prosper, he reveals a wrong understanding of what the real return of a righteous life is. She then added: All of us mostly hope—humans tend to hope that what we are going to receive is material happiness […]. [We] think we must get something we can touch, but we don’t analyse what God already has given us, what that is.49 Her main point was thus that people mostly hope for material happiness and does not explore what God has really given, which might be inner happiness or spiritual contentment rather than material returns.

Explanations in Terms of the Teaching of Kamma Concerning how the situation in the psalm was explained on the basis of the interviewees’ own understanding, we might broadly divide their explanations into two major groups. The fifrst related to the teaching of kamma; the second offered other explanations. Former Kamma We will start with explanations in terms of kamma. First, in most of the interviews the present situation was explained with reference to former kamma. Most of the interviewees believed that the reason that the wicked prosper or the good suffer, is that all people have kamma and must experience the result of their kamma.50 This is seen in the following quotation:

49 เราทุกคนสวนใหญ่จะหวัง่ มนุษย์ชอบหวังว่า สงทีvเราไดิv ้จะเป็นความสุขทางเนืwอหนัง […] คิดว่าเราจะต ้องเห็น อะไรทีvจับต ้องได้ แต่เราไม่พิจารณาว่า สงทีvพระเจิv ้าให้เราจริง ๆ แล ้วคืออะไร. Mrs. Chanpen. 50 Mae Chii Phornthip, Mr. Chakkri, Mrs. Chittra. There is an extensive amount of popular books in Thailand relating stories about kamma and their results in people’s life. Some thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 101

Buddha said that humans, when they make kamma, they [implicitly] accept the result of that kamma: Doing good, they must receive good; doing evil, they must receive evil. Do good, receive good, do evil, receive evil. Whatever kamma you make, wherever you do evil, [whether] you try to escape in a forest, [or] on a mountain, [or] in a river, [or go to] live in a seven-store palace, [in any case,] not letting you receive the fruit of your kamma, is defifnitely out of the question. But why do you not receive it immediately? [That is] because you have already collected good. This goodness supports you, and then you spend your goodness until it is empty. Like, if you have money; you have money and you spend your money, and it is not yet empty, because you still have [money] left; isn’t it so? But when it is empty, new supply is not coming in. At that point you will know that you are empty of goodness, evil will come, both the old and the new together!51 In this quote Mae Chii Narumon emphasises that persons’ kamma are the reason for the consequences they receive in life, and on this basis she focuses especially on the question of the wicked who prosper. Why then, do they not receive the immediate consequences of their evil acts? The answer offered is that it is due to their good kamma from a former life, or as some of the other interviewees expressed it, it is due to the result of merit from last life.52 That is, the wicked who prosper, are still reaping the consequences of former good deeds. In the quote this is compared to a person having savings to live on. Hence, if persons are doing bad deeds, but live a prosperous life, this may be explained as follows: They have savings, i.e. a store of merit, that ensure them a good life. By not doing good in the present, they are not saving more money—not earning more merit, but they still have enough money so as to live comfortably. When they have spent all the money, however—that is, when their old kamma, their store of merit, is used up—then they start reaping the consequences of their present wicked acts.

of the most well known are the series of books (only in Thai) by T. Liangphibun, The Law of Kamma, The Law of Kamma, vol. 2–4 (Bangkok: 2547/2004–2548/2005)., and Phra Rajsuddhinanamongkol, The Law of Karma–Dhamma Practice, trans. Suchitra Onkom, The Law of Karma–Dhamma Practice, vol. 1–7 (Bangkok: 2000–2005). I have only mentioned the volumes that I have been able to check out. Publishers are not given. 51 พระพุทธเจ ้าจะบอกว่า มนุษย์ ทํากรรมใดไว ้ เขาย่อมรับผลกรรมอันนัwน ทําดีเขาต ้องได้ดี ทําชวเขาตัv ้องได้ชวัv ทําดีจึงได ้ดี ทําชวจึงไดัv ้ชวัv ทํากรรมอันใดไว ้ก็ตาม ทํากรรมชวไวัv ้ทีvไหนก็ตาม คุณจะหนีไปอยู่ป่า ภูเขา แม่นํwา อยู่ในปราสาทเจ็ดชนัw จะให ้คุณไม่รับผลกรรม ไม่มีเด็ดขาด แต่ทําไมว่าคุณจึงไม่รับทันทีล่ะ เพราะว่าคุณสะสมความดี ไว ้ก็มี ความดีนัwนหนุนคุณอยู่ แล ้วคุณก็เสวยความดีของคุณร่าไปํ ร่าไปํ จนกว่าจะหมด เหมือนคุณมีเงิน คุณมีเงินนะ คุณก็ใชเงินของคุณ้ เท่าไหร่ ๆ ก็ไม่หมด เพราะมันมีอยู่ ใชมัwย่ แต่เมืvอมันหมด อันใหม่ก็ไม่เข ้ามา นีv! คราวนีwแหละ คุณจะได ้รู ้ว่าคุณหมดความดีแล ้ว ความชวจะมาล่ะทีนีwัv ของเก่าก็มา ของใหม่ก็มา สะสมกัน. Mae Chii Narumon. 52 “It might be the result of merit from a former life.” (อาจจะผลบุญของชาติทีvแล ้ว). Mrs. Manee. 102 chapter three

The issue of good persons suffering or meeting with hardship can similarly be explained with reference to actions in a former life; that is, with reference to former bad kamma or lack of merit from a former life. But most people will not think … they think only about what is just in front of their face, they just think of the present/today. They only think, hey, why do I have to meet with this when I do good, [yes] do so much good as this? That is, they think only of this life, but if one should think according to the doctrine of Buddhism, kamma is something that evolves. Therefore, it is not possible to tell when it began; we don’t know which life it comes from. […] Therefore, what we face may have its explanations. It is only that we don’t know what life it comes from, but we should trust that the goodness we do must [eventually] pay off, it doesn’t disappear.53 The comparison with money was also used to explain this idea. Dr. Phim- pan, for example, argued that former bad kamma can be compared to having a debt that has to be paid back before one can start to use the fresh money coming in. In addition to talking about suffering and hardship in general terms, as the result of former bad kamma, some of the interviewees also gave some concrete examples of results of bad kamma, for instance serious illness and sudden death.54 Further, it was mentioned especially, that bad kamma done in former life might be the reason for the condition people are born into, for example as handicapped or poor.55 Present Kamma It was argued that the reason why the psalmist suffers is that in fact he is not really good. Here we must consider, this person is he good, that is, is he really good? We must ask [about] his goodness, how good is he? […] If he is really good, there will not be a speech like this. If he is really good, he would truly believe in God, that is, [believing that in] whatever suffering or diffifculties [he meets] he has happiness in that it is God who has given him to be like this, he is

53 แต่ว่าคนสวนมากมักจะไม่ได่ ้คิด เขาคิดแค่เฉพาะหน ้า เขาคิดแค่ปัจจุบัน เขาคิดแค่ว่า อึwย ทําไมต ้องเจออย่างงีw ในเมืvอทําดิ ทําดีถึงขนาดนีwแล ้ว ก็คือเขา เขาคิดแค่ในชาตินีw แต่ว่า ถ ้าจะคิดตามหลักพุทธศาสนาจริง ๆ นีvอะ กรรมเป็นเรืvองของ evolving หมุนไปเรืvอย ๆ เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะ บอกไม่ได ้ว่า เริvมต ้นเมืvอไหร่ อาจจะเริvมชาติไหนก็ไม่รู ้ […] เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะ สงทีvเราเจอนีvอะิv มันอาจจะมีคําอธิบายจริง ๆ ก็ได ้เพียงแต่ว่าเราไม่รู ้ว่ามันเกิดจากชาติไหน แต่ว่า เราควรจะ เหมือนกับมีศรัทธาอะว่า ความดีทีvเราทํานีvอะ มันต ้อง เท off อะ มันไม่หาย. Dr. Phimpan. Cf. also Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak who argue: “In the Buddhist way, whatever suffering we have is the result of kamma we have done, is a question of [something in the] past”. 54 Dr. Phichai mentioned the example of cancer. Mae Chii Narumon told a story about two soldiers who were brutally killed in the south of Thailand, and explained their fate in terms of previous bad kamma. 55 Dr. Phichai, Mr. Chakkri, Ms. Laksami. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 103

content, he has happiness in his situation, he does good towards God all the time, and will not criticise at all.56 Likewise, Phra Songkran, argued that when Buddhists meet with hardship, they might easily blame it on old kamma, instead of realising that the problem might stem from themselves, for not being as good as they think. [The reason why people meet with hardship] is because they [the person or the acts] are not good in the right way, [or they are] not yet good, [or] they are not good enough […]. The doctrine of kamma is very good, but some Buddhists may not understand this teaching. That is; whatever problem they have they blame it on old kamma. When they have a conflfict with someone, they [go like this:] “last life we might have done something wrong against them, thus they do not like us” […]. Christianity blames it on God—“oh, it is God, for sure”—, but Buddhists say ‘kamma’.57 Questioning What Kammic Results Are Like Some of the interviewees argued that according to Buddhist understanding, the inner result of acts, like for example the feeling of happiness when one does something good, is the most important.58 The wicked, who have received a lot of riches, might suffer in their hearts, while a person, who, for example lacks material things, might be happy. Dr. Saichai, for example, stressed that neither happiness nor suffering is necessarily connected with material goods. People may be rich, but unhappy, or materially poor, but spiritually rich. Some people, [even though] they do good, are not rich in material things, but they have a life which is very rich spiritually. People of today, however, do not see this, because it is a materialistic age. […]. They don’t understand what happiness in the form of a content, peaceful mind, and simple life is […]. Some [wicked] people might be very rich, but how do we know whether they have happiness in their heart or not? They might suffer all the time, or feel fear […]. Sometimes those who judge see [only] the prosperity […]; they judge based upon material things; isn’t it so?59

56 ทีนีwก็ต ้องมอง คนนีwคือคนดีทีvเข ้าถึงจริง ๆ คือดีจริงหรือเปล่า ต ้องถาม ไอ ้คําว่าดีของเค ้า คือดีขนาดไหน […] ถ ้าดีจริง ๆ จะไม่มีคํานีw อะไรทีvอย่างงีwเลย ถ ้าหากว่าเขาดีจริง ๆ เค ้าเชอพระเจืv ้าแบบสุด ๆ คือจะทุกข์หรือยากอะไร เขาก็มีความสุข ในการทีvเป็นเพราะพระเจ ้าประทานให้เขามาอย่างนัwน เขาพอใจทีvจะเป็น เขามีความสุขอยู่ตรงนัwน เขาจะ ทําดีต่อพระเจ ้าตลอดไป แม ้จะไม่ตําหนิอะไรเลย. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 57 ทีvเป็นอย่างนัwน ก็เป็นเพราะมันไม่ถูกดี มันไม่ถึงดี มันไม่พอดี ไง มันทําไม่ถูกดีอะ บางทีvต ้องถูกดีแต่ไม่ถึงดี แต่บางทีvต ้องถึงดีแล ้วแต่มันไม่พอดีไง […] หลักของกรรมเป็นเรืvองทีvดี แต่ชาวพุทธบางคนนีvอะ มักจะไม่เข ้าใจเรืvองนีw อะ คือมีปัญหาอะไรก็จะโยนให ้กรรมเก่า เวลาไม่ถูกกับใครขึwนมาปุ๊บ สงสยชาติทีvแลั ้วเราคงไม่ทําอะไรไม่ดีกับเค ้ามา เค ้าจึงไม่ชอบเรา […] ศาสนาคริสต์ก็โยนให ้พระเจ้า อ ้าย! พระเจ ้าแน่นอน แต่ชาวพุทธไม่ใช่ ชาวพุทธก็บอก กรรมน่ะ. Phra Songkran. The phrase I have translated ‘blame it on’ is literally translated: ‘toss it to’. 58 Mr. Chakkri, Mr. Deecha, Mr. Santi. 59 บางคนนีvอะ เขาก็ทําความดี แต่ว่า เขาไม่ได ้ร่ารวยวัตถุํ แต่เขามีชวิตทีvร่ี ารวยมากทางจิตวิญญาณํ แต่คนปัจจับัน 104 chapter three

In other words, kammic results are not primarily material. This emphasis is on line with a more doctrinal understanding of the fruition of kamma. In his writings Payutto emphasises that acts (kamma) have effects on four different levels, that is: (1) the mind and (2) character, (3) life experience and (4) society, where the two fifrst levels are the most important and decisive for the results on the two last levels. His fifrst main contention is that most people only note the results on the third level, the level of life experience and are ignorant of the more important results on the fifrst and second level. Second, he points out that on the level of life experience other factors than kamma might inflfuence the results persons receive of their acts (see below in the section “other explanations”). Hence, the main focus should be on the result of kamma on the level of mind and character.60

Other Explanations Not all of the interviewees, however, explained the suffering of the good, and the prospering of the wicked in terms of former bad or good kamma only. Natural Laws First, Phra Songkran stressed that from the point of view of Buddha’s teaching, not all incidents could be explained as due to the law of kamma. You might know the law of kamma […], the law of Dhamma. We have physical laws as well. This group [of laws] hide themselves in the body of the law of Dhamma. The law of Dhamma comprises all. It is not only the law of kamma.61

The law of Dhamma (ธรรมนิยาม—Dhammaniyama), which can also be translated as ‘general law’ or ‘cause-and-effect law’, comprises other laws as well, and in analysing events one may take into account that some of these other laws may be active as well.62 For example, in explaining the Tsunami, Phra Songkran argued that it did not suffifce using only the law of kamma as an

จะไม่เห็น เพราะว่าเป็นโลกของวัตถุนิยม […] เขาไม่เข ้าใจ ความสุขในแง่ว่า เอ่อ จิตทีvค่อนข ้างมีความพอใจ มีความ สงบ [และชวิตทีvมีี ] ความสมถะ เป็นอะไร […] บางคนเขาอาจจะรวยมาก แต่เราก็รู ้ได้อย่างไรว่า เขามีความสุขไหม ในใจ เขาอาจจะมีความทุกข์ตลอด ความหวาดกลัว […] บางทีคนตัดสนนีvอะิ ใชไหมฮะ่ เห็นความรุ่งเรืvอง […] มันตัดสนทีvวัตถุิ ใชไหมฮะ่ . Dr. Saichai. 60 P.A. Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching, trans. Bruce Evans, 2nd. ed. (Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation, 1996). 38–42. 61 โยมคงจะรู ้จัก กรรมนิยาม […] ธรรมนิยาม เรามีอุตินิยามด ้วย พวกนีwมันซอนตัวอยู่ในตัวธรรมนิยาม่ ธรรมนิยาม จะคลุมหมด มันไม่ได ้เป็นกรรมนิยามอย่างเดียวไงฮะ. Phra Songkran. 62 As related in ch. 2, the natural law (niyama) of cause and effect can be divided into fifve categories, utuniyama, bijaniyama, cittaniyama, kammaniyama and dhammaniyama, where dhammaniyama encompasses the other four and everything else that is not included in the fifrst four categories. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 105 explanation; other laws, like physical laws must be taken into consideration as well. This is also a major point for Payutto in his explanation of why, on the level of life experience, sometimes it happens that people who do good kamma feel that they do not receive good results of their actions. In addition to the fifve categories of niyama (natural law of cause and effect), he also reckons with what he calls ‘social preference’. ‘Social preference’ is social law, customs and values, agreed on in a culture, which might inflfuence peoples’ lives, independent of natural laws. This might for example be the case when a good, hard-working person is not promoted, but passed over by a less diligent person.63 Payutto thus underlines that “events in life are not entirely subject to the law of kamma”.64 Destiny or Luck Another way of explaining the incoherence between act and consequence in a person’s life might be to refer it to destiny or luck. Mostly, the concept of luck is used in the meaning of bad luck, explaining why one meets with hardship and suffering, which one does not feel personally responsible for. Sometimes the concept of kamma, in the sense of former bad kamma, is also used in this way.65 Doing good, but not receiving good,—this might be bad luck. [When one] does good, but there is no result of merit from the former life, this life is thus hard. But next life might be good, because in this life one has prepared [for it, by doing good].66 Mr. Deecha, one of the two interviewees who did not believe in the law of kamma, used the concepts of destiny and luck to explain why people do not receive the same opportunities in life. People do not receive the same opportunities. Whether the individual person receives more or less [opportunities] depends on his/her destiny, or if not [destiny], then his/her luck.67

63 Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching. 5. 64 Ibid. 40. This view reflfects textual sources in the Theravada canon, cf. Anguttara Nikaya text 1: 173–174. 65 Charles F. Keyes, “Introduction: The Study of Popular Ideas of Karma,” in Karma: An Anthropological Inquiry, eds. Charles F. Keyes and E. Valentine Daniel (Berkeley, Calif.: Uni- versity of California Press, 1983). 13–14. Suntaree Komin, Psychology of the Thai People: Val- ues and Behavioral Patterns (Bangkok: Research Center National Institute of Development Administration, 1991). 177–178. 66 ทีvทําดี แล ้วไม่ได ้ดี อาจจะวาสนาไม่ดี แต่ทําดี ผลบุญชาติทีvแล ้วก็ไม่มี ชาตินีwก็เลยลําบาก แต่ชาติหน ้าอาจจะดี เพราะชาตินีw ทําไว ้ก็ได้ แต่เห็นชามาก้ . Mrs. Manee. 67 โอกาสแต่ละคนเข ้ามาไม่เหมือนกันครับ แต่ละคนอาจจะได ้มากหรือน ้อยนีvอะก็ขึwนอยู่กับโชคชะตาของคน ๆ นัwน หรือไม่ก็ดวงของคนนัwน. Mr. Deecha. 106 chapter three

In his opinion persons’ destinies or stars give their life directions or put persons on certain paths.68 He did not however, understand this in a fatalistic way. On the contrary, he emphasised that every person has the right to choose whether one will walk that path or not. Inner Results In addition, concerning how to understand the incoherence between act and consequence that can be seen in peoples’ life, Mr. Deecha argued that in his opinion there is mostly coherence. This is because, as he understood it, the coherence between act and consequence is related to the inner results. That is, if one does good, one is happy, if one does bad, one suffers. Rational Explanations The second interviewee, who did not believe in the law of kamma, Ms. Laddawan, argued that in order to fifnd an answer to why people are born into certain conditions one should look for rational explanations, rather than use kamma as the answer: We are not born equal; some are poor, some are rich, some are beautiful, some are not beautiful, some are intelligent, some are fools. What we are raised to think is [that this is] because of the kamma that one oneself has produced, [it comes] from that which one has done before. Why do we have to blame kamma all the time? […] It is like we are not content with what we are, thus we blame kamma […]. For example, some are born physically disabled, it is said that [in] last life they must have done something. Why is it not thought that […] it is due to something being wrong with the cells or that our mother has eaten something which was not good?69 In her opinion it is possible, in most cases, to explain the cause of situations in rational terms. Common Sense Explanations Further, she argued that hardship and suffering is part of being human. In her opinion nobody will experience either happiness or suffering all the time.

68 For a comprehensive discussion of divination in Thailand see H.G. Quaritch Wales, Divination in Thailand: The Hopes and Fears of a Southeast Asian People (London: Curzon Press, 1983). 69 คนเราทีvเกิดมา ไม่เท่าเทียมกันอะคะ บางคนจน บางคนรวย บางคนสวย บางคนไม่สวย บางคนฉลาด บางคน โง่อย่างงีw ทีvถูกปลูกฝังมาก็คือ เพราะว่ากรรมของตัวเองบันดาลไว ้ จากสงทีvตัวเองทําไวิv ้มาก่อน ถ ้า ทําไมเราต ้องโทษ กรรมตลอดอะ […] ก็เหมือนเราไม่พอใจกับสงทีvตัวเองเป็นิv ก็โทษกรรม […] อย่างบางคนเกิดมาพิการอย่างงีw ก็บอก ว่าเมืvอชาติทีvแล ้วต้องไปทําอะไรมา ทําไมไม่คิดเสยว่าี […] อาจจะเป็นการผิดปกติของเซลล์ หรืออะไรทีv แม่ของเรา อาจจะทานอะไรไปไม่ดี. Ms. Laddawan. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 107

[That a good person meets with hardship] is something that can’t be helped […]. It is not possible that one person will meet with only good all the time, there must be something different [e.g. hardship, suffering] coming into our life. I think like this.70 Instead of resorting to metaphysical speculations she argues that one must accept things as they are. Finally, concerning the wicked who prosper, Ms. Laddawan stated that they might have found ways that make it possible to do evil and get away with it. Similarly, one of the other interviewees argued that the wicked may have supporters that help them in such ways that they avoid the bad consequences of their acts.71 They might have found a way that makes it possible for them to do evil […]. [But] whatever they do they must receive […]. It will come back on them.72 But even though the wicked might fifnds ways that enable them to have success in spite of their wickedness, and though Ms. Laddawan did not believe in the law of kamma, she nevertheless was convinced that peoples’ wicked acts will eventually come back on themselves. Supernatural Explanations Finally, it was indirectly argued that supernatural powers might be a reason for peoples’ suffering and prospering. I regard it as indirectly argued, because none of the interviewees mentioned this when discussing how to understand the problem of the wicked prospering and the good suffering. But when talking about the strategies for handling situations like the one in the psalm, the paying of respect to supernatural powers was mentioned. Within the actual belief of Buddhists in Thailand, there is a widespread belief in supernatural powers and that these powers may inflfuence people’s lives for good and bad, and may be regarded as the source of both fortune

70 เป็นเรืvองทีvชวยไม่ได่ ้ […] คน ๆ นึงจะเจอแต่สงทีvดีตลอดิv มันไม่ได ้ มันต ้องมีอะไรทีvแตกต่างเข ้ามาในชวิตเราี คิดแบบนีw. Ibid. This was also the opinion of Mr. Chakkri. “Then, some people may have lives, they are suffering, like they have no strength, but then it has to be like that; isn’t it so? It is a common thing.” (บางคนอาจจะมีชวิตทีvแบบี ป่วยกระเสาะ กระแสะ อะไรอย่างนัwน ก็ในเมืvอเขาไม่แข็งแรงอะ มันก็ต ้องเป็นอย่างงัwนอะ ใชไหม่ มันเป็นเรืvองธรรมดา). 71 “We don’t understand; he does that which is not good, but is comfortable, it might be the result of merit from a former life, or [he] might have a helper.” (เราก็ไม่เข ้าใจนะคะ เขาทําไม่ดี แต่เขาอยู่สบาย อาจจะผลบุญของชาติทีvแล ้ว หรือว่า อาจจะมีคนอุปถัมภ์). Mrs. Manee. Here we note that Mrs. Manee is open to the fact that there might be different answers to the issue of the wicked prospering. 72 เขาคงหาชองทางอะไรบางอย่างทีvทําให่ ้เขาทําความชวไดัv ้ […] ทําอะไรเขาก็ต ้องได้อย่างนัwน คือมันเป็นไปไม่ ได ้ทีvเขาจะ จะทําชวไดัv ้ตลอด […] มันจะต ้องกลับมาหาเขา. Ms. Laddawan. 108 chapter three and misfortune.73 Noting that this is the case one might wonder why it was not directly referred to in the interviewees’ explanations of the problem of the psalm. I think that one explanation might be that when the interviewees discussed how to explain the problem of incoherence between act and consequence, they related what they knew to be the common teaching on this issue. When they discussed the question of how to cope, however, they related their own personal opinions.

No Defifnitive Explanation Finally, some of the interviewees stated that in many cases one might not know the real reason for what is happening. Sometimes you don’t understand it at all; you haven’t done anything good or evil. Sometimes [we ask]: What is the reason that he or she died? [To explain it] easy; it is like everyone is in the hand of a law that controls, without us being able to oppose it. Some time we might not know, we walk outside, are hit by a car and die. Sometimes we sit and ponder on a relative of ours who died; what bad kamma did he do to cause it? It is hard to know.74 Suffering and hardship could be due to kamma, or there might be other explanations. Mr. Chakkri argued that sometimes one does not really know what the real reasons are.

In this section I have shown that the fifrst major theme, which the interviewees discussed on the basis of their reading of the psalm concerns the problem why the wicked prosper, while the good suffer. The psalm was seen

73 Niels Mulder, Inside Thai Society: An Interpretation of Everyday Life, 4th ed. (Bangkok: Editions Duang Kamol, 1994). 21. For further documentation and discussion of the role of the belief in supernatural powers in Thai belief, see for example Jane Bunnag, Buddhist Monk, Buddhist Layman: A Study of Urban Monastic Organization in Central Thailand, eds. M. Fortes et al., Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology, vol. 6 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973), Suntaree Komin, ‘The World View Through Thai Value Systems,’ in Traditional and Changing Thai World View, ed. Amara Pongsapich (Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 1998/2541), Stephen Sparkes, Spirits and Souls: Gender and Cosmology in an Isaan Village in Northeast Thailand, ed. Erik Cohen, Studies in Contemporary Thailand, vol. 13 (Bangkok: White Lotus Press, 2005), S.J. Tambiah, Buddhism and the Spirit Cults in North-East Thailand, eds. M. Fortes et al., Cambridge Studies in Social Anthropology, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), B.J. Terwiel, Monks and Magic: An Analysis of Religious Ceremonies in Central Thailand, 2nd. ed., Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Monograph Series, vol. 24 (London: Curzon Press, 1979). 74 บางที คุณไม่รู ้เรืvองอะไรเลย ไม่ได ้ทําดีทําเลวอะไร บางทีก็ต ้องตายไปด้วยเหตุผลอะไร ก็ง่าย ๆ เหมือนทุกคน อยู่ในเงืwอมมือของ กฎเกณฑ์อะไรสกอย่างทีvควบคุมอยู่ั โดยเราต่อต ้านไม่ได ้ บางครัwงเราก็ไม่รู ้เลยว่า เดินออกไป ไปโดนรถชนตาย บางทีเราก็ไปนัvง หาว่า เอ๊ะ ทีvญาติพีvน ้องเราตายไปนีv เพราะเขาไปทํากรรมชวอะไรไวัv ้ มันก็เป็นเรืvอง ยากทีvจะรู ้ได้. Mr. Chakkri. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 109 fifrst to reflfect the psalmist’s experience of himself suffering in spite ofdoing good, while the wicked, who oppress him, are rich and successful, and second to present the psalmist’s question to God, based on this experience. Further, the interviewees interpreted the text as conveying the feelings the psalmist had in this situation as well, and proceeded to describe the questions and the feelings as they saw it. In addition, quite a few of them raised the issue of how to interpret and evaluate the psalmist’s reaction to his experience, and suggested different answers to that. Some of the interviewees also discussed to what extent the question and the situation in the psalm is to be found in a contemporary Thai context. Finally, the text was regarded as giving an answer to the problem in the psalm/the problem of the psalmist. The main answer which the interviewees found that the text offered was that God will secure that both good and bad will receive consequences in accordance with their acts. This answer was seen to be comparable to the Buddhist teaching of kamma. Some of the interviewees also tried to explain, from a Christian point of view, why the good suffer now. The answer was that God is testing their faith or that he sent suffering for the greater good of the believer. From a Buddhist point of view, the question was explained by most of the interviewees in terms of old kamma. Finally, the validity of the problem was questioned. That is, it was called into question whether the psalmist really was as good as he pictured himself.

Trust in God

The second major issue highlighted in the interpretation of Psalm 73 was the theme of trust in God. According to some of the interviewees this even was the basic issue of the psalm: “The basic issue is the issue of God, for sure, and the issue of trust in God.”75 “It [the text] talks about trust in God. […] This Psalm encourages trusting in God.”76 In this section I will present how the interviewees understood the text with regard to the theme of trust in God and how they related it to their own understanding of trust. The following quotation gives some main pointers to the ways in which this theme was understood and discussed in the interviews:

75 เรืvองหลัก ๆ นีv คือเรืvองพระเจ ้าอยู่แล ้วใชมัwย่ กับเป็นเรืvองของความศรัทธาต่อพระเจ ้า. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 76 เขาพูดถึงเรืvอง trust in God อะค่ะ […] สดุดีนีvอะ ก็คือให ้ศรัทธาต่อพระเจ ้า. Dr. Phimpan. 110 chapter three

Christianity77 stresses that one should have trust in God, believe fifrmly in God, [and] have confifdence in God regardless of what happens in life. […] Godhas a plan already, which we might not see or understand at the present moment. But in the end, if we are good and are like good children of God, everything will end well. That is, we might not yet understand; it is like us being children, similar to what he [the psalmist] states in verse 22: “I was senseless and ignorant. I have acted like a beast before you”. This is like—that is; he admits that he was naïve, he didn’t understand God’s plan […]. Therefore he was quick making judgment fifrst, [namely,] why is it like that, why is it likethis? But Christianity; good Christians should believe fifrmly in God. Regardless of what’s happening in life let’s believe that everything will end good, if we are good children of God.78 To begin with, it is important to notice that the theme of trust in God is understood as being closely related to the fifrst theme of the psalm, namely the problem why the wicked prosper, while the good suffer. Throughout the interviews, this question, and the situation which gave rise to it, was the background for the understanding of the theme trust in God. Further, three major points were emphasised. First, Dr. Phimpan argued that the psalmist admits that his questioning in the beginning of the psalm was due to him being naïve and lacking understanding, thus indicating lack of trust in God. Second, in the end, however, the psalmist affifrms his trust in God. Finally, on the background of the psalmist’s reactions to his experience, the conclusion is drawn that the psalm stresses that those who believe in God should trust him in all situations. In the following I will fifrst discuss how the interviewees understood ‘trust in God’ in the text. Then I will present how they interpreted the psalmist’s reactions and statements with regard to the theme of trust in God. In the presentation I will take as my point of departure the three major points emphasised by Dr. Phimpan. That is; fifrst, I will focus on her fifrst two points, namely that that the psalmist’s question shows that he is lacking trust in God, but that in the end he has gained or regained his trust. Second,

77 The psalm was, like the other texts, read as a Christian text, and ‘Christianity’ therefore here probably refers to the text, read in the context of the Christian religion. 78 ศาสนาคริสต์ก็จะเน ้นในเรืvองของการให ้มีศรัทธาในพระเจ ้า ให ้เชอมัvนในพระเจืv ้า ให ้ไว้ใจพระเจ้า ไม่ว่าอะไรจะ เกิดขึwนกะชวิตนีvอะี […] พระเจ ้ามี มีแผนหรือว่ามี plan ไว ้เรียบร ้อยแล้ว ทีvเราอาจจะไม่เห็น ไม่เข ้าใจในตอนนีw แต่ใน ทีvสุดนีvอะ ถ ้าเราเป็นคนดี แล ้วเป็น เหมือนกับเป็นบุตรทีvดีของพระเจ ้านีvอะ ทุกอย่างก็จะลงท ้ายด ้วยดี คือเราอาจจะไม่ เข ้าใจ เหมือนกับเราเป็นเด็กนีvอะ อย่างทีvเขาบอกว่า นีvอะ “ข ้าพระองค์โฉดและไม่เดียงสา ข ้าพระองค์ประพฤติเหมือน สตว์ต่อพระองค์ั ” อันนีwก็เหมือนกับว่า เนีvยะ คือเขาก็ยอมรับว่า เออ เนีvยะ เค ้า naïve เขาไม่รู ้เท่าทัน God’s plan […] เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะ ก็เลยด่วนไป judge ก่อน ว่านีvอะ ทําไมถึงทําอย่างงัwน ทําไมถึงทําอย่างงีw แต่ว่าศาสนาคริสต์ ศาสนิกชนทีvดีนีvอะ ก็ควรจะเชอมันในพระเจืv ้า ไม่ว่าอะไรจะเกิดขึwนกับชวิตนีvอะี ก็ขอให ้เชอว่าทุกอย่างจะตืv ้องลงท้าย ด ้วยดี ถ ้าเราเป็นบุตรทีvดีของพระพุทธ ของพระเจ ้า. Dr. Phimpan. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 111

I will present the interviewees’ discussion of the importance of trust in God. Last, but not least, I will elaborate on the interviewees’ reflfections on how persons, on this basis—trust in God—, might or should handle a situation like the one in the psalm. Throughout the whole section I will also present how the interviewees related these issues to their own Buddhist understanding of the same.

The Interviewees Understanding of Trust and Trust in God In the interviews there were two different emphasises as to what it means to trust in God. Some of the interviewees had the understanding that trust in God basically means fifrm belief or understanding, while others stressed that trust in God means relying on him. It should be noted, however, that also the second group argued that trust in God includes understanding. Hence, trust in God was, in the context of the situation of the psalm, fifrstly understood to mean a fifrm belief that God will help the good and punish the wicked, or put in another way; a fifrm conviction that in the end the problem ofthe psalm will be resolved. He [the psalmist] questions God, but at the same time he still has the trust to continue believing in God. And then in the end he realizes that in fact God has his own plan [that is,] in the end they must receive the result of their acts. [It is] like God is placing them in a slippery place, where they must fall.79 Christians believe in trust, therefore when we do good, and we see others do evil and receive good, and we don’t see that they receive evil at all—if we have a fifrm trust, that trust will help us. That trust will make us confifdent andthink that what we have done is not in vain; we will receive results.80 As expressed here, to trust in God means believing or understanding that the problem of the psalm will be resolved in such a way that both the wicked and the good will receive the corresponding results of their acts. Understanding trust in God in this way might be compared to trusting in the law of kamma, namely trusting that all acts will receive their consequences in due course.

79 เขาก็ไป question God แต่ในขณะเดียวกันนีvอะ เขาก็ยังมีศรัทธาทีvจะ believe in God ไปเรืvอย ๆ แล ้วใน ทีvสุดนีvอะ เขาก็ realize ว่า เขาก็ตระหนักว่า นีvอะ จริง ๆ แล ้วนีvอะ พระเจ ้านีvอะ มี plan ของพระองค์อยู่แล ้วในทีvสุดนีvอะ เขาก็ต ้องได้รับผลแห่งการกระทําของเขา เหมือนกับพระเจ ้าไปวางเขาอยู่ ในทีv ทีvลืvน ยังไง เขาก็ต ้องหกล้ม. Ibid. 80 คริสเตียนก็เชอในเรืvองศรัทธาืv เพราะฉะนัwนการทีvเราทําความดี แล ้วเราเห็นคนอืvนทําความชวัv แล ้ว ความดีตอบ แทน กลับไม่เห็นว่า เขาจะได ้ชวตรงไหนนีvอะัv ถ ้าเรามีความศรัทธา ทีvมัvนคง ศรัทธานัwนจะชวยเรา่ ศรัทธานัwนจะทําให ้เรา มัvนคงและคิดว่าสงทีvเราทําไม่เสิv ยเปล่าี เราจะต ้องได้รับผล. Mr. Wibun. 112 chapter three

What one trusts in might be different, but the concept of trust can be the same. In Buddhism we don’t believe in an agent, we don’t believe that there is a God, […] therefore we don’t trust in any agent, but we trust in goodness, trust in the system of kamma […]. That is, we trust, we believe fifrmly that if we do good, we will receive good returns.81 There were some of the interviewees, however, who did not agree that Buddhists trust in the law of kamma. As they put it, they do not trust, they know. With regard to the teaching of doctrinal Buddhism, both statements are true. But they are regarded as uttered at different stages on the Buddhist path to enlightenment. That is, for a Buddhist all training begins with persons having trust (saddha) in some part of the teachings, such as the law of kamma. This trust is necessary in order to start to put teachings into practice. As one practices the teachings, one gets confifrmation that the teaching is true, and gradually the person moves from trust to understanding, and fifnally to proper knowledge or insight (sammanana).82 The relation [between Christians and God] depends on trust; that is, it is not—what do they call it—a realization of truth. Concerning the law of kamma, we almost don’t need trust, but if we accept that it […] is the truth, [then] not needing any strong trust in that truth we are able to use it as a comfort. […] The Thais […] yield to this truth; it is the truth, and nobody can escape it. But when Christians state that [they] use God as a rest for the heart—or something like that—, as a refuge—something to hold on to, it is not like a realization, it is not like […] this is the truth, we have to accept it, but it is like this: “We trust in God”.83 Second, trust in God might also mean the belief in an agent. This understanding of trust is argued to be different from a Buddhist understanding:

81 ในพุทธศาสนานีvอะ เราไม่เชอในเรืvองของืv agent เราไม่เชอว่ามีืv มี God […] เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะ เราไม่ได ้ trust ใน agent ใด ๆ ทัwงสนิw แต่เรา trust ในความดี trust ในระบบกรรม […] คือเรา trust เราเชอมัvนว่าืv ถ ้าเรา ทําความดีนีvอะ เราต ้องได้รับผลดี. Dr. Phimpan. 82 Phra Prayudh Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Natural Laws and Values for Life, trans. Grant A. Olson (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1995). 199. 83 ความสมพันธ์มันจะอิงอยู่บนศรัทธากันล่ะั คือมันไม่ได ้ มันไม่ได ้เป็นลักษณะ เขาเรียกว่าอะไรล่ะ เอ่อ เห็น ตระหนักในความจริงอะไรบางอย่าง คือถ ้าเป็นกรรมแห่งกรรมนีvอะ เรา เราแทบจะไม่ต ้องมีศรัทธา แต่ถ ้าเรายอมรับว่ามัน […] เป็นสจธรรมั โดยทีvเราไม่ต ้องมีศรัทธาอย่างแรงกล ้าอะไรกับความจริงตรงนัwนนีvอะ ก็คือ เราก็สามารถใชมัน้ ในลักษณะทีvว่า เป็น เป็น เป็นอะไรนะ เป็นทีvปลอบใจ […] คนไทยก็ […] ปลงกับความจริงตรงนัwน มันเป็นความจริง หลีกหนีไม่ได ้อะไรอย่างงีwอะ แต่ถ ้าเป็นอย่างของ ของคริสเตียนนีvะ เวลาบอกว่า ใชพระเจ้ ้าเป็นทีvพักใจ หรืออะไรทํานอง นีw เป็นทีvพึvง เป็นทีvยึดเหนีvยวนีvอะ มันไม่มีลักษณะของการปลงนะคะ ไม่ได ้แบบ […] นีvมันคือความจริงนะ เราต ้อง ยอมรับมัน แต่มันมีลักษณะของว่า เราศรัทธาในพระองค์. Ms. Laksami. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 113

In the way of Christianity; if we no longer trust in God, will God then no longer be merciful to us? […] This whole text is about that one must have confifdence in God. If we reverse this, if we don’t have confifdence in God, will God still help us or not? Or does the bond between God and us depend on trust, so that when there is no trust, the bond is broken, there is no bond?84 According to three of the interviewees, understanding trust in God in this way invites the question whether the relation between act and consequences eventually is dependent on a person’s relation to God.

The Psalmist’s Lack of Trust and the Subsequent Affifrmation of Trust Lack of Trust Taking into account that trust in God is understood as the fifrm belief that both wicked and good people will receive consequences in accordance with their acts, some of the interviewees raised the following question: When the psalmist laments and questions as he does in the fifrst part of the psalm, does the psalmist then really trust in God? Again a couple of the interviewees argued that the psalmist’s lament should not be interpreted as a lack of trust, but more as an outburst from a desperate person. Most of the interviewees who raised this question, however, responded in the negative; no, he does not trust in God. They interpreted the question in the psalm as an expression of lack of trust in God, or at least as conveying a weak trust. Dr. Saichai argued that a question like this emerges before a person has gained trust in God: This question comes in every time and generation, isn’t it so? This kind of question will always come, because from one perspective I think it is the issue that before people come to God or have a fifrm trust they must pass the process of getting wisdom.85 In other words, in the interviews it is argued as follows: When the psalmist complains or questions God, it might look as if he has lost his trust in God, or that he has not yet attained a fifrm faith. If he had his confifdence inGod intact he would have known that God helps the righteous and punishes the wicked, or he would have known that God has a plan.

84 อย่างในทางคริสตศาสนานีvอะ ถ ้าเราหมดศรัทธากับพระเจ ้า พระเจ ้าก็จะหมดเมตตาเราเหรอคะ […] เรืvองทัwง หมดนีwมันเกีvยวกับว่าต ้องไว้ใจพระเจ้าไงฮะ ทานีwก็เลยคิดแบบ reverse ย ้อนกลับว่า ถ ้าเราไม่ ไม่ไว ้ใจพระเจ้านีvอะ พระเจ ้าจะยังชวยเราอยู่หรือเปล่า่ หรือว่า bond ระหว่างพระเจ ้ากับเรานีvอะ ขึwนอยู่กับศรัทธา พอไม่มีศรัทธาแล ้ว bond นัwนก็เสยไปี ก็ไม่มี bond นัwน. Dr. Phimpan. 85 คําถามนีw มีมาทุกยุคทุกสมัย ใชไหมฮะ่ มัน question อย่างนีwมาแล ้วตลอด เพราะว่า ในแง่หนึvง ครูคิดว่าเป็น ก็เป็นเรืvองทีvว่า ก่อน กว่าทีvคนจะ เข ้าถึง เอ่อ พระผู ้เป็นเจ ้า หรือว่ามีความศรัทธาทีvแน่นอนอะ นะ มันก็ต ้องผ่าน กระบวนการทีvมีปัญญา. Dr. Saichai. 114 chapter three

In comparing this to Buddhism it is argued that from a Buddhist point of view this question or outburst can be seen as a lack of trust in the law of kamma. It is like Buddhists question: Why are those who do wicked [deeds] still rich and successful? […] From one perspective, those who believe in Buddhism must have faith. But if there are persons, who do not believe, they would question, wouldn’t they? If people are Buddhists, if they believe and truly understand what the law of kamma is, they will not question.86 Mostly, those who believe in the law of kamma, if they really believe, they will not say “do good, receive good, where do we fifnd that?”87

Affifrmation of Trust But even though quite a few of the interviewees regarded the psalmist in the beginning of the psalm as lacking in trust, they generally agreed that after the temple incident, about halfway in the Psalm (verse 17), the psalmist had restored or renewed his trust in God. He has got trust in God already, [namely] that […] God is just. In the beginning it looked like God is not just, but what is true is that for those who do not good, he has already prepared a slippery path. In fact, he [the psalmist] has begun to understand God […], has already given his life to God.88 It was argued that after the psalmist had been in the temple or in a holy place, he had regained his trust in God. He had got an answer to his problem, namely that God would ensure that both the wicked and the good would receive the corresponding consequences of their acts.89

Stressing the Importance of Trust Based on the understanding that the psalmist and other believers in God should trust God in a situation like the one presented in the psalm, the importance of trust in God was elaborated on in the interviews. The focus

86 มันก็เหมือนคนพุทธ question ว่า ทําไมคนทําชวแลัv ้วยังร่ารวยํ และดี […] ในแง่หนึvงของการทีvจะนับถือ พุทธศาสนานีvอะ มันต ้องมีความศรัทธา แต่ถ ้าคนทีvไม่ศรัทธา เขาก็จะ question ใชไหมฮะ่ คือถ ้าสมมติว่า อย่างเป็น พุทธนีvอะ ถ ้าเขาเชอและเขาเขืv ้าใจจริง ๆ ว่า กฎแห่งกรรมแปลว่าอะไร เขาก็จะไม่ question. Ibid. 87 สวนมากคนทีvเช่ อกฎแห่งกรรมนีvืv ถ ้าเขาเชอจริงืv ๆ เขาจะไม่พูดเลยว่า “ทําดีได ้ดีมีทีvไหน”. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 88 เค ้าก็เกิดศรัทธาในพระเจ ้าแล้วว่า […] พระเจ ้านะยุติธรรม ตอนแรกก็ดูเหมือนว่าพระเจ ้าไม่ยุติธรรมไง แต่ทีvแท ้ ไอ ้คนทีvทําไม่ดีอะ วางทางลืvนไว ้ให้แล้ว นะฮะ แต่ว่าจริง ๆ แล ้วนีvอะ เค ้าเริvมเข ้าใจพระเจ้าแล้ว […] มอบชวิตี ให ้กับพระเจ ้าแล้ว. Dr. Somsri. 89 Mr. Wibun. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 115 was on what role the interviewees thought trust in God had for the psalmist, or might have for others who experience a situation like the one described in the psalm. Three points were made. First and foremost it was emphasised that trust is the basis for wisdom and understanding. In times with problems trust in God helps a person to see the situation in the right light. If one trusts in God, one will get wisdom and understanding […]. Therefore, trust is important, one must come—come and enter close to God; one must give one’s life to God, and then God will point out the way […]. Before, one did not understand, isn’t it so? One did not understand at all, but now, “oh, it is like this!”90 The second point made was that trust in God makes persons confifdent and gives them strength to continue doing good deeds when facing suffering and hardship. Christians believe in trust. Therefore, when we do good, and see others do evil and receive good in return, and don’t see them receiving any bad [consequences], if we have a fifrm trust, that trust will help us. That trust will make us confifdent and think that what we do is not in vain; we will receive its result.91 Third, it was argued that trust in God gives comfort in a situation where the wicked prosper, while the good suffer. [He] comforts himself [that God will punish the wicked]. […] If he does not believe [this], he will have no trust, nothing. Therefore, he must fifnd a way to make himself believe fifrmly.92 In short, the second major theme in the psalm, as the interviewees saw it, was trust in God. When facing hard times and a diffifcult situation like that in the Psalm, the psalmist understood that he could and should trust in God. Trusting God was thus both what the psalmist should have done in the situation fifrst described in the psalm, and what he in fact did intheend. Trust in God is to rely on, trust or understand that he will secure that the

90 ถ ้าศรัทธาต่อพระเจ ้าจะเกิดปัญญาเห็น […] เพราะนัwนศรัทธานีvสําคัญ นะฮะ มันจะต ้องเข้ามา จะเข ้าต้องมาหา พระเจ ้า ต ้องเอาชวิตมามอบกับพระเจี ้า แล ้วก็ แล ้วก็ พระเจ ้าถึงจะ จะชทางเห็นีw […] เมืvอก่อน มันสงสยอะั ใชมัwย่ มันสงสยหมดเลยั แต่พอมัน อ๋อ! มันเป็นอย่างงีwเอง. Dr. Somsri. 91 คริสเตียนก็เชอในเรืvองศรัทธาืv เพราะฉะนัwนการทีvเราทําความดี แล ้วเราเห็นคนอืvนทําความชวัv แล ้ว ความดีตอบ แทน กลับไม่เห็นว่า เขาจะได ้ชวตรงไหนนีvอะัv ถ ้าเรามีความศรัทธา ทีvมัvนคง ศรัทธานัwนจะชวยเรา่ ศรัทธานัwนจะทําให ้เรา มัvนคงและคิดว่าสงทีvเราทําไม่เสิv ยเปล่าี เราจะต ้องได้รับผล. Mr. Wibun. 92 ปลอบใจตัวเองว่า […] เพราะว่า ถ ้าเขาไม่เชอปุ๊บนีvอะืv ศรัทธาเขาจะไม่มี […] nothing เพราะฉะนัwนเขาจะ ต ้องหาวิธีทีvจะทําให ้ตัวเองเชอมัvนอะืv . Mr. Chakkri. 116 chapter three wicked will be punished and the good will receive good consequences of their good acts. This can also be seen as taking refuge in God. It was further elaborated on what role the trust in God was seen to have in a situation like this, that is, its role is to comfort and give strength to continue doing good.

Combining the Two Themes

Ways of Coping with the Problem in the Psalm—From the Perspective of the Text The psalm gives, according to the interviewees, two answers to how to cope with a situation like the one in the psalm. The one is to trust in God, the second, based on this trust in God, is to take refuge in him.

Trust in God The main answer given to how the psalmist should have reacted to, and coped with his situation was, that in a situation like the one described in the psalm, he should have trusted in God. “Christianity93 stresses that one should have trust in God, believe fifrmly in God, [and] have confifdence in God regardless of what happens in life.”94 The interviewees argued that if the psalmist had trusted God he would have understood that all which happens is according to God’s plan, and that everything will end well for the good and bad for the bad.95 As a consequence, with trust he would not have complained, but accepted the situation as it is, endured and continued doing good.96

God as Refuge Further, it was pointed out that since God is to be trusted to resolve the problem of the psalm, he can be regarded as a refuge in such situations. And then he says, he vows to God that there is nothing else than God that will be a refuge: “God is the only one that we trust”. […] Because every time he is not sure [of what to do] or is about to slip, that is, he is about to fall, God will

93 As already noted, the text was read as a Christian text. Christianity here probably refers to the text, read in the context of the Christian religion. 94 ศาสนาคริสต์ก็จะเน ้นในเรืvองของการให ้มีศรัทธาในพระเจ ้า ให ้เชอมัvนในพระเจืv ้า ให ้ไว้ใจพระเจ้า ไม่ว่าอะไรจะ เกิดขึwนกะชวิตนีvอะี . Dr. Phimpan. 95 Ibid, Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 96 Dr. Phichai, Mrs. Chanpen. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 117

stretch out his hand to him, to comfort, or to help him analyse how it is with this matter [i.e. the good who suffers], or correct his thoughts.97 How did the interviewees understand the emphasis on God as a refuge? Among those who discussed this concept there were two main lines of thought, which correspond to the two different emphasises concerning trust in God. The fifrst was that to take refuge in God means to holdon to, and take comfort in the understanding that both good and wicked will receive consequences in accordance with their own acts.98 The other way of understanding ‘taking refuge’ was to interpret it as meaning ‘to place your heart in God’ hands’, that is trusting that God can protect those who take refuge in him, that he loves them and does not throw them away.99 The fifrst option was compared to the Buddhist understanding that allrelyon themselves; it is like taking refuge in the teaching, while the second option is viewed as being different from a Buddhist understanding. Dr. Phichai tried to combine these two, arguing that in Buddhism refuge basically means to rely on oneself, but in Christianity one relies both on oneself and God. Another of the interviewees, Mrs. Chanpen, argued along the same lines, namely that God forgives, but on the basis of us converting and doing good.

Buddhist Responses to Suffering and Hardship Trust in the Law of Kamma As we have already seen, the interviewees have read the psalm as emphasising that for the psalmist—and thus for the Christians—, the right attitude to a situation like the one in the psalm is to trust and take refuge in God. Further, we have seen that they argued that trust is also found in Buddhism. In a situation like the one depicted in the psalm one may trust in the law of kamma, which implies that in the end all acts will meet up with their corresponding results. Consequently, when in the interviews it was commented on how the interviewees, as Buddhists, would or should cope with a situation like the one in the psalm, reliance on the law of kamma was a major

97 แล ้วก็บอกว่า ก็ ก็ ปฏิญาณกับพระเจ ้าว่า ก็ไม่มีอะไรอืvนใดทีvจะเป็นทีvพึvงได ้ นอกจากพระเจ ้า พระเจ ้าเท่านัwนทีv ทีvเราไว ้วางใจ […] เพราะว่าทุกครัwงทีvเขามีความไม่แนใจ หรือเขากําลังจะพลาด คือเขากําลังจะลังเล พระเจ ้าก็จะเอืwอม มือมาหาเขา เหมือน เหมือนปลอบ หรือเหมือนว่าให ้ทบทวน ให ้พิจารณาเรืvองนีwเป็นยังไง สงทีvคิดนีwถูกติv ้องหรือเปล่า. Mr. Wibun. 98 See for example Dr. Saichai, Mr. Chakkri. 99 See for example Ms. Laksami. 118 chapter three strategy. Concerning how Buddhists should respond to suffering and hardship, the main point emphasised in the interviews was that one should know or trust that it is caused by one’s own acts, and that the kamma one does indeed has consequences for oneself. All receive the consequences according to their own kamma. For a Buddhist it is the matter of the law of kamma. We are like this according to what we met in last life. Or if we do some [good] kamma, and [ask] why don’t we receive good, we will think that this is the truth we have to accept. OK, in this life we don’t receive, [but] next life we might receive good kamma anyway. It is like accepting that [in] this life we didn’t receive—never mind, [in] next life we will receive—something like that. Or there are wicked persons, wicked, but they receive good; never mind, that is the truth—something like that.100 Equanimity On the basis of the understanding that the law of kamma will secure that all acts have corresponding consequences, it is suggested that when one sees the wicked prosper the right attitude is equanimity or indifference (upekkha in Pali).101 But if someone believes fifrmly in the law of kamma, we will be indifferent, isn’t it so? Because you truly believes that we don’t need to become angry, we don’t have to be angry [and ask] why the wicked receives good. Because we believe that in the end, one day he/she must receive the results, but whether we will see it or not, it is not our business, it concerns only that individual person. Because what he/she did, he/she must receive. If we trust–if we truly believe—this, we will be calm in every situation.102 Seeing the wicked prosper should not cause any question or strong feelings, because it is a fact that this person will for sure receive the fruits of his or her acts, according to the law of kamma.

100 ของพุทธนีvอะ จะเป็นลักษณะว่า กฎแห่งกรรม เอ่อ เอ่อ เราเจออะไรมาในชาติทีvแล ้ว แล ้วเราเป็นอย่างงีw หรือเราทํากรรมอะไรก็แล ้วแต่ ทําไมเรายังไม่ได ้ดิบได ้ดีเสยทีี อะไรอย่างงีwอะ เราจะเป็นลักษณะว่า อ่อ มองคล ้าย ๆว่า มันคือความจริงทีvเราจะต ้องยอมรับว่า โอเค ในชาตินีwเราไม่ได ้ ชาติหน ้าเราอาจจะได้กรรมดีก็ได ้ คล ้าย ๆ ปลงว่า ชาตินีw เออไม่ได ้ ไม่เป็นไร ชาติหน ้า กะได ้อะไรอย่างงีw หรือมีคนเลว มันเลวมันได ้ดี เออ ไม่ ไม่เป็นไร ยอมรับมันว่า นีvคือความจริง อะไรอย่างงีw. Ms. Laksami. 101 Cf. the interesting discussion of Chai Podhisita, where he discusses interaction between the Thai cultural value of cool heartedness and the Buddhist concept of equanimity. Chai Podhisita, “Buddhism and Thai World View,” in Traditional and Changing Thai World View, ed. Amara Pongsapich (Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 1998/2541). 48–50. 102 แต่ว่าถ ้าสมมติเป็นคนทีvเชอกฎแห่งกรรมอย่างชืv ดเจนนีvอะั เราก็จะอุเบกขา ไชไหมฮะ่ แปลว่าวางเฉย เพราะว่า เธอเชอจริงืv ๆ ว่า เราไม่ต ้องไปโกรธหรอก เราไม่ต ้องไปโกรธหรอกว่า ทําไม คนชวไดัv ้ดี เพราะว่าเราเชอว่าืv ในทีvสุด วันหนึvงเขาต ้องได้รับผลนัwน แต่เราจะเห็นหรือไม่เห็นนีvอะไม่ใชเรืvองของเราไงฮะ่ เป็นเรืvองสวนตัวของคน่ ๆ นัwน เพราะว่า เขาทําอะไร เขาต ้องได้ ถ ้าเราศรัทธา ทีvเชออย่างนัwนจริงืv ๆ นีvอะ เราก็จิตสงบได ้ในทุกกรณี. Dr. Saichai. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 119

This being the ideal response does not mean, however, that everyone feels indifferent or content in the meeting with the wicked who prospers. Ms. Laksami expresses very clearly that she would have liked to see, for example, politicians who become very rich because of corruption, receive immediate bad consequences of their acts, instead of being seemingly very happy and prosperous. For instance, the example with the politician […]. If I had been one with power, for sure I wouldn’t wait for next life. I would have done something in order to make that person receive results of his kamma in this life […]. But if we are persons without power, we are like onlookers; we see wicked people and we cannot do anything with them. In the end we have to let it be after the law of kamma, after the principle of Buddhism—something like that. In the end, when he has done kamma, the result will come back on him, like [it is stated in the saying] “do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil”.103 As it is not in Ms. Laksami’s power to stop such persons, she can only rely on the law of kamma to take its course in due time. Likewise, the good who suffers should also trust that what one experiences is due to one’s own acts. On this basis four strategies of coping with the problem of suffering are mentioned in the interviews, and I will brieflfy deal with each of them. Accept the Situation First, based on the trust and understanding that the relation between act and consequence is governed by the law of kamma, it is emphasised that one has to accept the situation as it is. For a Buddhist it is the matter of the law of kamma. We are like this according to what we met in last life. Or if we do some [good] kamma, and [ask] why don’t we receive good, we will think that this is the truth we have to accept.104 Continue Doing Good But, as we have already discussed in connection with the Proverbs text (ch. 2), this doesn’t mean that one should fall into passivity. Rather one should concentrate on doing good, knowing that all acts have

103 อย่างตัวอย่างของนักการเมืองนีvอะ […] ถ ้าตัวเองเป็นคนมีอํานาจ แน่นอนไม่รอชาติหน ้า ต ้องทําอะไรสกอย่างั ให ้มันเกิดผลกรรมกะไอ ้คนนัwนในชาตินีwเลย […] ถ ้าเราไม่ คนไม่มีอํานาจ เหมือนเราเป็นคนคอยดู อะไรอย่างงีwนะคะ เอ่อ เรา เราเห็นคนเลวบางคน แล ้วเรารู ้สกว่าึ เรา เราทําอะไรกับเขาไม่ได ้นีvอะ ในทีvสุดแล ้ว ก็ต ้องปล่อยให ้มัน เป็นไปตามกฎแห่งกรรม ตามหลักพุทธ อะไรอย่างงีwอะค่ะ ในทีvสุด เมืvอเขาทํากรรมอะไรไว ้ผลก็จะสนองเขาเอง ในแง่ทีv ทําดีได ้ดี ทําชวไดัv ้ชวัv . Ms Laksami. 104 ของพุทธนีvอะจะเป็นลักษณะว่า กฎแห่งกรรม เอ่อ เอ่อ เราเจออะไรมาในชาติทีvแล ้ว แล ้วเราเป็นอย่างงีw หรือเราทํากรรมอะไรก็แล ้วแต่ ทําไมเรายังไม่ได ้ดิบได ้ดีเสยทีี อะไรอย่างงีwอะ เราจะเป็นลักษณะว่า อ่อ มองคล ้าย ๆว่า มันคือความจริงทีvเราจะต ้องยอมรับ. Ms. Laksami. 120 chapter three consequences, and therefore that the good acts one does will eventually bear fruit, and the hard situation will change, if not in this life, then in next.105 In addition, what you have been doing good today will at least let you feel better.

[In old kamma I am] not interested. […] In new kamma [I am] not interested either, but today one must do only good. If you believe in kamma, at least you try to do good today. If you are … OK, this year you beg, but when you beg you try not to impose on other people very much […], you try not to do that which is not good. And because [of this], you have the hope that next life we might have it better than this. But in any case, it will not change today, so you must try to make today as good as possible.106 Our thinking is that if it is like this, we try to do our utmost best, and do not trouble others.107 Self-Scrutiny In addition, one could also consider whether one is as good as one thinks oneself. Receiving hardship and suffering might also be an indication that one has to change one’s way.

Even if it was stressed in the interviews that the best and right strategy in a situation like this is to accept it, be content and press on doing good, one of the interviewees made the point that the feelings of frustration might still be there, but that there is nowhere to direct them, as the law of kamma is an impersonal force.

Keep it, keep it in the heart. It might be a weak point in the ethical theory that we don’t know that which allocates justice to us, who it is, where it is […]. We don’t know to whom we could express [our feelings]. It might be a weak point.108

105 Sutchira Onkom, for example, argues as follows regarding persons, who, because in a previous life they were mean and never gave anything to anyone else were born poor: “If they think that they are poor because of their karma, and therefore lazily give up the struggle for a better way of life, then they will be born poor forever. The right thing to do is for them to work hard to accumulate good, new karma. As for their previous bad karma, they have expiated it by being born poor.” Onkom, Creating Sustainable World Peace. 61. 106 […] ไม่สนใจ […] กรรมใหม่ก็ไม่สนใจ แต่ปัจจุบันต ้องทําแต่ความดี ถ ้าคุณเชอเรืvองกรรมืv อย่างน ้อยตอนนีwคุณ พยายามทําความดี ถ ้าคุณเป็น โอเค ปีนีwขอทาน แต่คุณก็ เมืvอคุณขอทานคุณก็พยายามไม่รบกวนคนอืvนมาก […] คุณพยายามทีvจะไม่ทําไม่ดี เพราะฉะนัwนก็ต ้องมีความหวังว่า เออ ชวิตหนี ้า เราอาจจะดีกว่านีwก็ได ้ แต่ถึงอย่างไร มันเปลีvยนไม่ได ้ในปัจจุบัน ก็ต ้องพยายามทําปัจจุบันให ้ดีทีvสุด. Mrs. Chanpen. 107 ความคิดของเรา คือว่า ถ ้าเป็นอย่างนัwน คือเราพยายามทําดีทีvสุดของเรา ไม่ให ้คนอืvนเดือดร ้อน. Mrs. Manee. 108 เก็บไว ้ เก็บไว ้ในใจ นีvอาจจะเป็นข ้อเสยอย่างหนึvงของหลักจริยธรรมี ทีvไม่รู ้ว่า สงทีvเป็นผูิv ้จัดสรรความยุติธรรมให ้ แก่เรานีv คือใคร อยู่ทีvไหน […] ไม่รู ้จะระบายไปทีvใคร นีvอาจจะเป็นข ้อเสยี . Dr. Phichai. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 121

Other Responses When the interviewees discussed what could be the way in which to cope with the situation where the righteous suffer, not only did they mention trust in the law of kamma, but somehow widened the scope. We will take as our point of departure the following quotation: According to the teaching, a refuge in times when one experience problems is Dhamma. For example I myself; when I have problems I chant, read Dhamma books, read about the principles of Dhamma. Because when reading the principles of Dhamma it is like reading philosophy on a high level. Dhamma lets us see life and problems of life in the perspective that they are devoid of any permanent entity; in a short while they will pass; nothing is enduring, everything is impermanent […]. All the hardship that we meet, in the end it will pass, because nothing has a self […]. [Thus] when I have problems I will use the principle and teaching of Buddhism like a refuge; it is like a shelter, a rest for the heart. And then one is able to come through the monsoon [i.e. hardship]. But in the way of practice, some people are too lazy to read, they take a short-cut; that is chant and ask monks [to help]. That is one style, and if not, there is another path, that is to believe in superstition. That is to pay respect to gods and angels, ask for blessing, do merit, give charity. That is, there are different types of methods to fifnd a shelter for the heart […] depending on what level of Buddhism they belong to.109 We see here that Dr. Phimpan argues that there are different types of strategies or methods that people resort to in times of hardship. Three different strategies are identififed: Take Refuge in the Dhamma First, some people will in times of hardship take refuge in Dhamma. What it means to take refuge in Dhamma in a situation like this had two different emphasises in the interviews. Dr. Phimpan and others emphasised the role of the teaching of Dhamma.110 In times of hardship, the teaching is a rest for the heart, help people to understand how things really are. This can

109 ถ ้าตามหลักเลยนีvอะ “ทีvลีwภัย” ในเวลาทีvประสบปัญหานีvอะ คือพระธรรม อย่างตัวดิฉันเองนีvอะ เวลาทีvมีปัญหานีvอะ จะสวดมนตร์ จะอ่านหนังสอธรรมะื อ่านหลักธรรมต่าง ๆ นีvอะ เพราะว่าเวลาอ่านหลักธรรมนีvอะ เหมือนกับอ่านหนังสอื ปรัชญาระดับสูง พระธรรมให ้มองเห็นชวิตทุกอย่างนีvอะว่าี ต ้องเห็นปัญหาทุกอย่างว่า มันก็แค่นัwนอะ มันไม่ได ้มีอะไร ซบซั อน้ เดีyยวมันก็ผ่านไป ทุกอย่างมันไม่จีรัง มันเป็นอนิจจัง […] ความยากลําบากทัwงหลายทีvเราเจอนีvอะ ในทีvสุดมัน ก็จะผ่านไป เพราะทุกอย่างมันไม่มีตัวตนนะฮะ […] เวลามีปัญหาทีไร ก็จะเอาหลักธรรมคําสอนทางพุทธศาสนานีvอะ เหมือนกับเป็น refuge เป็นทีv เป็นทีvกําบัง เป็นทีvพักใจ แล ้วมันก็จะผ่านมรสุมไปได ้นะฮะ แต่ถ ้าในทางปฏิบัตินีvอะ บางคนเค ้าขีwเกียจอ่าน เค ้าก็จะไปทางลัด คือสวดมนตร์ขอพระ นัwนก็เป็นอีกแบบนึง หรือไม่ก็เป็นอีกสายนึง ก็คือเชอในืv superstition ก็คือไปไหว ้เทพ ไหว ้เทวดา ขอพร ทําบุญทําทาน คือมันมีวิธีการหาทีvหลบภัยทางใจนีvอะ หลายแบบ […] แล ้วแต่ว่าเขานับถือพุทธศาสนาระดับไหน แบบไหนนะฮะ. Dr. Phimpan. 110 Dr. Saichai, Mae Chii Narumon, Mae Chii Phornthip, Ms. Laksami. 122 chapter three include understanding the law of kamma itself. Further it means understanding the basic nature of things; that everything is changing, and that problems and hardship will come and go. She is here referring to the Bud- dhist teaching that existence is characterised by Anicca—impermanence, Dukkha—suffering, and Anatta, devoid of self.111 Suchitra Onkom succinctly explains the way of thinking referred to by Dr. Phimpan as follows: Since misery or suffering arises because of one’s attachment to something, which can be either material or non-material, one has to let go of this kind of attachment and try to realize the futility of trying to grasp at or attach to something which does not actually have a ‘self’ and is subject to change … For one who is able to extinguish the sense of attachment to ‘selfness’ of all things material or non-material … [enters] a state of real calmness wherein earthly pains and limitations have been totally overcome by the highest attainable human wisdom.112 The other role of Dhamma in hardship and suffering that was emphasised in the interviews, was, together with Buddha and Sangha,113 its character of being a basic pattern for life. That is, it is a tool pointing out what is right and wrong; it is something that might inspire or inflfuence people to do good deeds, it thus induces people to rely on themselves.114 Visit the Temple Second, another way of fifnding a shelter for the heart in times of hardship, and to cope with hardship, is to visit the temple,115 do merit and listen to monks’ chanting.116

111 These concepts are very central to Buddhist teaching, characterising existence. They are often referred to as ‘the three characteristics of existence’ or ‘the three natural characteristics of all things’. For a brief explanation of these concepts, see Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Natural Laws and Values for Life. 61–76. 112 Onkom, Creating Sustainable World Peace. 24–25. Cf. also the following quote from Payutto, which states the same as what Dr. Phimpan expressed: “The fruits of kamma on the external level are mostly worldly conditions, which are in a state of constant flfux. These worldly conditions are relatively superfifcial, they are not the real essence of life. How much they inflfuence us depends on the extent of our attachment to them. If there islittle attachment, it is possible to maintain equilibrium in the face of hardships, or at least not be overwhelmed by them.” Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching. 45. 113 The Triple Gem. 114 Dr. Phichai, Phra Suthep, Phra Phongsak, Phra Songkran. 115 Mrs. Manee for example said that the Thais normally go to the temple when sad, but going out to have fun (thiaw) when happy. 116 See Charles F. Keyes, “Merit-Transference in the Kammic Theory of Popular Theravada Buddhism,” in Karma: An Anthropological Inquiry, eds. Charles F. Keyes and E. Valentine Daniel (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1983). 274. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 123

Most people don’t know what to rely on, but rely on the temple […]. [They] think that if they meet with suffering, [and] are not happy, then: “enter the temple and be happy”. This is what most Buddhists think then; that to enter the temple might be a refuge. Rely on the monks—something like that; they might help […]. But if they are Buddhists at a higher level, it might be more like this; the refuge is the teaching, Dhamma.117 Quite a few of the interviewees stressed that in times of hardship, going to the temple will help to relieve the situation, that is, make one feel stronger.118 Seek the Help of Sacred Powers Third, Dr. Phimpan argued that people might also seek the help of supernatural powers in such situations. According to Ms. Laddawan, this might in fact be the main strategy that most Thai people will choose in times of problems: Buddhists, when they are born into hardship or poverty—something like that, there is hardly anybody who are content with their situation. Mostly, they will go and pay respect, ask for blessing from sacred objects […] in order to feel better and receive strength to continue doing their duty. Most people […] they think that, those [powers] which we—they don’t see—, will help in making their lives better. But some people might accept the situation they are in [as it is]; it is only that they want a refuge, [which] can make their mind stronger.119 Here the interviewee referred to the widespread belief in Thailand in sacred objects and magical powers. In times of hardship and suffering one does not only think that this is due to one’s own kamma and that one has to do good; one might also seek help from supernatural powers, believing them to be able to help in the situation.120

117 คนทัvวไปไม่รู ้พึvง พึvงอะไรอะ แต่พึvงวัด […] คิดว่า ถ ้าตัวเองเจอความทุกข์ ไม่สบายใจ เข ้าวัดนะ แล ้วจะสบายใจ นีvคือคนพุทธทัvวไปอาจจะมองว่า การเข ้าวัดน่าจะเป็นทีvพึvง พึvงพระ อะไรอย่างงีwอะค่ะ พระน่าจะชวยได่ ้ […] ถ ้าแต่เป็น พุทธในอีกระดับนึง อาจจะคล ้าย ๆ ว่า ทีvยึดเหนีvยวจิตใจคือพระธรรมคําสอน. Ms. Laksami. 118 Jasper Ingersoll has an interesting observation on the aspect of making the mind or heart stronger. He said: “A pervasive element in Thai folk magic is that the obtaining of proper ritual assistance or procedures will make one feel better and stronger, a prime condition for coping with whatever comes along. Lacking a strong heart, one is more susceptible to bullets, ghosts, or other maladies.” Jasper Ingersoll, “Fatalism in Village Thailand,” Anthropological Quarterly 39, no. 3 (1966). 212. 119 ชาวพุทธนีwเวลาเกิดมาลําบากหรือจนอะไรอย่างนีwอะค่ะ เขาก็ ก็ ไม่ค่อยมีใครพอใจในสงทีvตัวเองเป็นอะค่ะิv สวน่ ใหญ่ เขาจะไป ไหว ้ขอพรจากสงศิv กดิzสั ทธิzิ […] เพืvอให ้จิตใจตัวเองดีขึwน แล ้วก็มีกําลังใจ ทําหน ้าทีvของตัวเองต่อไป […] คนสวนใหญ่่ […] เขาคิดว่า สงทีvเราิv เขามองไม่เห็นตรงนัwน จะชวยเขาให่ ้ ชวิตเขาดีขึwนี แต่ว่าก็สวนนึง่ บางคนก็ อย่างทีvบอกอะ เขาก็ยอมรับสงทีvมันมีอยู่ิv เพียงแต่ว่าต ้องการทีvพึvง ให ้จิตใจของตัวเองแข็งแรงขึwนอะคะ. Ms. Laddawan. 120 Donald K. Swearer, The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1995). 18–19. 124 chapter three

Intermediate Conclusion

Themes and Issues The Understanding of the Main Themes and Issues in Psalm 73 In the interviews with Thai Buddhists about how they would interpret Psalm 73, three main issues came to the forefront. That is, the question of why the wicked prosper, while the good suffer, the issue of trust in God, and the problem of how to cope in a situation like the one described in the Psalm. According to the interviewees, the basic theme of the text, to which the two other themes are closely connected, is the problem of the experienced and observed incoherence between act and consequence (formulated in the question: why do the wicked prosper, while the good suffer?). The psalm is regarded as highlighting this theme through the psalmist’s questions, reflfections and laments on his situation—a situation, in which the psalmist, described as a righteous person, suffers, in sharp contrast to the success and satisfaction of the wicked. The psalmist’s problem is also, in light of him being a believer in God, interpreted as a question of theodicy. The problem of the psalmist is, however, viewed as fifnding its resolution in the latter part of the Psalm. The solution, as the interviewees saw it, is that eventually both the wicked and the good will receive the consequences of their acts. How this is thought to be brought about depends on the interviewees’ interpretation of the role of God with regard to the connection between act and consequence. Like in the interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31, two main suggestions were offered. That is, on the one hand, some of the interviewees understood the responsible agent to be the person himself, and God only the facilitator. This was then said to be similar to the role of the law of kamma. On the other hand, other interviewees regarded God as the responsible agent, thus making his role different from the role of the law of kamma. Further, the fact that consequences may not appear immediately was also compared to Buddhist teaching, as the interviewees understood it, namely the point that the result of acts may not be experienced before in a next life. From the interviewees’ own point of view, a situation as the one described in the psalm must in general be viewed on the background of the teaching of kamma, both with regard to its explanation and resolution. But as I have pointed out, other explanations (like for example other natural laws, or fate) were also offered in the interviews. A second, related theme, discussed by the interviewees, was the issue of trust in God. By many of the interviewees, it was suggested that the thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 125 psalmist’s questioning might be due to his lacking trust in God. That is, his questioning was interpreted as showing that he did not trust the problem would be resolved. In the end, however, the interviewees argued that the psalmist regained his trust in God, and perceived clearly how everything would come together in the end. Trust was here understood as fifrm belief in or the understanding that God will secure corresponding consequences. This understanding was compared to the interviewees’ own understanding that it is crucial to trust in the law of kamma. That is, to trust that the teaching of a correspondence between act and consequence is true. Some of the interviewees, however, had the understanding that trust in God also means to stand in a relation to him, and rely on him. When understood this way, they argued, trust means something different to Christians than to Buddhists, namely blind faith or trust (Christians) versus understanding and confifdence (Buddhists). Finally, the two issues related above were combined and expanded on in a discussion on how to cope in a situation like this. The discussion took as its point of departure the psalmist’s experience of coping with his situation. The psalmist should, according to the interviewees, have trusted in God, and the text was read as if this was what in the end he did. If he had trusted God all the time, he would in the interviewees’ opinion not have complained, but accepted the situation, endured and continued doing good. Further, it was argued that the psalm says that when the psalmist eventually trusted God, he took refuge in God. To take refuge in God was interpreted on line with the two ways of trusting in God. That is, from one point of view it was interpreted as meaning taking comfort in the understanding that both the good and wicked will receive consequences in accordance with their own acts. This was viewed as being similar to the Buddhist understanding that all rely on themselves, it is like taking refuge in the teaching—Dhamma. From another point of view, to take refuge in God was understood as trusting that God can protect those who take refuge in him, that he loves them and does not throw them away. This interpretation was regarded as being different from Buddhist understanding. In discussing how they themselves thought that persons ought to cope with a situation like the one in the psalm, quite a few suggested trust in the law of kamma. It was argued that trust in the law of kamma will give comfort in situations like the one presented in the psalm. Further, it was contended that, on the basis of the trust in the law of kamma, persons are able to meet situations like this with equanimity, with acceptance, and by renewed strength to do good in the present. But, in addition to trust in the law of kamma, other responses were also offered. These 126 chapter three included taking refuge in the Dhamma, visiting the temple and making merit, and seeking the help of sacred powers.

Main Comparisons In order to emphasise the similarities and differences between the text and their own understanding, which the interviewees noted, I will brieflfy sum up the main comparisons made in the interviews. Similarities between the Text and Their Own Experiences and Belief, Agreed on by All Who Commented on These Issues The interviewees noted the following main similarities between the text and their own experiences and beliefs:

– The situation related in the psalm, namely that people who are good, meet hardship, while wicked people prosper. – The question of the psalm—why do the wicked prosper, while the good suffer—is by the interviewees regarded as a universal question. – The solution of the problem, namely that all will receive the corresponding consequences of their acts. – The importance of trust for gaining a deeper understanding of the problem and its resolution. – The importance of trust for coping with the problem. – The importance of a refuge in situations like the one in the psalm. Some Issues Which Some of the Interviewees Found to Be Similar to Their Own Buddhist Understanding, While Others Regarded as Different In the interviewees’ interpretations of the following issues, they differed as to whether these can be regarded as similar to their own Buddhist thinking or not.

– How consequences of acts are brought about. Is it due to the law of kamma (God interpreted as a natural law), hence similar to Buddhist teaching, or is it due to God’s acting as a free agent and hence different from Buddhist teaching? – The question of what it means to have trust. Does it, like in Buddhism, fifrst and foremost mean to have the confifdence that something istrue, or is it, in contrast to Buddhism, to rely on someone, or stand in a relationship to someone? – To take refuge. Does it ultimately mean to rely on oneself as is emphasised in Buddhist teaching, or on someone else? – The question of how to cope in a situation like the one in the psalm. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 127

Differences between the Text and Their Own Experiences and Belief, Agreed on by Those Who Commented on These Issues

– No such complaint is found in the Buddhist scriptures; also there is nowhere to direct the lament, since the law of kamma is impersonal.

Critical Comments, Objections, and Questions As we have seen, many of the interviewees commented both on the psalmist’s question and how they understood his reactions to his experience. In this connection, quite a few critical remarks were given. The psalmist was regarded by some interviewees as a person lacking in faith or wisdom, and by others as lacking self-insight. In other words, in the interviews a critical stanza towards the psalmist’s way of coping with his situation was discerned. A second issue, to which there were critical remarks, although quite indirectly, was the issue of trust and reliance in God. The idea of trust in God, understood as relying on him, was regarded as inferior to Buddhist belief that a person relies on himself or herself. At least, when more understanding is gained, there is no longer the use for someone else to lean on. Finally, one of the interviewees, Dr. Phimpan, on the basis on her interpretation of the psalm—as stressing that God is the one who allocates the consequences of acts to persons—, raised the question if God will stop being merciful to us if we do not believe in him. Behind this question lies the understanding that a person’s relationship to God is crucial to what a person meets in life.

Resources and Frameworks of Understanding Main Resources and Frameworks of Understanding Utilised in the Interpretation of Psalm 73 The main resources utilised in the interpretation of Psalm 73 were by and large the same as was the case with Proverbs 11:18–31. That is, the interviewees made use of Thai sayings and proverbs, personal opinions, Bud- dhist doctrines and the interviewees own understanding of them, Buddhist precepts, allusions to Buddhist scriptural passages, references to Buddhist scriptures, references to modern science, Thai cultural values, and knowledge and understanding of Christian teachings. In addition, personal experience or observation of situations similar to the one in the psalm was important to how some of the interviewees related to the text. 128 chapter three

Like in Proverbs 11:18–31, the framework of kamma was basic to the interviewees’ interpretation of the text. The problem of the psalm was understood on the background of an expectation of coherence between act and consequence, based on the teaching of the law of kamma. Hence, in the interviewees’ own understanding of the problem, both with regard to how it could be explained and resolved—and to a certain extent how it could be coped with—, the teaching of kamma played a signififcant role. Within this teaching, it was especially issues regarding the fruition of kamma which were central. It should be noted, however, that, quite a few of the interviewees interpreted it within a framework of understanding related to how they understood the role of God to be viewed within Christianity. In addition, when the interviewees commented on how they themselves viewed this issue, some of the interviewees used other frameworks of understanding than the kamma framework in their explanation of why there is not always correspondence between act and consequence. That is, for example understanding in terms of fate or destiny, or in terms of modern science. Especially with regard to the interviewees’ interpretation of the psalmist’s reactions and their opinion on how one ought to cope in a situation like the one in the psalm they utilised other frameworks of understanding than kamma. – Thinking of the teaching of impermanence, one knows that also hardship will pass. The situation of suffering is a part of human lives, because, according to Buddhist doctrine, everything is suffering, since one clings to that which is impermanent. – Listening to monks chanting, visiting temple, making merit—all this is partaking in the fifeld of merit from monks or making merit oneself; this makes one receive strength, and feeling better. – Asking for help from sacred powers.

Inner-Buddhist Differences Regarding the Frameworks of Understanding Related to in the Interpretation of Psalm 73 – Two of the interviewees, who were not reckoning with the law of kamma, gave other explanations to why the unjust suffer or the wicked prosper. – Using different frameworks of understanding within the teaching of kamma to explain the problem—not necessarily signalling differences within the Buddhist understanding, but levels of understanding of the doctrine. thai buddhist interpretations of psalm 73 129

– How to evaluate the lament and complaint of the psalmist were viewed differently. – The question concerning what kind of strategies are the best for coping with the problem of the psalm revealed different frameworks within which to understand suffering. These were the main result of the investigation into Thai Buddhist interpretations of Psalms 73. They will form the basis for the discussion in chapter 7, where I will discuss how the Psalms text, from the point of view of its textual context, can be interpreted in response to the interpretations given by Thai Buddhists. In the following chapter (ch. 4), however, I will proceed with a study of the interviewees’ interpretation of Ecclesiastes 9:1–12. chapter four

THAI BUDDHIST INTERPRETATIONS OF ECCLESIASTES 9:1–12

Introduction

Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 was, according to the majority of the interviewees, the most diffifcult text to read and understand. Dr. Phimpan’s characteristic of it succinctly summarises what many of the interviewees expressed concerning the text: [The text is] diffifcult to read, diffifcult language […]. I feel that it is diffifcult to fifnd the inner connection [in the text], how it connects from onetotwo, from two to three etc. Where is the connection? Then it is like […] it presents many different themes.1 The main reason given by the interviewees explaining why the text was considered diffifcult to understand was that it was hard to fifnd a scarlet thread going through the text. The text was regarded as raising many themes, but, according to the interviewees, it was not always so easy to see the interrelation between the themes. Hence it was diffifcult to get a grasp of the text and its meaning. In addition the language was considered quite diffifcult, and, which we will see below, was sometimes felt to be ambiguous. Never- theless, in spite of the diffifculties, most of the interviewees really made an effort to understand the text, and many interesting comments and readings emerged. While the text, at least by fifrst reading, was felt by many to be inaccessible, a couple of the interviewees immediately got a high degree of recognition when they read it. Even though they also felt the language to be a bit strange, they stated that this text expresses something very true about how life appears to us humans, and how we should live our lives. Four main issues were discussed. These were discussed both from the point of view of how the interviewees understood the text to elaborate on them, and from their own point of view as Buddhists. I shall deal with each of these four issues in the following sections. The fifrst and main theme in the

1 […] อ่านยาก ภาษาเค ้ายาก […] รู ้สกว่าึ เอ่อ ความต่อเนืvองนีvอะ มันหา มันมัน มันจับได ้ยาก ว่ามันต่อกันยังไง จากหนึvงไปสอง สองไปสาม อะไรพวกนีwอะ ความต่อเนืvองมันอยู่ตรงไหน นะฮะ แล ้วก็เหมือนกับว่า อีกอย่างหนึvง ก็คือว่า เสนอหลายประเด็นเหมือนกัน. Dr. Phimpan, (Bangkok, 28. August 2005). 132 chapter four text was identififed as the emphasis on using one’s life, or time, in the best way possible (see the section named “Use your time in the best way possible”). The second was identififed as the opportunities which human beings have (see the section named “There is time and opportunity for all”), and the third theme as the issue of human destiny and God (see the section named “Everything is in the hands of God”). Finally, it was discussed howtheconcept of fate (vv. 2–3) is to be understood (see the section named “All meet the same เคราะ (khraw, fate)”).

“Use Your Time in the Best Way Possible”2

By and large the interviewees found the text from Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 to emphasise that death is the inevitable outcome of life, and therefore that the important thing for humankind to do is to use their allocated time here on earth in the best way possible. Dr. Phimpan aptly expressed this point as follows: [The text emphasises that] everyone will experience the same destiny. That is, everyone must die, and then, when dead, we are not able to correct anything anymore. Therefore, we should use the time that we still have in the best way possible.3 In this section I will fifrst present how the interviewees elaborated on this theme both with regard to how they understood the text to discuss the theme, and how they themselves as Buddhists understood the theme. Then I will go into more detail regarding what reasons the interviewees found the text to give for the importance of using time in the best way possible.

The Right Way of Using One’s Time Verses 7–10 were central in the interviewees’ elaboration on this theme.

“Live Your Life by Not Being Careless”4 In the interviews, the major point of view was that the stress in the text on using time in the best way possible is comparable to the Buddhist

2 The heading is based on the following statement from Dr. Phimpan: “… we should use the time that we still have in the best way possible.” (เราควรจะใชช้ วงเวลาทีvเรายังอยู่นีvอะ่ ให ้ดีทีvสุด). 3 มนุษย์ทุกคนนีvอะ จะประสบชะตากรรมเหมือนกันหมด คือทุกคนต ้องตาย แล ้ว เวลาตายไปแล ้วนีvอะ เราไม่ สามารถ ทีvจะแก ้ไขอะไรได้อีก เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะ เราควรจะใชช้ วงเวลาทีvเรายังอยู่นีvอะ่ ให ้ดีทีvสุด. Dr. Phimpan. 4 มีชวิตอยู่ดี ้วยความไม่ประมาท. Ibid. thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 133 teaching that mindfulness, or not being careless (ไม่ประมาท), should be a basic attitude to life.5 Verse 10 is similar to what Buddhism teaches. Buddhism teaches about not being careless. Not being careless means: We might die anytime, therefore while [we are] not yet dead, [we should] hurry up and do good, because when [we are] dead already, [we] can not do it.6 This quote sums up how most of the interviewees, when discussing the idea of carelessness, explained what it mean not to be careless; namely, to use the time one has in this life doing good.7 Their view was that not being careless is related to ethical conduct. Dr. Phimpan agreed on this, but she also offered a more comprehensive understanding of the concept. Hurry up and do good before you die. This is the understanding of Buddhism as well, because […] we don’t know how the future or the next life will be. Therefore, when one has life, everybody should hurry up and do good. There is a Buddhist proverb which says: “Live your life by not being careless.” […] But in the case of Christianity there is a stress on enjoying life, whereas [in the case of] Buddhism [the stress is on] abstaining from enjoying or indulging too much during the course of life. That is, Buddhism will not stress that one should go and have fun, or that kind of things, but will instead stress the practice of Dhamma; [stress] that one should lead a life of not being careless. That is, recollect Dhamma, which is the teaching of Buddha, and practise it. Therefore, the notion that one should not be careless in the use of one’s life, but be aware of death, is similar, but the method of how to use life is different.8 Dr. Phimpan argued that, from a Buddhist point of view, not being careless means to recollect and practice Dhamma—the Buddhist teaching. She then pointed out that to practice Dhamma means, among other things, to abstain

5 Explicitly expressed by Dr. Phichai, (Bangkok, 3. August 2005), Dr. Phimpan, Dr. Saichai, (Bangkok, 28. July 2005), Mae Chii Phornthip, (Bangkok, 20. September 2005), Mr. Wibun, (Bangkok, 18. August 2005). 6 ข ้อสบก็คลิ ้ายๆ กับศาสนาพุทธสอน ศาสนาพุทธสอนเรืvอง ความไม่ประมาท ไม่ประมาท คือ เราอาจจะตายได ้ เสมอ เพราะฉะนัwนในขณะทีvยังไม่ตาย รีบทําความดีเอาไว ้ เพราะตายไปแล ้ว ทําไม่ได. ้ Dr. Phichai. 7 Mr. Wibun, for example, put it this way: “To be careless means—it does not mean not being careful when looking out for cars when you cross the street; no, it is not that—[it means] to be careless in doing good.” (ประมาทนีwหมายถึงว่า ไม่ใชว่า่ ไม่ ไม่ระวัง ข ้ามถนนไม่ดูรถ แล ้วรถชนเดินชนโต๊ะ ชนเก ้าอีw ไม่ใชอย่างงัwน่ ประมาทในการทําความดี). 8 ให ้เร่งทําความดีก่อนทีvจะตาย อันนีwก็เป็นความคิดของ ของพุทธศาสนาเหมือนกัน เพราะว่า คือ เนืvองมาจากว่า เราไม่รู ้ว่า อนาคตนีvอะ ชาติหน ้าจะเป็นยังไงเนีvยะ เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะ เวลามีชวิตอยู่เนีvยะี ทุกคนก็ควรเร่งทําความดี ถ ้าสํานวนพุทธศาสนา ก็คือ “มีชวิตอยู่ดี ้วยความไม่ประมาท” ซงึv จริง ๆ มันก็สะท ้อนอะไรคล้าย ๆ กัน ก็คืออย่าประมาท ในการใชช้ วิตี แต่ว่าในขณะทีv ของคริสต์นีvอะ เน ้นให้enjoy life ของพุทธให ้abstain จากการทีv enjoy, indulge too much ในเรืvองของชวิตี คือ ไม่ ไม่ ของพุทธนีvอะ จะไม่เน ้นให้ไปสนุกสนาน ไม่ไปอะไรพวกนีw แต่ว่าจะเน ้นในเรืvอง ของการปฏิบัติธรรมแทนว่า การมีชวิตอยู่อย่างไม่ประมาทนีvอะี คือการระลึกถึงธรรม ถึงคําสอนของพระพุทธเจ ้า ถึง การปฏิบัติธรรม เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะ notion ในเรืvองของการใชช้ วิตอย่างไม่ประมาทนีvอะี ให ้ aware ถึงความตายนีvอะ คล ้ายกัน แต่ว่าวิธีการใชช้ วิตต่างกันี . Dr. Phimpan. 134 chapter four from worldly pleasures. On this point, she found a difference between Buddhist teaching and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12, as, in her opinion, the biblical text stresses that one should enjoy the good things of life when one has life, in contrast with the Buddhist teaching of showing restraint and moderation.9 I will come back to the issue of enjoying life in the section below. In dogmatic Thai Buddhism the concept of not being careless (ไม่ประมาท) is related to the seventh factor of the Noble Eightfold Path, namely ‘proper mindfulness’. Payutto identififes ไม่ประมาท (not being careless) with sati (mindfulness) in the aspect of appamada (carefulness or conscientious- ness).10 According to Payutto carefulness is of central importance with regard to ethical conduct as it “reminds us to open the door to the good and close it to the bad”.11 Persons should be careful and mindful in all their ways and practices, striving to improve themselves, doing good and avoiding evil, on whatever level they are in their moral development. By doing so, different benefifts are gained, depending on persons’ spiritual level.12

Enjoy Life As we have already seen from Dr. Phimpan’s statement in the previous section, she understood the text (especially verses 7–10) to encourage people to enjoy life as long as they live. Even though most of the interviewees focused on the issue of not being careless, quite a few also noted the emphasis on enjoying life.13 In addition a couple of the interviewees elaborated on verse 7 and interpreted ‘food and wine’ as metaphors for the good results which such persons receive who have done good acts or kamma. The blessings received are thus well deserved and should be enjoyed.

9 Moderation is an ideal in the Buddhist way—often called the Middle Way—; one should follow the example of Buddha with regard to religious practice. Cf. for example Phra Dhammapitaka (P.A. Payutto), Thai Buddhism in the Buddhist World: A Survey of the Buddhist Situation Against a Historical Background (Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation, 2001). 9. Knut A. Jakobsen, Buddhismen (Oslo: Pax Forlag A/S, 2000). 67. 10 Phra Prayudh Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Natural Laws and Values for Life, trans. Grant A. Olson (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1995). 254–255. Phra Prayudh Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Revised and Expanded Version (Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornra- javidyalaya University, 2546/2003. (In Thai)). 1008. For a comprehensive introduction to the concept, cf. Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Natural Laws and Values for Life. 254–270. 11 Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Natural Laws and Values for Life. 255. 12 Ibid. 255–256, 260. 13 For example Mr. Chakkri, (Bangkok, 23. August 2005), Mr. Deecha, (Bangkok, 23. September 2005), Ms. Laddawan, (Bangkok, 18. August 2005). thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 135

[Verse 7] God sees that you have done that which is pleasing already, [thus] you will receive wine to drink. But from the side of Buddhism, it says—like I told you—if you do much good, then you will receive good results. Enjoy [lit. eat] it now!14 According to Dr. Somsri this way of arguing could be compared to the Thai thinking of kamma. She argued that the goods one receives are due to former good kamma, and can thus be enjoyed, as they are well deserved.15 While most of the interviewees regarded the encouragement to enjoy life as something positive, something which they could agree with, one of the interviewees was rather critical of this emphasis and felt that the text in many ways mirrors what she regarded as a major problem in contemporary Thai society. [The speaker in the text] does not believe in a next life, that there is a next life or something like that. Therefore, he encourages eating food with gladness, something like that—isn’t it so? Let us enjoy life. […] Thai society is messed up with regard to ethical issues […], because people think less and less of next life. […] For example the young generation, they don’t believe in a next life, therefore in their way of living they will [only] think of this life and not think: “Oh, what I do now will send results to the coming lives,” or something along these lines. It thus bears the characteristics of materialism. These verses might be similar: “eat your food with gladness and drink your wine with joy,” something like that. It has the character of thinking of the happiness oneself will receive, or something like that. This might be considered as materialism as well […]. But whenever we think of next life, we will think less and less of that which I myself will receive. [It will be more] like that we wish to do good, help others, reduce our own ego, in order to send results to the coming life.16

14 พระเจ ้าเห็น ว่าคุณทําการงานชอบแล ้ว คุณก็จะได ้รับดืvมอะไรเหล่านีwใชมัwย่ อา แต่ทางด ้านคําสอนพุทธเจ ้าก็ จะบอกว่า ก็บอกอย่างทีvแม่ชบอกนัvนแหละี ทําเหตุดีมาก็ได ้รับผลดี เสวยไปเลย. Mae Chii Narumon, (Bangkok, 22. September 2005). Cf. also Dr. Somsri, (Bangkok, 19. September 2005). 15 Dr. Somsri. 16 ไม่ได ้เชอเรืvองชาติหนืv ้า โลกหน ้าแน่ ๆ อะไรอย่างงีw เพราะฉะนัwนคือในชวง่ ในซกนีwก็เลยบอกว่าี อะไรนะ ให ้รับประทานอาหารด ้วยความชนชมืv อะไรอย่างงีw ใชไหม่ ให ้ร่าเริงกับชวิตี […] สงคมไทยมันั มันมีลักษณะของ เละเทะ เละเทะมาก เรืvองจริยธรรม […] เพราะว่าคนนีvอะนึกถึงชาติหน ้าน้อยลง […] อย่างคนวัยรุ่นนีvจะมีลักษณะ ทีvว่า ไม่เชอเรืvองชาติหนืv ้า เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะการดําเนินชวิตี มันก็จะคํานึงถึงแต่ชาตินีv ไม่ได ้คํานึงว่า ไอ ้ทีvทํานีvอะ มันจะไปสงผลอะไรกับชาติต่อไป่ ทํานองนีwอะ นัwนมันก็เลยเป็นลักษณะของการยึดวัตถุ บทพวกนีwนีvอะ อาจจะคล ้าย ๆ กันว่า รับประทานอาหารก็ อ่า ด ้วยความชนชมืv ดืvมเหล ้าด้วยความร่าเริง อะไรทํานองนีw มันเป็นลักษณะว่า นึกถึงความสุขทีvตัวเองได ้รับ อะไรทํานองนีw ก็อาจจะมองในแง่ของวัตถุนิยมด ้วยก็ได้ […] แต่ถ ้าเมืvอไหร่ เรานึกถึง ชาติหน ้าปัxบเนีvยะ เราจะนึกถึงความ ความอะไร สงทีvตัวเองจะไดิv ้รับนีvอะน ้อยลง คล ้าย ๆ ว่าเราต ้องทํา ความดี ชวยเหลือผู่ ้อืvนไร อะไรก็ว่าไป ลดความเป็นอัตตาของตัวเองลงไปอย่างงีw เพืvอจะได ้สงผลในชาติต่อไป่ . Ms. Lak- sami, (Bangkok, 24. August 2005). 136 chapter four

In her opinion the emphasis in the text is based on an understanding of life which has its focus on the individual’s own pleasures in a this-worldly perspective. She found exactly the same attitude in contemporary Thai society and pointed out how such a view might lead to egotism and materialism.17 It is interesting to note that one of the youngest interviewees indeed reflfected some of the attitudes and opinions which Ms. Laksami criticised. Mr. Deecha, one of the interviewees who felt that the text expresses many of their feelings and thoughts about life, argued that it is old fashioned to do merit in order to secure a better life in the next; one should rather concentrate on the here and now and use one’s resources to enjoy oneself.18

Be Content Another point made concerning the theme of how to use one’s time in the best way possible, was that one of the verses (v. 9) was regarded as highlighting the attitude of contentment as a way of relating to family-life. This [verse 9] I view as concerning contentment, and also the issue of anicca, that is, impermanence, and then the issue of being content with your own wife. This verse is similar to Buddhism […]. It is similar in [teaching] that: when you live in the same world, you should be content—be content and happy—with your own wife.19

17 Ibid. The point that some modern Thais are not interested in making merit, but rather concerned with gaining advantages for themselves is also noted by Seree Lorgunpai, “World Lover, World Leaver: The Book of Ecclesiastes and Thai Buddhism” (Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1995). 264. 18 “Old people, they still have the belief that when you have done good, you must receive good, if not in this life, then in the next or in lives after that again. But in contemporary society a belief like this is declining. Therefore one thinks that it is better to do your best today, therefore, [concerning] the actions of people of former generation and new generations one sees clearly that the former generation, they gave food to the monks every morning, or if not, [they visited] the temple on important days, that is, they made merit in order to collect merit […] But contemporary people they hardly make merit, that is [they rather think], do your work honestly, do it as good as possible […] the return is a return from what one has done oneself, for example, work and receive salary, and then one takes that salary and uses it for one’s own happiness and comfort.” (พวกคนแก่ ๆ คือเขายังมีความเชอว่าืv ทําดีแล ้วอะ ต ้องได้ดี ไม่ชาตินีwก็ชาติหน ้า หรือว่าชาติต่อ ๆ ไป แต่คนในสงคมปัจจุบันนีvอะครับั เขา ความเชอตรงนีwมันก็เลยลดนืv ้อยลงไป เพราะฉะนัwนก็เลยจะคิดว่า ทําในสงปัจจุบันใหิv ้ดีทีvสุดดีกว่า ซงการกระทําของคนึv ๆ สมัยก่อนกะคนปัจจุบันนีwจะเห็นได ้ชดั ก็คือ คนสมัยก่อนจะทําบุญตักบาตรกันทุก ๆ เชา้ หรือไม่ก็ในวันสําคัญต่าง ๆ คือแบบ ทําบุญเพืvอสะสม สะสมบุญ […] แต่คนในปัจจุบันเนีvยอะ ก็จะไม่ค่อยทีvจะทําบุญ ก็คือจะทํา ทําการงานของตัวเองให ้แบบจริงจัง ทําหน ้าทีvของตัว เองจริงจัง ทําให ้ดีทีvสุด แล ้ว […] ได ้อะไรตอบแทน มันก็จะตอบแทนในสงทีvตัวเองไดิv ้ทํา ก็อย่างเชน่ ทํางานได ้เงิน เดือน ก็จะเอาเงินเดือนนีvอะมาบําเรอความสุขตัวเอง เพืvอให ้ตัวเองสบาย). Mr. Deecha. 19 ตานีwอาตมาจะมองในแง่ว่า ความสนโดษั เรืvองของอนิจจังด ้วย คือความไม่เทีvยง แล ้วก็เรืvองของความสนโดษในั thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 137

Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak further argued that the issue of contentment is of importance in Buddhist teaching as well. They pointed out that, for example, there are very detailed descriptions in the Buddhist scriptures about the relationship between husband and wife and the importance of contentment with regard to life when lived as a couple.20 One example from the Buddhist teaching, which could be mentioned, is the positive counterpart to the third precept.21 The third precept goes as follows: I undertake the training-precept in order to abstain from misconduct concerning sense- pleasures, while its counterpart is “joyous satisfaction with one’s wife …, contentment and fewness-of-wishes.”22 Further, in his elaboration on contentment, Peter Harvey emphasised: Contentment is seen as the greatest of wealth (Dhp. 204), and the height of this virtue is shown by a remark of the eleventh-century Tibetan saint Milarepa, who, living in threadbare cotton robes in a freezing Himalayan cave, said that, for him, ‘everything is comfortable’!23

The Reasons for the Importance of Using Time in the Best Way Possible The fifrst reason given was that the text stresses that time is limited. This was seen to be expressed in the text in two ways. On the one hand, it points out that death is the fate of all living beings, and on the other it expresses that life is impermanent. It was evident to all the interviewees that the text underlined the fact that all people must die. “[Verse 3] is like [– it expresses] that everyone who lives under the sun must die.”24 In addition, it was noted that the text emphasised the impermanence of life. In the text, he [the speaker in the text] talks about life, that it is impermanent, and that we are not able to schedule [its end]. […] When not knowing [when the end comes], human beings must not be careless, like Buddha teaches: Don’t be careless.25

ภรรยาของตัวเอง ตัวนีwจะตรงพระพุทธศาสนา […] งัwนก็คงจะคล ้าย ๆ ว่า ท่าน เมืvอท่านอยู่ในโลกเดียวกันแล ้ว ท่านก็ควรจะสนโดษั สนโดษั ยินดีในภรรยาของตัวเอง. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak, (Bangkok, 1. September 2005). 20 Ibid. 21 In Buddhism, each of the fifve precepts for lay-people has a positive counterpart. Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 68. 22 Ibid. 68. 23 Ibid. 68. 24 เหมือนกับว่าคนทุกคนทีvอยู่ใต ้อาทิตย์เกิดมาก็ต ้องตายนะ. Dr. Somsri. 25 ในบทสวด เขาพูดถึงว่า life มัน impermanent มาก และเรา เราไม่สามารถกําหนด […] เมืvอรู ้ไม่ได ้นีvอะ มนุษย์ก็จําเป็นต ้องไม่ประมาท ทีvพระพุทธเจ ้าสอนว่า อย่าประมาท. Dr. Saichai. 138 chapter four

Here the notion of impermanence is related to the fact that all must die. The interviewees mostly understood the use of the word ‘impermanence’ (anicca) in the text (verse 9) to underline the text’s emphasis on the reality of death.26 The concept of anicca, being one of the central concepts of Buddhism, has, however, a more comprehensive meaning. Together with ‘suffering’ (dukkha) and ‘not-self’ (anatta), it characterises the state of all conditioned phenomena.27 But this further means that to be born, grow up and die are part of the impermanence of all things. Anyway, the emphasis in the text, that life is anicca, and that all must die is, according to the interviewees, the foundation for understanding why the text, along with Buddhism,28 teaches that one must use time when one has it. The second reason given for the importance of using one’s time in the best way possible was that not only is life limited, but nobody knows when it will end. An example of this way of arguing can be seen in the quote above, where Dr. Saichai states that nobody can schedule when their lives will end. It was further argued that the same point is made in Buddhist teaching, thus emphasising the importance of not being careless:

vain, impermanent, flfeeting’, into‘ , לבה The Thai Holy Bible translates the Hebrew term 26 the Buddhist term anicca (อนิจจัง in Thai), ‘impermanent’. I think that in this verse, the choice of anicca is adequate (cf. the discussion in ch. 8), but I agree with Seree Lorgunpai that if one is ,throughout the book of Ecclesiastes, dukkha, ‘suffering לבה to choose one term to be used for that which is unsatisfactory’, might be a better term. Lorgunpai, “World Lover, World Leaver: The Book of Ecclesiastes and Thai Buddhism”. 254–257. 27 Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. 50. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak explained it as follows: “Anicca means impermanence. Everything is born and then extinguished […]. For example a person, when he is a child, [he] is small, then he grows up, [becomes] old and then, when old already, he dies. When he is dead already he meets with the law of kamma, and then he is reborn until he fulfifls Dhamma and escapes suffering in the Buddhist way. Therefore, the law of kamma implies impermanence. Among all things in this world, which has life, there is nothing which is for sure, is permanent, not even the trees, nor this globe is permanent, because one day it might go to pieces, and turn into whatever thing. One day, for sure, the trees are going to be felt. There is nothing which is permanent, not even stone blocks, everything will be shattered, [everything] is anicca. This is the law of impermanence (anicca) [which] is a law of nature.” (อนิจจังก็คือความไม่เทีvยง ทุกอย่างเกิดขึwนแล ้วก็ดับไป […]เชน่ อ่า คนนีv คนหนึvง ตอนเป็นเด็ก เป็นเล็ก โตขึwนมา แก่ แล ้วก็แก่ แก่แล ้วก็ ตาย ตายแล ้วก็สูกฎแห่งกรรม่ แล ้วก็เวียนกลับมา จนกว่า เขาจะบรรลุธรรมและพ ้นทุกข์ ในทางพุทธศาสนา ฉะนัwน กฎแห่งกรรมคือความไม่เทีvยง ทุกอย่างทีvอยู่ในโลกนีw เป็นสงมีชิv วิตไม่มีอะไรแน่นอนี เทีvยงแท ้ แม ้แต่ต ้นไม้อะไรก็แล้วแต่ แม ้แต่โลกใบนีwก็ยังไม่เทีvยงแท ้ เพราะวันหนึvง อาจจะแตกสลาย แล ้วเป็นอะไรก็ได ้ ต ้นไม้อาจจะโดนตัดสกวันแน่ั ๆ ทุกอย่างทีvมีอยู่ไม่มีอะไรเทีvยงแท ้ ก ้อนหินอะไร ทุกอย่างนีvมีการแตก พังหมด เป็นอนิจจังทัwงนัwน นีvคือกฎอนิจจังเป็นกฎของธรรมชาติ). Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 28 “Buddhism teaches [that] life, life is not for sure. That means that if we have the opportunity, we should hurry up and act.” (ศาสนาพุทธก็สอน ชวิตี ฮอื ชวิตทีvไม่แน่นอนี หมายความว่า ถ ้าเรามีโอกาสก็ต ้องรีบทํา). Dr. Phichai. thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 139

Buddhism] teaches: Who knows the [day of] death, even if it were tomorrow? That means: we do not know the [day of] death. Therefore when we are still alive: Do not be careless!29 The third reason was that life after death is determined by the acts in this life. From a Buddhist point of view it is believed that after death people move on to a new existence, which is determined by the acts, the kamma, done when living this life.30 According to Buddhist doctrine death is the starting point. For example, according to Trai Phum31death is the beginning of another life, isn’t that correct? Because, for example, when we die from being a human, we might be born as a god, or as a hell-being, or as an animal-being, that is, as anything in the three spheres. Therefore, death is not the end-point, but death is the starting point.32

29 […] สอนว่า ใครจะรู ้ความตายแม้พรุ่งนีw คือเราไม่รู ้ความตาย แม ้พรุ่งนีw เพราะฉะนัwนเมืvอเรามีชวิตอยู่ในนีwจงทําี อย่าประมาท. Mr. Wibun. 30 The popular understanding of this view was graphically described by Mae Chii Naru- mon: “There is one person who makes merit continuously, and follows the fifve precepts. When his day of death is approaching, the sixth heaven—we have six levels of heaven—, sends a heavenly vehicle to collect him or her immediately from the earth. But, [for] another person [who] has killed pigs for 55 years, hell opens up at once. Before he dies he screams like a pig, he crawls, iiit, iiit, like a pig which gets [its throat] slit.” (มีคนหนึvงทําบุญมาตลอด ถือศลปฏิบัติธรรมี พอวันใกล ้จะตายนะ สวรรค์ 6 ชนัw ของพวกเราว่ามีสวรรค์ 6 ชนนะัw เอารถบนสวรรค์มา รับเลยบนโลก มนุษย์ แต่อีกคนหนึvงฆ่าหมูตลอด 55 ปี นรกเปิดเลย ก่อนจะตายร ้องเหมือนหมูคลานนนนเลยยยยย อีxดดดดดด อีxดดดดดด เหมือนเหมือน เหมือนหมูถูกเชอดื ). The process of repeated rebirth is known as samsara. Cf. the following article for a short and interesting discussion of death in Buddhist thinking: Paul Badham, “The Value of the Buddhist Approach to Death,” in Radical Conservatism: Bud- dhism in the Contemporary World, eds. Sulak Sivaraksa et al. (Bangkok: Suksit Siam, 1990). 31 “The Trai Phum is a royal text, an expression of the orthodox Theravada tradition, and a sermon that seeks to make the Dhamma more accessible to the laity.” Three Worlds According to King Ruang: A Thai Buddhist Cosmology, trans. Frank E. Reynolds and Mani B. Reynolds (Berkeley, Calif.: Asian Humanities Press/Motilal Banarsidass, 1982). 5. The text was probably completed around 1345ad by Phya Lithai, who titled it: Sermon on the Three Worlds (Traibhumikatha), but it later became known as the Three Worlds According to King Ruang (Trai Phum Phra Ruang) Cf. Three Worlds According to King Ruang: A Thai Buddhist Cosmology. 5. The title Trai Phum, which Dr. Phimpan uses in the quotation, is a common abbreviation of the work. The expression Trai Phum refers to the threefold spheres of existence; earth, heaven and hell. For an introduction to the text’s background and inflfuence on Thai society, see Nampheung Padamalangula, “The Play of Undecidability: A Deconstructive Analysis of Traiphum Phra Ruang (Three Worlds According to King Ruang)” (Doctor of Philosophy, Washington University, 2003). 35–84. 32 ตามหลักพุทธเลยนะฮะ ก็คือความตายนีvอะ ก็เป็นจุดเริvมต ้น อย่างถ ้าเผืvอ ถ ้าตามไตรภูมิเลยนีvอะ ความตายก็คือ จุดเริvมต ้นของ another life ถูกมัwยฮะ เพราะว่าเราตาย อย่างเชนเราตายจากความเป็นมนุษย์นีvอะ่ เราจะอาจะเกิดเป็น เทวดา อาจเกิดเป็นสตว์นรกั อาจเกิดเป็นสตว์เดรัจฉานั คือเกิดเป็นอะไรก็ได ้ ใน 3 ภูมิ เพราะฉะนัwนนีvอะ ความตาย ไม่ใชจุดจบ่ ความตายกลายเป็นจุดเริvมต ้น. Dr. Phimpan. 140 chapter four

Thus, the main reason, given by many of the interviewees for not being careless or using one’s life in the best way possible, was that it serves as a preparation for next life. Buddhism believes that after death we are born again, isn’t it so? How we are born, good or not good, is dependent on what we did in this life; isn’t it so? Carelessness might cause us not to do in time what we should have done in order to receive results in next life. To make a comparison: Imagine that winter is coming. It will snow. Some people might think; there are still many days left [before it comes]. Just wait, later we can prepare blankets and food, isn’t it so? Buddhism states, it is not sure, winter might come before expected. Therefore, if one has the possibility, [one should] hurry up and prepare blankets, prepare food supplies, prepare what is needed, in order to be able to use it when the winter comes.33 After death it will be too late to correct anything. In the text verses 4, 5 and 10 were especially seen to stress this point.34 It is only those who are alive that are able to do good. When you are dead, you can no longer do good. You have lost the opportunity to do good. Therefore, […] accept being a dog in order to have the opportunity of doing good.35 The image used in verse 4, about the dog and the lion, was regarded by most of the interviewees to highlight the privilege of being born as a human, even if it is in a low position. According to Buddhist thinking, the human world is the place of privilege, because it is the place where humans have the opportunity to do good kamma, or work on one’s enlightenment.36 Thus, fifguratively speaking it is better to be a poor and despised person, whois still alive, than to be powerful and honourable, but dead.37

33 ศาสนาพุทธเชอว่าตายแลืv ้ว เราจะได ้ไปเกิดอีก ใชไหมครับ่ คือการทีvเราจะไปเกิดเป็นอะไร ดีหรือไม่ดี มันขึwน อยู่กับว่า เราได ้ทําอะไรในชาตินีw ใชไหมครับ่ แต่นีw ความประมาทนีw อาจจะทําให ้เราไม่ทันได ้ทําสงทีvควรจะทําิv เพืvอจะ ได ้รับผลในโลกหน ้า ถ ้าเปรียบเทียบ สมมติชวงฤดูหนาวจะมาแล่ ้ว หิมะจะลง คนบางคนอาจจะคิดว่า ยังเหลืออยู่อีก หลายวัน เดีyยว เดีyยว ค่อยเตรียมฟืน เตรียมอาหารก็ได ้ ใชไหมครับ่ ศาสนาพุทธบอก ไม่แน่นะ ฤดูหนาวมัน อาจจะมาไวกว่านัwนก็ได ้ เพราะฉะนัwน ถ ้ามีโอกาส รีบเตรียมฟืน เตรียมเสบียง เตรียมอะไรเอาไว ้ เผืvอเมืvอฤดูหนาวมา จะได ้ใช.้ Dr. Phichai. 34 “[Verse 5] The dead has not any opportunity to do good.” (คนตายแล ้วไม่มีโอกาสได ้สร้าง ความดีเลย). “[Verse 10 states:] When you still have life, do good, [because] when you are dead already, [and are] in the land of the dead, you don’t have the opportunity to do any more good, isn’t it so?” (เมืvอมีชวิตอยู่นีvอะี นะก็ทําความดีไป พอตายไปแล ้ว ในแดนของคนตายแล ้วเจ้าไม่มี โอกาสทีvจะได ้ทําความดี อีกแล ้ว ใชมัwยฮะ่ ). Dr. Somsri. 35 คนทีvเป็นเท่านัwนทีvสามารถทําความดีได ้ คุณตายแล ้ว คุณก็ไม่ ทําความดีไม่ได ้แล้ว คุณก็หมดโอกาสในการทํา ความดี เพราะฉะนัwน ขอยอมทําความ ขอยอมเป็นสุนัข เพืvอจะมีโอกาสทําความดี. Mr. Wibun. 36 See for example Jakobsen, Buddhismen. 51. 37 “If one is asked to choose whether one will be a dog or a lion, everybody wishes to be a lion. But if it is a dead lion, one will not choose [to be that]. Then one will admit that it is better to be a dog.” (ถ ้าให้เลือกระหว่างเป็นสุนัขกับเป็นสงห์ิ ทุกคนอยากเป็นสงห์ิ แต่ถ ้าหากเป็นสงห์ทีvตายิ ไม่เอา ยอมเป็นสุนัข ดีกว่า). Mr. Wibun. thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 141

Buddhism thinks that the human world is the place to do good. If persons who are born into this world don’t do good in this life, and then die and come to heaven, [we think that] when born into heaven already, people [tend to] be careless in doing good, to the extent that they do very little [good]. Therefore, the human world is the place where those who are still alive now must be active in doing good.38 Hence, as the human life is a privileged position, where one can perform good kamma which might secure a rebirth to a life better than the present, and where one may even be able to put an end to all kamma and escape samsara, it is important to use this life, when one has it, in the best way possible.39 Fourth, there were a couple of the interviewees, however, who argued that the text seems to indicate that after death there is no next life. There is nothing more, and this is the reason why the text emphasises that one must hurry up and enjoy life. It is like he says that before he dies there are some things he has to do, isn’t it so? “We should make use of that which is good”. Because, he thinks that when he is dead already, there is nothing more; he will not be able to come back and live his life again, isn’t it so? He thinks like this. But my own opinion […] is that we don’t have to be determined in such a way—like: “Oh, I am close to death already, I must go and eat what I want to eat, [I must go out and] have fun, [I] must do everything–”. [I rather think] that it is better to make use of life as usual.40 Ms. Laddawan, who is one of the few interviewees who did not believe in rebirth, thus agreed with the point of view that death is the end, but she did not agree with what she felt was a desperate need for spending time on enjoyment and pleasures now, in the expectation of imminent death. In her opinion, one should live life as normal.

38 พุทธศาสนานีvมองว่าโลกมนุษย์นีvเป็นทีvทําความดี ถ ้าคนทีvเกิดมาในโลกนีwไม่ทําความดีในชาตินีwแล ้ว ตายไปแล ้ว บนสวรรค์เป็นทีvทีvสบาย เมืvอเกิดในสวรรค์แล ้วคนก็จะประมาทไม่ทําความดีกันล่ะ ถึงจะทําก็น ้อย น ้อยมาก ฉะนัwนโล กมนุษย์นีv จะเป็นสถานทีvทีvยังมีชวิตอยู่ของคนปัจจุบันจะตี ้องทําสงไหนก็ตามแต่ิv ทีvขวนขวายทําความดี. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 39 Jakobsen, Buddhismen. 57. Cf. Payutto who states that “the motive for the practice of morality in Buddhism is confifdence in the law of kamma; that is, a basic understanding of actions and the fruits of actions.” Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Natural Laws and Values for Life. 247. 40 เหมือนกับ ไอนีv ทีvเขาจะต ้องบอกว่า เขา ก่อนเขาตายนีvอะ เขาควรจะทําอะไรบ ้างอย่างงีwใชไหม่ ค่ะ ควรจะใช ้ ความ อ่า ใชความสุขให้ ้มาก ๆ เกีvยวกับตัวเรา เพราะว่า ตัวเองคิดว่า พอตายแล ้ว มันไม่มีอะไรแล ้ว จะไม่ได ้ จะไม่ได ้กลับมาใชตรงนีwอีก้ ใชไหมคะ่ เขาคิดแบบนีw แต่ความคิดของตัวเองก็ […] คือเราเราก็ไม่จําเป็น ทีvจะต ้อง แบบว่าตัwงใจเลยหรือเปล่าว่า โอ ้ใกล้ตายแล้ว ต ้องไปกินอะไรทีvอยากกิน ไปเทีvยว อะไร ทําทุกอย่าง คือ เราก็ใชช้ วิตี ไปตามปกติดีกว่า. Ms. Laddawan. 142 chapter four

When analysing the Buddhist readings of the text, with regard to the issue of death, it became obvious that most of the interviewees had the pre-understanding that even though Christians do not believe in rebirth, they believe that after death, humans go to heaven or hell. Hence, they did not realise that the text seems to talk about death as the complete end of a person’s existence, and took it for granted that the text could be compared to the Buddhist teaching of preparing for a next life.41 The exception to this were those who did not believe in rebirth themselves (Mr. Deecha and Ms. Laddawan), and a few more people.42 Dr. Saichai expressed that she became confused by reading the text, as, with regard to the issue of death, it contradicts what she had believed to be Christian teaching. All this, including verse 6 [i.e. vv. 3–6], means that to have a life in this world is good, but to be dead is not good. I am thus confused, if it is like that, I am not sure what it teaches or what it implies […]. It means that he assumes that those who are already dead will not stay with God, isn’t it so […]. [But, according to] my understanding of Christianity, I feel that when we are dead we ought to return to stay with God.43 In my opinion, the fact that so many of the interviewees just took for granted that Qohelet reckons with an afterlife, is a clear example of the strong inflfuence pre-understanding has on the way one perceives and understands texts.

In this section I have presented what most of the interviewees found to be the dominant theme of the text, namely that humans ought to use their allocated time in this existence in the best way possible. Concerning what it means to do so, the interviewees found the text to emphasise both enjoyment of, and contentment with, life. The main point of the advice in the text, however, was, as the interviewees saw it, that humans ought not to be careless with life, but rather concentrate on doing good and avoiding evil. This point they found to be very similar to Buddhist teaching. The main

41 Cf. for example Mrs. Chanpen, (Bangkok 24. August 2005), who argued: “If from a Christian perspective you believe in the end of the world, you must prepare yourselves, you must try to do good, because you fear […] that when the world ends you will end up in hell.” (ถ ้าตามคริสต์เชอวันสืv นโลกิw คุณก็ต ้องเตรียมพร ้อม คุณก็ต ้องพยายามทําดี เพราะว่า คุณกลัว […] วันสนโลกิw อาจจะต ้องไปอยู่ใน ใชไหมคะ่ ในนร). 42 Ms. Laddawan, Mr. Chakkri, Dr. Saichai. 43 ทัwงหมดนีvไปจนถึงข ้อทีvหก นีv แปลว่า การมีชวิตอยู่ในโลกนีwเป็นสี งทีvดีิv แต่การตายไปแล ้วนีvไม่ดี ซงึv ซงึv ครูก็เลยงงว่า ถ ้าอย่างนัwน เอ่อ ไม่รู ้ว่า อันนีwมันเป็นการจะสอนว่ายังไง มันจะ imply ว่ายังไงฮะ […] คือแปลว่า เขา assume ว่า คนทัwงหลายนีvอะนะฮะ ตายแล ้วจะไม่ได ้ไปอยู่กับพระผู ้เป็นเจ ้า ใชไหม่ […] ความเข ้าใจคริสต์ของครู นีvอะ ครูรู ้สกว่าึ ยังไง นีvอะ เมืvอตายแล ้วนีvอะ เราน่าจะได ้กลับไปอยู่กับพระผู ้เป็นเจ ้า. Dr. Saichai. thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 143 reasons why they interpreted the text in this way, were the emphasis in the text on death as an inevitable outcome of life, and their understanding that the consequences of acts (kamma) in this life determines one’s existence after death. Hence one should not be careless in this life, but prepare for next life. That the text presupposes a belief in an afterlife is, as we have seen, taken for granted by most of the interviewees. Some of the interviewees, however, found the text to underline that death means the end of all existence. From this vantage point, the encouragement to use life in the best way possible emerged in a new light. On this basis, the text was seen to encourage enjoyment and use of what goods life offers in the here and now, because the present is the only sure thing one has. Such an interpretation of the text, the interviewees met with mixed reactions. One of the interviewees completely agreed with this way of understanding life. Another interviewee, even though she shared the understanding that death is the end, felt the advice in the text to be a bit panicked. In her opinion, life should be lived at normal pace, even in the face of death. Finally, one of the interviewees felt that the text put into word what is a trend in modern Thai society, namely to focus on enjoying life, without any thought of what comes after this life. She was very critical of this trend, which she argued led to a materialistic and immoral society, and hence she was also critical inclined towards the advice in the text.

“There Is Time and Opportunity for All”44

One verse which caught the attention of quite a few of the interviewees was verse 11. This verse was regarded as highlighting the opportunities which human beings have to form their own life and destiny. To this theme three slightly different emphasises were found in the interviews. Some of the interviewees concentrated their attention on the last sentence of the verse, and discussed what it means that all have ‘time and opportunity’. Others focused more on the fifrst part of the verse and either interpreted the verse to highlight that humans have the possibility to change the course of their life, or they attempted to understand the apparent inconsistence between act and consequence present in the verse.

44 The heading is a paraphrase of the last sentence in verse 11, based on the interviewees understanding of it. 144 chapter four

The Opportunity to Choose One’s Way of Life Not only was the text seen to emphasise that one should use one’s time in the best way possible, but it was also regarded as stressing that all have the same opportunity to do so. Especially verse 11 was considered to highlight this issue. Verse 11, in sum it states that it is like everybody has the same opportunities, to choose or not to choose, to choose what to do and not to do.45 It was the impression of the interviewees that the last line of verse 11 emphasises that all people have got time and opportunity to decide over their own life and choose how to act, both with regard to good and evil.46 This emphasis was further seen to be in accordance with Buddhist teaching of human freedom, and its understanding that all people are responsible for their own acts (kamma) and hence the result thereof.47 The main question is thus if people use the opportunity to do what is good and right. “You have the same opportunities to do that which is right. Will you choose to do it?”48 Decisive for this interpretation of verse 11 is, as I see it, the translation chance’, to โอกาส (okat).49 โอกาส can be‘ , עגפ in the Thai Bible of the noun translated ‘chance’, but usually it is used in the sense of ‘opportunity’, which obviously is the way the interviewees read it here in Eccl 9:11. In chapter 8 chance’, and whether it is possible that it can‘ , עגפ I will discuss the noun convey the meaning of ‘opportunity’.

Different Starting-Points, but Same Opportunities It was argued, however, that even though verse 11 seems to indicate that people have the same opportunities to do good and be in charge of their own lives, the verse also implies that they do not have the same starting point in life. That is, some are rich, some are poor, some are clever, some are stupid, and so on and so forth.50 But due to the emphasis on the opportunity to choose one’s way of life, the verse was nevertheless seen to stress possibilities more than limitations.

45 ข ้อ 11 นีv เค ้า อ่า อ่านโดยสรุปแล ้ว แล ้วก็บอกว่า มันจะเหมือน เหมือนกับว่าทุกคนมีโอกาส เท่าเทียมกันในการ ทีvจะเลือก หรือไม่เลือก อา เลือกทําอะไรหรือไม่ทําอะไร. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 46 See for example Dr. Saichai, Mr. Deecha. 47 See for example Dr. Phichai. 48 คุณมีโอกาสเท่ากัน ในการทีvจะทําในสงทีvถูกติv ้อง คุณจะเลือกทําไหม. Mr. Wibun. Cf. also Mae Chii Narumon who argued that the text implicitly warns against missing the opportunities to do good. 49 Eccl 9:11 in Thai Holy Bible (in Thai). 50 See for example Mr. Deecha. thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 145

It is like you have [skills or riches] already, but don’t use it, you don’t see its importance […]. It is thus not necessary that the one who has this will have better luck than one who doesn’t have money […]. A person who is poor or not very clever, but understands what he has, for sure he/she is active in increasing [what he/she has], or something like that, while at the same time trusting in God. [He or she] might be better off, or have better luck than the one who has [skills or riches], but doesn’t give any importance to it.51 It was thus stressed that the point in the verse is that people have the possibility not only to form their own life, but also to change it, to the better or the worse. A person is thus not wholly determined by his or her general conditions, and it is not a fatalistic view which is expressed here. As seen from the quote it might be argued that even though a person might have a good starting point in life, another, with a less good starting point, a poor person, for example, might end up with a better fate than the rich because he or she values what they have and use their time better.52 The interviewees, who commented on this issue, hence argued that this verse is similar to the Buddhist understanding of the workings of kamma (see below).

Explaining the Incoherence between Act and Consequence While some focused on the possibilities which people have to do good, and of being able to change their lot, others focused more on how to explain verse 11’s contention that “the race is not to the swift, and the battle not to the strong, neither is bread to the wise, nor wealth to the clever, nor favour to the knowledgeable”. Here the same kind of explanations were offered as in the case of the psalmist’s problem (see ch. 3), the main emphasis being that it is due to kamma.53 First, it was interpreted as being due to one’s former kamma: “Some people come late, but are able to enter the highest throne. Therefore, this [verse] talks about the law of kamma.”54 A person might run very fast, that

51 เหมือนคล ้าย ๆ ว่า คุณมีแล ้วแต่คุณไม่เอามันมาใช ้ไม่เห็นความสําคัญของมัน […] ไม่จําเป็นเสมอไปว่า คนทีvมี สงเหล่านีwจะโชคดีิv จะดีกว่าคนทีvไม่มี คนทีvไม่มี คนทีvไม่มีเงิน อะไรทํานองนีwนะฮะ […] คนทีvจนหรือก็ไม่ฉลาด อะไรมาก แต่เข ้าใจว่าตัวเองมีอะไรอยู่ แล ้วแน่นอนอาจจะดิwนรนหาเพิvมด ้วย อะไรทํานองนีwนะฮะ เอ่อ ในขณะเดียวกันก็ยึดหรือยัง ศรัทธากับพระเจ ้า หรืออะไรทํานองนีwอะนะคะ ตรงนัwนนีvอะ น่า น่าจะดีกว่า หรือใชคําว่า้ “โชคดี” ได ้ไหม โชคดีกว่า คนทีvมีอะแต่ไม่ให ้ความสําคัญ. Ms. Laksami. 52 This belief is reflfected in the flfexibility found in the Thai social system, where social rank is not regarded as a permanent entity, but dependent on merit and demerit. On this issue, see the now classical article of L.M. Hanks: L.M. Hanks jr, ‘Merit and Power in the Thai Social Order,’ American Anthropologist 64 (1962). 53 Cf. for example Dr. Somsri who stated: “this is kamma” (มันก็อย่างก็เป็นกรรมไง). 54 บางคนมาทีเหลัง แต่สามารถทีvจะขึwนนัvงบัลลังก์เก ้าอีwได ้ทีvสูงได ้ฉะนัwน ตานีwก็พูดในเรืvองของกฎแห่งกรรม. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 146 chapter four is; be very diligent, but due to his or her former bad kamma, he or she does not win over those who just walk (i.e. are lazy). This is the uncertainty of life that people have to face. Second, it might also be viewed as follows. A person might appear good, without really being good inside; the fact that he looses is thus due to his own kamma, even though people might not understand it. Another, who may not appear good, is good, however, and receives the result of his or her good kamma. It is like it appears differently [than it really is], acharn.55 For example: we see a person who is very badly dressed—something like that. Seeing this [one might conclude that] this is probably not a good person. But he or she might be a good person, anyway. While in contrast, another person is dignififedly dressed, wears a necktie, carries a briefcase, carries documents, he dresses very well, [but] he might anyway be a person who is not good […]. Therefore, this is similar; it is a maxim teaching that things are not necessarily like we experience them, they might not be like we think they are.56 It was thus emphasised that the verse also teaches that one should not always take things at face value.57

The main issue emphasised by the interviewees with regard to verse 11 was that humans form their own destiny through their own acts. Hence, the text indirectly encourages people to use the opportunity they have to change their destiny. This emphasis was regarded as being similar to the Buddhist emphasis that humans are in charge of their own destinies, due to the workings of the law of kamma.

“Everything Is in the Hands of God”58

Another major theme in the text, as quite a few of the interviewees saw it, was the theme of God and his governance. The statement in verse 1 that “the righteous, and the wise, and their works are in the hand of God”

55 Acharn (อาจารย์) means teacher. The word is often used when addressing religious leaders, and people teaching at university level. 56 มันเหมือนปรากฏการณ์อย่างอืvน อาจารย์ อย่างเชนว่า่ เราเห็นคนคนนึงแต่งตัวไม่ดีเลย อะไรอย่างงีw ดูแล ้วมันน่า ไม่น่าจะเป็นคนดี แต่เขาอาจจะเป็นคนดีก็ได ้ ในทางกลับกัน คนนีwแต่งตัวภูมิฐานใสเทคไท่ ้ ผูก อ ้า ผูกเทคไท ้ ถือแฟ้มถือเอกสาร แต่งตัวดีมาก เขาอาจจะเป็นคนไม่ดีก็ได ้ […] เพราะฉะนัwน อันนีwมันเหมือนเป็น เป็นคติสอนว่า ทุกสงทุกอย่างนีvอะิv เอ่อ มันไม่แน่นอนอย่างทีvเราประสบเสมอไป มันอาจจะไม่ใชอย่างทีvเราคิดก็ได่ . ้ Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 57 Dr. Phimpan. 58 ทุกสงทุกอย่างนีvอะอยู่ในพระหัตถ์พระเจิv ้า. Mrs. Chanpen. thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 147 was interpreted to mean that God governs and directs everything. In the further elaboration of this theme, there were two slightly different, but interrelated emphasises in the interviews. On the one hand, some of the interviewees focused on what God’s governance means for human knowledge and understanding of their present and future situation of life. On the other hand, another group of interviewees were more concerned with the issue of human freedom with regard to the understanding of God’s governance.

God’s Governance and Human Knowledge

Everything is in the hands of God. God is the one who stipulates, whether it is love or hate […]. God is the one who decides everything and [everything] is directed by God. Therefore […] nobody knows now what God will decide for us, how he will make our situation. We are not able to know.59 This quote from Mrs. Chanpen expresses what many of the interviewees felt that the text teaches concerning God, namely that he both directs and decides everything. What then, is implicated by this understanding that God governs everything? Two important points emerge. First, it is argued that whatever God decides—it has to materialize accordingly, because everything is governed by God.60 His will is sovereign and he determines everything. This point is seen to be further developed in the statement in verse 1 that “whether it is love or hate one does not know”. This is either understood to convey the meaning that God is in control of the future of human life, hence human beings do not know how their lives will be, or it is understood to mean that humans do not have insight into the cause of that which happens in their life, whether it is due to God’s love or hate. In the following I will pursue these two different lines of interpretation of the statement ‘whether it is love or hate one does not know’.

Nobody Knows Their Future Dr. Phimpan, for example, argued as follows: [In] the fifrst verse, he says that it is like our lives are in the hands ofGod.That means, we have no ways to know how it [life] will be in the future; it depends on God’s mercy. “Whether [he] will love or hate, humankind cannot know”;

59 ทุกสงทุกอย่างนีvอะอยู่ในพระหัตถ์พระเจิv ้า พระเจ ้าเป็นผู ้กําหนด ไม่ว่าจะเป็นทรงรัก ทรงเกลียด […] ทุกอย่าง พระเจ ้าเป็นผู ้ตัดสนิ แล ้วก็เป็นการนําพาของพระเจ ้า ฉะนัwน […] ทุกคน ไม่ ไม่ ไม่รู ้เลยว่า พระเจ ้าจะ ตอนนีwว่า จะตัดสนอะไรกะเราิ จะให ้เราเป็นอย่างไร งัwนเรารู ้เราไม่สามารถรู ้ได้. Ibid. 60 See also Mrs. Aporn, (Bangkok, 25. July 2005), Mrs. Chanpen. 148 chapter four

this means that we only know that which is right in front of us. This then is a return to the theme of God’s plan; we don’t have a way to know what kind of plans God has for us.61 According to her, the verse states that people only know that which is right in front of them, but not God’s future plan for them. The future is not in the hands of humankind, in other words, human beings are not in control of their own fate, but depend on God’s plan and mercy.62 With this as a starting point, some of the interviewees proceeded to comment on the further implications of such a view. Dr. Phimpan argued that one implication of the belief that God governs everything is that people do not need to worry about the future. There is no need to worry since people cannot foresee what will happen anyway—as everything is in God’s hand. This she further compared to Buddha’s teaching that one should not worry about past and future, but concentrate on today.63 Being an ideal attitude to life it is, however, hard to practise, she admitted, as people do worry about the future. If they do not worry about the future, they may be caught up in the past, not managing to let go; which is then the cause of suffering. If on the other hand people are able to concentrate on today, without worry about the future and attachment to the past, they would not have much suffering, since the cause of suffering is attachment.64 Also pointed out in the interviews was another implication of the belief that humans and their future are in God’s hand, namely the need of those who believe in God for trusting and having faith in him.65 If they believe in Christianity, they must believe in God. Therefore, they must have confifdence in God. Regardless of your knowing or not knowing, you must have faith, isn’t it so? [You] must have faith, have trust; we should not

61 อย่างตอนแรกนะคะ เค ้าก็พูดถึงว่า นีvอะ เหมือนกับชวิตเรานีvอะี อยู่ในหัตถ์ของพระเจ ้า คือเราไม่มีทางรู ้หรอกว่า ว่าจะเป็นยังไงต่อ แล ้วแต่เมตตาของพระองค์ “จะทรงรักหรือทรงเกลียดก็ตาม มนุษย์หารู ้ไม่” นะฮะ คือเรารู ้แต่สงทีvอยู่ิv ต่อหน ้าเราเท่านัwนเอง ก็อย่าง มันก็กลับไปเรืvอง God’s plan คือว่า เราไม่มีทางรู ้หรอกว่า พระเจ ้าอะมี plan อะไรให ้ เราอยู่. Dr. Phimpan. 62 Cf. also Dr. Saichai. She said: “And then, what God will love or hate, human beings do not really know. It is like this, that is, they see [i.e. know] according to what they see; they don’t see any more than that.” (แล ้วก็พระองค์นีvอะ จะรักหรือว่า จะเกลียดอะไร อะไร มนุษย์ก็ไม่ได ้รู ้จริง ไม่ได ้รู ้จริงในข ้อนีw นะฮะ มันก็เป็นไป อย่างนัwนแหละ คือเขาเห็นตามทีvเขา เห็น ก็ไม่ได ้เห็นมากไปกว่านัwน). 63 It is interesting to note that even though Dr. Phimpan had previously pointed out that to be dependent on God is very different from Buddhist teaching (cf. ch. 2), in relating this verse to Buddhism, however, she focused on possible similarities between the text and Buddhism. 64 Dr. Phimpan. This is classical Buddhist teaching, part of the teaching of Dependent Origination (paticcasamuppada). For an introduction to the teaching of Dependent Origi- nation, see Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Natural Laws and Values for Life. 77–177. 65 Mrs. Chanpen. thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 149

have doubt […]. But if asking [how it is] from a Buddhist perspective, it is like that which I have already talked about. That is, the past we don’t know, the future we don’t know, therefore, that which we should be interested in, is this life, [and to] do good in the present.66

In Mrs. Chanpen’s opinion the text indicates that those who believe in God must trust that he will do good to them, at least if they do good themselves. At the same time they must know that they themselves are not in charge. Buddhists, however, can only trust in themselves and should thus concentrate on doing good in the present and hence take charge of their own future. Dr. Somsri argued similarly, that verse 1 stresses that everything or everyone is in the hands of God, and that people do not know what the future has in store for them. But in her opinion this does not mean that this knowledge is inaccessible.

We don’t know, however, whether God will love or hate. “Humankind cannot know that which is in front of them”. This means, […] that humankind cannot know, only God, is that correct? It is God alone who knows who is good or who is bad. Those who are [good] he loves, those who are bad he hates. […] People cannot know that which is ahead of them. Hate, love, goodness, wickedness are in front of them, but people don’t know, because some people don’t know whether that which they do is good or bad.67

According to her understanding the reason why people do not know their future is that they lack wisdom and are fools. If people had wisdom they would know whether they act well or badly and what the results would be, because God will reward the good and punish the wicked. She further compared this to the teaching of kamma in Buddhism and emphasised that the law of kamma similarly ensures that good is followed by good, while evil results in evil. Consequently, those with wisdom can know what the future has in stock for them.

66 ถ ้าเขาศกษาึ ถ ้าเขาเชอในคริสเตียนืv เขาก็ต ้องเชอเรืvองพระเจืv ้า เพราะฉะนัwน เขาต ้องไว้ มีความไว ้วางใจใน พระเจ ้า ไม่ว่าคุณจะรู ้หรือไม่รู ้ก็ตาม แต่ต ้องมี faith ใชไหมคะ่ ต ้องมีความเชอความศรัทธาืv ก็คงไม่ให ้เราสงสยั […] แต่ถ ้าถามในแง่พุทธ ฮอื ก็คงจะเหมือนทีvเคยพูดว่า เรืvองของเอ่อ ในอดีต ใน เราไม่รู ้ อนาคตเราก็ไม่รู ้ เพราะฉะนัwน สงทีvเราควรสนใจิv คือเรืvองของชาตินีwทีv ปัจจุบันนีwทีvทําความดี. Ibid. 67 เราไม่รู ้หรอกว่าพระเจ ้าจะทรงรักหรือทรงเกลียด มนุษย์หารู ้ไม่ ทุกอย่างก็อยู่ต่อหน ้าเขาทัwงหลาย หมายความว่า หมายความว่ายังไง ตรงนีw มนุษย์หารู ้ไม่ คือพระเจ ้าเท่านัwนทีvรู ้ ถูกมัwย ว่าพระเจ ้าคนนัw เท่านัwนทีvรู ้นะ ว่าคนไหน ดีคนไหนเลว ถูกมัwย ถ ้าคนไหนก็ทรงรัก ถ ้าคนไหนเลวก็ทรงเกลียด นะ แต่มนุษย์นะไม่รู ้หรอกว่าพระเจ ้า อ่า พระเจ ้าหารู ้ เอ่อ มนุษย์หารู ้ไม่ทุกอย่างก็อยู่ต่อนหน ้าเขาทัwงหลาย นะ ความเกลียด ความรัก ความดี ความเลว อยู่ต่อหน ้าเค้านีvแหละ แต่มนุษย์ไม่รู ้ บางคนไม่รู ้ นะ เพราะงัwนบางคนไม่รู ้ว่า ไอ ้สงทีvทํานีvอะมันดีหรือเลวิv . Dr. Somsri. 150 chapter four

Nobody Knows Whether Their Situation in Life Is Due to God’s Love or Hate Ms. Laksami, in her interpretation of verse 1, argued that the verse means that humans must accept that their life situation is given by God, while at the same time they cannot know whether it is due to his hate or love. She gave as example persons born with a handicap and argued that they may not know whether they are disabled because God loves or hates them, but must nevertheless accept that this is the situation which God gave them. In her opinion, however, the teaching of Christianity is that God does not hate anyone, but loves all. So for her the question is more, why does God give someone a handicap when he loves them? There were also a couple of other comments to verse 1, and the role of God, which focused on humans being unable to know whether God loves or hates them. From one point of view, this [verse 1] is similar to what I just said: We don’t have a way of knowing about that which happens to us, [that is], what comes from kamma, and what doesn’t come from kamma. In Buddhism there are some things which cannot be known, but this doesn’t mean that we cannot do anything. Because the method is: Let us assume that everything might come from kamma. If we think like that we will be content, isn’t it so? […] Here [in verse 1] it is stated that human beings do not know whether God loves or hates. But the fact that we don’t know does not mean that we cannot do anything; it can [rather] create positive thinking, isn’t it so? Therefore, one who is born disabled might think that God has created me like this, isn’t it so? But in fact, she doesn’t know if God created her like this. She can thus look at it from a positive perspective, [that] there is a reason. If one thinks like that, one is content, isn’t it so?68 Here Dr. Phichai interprets the verse in light of the Buddhist understanding of kamma. Humans cannot always know the cause of what happens in their lives. In his opinion, however, in order to cope with the diffifculties of life it is most advisable to think that they are due to kamma, or God, and that there is thus a logical explanation.

68 ในแง่นึงมันคล ้าย ๆ กับทีvผมพูดเมืvอสกครู่ั เอ่อ เราไม่มีทางรู ้ว่า สงทีvเกิดกับเราิv นีvอะนะ มันเป็นกรรม อันไหนไม่ได ้มาจากกรรม ในศาสนาพุทธคิดว่า บางอย่างไม่มีทางรู ้ แต่การทีvเราไม่รู ้นีv ไม่ได ้แปลว่า เราจัดการอะไรไม่ ได ้ เพราะวิธีจัดการก็คือว่า ให ้เราตังสมมติฐาน ว่า ทุกอย่างอาจจะมาจากกรรมก็ได ้ ถ ้าคิดอย่างนีwก็จะทําให ้เราสบายใจ […]ในนีwนีvบอกว่า มนุษย์นีv ไม่รู ้หรอกว่า พระเจ ้าทร่งรักหรือทรงเกลียด แต่การทีvไม่รู ้นีv ก็ไม่ได ้แปลว่า เราทําอะไรไม่ได ้ แต่ว่าอาจจะตัwงความคิดในแง่ดี ใชไหม่ เพราะฉะนัwนคนเกิดมาพิการนีv ก็อาจจะคิดว่า ทําไมพระัเจ ้าสร้างเขาให้มาพิการ ใชไหม่ จริง ๆ เขาไม่รู ้หรอก พระเจ ้าสร้างเขามาแบบนีw เขาก็คงมองในแง่ดี มีเหตุผล ถ ้าคิดแบบนีwก็สบายใจ ใชไหมครับ่ . Dr. Phichai. thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 151

God’s Governance and Human Freedom In discussing the text quite a few of the interviewees commented on the relation between God’s governance and human freedom. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak, for example, pointed out that while verse 1 focuses on God and his governance, the rest of the text seems to emphasise the opportunity and freedom of humankind to choose their way of life: From verse 1 we have the feeling that everything is dependent on God, and then, in the following it says that there are choices and that everyone has the opportunity, has constant opportunities, especially those who are still alive. But those who are dead have lost the opportunity to choose […]. For example verse 11, in sum it states that it is like everybody has the same opportunities, to choose or not to choose, to choose what to do and not to do.69 In the following I will therefore present how the interviewees interpreted the text with regard to the relation between God’s governance, and human freedom to act and form their own lives. At the same time I will show how they compared this emphasis in the text to their own understanding of human freedom and self-reliance. Two main questions were discussed. First, some of the interviewees highlighted the question whether human beings are free to act the way they want, or if it is God who governs peoples’ actions. The second question addressed in the interviews concerned the freedom to form one’s own destiny. Do people receive the consequences of their own acts and are they consequently in charge of their own destiny, or is it God who decides what people will meet in life (and after death)?

The Freedom to Act Mrs. Aporn raised the question whether people are free to act the way they want. She argued that on the basis of the text the question arises whether people themselves decide how to act, or whether God draws them to act. This [verse 1] I don’t understand, because we are in the hands of God, isn’t it so, madam? Every person, isn’t it so? [Then my question is:] Does God make us do things or do we ourselves mostly think [i.e. decide] that which we will do?70

69 จากข ้อ 1 นีvอะ จะมีความรู ้สกว่าทุกสึ งทุกอย่างนีvขึwนอยู่กับพระเจิv ้านะ แล ้วก็ ต่อ ๆ มาก็จะบอกว่า มีทางเลือก แล ้วก็ ทุกคนมีโอกาส มีโอกาสอยู่เสมอ โดยเฉพาะคนทีvยังมีชวิตอยู่ี แต่ถ ้าคนตายไปแล้วจะหมดโอกาสเลือกแล ้ว […] อย่างข ้อ 11 นีv เค ้า อ่า อ่านโดยสรุปแล ้ว แล ้วก็บอกว่า มันจะเหมือน เหมือนกับว่าทุกคนมีโอกาส เท่าเทียมกันใน การทีvจะเลือก หรือไม่เลือก อา เลือกทําอะไรหรือไม่ทําอะไร. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 70 อันนีw [the interviewee’s name] ก็ไม่เข ้าใจ เพราะว่า คนเหล่านีwอยู่ในมือของพระเจ ้าใชไหม่ มาดาม ทุก ๆ ชวิตี ใชไหม่ พระเจ ้าจะให้ทําอะไรหรือว่าสวนมากเราจะคิดทําเอง่ . Mrs. Aporn. 152 chapter four

In the interviews there were two main trajectories in answering this question. In addition, one of the interviewees landed on an in-between position. On the one hand, some of the interviewees argued that the text must be understood to convey that ultimately God is the one who determines the way humans act. If all have the opportunity to choose, then it comes close to the law of Buddhism [that] everybody has their own freedom, but here everybody has the opportunity to choose under the law of God, that is a different point: To choose freely and to choose when there is someone who makes you subordinate, that is different.71 Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak argued that there is no real freedom of choice in how to act when people are subjected to God and his law. Hence the text teaches differently from Buddhism which opens up the opportunity for all to act freely. On the other hand, a couple of the interviewees argued that the emphasis in the text means that there is real freedom of action. Opportunity here [which is referred to in v. 11] is given to all. It gives everybody the freedom to do whatever [they want]. But at the same time, God oversees everything. This is the deep foundation of religion. God opens up the opportunity for all to act, [and] if you act it is kamma.72 Phra Songkran was of the opinion that all have the same opportunity to act. This opportunity is given by God, but does not mean that he puts any restriction on the possibility to choose what to do or not to do. In his opinion this is similar to the Buddhist emphasis on the freedom of humans to act, based on their own decisions. Mrs. Aporn, however, felt it was diffifcult to answer the question inan absolute way. Reading verses 7–12 she found them to indicate that people are free to decide for themselves how to act. Therefore, she argued, the statement that we are in the hands of God might mean that he looks after us, but that we should think and act by ourselves. But, at the same time, she understood verse 1 to underline emphatically that humans are in God’s hands. If this is the case, she said, God is probably able to interfere in human

71 ถ ้าถ้าทุกคนมีโอกาสเลือก ก็ ก็คงจะเข ้ากฎของพุทธ ทุกคนมีเสรีภาพของตัวเอง แต่ทีนีwจะ ทุกคนมีโอกาสเลือก ก็จริงใต ้กฎของพระเจ้าเชนกัน่ นัvนคือ คือตอ ข ้อแตกต่าง เลือกอย่างอิสรภาพกับเลือก อย่าง มีผู ้ทีvให ้อยู่เบืwองหลัง นัvนคือแตกต่างกัน. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. 72 โอกาสนีvอะ เปิดให ้กับทุกคน ให ้ทุกคนนีvมีเสรีภาพนีv freedom ในการทีvจะทําอะไรก็ได ้ นะฮะ แต่ในขณะเดียว กันพระเจ ้าเองก็ยังดูอยู่ นีvคือ concept เบืwองลึกของศาสนา พระเจ ้าเปิดโอกาสให ้กับทุกคนจะทํา คือ คือถ ้าคุณทํา แล ้วคุณ ก็เรืvองกรรมอะ. Phra Songkran, (Bangkok, 14. September 2005). thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 153 affairs whenever he wants. Thus a problem arises, to which she did not have an answer: Their activity, their work are in the hands of God already, isn’t it so? God can do whatever he wants. But if they do evil, then why doesn’t God squeeze them immediately? That is [like stating]: This is not good, [I] forbid you to do it! We would have understood it immediately, don’t you think so? [We would] not have had to wait until our lives are almost over […]. I feel: Why has God given me over to all this suffering?73 The problem as she sees it is as follows: When God is able to do whatever he wants, why, then, does he not react or interfere when a person does evil by telling him or her that this is not good, or forbid them to do it? If he reacted it would have been immediately clear what is right or wrong. One would not have needed to wait until one has gained enough experience and wisdom to understand that one is on a wrong track, and would have been spared from much suffering.

The Responsibility for One’s Own Consequences The second issue which emerged in connection with the issue of God’s governance and human freedom was whether people receive the consequences of their own acts and consequently are responsible for their own destiny, or whether they are dependent on God with regard to the outcome of acts. First, one group of the interviewees was of the opinion that the text stresses that ultimately God is responsible for what people experience and meet in life. Everything God gives equally to all human beings. He gives the same to the good as to the bad […]. Buddhism teaches to believe in oneself. That one receives good is due to one’s own acts […], while those who are not good [and] receive that which is not good in life, they have done it themselves. Buddhism does not teach that God must give this, give that to them, because they must obtain it themselves.74

73 กิจการของเขางานของเขาอยู่ในกํามือของพระเจ ้าแล้ว ใชไหม่ พระเจ ้าจะทําอะไรก็ได ้แต่ถ ้าเขาทําความชวัv ปุ๊บ แล ้วพระเจ้าทําไมไม่บีบปัxบตอนนัwนเลย ใชไหมค่ ้า ให ้สลายไปเลย คือว่า อันนีwไม่ดีนะ ห ้ามทํา เราจะเข ้าใจในทันที ใชไหม่ ไม่ต ้องรอ รอ รอ ให ้ชวิตเกือบจะสี นแลิw ้ว […] รู ้สกว่าึ ทําไมพระเจ ้าต้องปล่อยให ้ [the interviewee’s name] มีทุกข์ทรมานนาน. Mrs. Aporn. 74 ทุกสงทุกอย่างพระเจิv ้าจะประทานให้ ให ้มนุษย์ เท่า ๆ กัน คนดีก็ประทานให ้เท่า ๆ กัน คนไม่ดีก็ประทานให ้เท่า ๆ กัน […] พุทธศาสนานีwจะสอนให ้เชอตัวเองืv การทีvจะได ้รับสงดีก็คือตัวเราทําเองิv […] สวนคนทีvไม่ดี่ ไม่ดีก็ได ้รับสงทีvิv ไม่ดี ไม่ดีในชวิตี เค ้าทําด ้วยตนเองพุทธศาสนาเค ้า ไม่ได ้สอนว่า พระเจ ้าต้องประทานนีwให ้ ประทานนัwนให ้ เพราะเค ้า ต ้องหาเอง. Mae Chii Phornthip. 154 chapter four

Based on the interpretation that God is the one in charge of peoples’ lives, the interviewees drew the conclusion that this text teaches differently from Buddhism in Thailand, which has as a basic dogma that human beings depend on themselves.75 In addition to stressing that God is in charge of peoples’ destinies, some also found the text to emphasise that God does not distinguish between good and bad (cf. the quote above). Ms. Laddawan, for example, interpreted verse 1 to mean that God is merciful to all, independent of whether one converts to Christianity or not. According to her understanding God also forgives those who do bad deeds. This underlines the difference between this text and Buddhism, she argued, since in Buddhist belief there is no God who is merciful to people; rather the result will come according to how we think or act. Second, another group of interviewees focused more on the possible similarities between the text and a Buddhist understanding of people as responsible for their own lives. Phra Songkran, for example, argued as follows: “God opens up the opportunity for all to act, [and] if you act, it is kamma.”76 In his opinion, and in the opinion of others,77 God has given all people the opportunity to act, and choose how to act. This thought that God gives opportunities to humankind is different from Buddhism. What is similar, however, is that when people act, it can be compared to kammic acts, acts which bear the consequences within themselves, like a fruit which comes from a seed. Consequently, it can be said that people are responsible for their own destiny, like it is emphasised in Buddhism.

The stress in verse 1, that everything is in the hands of God, was interpreted to mean that God governs and directs everything. The following sentence (of the verse) concerning love and hate was interpreted in two directions with regard to God’s governance and human knowledge. By one group of the interviewees it was interpreted as meaning that humans do not know what the future brings—whether good or bad—, because everything happens according to God’s free will and plan. By another group, the sentence was understood to convey the meaning that humans do not have insight into the cause of their present situation of life, whether it is due to God’s love or hate.

75 For example Dr. Phimpan, Ms. Laksami. Cf. the discussion in ch. 2. 76 พระเจ ้าเปิดโอกาสให ้กับทุกคนจะทํา คือ คือถ ้าคุณทําแล ้ว ก็เรืvองกรรมอะ. Phra Songkran. 77 For example Dr. Phichai, Dr. Somsri. thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 155

Concerning the fifrst way of understanding, the interviewees focused on the implications of such a belief in their comparison with Buddhism. They argued that the understanding of the text was similar to Buddhist thinking in that it implies a worry-free attitude towards the future, but different from Buddhism in that it implies a reliance on God instead of oneself. With regard to the second way of understanding, it was compared to the understanding of Buddhism, that even though people’s present situation is normally thought to be due to former kamma, not all that happens can be explained this way. The issue of God’s governance was also related to the problem of human freedom. Some of the interviewees were of the opinion that the text clearly emphasises that God determines persons’ acts as well as their destinies. Oth- ers argued that God has given humans the freedom to act, and hence made them responsible for their own destiny. It was commonly agreed, however, that if human acts or destinies are determined by God, this text teaches differently than Buddhism, as it is a central tenet in Buddhist teaching that humans only have themselves to rely on.

“All Meet the Same เคราะ (Khraw, Fate)”78

Most of the interviewees noticed that verse 2 emphasises that there is something which nobody can escape, and that this something in the text was presented as khraw (fate). Opinions differed, however, both to what khraw was supposed to mean here, and how it is understood in the Thai context. In this section I will discuss the different interpretations concerning what khraw could possible mean, and thus what it is that all humans are subjected to. The following quotation is a good starting point: “The same khraw comes to all the same way” [Verse 2]. This seems to express that the just will receive results, [and also that] the unjust will receive results. But the use of the expression ‘the same khraw’ makes me confused. It is like—if one takes it as it stands—it is as if it states: Both the good and those who are not good will receive the same results, isn’t it so? Because the word ‘khraw’ has negative connotations, it is not something which is desirable, it is not a reward; it is something which nobody wishes for, because the word ‘khraw’ denotes that which makes our lives bad. For example, when we have problems, we might say: “Now [we] experience khrawkamma” […]. [Therefore], if Thais read this [verse 2] they will say, [they] agree [that it goes

78 An English paraphrase of the fifrst sentence of Eccl 9:2 in Thai Holy Bible (in Thai). 156 chapter four

like] this: Both the good and the not good will receive the same khraw. There is no indication that there will be a reward for goodness, only [the negative] khraw […]. It makes one wonder, why does the text say this?79 And then one does not receive any further explanation from the sentence structure.80 This quote shows clearly the confusion many of the interviewees felt in the meeting with the word khraw in the text. Dr. Phimpan made three main points: First, she argued that what is here expressed with the word khraw is something which all people receive. Second, she said that for a Thai this word has negative connotations and thus creates the impression that all people will meet with a bad fate, both the good and the bad. Finally, she could not fifnd that the text explains this matter in a way which makes sense. In the following, I will fifrst present how the interviewees understood the word khraw in their own context, and then see how they tried to interpret verse 2, in spite of diffifculties caused by the concept khraw.

Khraw in Thai Understanding The interviewees who commented on the concept of khraw told that in the context of Thai language it conveys the meaning of bad luck, whose cause is unknown.81 Khraw in the context of Thai language; if one translates the meaning in Thai [to English], khraw means bad luck […]; from which cause, we don’t know.82

79 Literally the sentence goes as follows: “It makes one wonder: Why this meaning?” 80 “เคราะห์อันเดียวกัน ตกแก่คนทัwงปวงเหมือนกันหมด” ก็คือ เหมือนกับว่าอะ คนชอบธรรมก็จะได ้ผล คนอธรรมก็ จะได ้ผล แต่ว่าการทีvเค ้าใชภาษาว่า้ “เคราะห์อันเดียวกัน” นีvอะ มันทําให ้งงไงคะ มันหมาย เหมือนกับว่า ถ ้าดูตามรูป ประโยคนีvอะ มันก็จะกลายเป็นว่า ทัwงคนดีและคนไม่ดีได ้ ได ้ผลอย่างเดียวกัน ใชมัwยฮะ่ เพราะว่า แล ้ว แล ้วคําว่า “เคราะห์” นีvอะ มันเป็น negative connotation นะฮะ มันไม่ใชส่ งทีvพึงปรารถนาิv มันไม่ใชรางวัล่ มันคือสงทีvิv ไม่มีใครต ้องการ เพราะว่า คําว่า “เคราะห์” นีvอะ มันหมายถึงอะไรก็ตามทีvมันทําให ้ ชวิตเราแย่ี อย่างเวลาทีv เวลาทีvเรามี ปัญหานีvอะ เขาจะพูดว่า “นีvอะ ประสบเคราะห์กรรม” […] ถ ้าคนไทยอ่านนีvอะ เค ้าก็จะบอกว่า เอ๊ะ ตกลงนีvอะ คนดี คนไม่ ดีก็ได ้เคราะห์อย่างเดียวกัน ไม่ ไม่เห็นจะมีรางวัลแห่งความดีเลย มีแต่เคราะห์ […] มันทําให ้สงสยไงคะว่าั ทําไมหมาย ความอย่างงัwนอะ แล ้วจาก จากรูปประโยคนีvอะ ไม่ได ้ให้คําอธิบายเพิvมมากขึwนเลย ทีvจะชวยไกด์่ ชวยแนะนําความ่ หมายอะไรขึwนมา. Dr. Phimpan. Dr. Saichai shared the same confusion concerning how to understand khraw in this context. 81 Mr. Wibun. Dr. Saichai, Dr. Somsri, Mrs. Aporn, Mrs. Chittra. They used the word โชคร ้าย (bad luck) to describe khraw. Cf. also James N. Mosel, “Fatalism in Thai Bureaucratic Decision-Making,” Anthropological Quarterly 39, no. 3 (1966). 193–194. 82 เคราะห์ในบริบทของภาษาไทย ถ ้าเกิด ถ ้าเกิดแปลความหมายตามภาษาไทย เคราะห์หมายถึง bad luck […], from which cause, we don’t know. Mr. Wibun. thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 157

Dr. Somsri added that khraw is usually thought of as something which might strike randomly: “Some people have good luck, other bad luck, isn’t it so? Therefore, khraw, bad khraw, some people might never meet it.”83 The concept is often connected to astrology, and with fortune-tellers, who can read a person’s luck or fate in the stars. In other words, it is believed that it is possible, through the use of divination, to ascertain one’s fate. But it was also mentioned that Buddha opposed astrology and stressed that good and bad results depend on a person’s own acts.84 Further, two questions of importance addressed in the interviews were: First, can khraw be used about death? Second, what is the connection between khraw and bad kamma? Concerning the fifrst question, the interviewees generally agreed that khraw was not a very good term for describing death. The reason for this was that death is regarded as something natural and neutral, while khraw has clear negative connotations.85 In Jasper Ingersoll’s research from village Thailand, however, he found that the villagers used the term “to refer to some personal calamities, often death”.86 It is possible that the answers here are dependent on how the questions to the interviewees are phrased. If one focuses on the understanding of death generally, khraw is not an appropriate term to use. But if the questions relate to how one is to describe certain examples of accidents and unexpected death, khraw might be one of the explanations offered. With regard to the relation between khraw and old kamma, my material is a bit ambiguous. The sentence “the same khraw comes to all the same way” (verse 2) was compared to the teaching of kamma in Buddhism, but whether this means that khraw and bad kamma are identififed is not clear: “The same khraw comes to all the same way” [Verse 2]. This is similar to kamma in Buddhism. That is, regardless of your being a good person or a bad person, you have kamma, old kamma—or something like that—, which follows you.87

83 บางคนโชคดีแต่บางคนอาจจะโชคร ้าย ใชมัwย่ เพราะงัwนเคราะห์ เคราะห์ร ้ายนีv บางคนอาจจะไม่เจอก็ได. ้ Dr. Somsri. 84 Mr. Wibun. In a study of village Thailand, Jasper Ingersoll describes different forms of divination used to determine what fate has in store for the individual. See Jasper Ingersoll, “Fatalism in Village Thailand,” Anthropological Quarterly 39, no. 3 (1966). 206–210. Cf. also Charles F. Keyes, “Buddhist Pilgrimage Centers and the Twelve-Year Cycle: Northern Thai Moral Orders in Space and Time,” History of Religions 15, no. 8 (1975). 83. 85 Cf. for example Dr. Phimpan. 86 Ingersoll, “Fatalism in Village Thailand.” 201. 87 “เคราะห์อันเดียวกันตกแก่คนทัwงปวง” เหมือนกับกรรมของพระพุทธศาสนาอะครับ คือไม่ว่าคุณจะเป็นคนดีหรือ 158 chapter four

James N. Mosel argues that: In luck there appears to be a component which is independent of kam, but which in unknown proportions may occur in conjunction with kam as is suggested by the common compound, khraw-kam.88 Based on my material, I think he is right in observing that khraw is not understood to be identical to bad kamma, but that bad kamma and khraw sometimes are used interchangeably to denote that which happens without any obvious cause. But by choosing to use the word khraw in describing a situation, one is, in a more direct way, stating that one is not responsible for the situation in question. This way of understanding the relation between khraw and bad kamma was confifrmed in an e-mail exchange with Orawan Thamjaruwat,89 and is also supported by the fifndings of Inger- soll.90

Khraw in the Text How should khraw be understood in the text? Since khraw is said to be something which strikes all people, good and bad alike, it is, according to the interviewees, diffifcult to understand it as ‘bad luck’ within the contextof this text. The reason given for this is that even though both the good and the bad might receive it, bad luck (khraw) is not something which is common to all humans. Further, the understanding of the word as expressing the idea of bad kamma was an impossible interpretive option for most of the interviewees, since then the text would have stated that both the good and the bad will receive bad kamma. In spite of this general viewpoint, two of the interviewees interpreted khraw within the context of the text as similar to bad kamma. The fifrst was Mae Chii Narumon, who consequently concluded that this text teaches very differently from Buddhism, where it is stated that only those who do evil, will receive evil. The second person, who interpreted khraw in the text as bad kamma, was Mr. Chakkri. He stated:

ว่า คุณจะเป็นคนชวัv คุณก็จะมีกรรม กรรมเก่า หรืออะไรประมาณนีwอะครับติดตัวมา. Mr. Deecha. I think Ms. Laddawan is thinking of the same idea when she says it is the results of acts. 88 Mosel, “Fatalism in Thai Bureaucratic Decision-Making.” 194. 89 “However, people would rather have ‘เคราะห์’—bad luck—than ‘กรรม’ when something bad happen to them since no one knows for sure what bad karma they had done in their past lives and who want to hear: ‘It serves you right!’ or to accept they deserve bad things although they even believe in karma.” Orawan Thamjaruwat, (13.12.2007). 90 Ingersoll, “Fatalism in Village Thailand.” 202. thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 159

This [text] I like […] because [whether people are] good or not good, kamma or that which is distressful, happens to all. I like this [text] very much […], because I feel it is the truth. It is really true, because according to what [I] see in society or see from the lessons of history, or from different stories, it is in fact like this. Like what is said: do good, receive evil.91 He further said that he could not explain why it was like this, and that it is contrary to what is taught in Buddhism. Anyway it is the way life is experienced. In addition two of the monks also related the statement: ‘the same khraw comes to all the same way’, to the result of kamma. They argued that this can be compared to the Buddhist teaching of the effect of kamma on life, specififed as the eight worldly conditions (lokhadhamma): gain, loss, fame, obscurity, blame, praise, happiness and pain. [Verse 2] “The same khraw comes to all in the same way, that is, comes to the righteous and those who are not righteous.” This means that it does not choose between people; that is, both the righteous and the wicked receive effects the same way—receive effects the same way, [be they] good or not good [persons], […] they cannot escape from the worldly conditions or this truth.92 Unlike these interviewees, who related khraw in the text to the concept of kamma, some of the other interviewees who commented on this issue tried to make meaning of the text by relating it to what in their opinion is common conditions for all humans. In doing this, some drew on what they knew about Christian theology, while others went to Buddhist sources. There were basically two main suggestions:

91 อันนีwชอบนะ […] เพราะผม ผมรู ้สกว่าึ ม ้นเป็นความจริงอะ เป็นความจริงอย่างงัwน จริง ๆ เพราะว่าเท่าทีvเห็นใน สงคมั หรือเห็นจากการเรียนรู ้ทางประวัติศาสตร์ หรือว่าเห็นเรืvองราวต่าง ๆ มันเป็นอย่างงัwนจริง ๆ เหมือนกับทีvพูดว่าไรนะ ทํา ทําดี ได ้อะไรนะ ทําดีได ้ชวัv . Mr. Chakkri. 92 เคราะห์อันเดียวกันตกแก่คนทัwงปวงเหมือนกันหมด คือ ตกแก่คนชอบธรรมและคนไม่ชอบธรรม” หมายความว่า ทุกอย่างไม่เลือกใครหรอก คือคนชอบธรรม ไม่ชอบธรรม ก็ได ้รับผลเหมือนกัน ได ้รับผลเหมือนกัน เอ่อ จะดีจะชวยังไงัv […] เค ้าจะหนีจากโลกธรรมหรือความจริงนีw. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. They explained the concept of the worldly conditions as follows: “You might not know the eight worldly conditions. They are gain, loss,—gain here is similar to fame, then follows obscurity, happiness, pain, praise and blame […]. They are pairs […]. Buddhism thinks that if one knows these eight conditions one will not have suffering. Or if gain emerges, we know that it will not last; it will decline, it is anicca (impermanent), not permanent. Suffering might emerge as well, [but] I will observe it neutrally.” (โลกธรรม 8 อาจาย์อาจจะไม่รู ้มีลาภ เสริมลาภ ลาภในทีvนีwเหมือนกับลาภยศ แล ้วก็เสริมยศ มีสุข ทุกข์ มีสรรเสริญ มีนินทา […] มันจะเป็นของคู่กัน […] นีvพุทธศาสนาจะมองว่า ถ ้ารู ้จักรูปธรรม 8 แล ้วจะไม่มีความทุกข์ หรือถ ้าหากว่า ลาภเกิดขึwนปุ๊บ เราก็มอง โอ มันเกิดขึwนไม่นาน มันก็เสอมืv เป็นอนิจจัง ไม่นาน ทุกข์อาจจะเกิดขึwนก็ได ้ ฉันจะมองแกเป็นกลาง). See also Phra Prayudh Payutto, Dictionary of Buddhism (in Thai), 3rd. ed. (Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University 2543). 253. P.A. Payutto, Good,EvilandBeyond:KammaintheBuddha’sTeaching, trans. Bruce Evans, 2nd. ed. (Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation, 1996). 39. 160 chapter four

First, one of the interviewees argued that khraw in the context of the text must be understood as original sin. Khraw here means that which is evil; evil in the unconscious [sic!] of humans. That is, everybody has sin. Christianity believes in sin, that [human beings] have [sin] since birth.93 Second, it was argued that in this context the word khraw might be compared to the Buddhist teaching of the general principle of cause and effect, or the truth that if there is birth, there must be death. Buddhism does not speak about khraw, but speaks about the principle of cause and effect. Because everybody is dependent on three basic truths, which are: to be born, to live, and to be extinguished.94 Mrs. Chanpen argued along the same line, stating that some think of khraw only as negative, but that in the teaching of Dhamma it is just an ordinary thing, i.e. neutral. If we look at it from the perspective of cause and effect, she said, we see that where there is birth, there is also death; no one is immoral, this is khraw. It is something that nobody can escape. The interviewee here pointed out that death is a natural part of the reality which is determined by conditionality and interdependence.95

According to Thai understanding, the term khraw denotes bad luck, whose cause is unknown. It is used to express experiences of misfortunes and accidents, and might, in some cases, be used in connection with death. The statement in the text, that all meet the same khraw, is interpreted in different directions. Some of the interviewees related it to the concept of kamma, especially bad kamma, and argued that the statement implies that all people, regardless of character or behaviour, will experience misfortune in life. Another interviewee understood khraw to denote original sin as it is taught in Christianity. Finally, a couple of interviewees understood it

93 เคราะห์นีvหมายถึง หมายถึงสงทีvชิv วัv evil in unconscious (sic) of human คือ คือ ทุกคน ทุกคนมี sin ศาสนาคริสต์เชอในืv sin มีบาปมาแต่กําเนิด. Mr. Wibun. 94 ศาสนาพุทธไม่ ไม่พูด ไม่พูดถึงเคราะห์ แต่พูดถึงหลักการเหตุผล เพราะทุกคน ทุกคนอยู่บนพืwนฐานของความ จริงสามอย่าง ก็คือว่า เกิดขึwน แล ้วก็ดํารงอยู่ แล ้วก็ดับไป. Ibid. Cf. also Mrs. Chanpen. 95 Birth, age and death are the two last chains in the chain of Dependent Origination (Pat- iccasamuppada), which explains the origin of suffering (the second Noble Truth). Cf. Jakob- sen, Buddhismen. 69–72. For an elaboration on Dependent Origination, see Phra Prayudh Payutto, Dependent Origination: The Buddhist Law of Conditionality, trans. Bruce Evans, The Buddhadhamma Series, vol. 2 (Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation, 1994). thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 161 as referring to, or being comparable to, the principle of cause and effect, which, according to Buddhist teaching, is a decisive principle governing the workings of all aspects of reality.

Intermediate Conclusion

Main Themes and Issues The Understanding of the Main Themes and Issues in Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 As we have seen in the preceding discussion, three main themes came into focus when Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 was read and interpreted by Thai Buddhists. First and foremost, the issue of how, in light of the inevitable fact of death, human beings ought to use life, was seen to be a central theme in the text.96 A second theme, which the interviewees found the text to address, was the opportunities of human beings to form their own lives and destinies.97 Finally, the problem of God and his governance with regard to the freedom and opportunity of humans to form their destinies was also regarded as a central theme.98 These last two themes were by some of the interviewees seen as interrelated and discussed together, while others discussed them as separate themes. In addition to addressing these three themes, the interviewees discussed how one should understand the concept of khraw as it was presented in the text, and on the background of Thai thinking.99 How did the interviewees perceive these matters and concerns? That is, how did they understand the text to elaborate on these themes, and how did they themselves think about them? These questions have been addressed in the preceding presentation. Hence, I will here only sum up the main fifndings. First, the text’s exposition on how life should be lived was by most of the interviewees interpreted as similar to Buddhist thought, both with regard to practical application and motivation. That is, the text was seen to stress, in line with Buddhism, that one should not be careless with life, but concentrate on doing good deeds in order to prepare oneself for life after death. The main reasons for this emphasis were seen to be found in the text’s stress

96 This theme was related to verse 7–10, with verses 4–6, 12 as background. 97 This theme was related to verse 11. 98 This theme was related to verse 1. 99 This theme was related to verses 2–3. 162 chapter four on the inevitability of death, and in the interviewees understanding of the importance of human life with regard to what kind of existence a person enters after death. Basic to the interviewees’ understanding of this theme was their understanding of kamma and rebirth, including the understanding of impermanence (anicca). Some of the interviewees, however, argued that the text seems to regard death as the fifnal end of existence, and hence advices people to enjoy life. One of the interviewees was very critical to this way of thinking, which she compared to modern Thai thinking, as it, in her opinion, might lead to materialism and egotism. Others, who did not believe in an afterlife themselves, agreed with the idea that life has to be enjoyed in the here and now. It should be noted however, that one of the interviewees pointed out that there is no need to overindulge, thus life should be lived as normal, even in light of impending death. The second theme, namely the issue of human opportunities, was understood to emphasise that humans form their own destiny through their own acts. Hence, persons are not determined by their starting point in life, but are free to change their own destiny by diligently doing that which is right and good. As was the case with the fifrst theme, the second was also related to the teaching of kamma. Persons’ present life situations were explained as being due to old kamma, but the main focus was that as the past is gone, one should focus on the present. That is, the opportunities today offer one to do good and hence to take charge of one’s own destiny. Finally, the text was seen to raise the issue of God’s governance and its implications for the lives of humans. The interviewees, who commented on this issue, agreed that the text stresses that human beings are under God’s governance, but opinions differed to how this should be further understood. Some argued that it implies that God is in control of human destinies, and as a consequence they must rely on God. This was seen to be very different from Buddhism, where people are regarded to be in charge of their own destinies, and only have themselves to rely on. Others, who tried to combine the theme of human opportunities with the theme of God’s governance, suggested that the text might mean that God has given humankind the freedom to form their own destiny. That is, through their acts they are responsible for their own destinies. When interpreted this way the text could be compared to the teaching of Buddhism that people are in charge of their own destinies. Based on the interpretation that God is in charge of peoples’ lives, combined with the stress in the text that people cannot know whether it is love or hate which is in front of them, one group of the interviewees also commented on the limits of human knowledge. The text was seen to either thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 163 mean that humans cannot know what the future brings, or that they do not know the cause of their present situation. Both interpretations were seen to be comparable to the Thai Buddhist understanding of the limits of human knowledge. It was emphasised that due to the intricacies of the workings of kamma, and the fact that not all that happens is due to kamma, it is not possible (at least not for ordinary people) to know the cause of all that happens or foresee the future. In addition to these three themes, the interviewees commented on the concept of khraw in the text. As khraw, according to Thai understanding, means bad luck, which is something that does not befall everybody, many of the interviewees found it very diffifcult to understand what the text means by stating that all people will meet the same khraw. Different suggestions to the meaning of this were offered, for example bad kamma, original sin or the principle of cause and effect.

Main Comparisons Similarities between the Text and Their Buddhist Understandings and Belief, Agreed on by All Who Commented on These Issues The interviewees noted the following main similarities between the text and their own beliefs: – Life is impermanent and death is a limit to life here – After death there is no possibility of changing anything – Now, in one’s present life, is the time to do good – One should use one’s life by not being careless – One should be content Some Issues Which Some of the Interviewees Found to be Similar to Their Own Buddhist Understanding, While Others Regarded as Different In the interviewees’ interpretations of the following issues, they differed as to whether these can be regarded as similar to their own Buddhist thinking or not. – Time and opportunity to choose are there for all, due to the law of kamma and God. – One should enjoy life. This was by some considered as being different to the Buddhist ideal of moderation. – Death means the end of all existence. 164 chapter four

Differences between the Text and Their Own Buddhist Understandings and Belief, Agreed on by Those Who Commented on These Issues

– The idea of God’s governance – If khraw has the meaning bad kamma or bad luck, then the text’s message is different from Buddhism, but cf. the feeling of Mr. Chakkri that this is often the case.

Critical Comments, Objections, and Questions First, quite a few of the interviewees questioned the relation between human freedom and the sovereignty of God, the main question being that if God is regarded as sovereign, does this then mean that humans do not have control over their own destiny? A further, more radical question was whether the governance of God implies that humans are not free to act the way they wish. Second, among those who found the text to emphasise that death is the end, one wondered if this was on line with Christian thinking, while another argued that Qohelet’s encouragement to use life to the full, because death is the end, might lead to an immoral and materialistic society. Third, the use of the word khraw (fate) in the text was questioned. It was by most of the interviewees felt to convey ideas which were not congruent with the text as a whole.

Resources and Frameworks of Understanding Used in the Interpretation of the Text Main Resources and Frameworks of Understanding Utilised in the Interpretation of Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 In their interpretation of Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 the interviewees utilised different resources, as we have seen in this chapter. These included their own experience of life, Thai proverbs, the Thai cosmological narrative TraiPhum, Buddhist scriptures, Buddhist doctrines and their understanding of them, as well as their knowledge and understanding of Christian teaching, in addition to their own personal opinions and experience. Based on these resources, which the interviewees made use of in their interpretation of the text, the following frameworks of understanding can be identififed as the most important (since these have been explicated on both in this and previous chapters, I list them here without further comments): thai buddhist interpretations of ecclesiastes 9:1–12 165

– The understanding of life as impermanent (anicca), and death as a natural part of the cycle of life – Rebirth and the role of kamma in the cycle of rebirth (samsara) – The understanding of human life in the cycle of rebirth as the place to do good – The understanding that humans rely on themselves, and have the freedom to form their own destiny—through the law of kamma. – The issue of not being careless – The issue of contentment – The issue of enjoyment and the middle way of practice – The understanding of khraw – The understanding of God with regard to human destiny – The understanding of the Christian teaching of God – The understanding of the Christian teaching of death and afterlife Although most of these points refer to central Buddhist doctrines and values, the last three are pertinent to the interviewees’ understanding of Chris- tian faith.

Inner-Buddhist Differences Regarding the Frameworks of Understanding Related to in the Interpretation of Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 In the analysis of the Thai Buddhist interpretations of the text, some inner- Buddhist differences were detected in the understanding of the frameworks of understanding related to in the interpretation of the text. These concerned fifrst and foremost the question of rebirth and the understanding of God. Two of the interviewees did not believe in rebirth, and as a consequence they would not describe acts as kamma. Further, how God and his relation to humans were perceived varied. Some understood God as controlling human destiny, while others regarded God as one who had given humans the freedom to control their own destiny through their own acts (kamma). chapter five

CONCLUSION TO PART I: THAI BUDDHIST INTERPRETATIONS

Introduction

In this part of the study (ch. 2–4), I have attempted to fifnd an answer to the following three main questions: First, how do Thai Buddhists interpret and understand Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73 and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 in light of the text and their own Buddhist context? Second, what resources do Thai Buddhists draw on in their interpretation of the texts (such as Buddhists doctrines, knowledge about Christian teaching and doctrines, and Thai cultural values)? Third, how do Thai Buddhists relate to and engage with the texts? I will now proceed to sum up the main fifndings regarding these three questions.

The Understanding of the Main Themes and Issues

When dealing with the three individual texts, I have already, in each chapter, summed up the main answers to the question about actual themes and issues. Hence the following presentation will be quite brief.

The Main Themes and Issues The three texts were all seen as being related to the Buddhist teaching about coherence between act and consequence, expressed in the saying “do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil”, or “as you sow you will reap”, and explained through the teaching of kamma. Proverbs 11:18–31 was regarded as emphasising this theme both through its different sayings and by stressing that there is no way to escape the consequences of acts. Further, as the text, according to the interviewees, so clearly emphasises that persons’ acts determine how their lives and futures will turn out, it was interpreted as encouraging people to do good deeds and avoid evil. Whether the text can be said to teach that people are fully in charge of their own destiny, was, however, disputed. On the one hand, those who regarded God as playing the same role as the law of kamma argued that, as a result, humans are in charge of their own life. On the other hand, those 168 chapter five who argued that God and the law of kamma are different pointed out that the text implies that humans depend on God with regard to the outcome of their acts and thus are not fully in charge of their own destiny. In any case, the interviewees agreed that the main thrust of the text was that human acts will have corresponding consequences and hence that the text as a whole encourages and teaches people to be good. One verse in Proverbs 11:18–31, namely verse 31, was interpreted as indicating that there might not always be an apparent coherence between act and consequence. This theme was further explored in connection with Psalm 73. The expected coherence between act and consequence was regarded as the main premise of Psalm 73, and the psalm was seen to discuss if and how this teaching holds true in light of actual life experience. The pivotal theme of Psalm 73 was, as the interviewees saw it, the common experience that, in spite of the expected coherence between act and consequence, good people might meet with hardship and suffer, while wicked people might prosper. The psalm was read as a person’s struggle with this question, and his problem as how to understand his situation in light of his belief in God. The interviewees understood the concept of trust in God as crucial to the understanding both of the psalmist’s question and to the solution of the problem. Further, the psalm was also read as a lesson in how to cope, and not to cope, in a situation like the one described in the Psalm. Finally, Ecclesiastes 9:1–12, was seen to take up the issue from Proverbs 11:18–31, of the importance of doing good, and avoiding evil. As life is short and the acts in this life are crucial for determining what happens after life, one’s use of this life becomes a question of utmost importance. The main premise for the interviewees’ understanding of this issue was again the understanding that there is a correspondence between acts and consequences. Further, Ecclesiastes was also seen to address the question of whether it is humans themselves, or God who determines human acts and destinies. The text was regarded as emphasising both human freedom and God as being in charge, thus the discussion went on to how one may interpret these two seemingly different statements. Finally, it was debated what fate is, and whether the same fate occurs to all.

Variations in Emphasis I am aware that it is not possible, based on my material, to generalise with regard to whether there will be differences between how ordinary Buddhists and professional Buddhists, women and men, younger and elder, highly educated or less educated, will relate to the texts and their themes. I conclusion to part i: thai buddhist interpretations 169 will, however, list some tendencies I have found in my material, which may be confifrmed or invalidated in further research.

– The two youngest of the interviewees did not believe in rebirth, hence they did not explain the relation between act and consequence in terms of kamma. – It was the female interviewees, who commented on the issue of giving and sharing as a theme in Proverbs 11:24–26. – It was the monks, who most explicitly voiced a critique of the belief in a God, and who argued that it conflficts with the teaching of Bud- dhism. The conclusion should not be hastily drawn, however, that the lay-people were not critical. The reason(s) for why they did not critique this belief could be that they wished to be empathetic in their response, and/or that they did not know how to formulate the criticism. – It was the most educated among the interviewees (Master and Ph.D.), both among professional and ordinary Buddhists, who focused on the issue of self-reliance in Buddhism. Further, this group also utilised frameworks of understanding from the ‘higher’ teaching of Buddhism in their interpretation. – It was those of higher education that referred to Buddhist scriptures, while all the interviewees related popular sayings, and popular sum- maries of the Buddhist teaching of kamma. – It was the interviewee, who was poorest and lowest on the social ladder, who identififed herself with the psalmist and his lament.

In other words, there were no signififcant differences between the professional and ordinary Buddhists with regard to what themes they found in the text, or what resources they utilised when interpreting the texts. Between the highly educated (Master and Ph.D.), and those with lower education, there were, however, some differences with regard to how they viewed the text, and resources they used in their interpretation. Gender, and social status, did not have a signififcant impact, but some variations in emphasis were noted with regard to these two categories.

Resources Used in the Interpretation of the Texts

In the conclusions to each separate text, I have already summed up the most important resources used in the interpretation of the tree wisdom text. Therefore, I will in the following only brieflfy sum up the main fifndings. 170 chapter five

The main resource used in the interpretation of all three texts was the Buddhist teaching of kamma and rebirth. Different aspects of the understanding of kamma were utilised in the interpretations. In addition, other central Buddhist doctrines, like Dhamma, the Triple Gem, and impermanence were drawn on in the interpretations and comments on the texts. References were also made to more popular forms of Thai belief, like belief in fate and in supernatural beings. Further, in their interpretations, the interviewees actively used the knowledge they had about the Bible, Christianity and Christians. In addition, they drew on common discourses (in a Thai context) of how to understand the role of religion. Finally, implicit references were also made to understandings about how the different religions relate to each other.

How the Interviewees Related to the Texts

What were the different ways in which the interviewees related to the texts? A general impression I have, based both on the interview situation and what the interviewees were actually saying, is that they met the texts with a hospitable, emphatic and respectful attitude. They became engaged with the texts and their issues, and they willingly shared their understanding of them as well as their own thinking about the themes and issues, which they saw as important in the texts. I was impressed, and touched, by their generosity and hospitality, both in terms of them using their time to read and talk about these texts with me, and also in terms of their openness to the texts and the issues discussed there. I was also very impressed by their serious attempts to understand and relate to ideas and concepts foreign to their own faith and beliefs. It was for example quite diffifcult for many of the interviewees to comment on the concept of God. Nevertheless, they tried really hard to understand what the texts had to say, and relate it to their own Buddhist faith.

Reading Perspectives A Double Perspective From Thai Buddhists’ readings and interpretations of the texts, a double perspective of reading can be discerned. On the one hand, the texts were read and interpreted from within the interviewees’ own frame of reference. On the other hand, there were quite a few examples of how the conclusion to part i: thai buddhist interpretations 171 interviewees also tried to view the texts from within the context of Christian teaching and understanding. In attempting to understand the main themes and issues of the three biblical texts within their own frame of reference, the interviewees were engaging in what Volker Küster names translation. In a dialogue situation, he argues, translation is often the fifrst phase; it is the fifrst attempt to understand the teaching and beliefs of the other—the dialogue partner.1 In the meeting with the three texts from the Bible under study here, this was exactly what the interviewees were doing. By reading and interpreting the texts, the interviewees tried to make sense of them by relating the texts’ concepts and ideas to a Buddhist framework of understanding. In the preceding discussion we have seen many examples of this approach, the main example being how the framework of kamma was utilised to understand the teachings of the texts. But, additionally, and to a greater or lesser degree—and more or less explicitly, the interviewees made an effort to understand the texts on the basis of them belonging to the Christian tradition. This took different forms, depending to a certain extent on what kind of knowledge the interviewees had of the Bible and Christian teaching beforehand. One example of how this was done is found in the interview with Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. They used their pre-understanding of how the relationship between God and humans is to be understood as the basis for their interpretation of the role of God with regard to the act-consequence nexus in Proverbs 11:18–31.2 An example of a less explicit use of knowledge of Christian teachings is how most of the interviewees took it for granted that Ecclesiastes also reckons with a life after death, because that is what the interviewees had understood Christians to believe. Some of the interviewees also had knowledge of, and took into account, the texts’ roots in Jewish history and culture. Dr. Phichai, for example interpreted the question of the psalmist (in Psalm 73) on background of his own knowledge of Jewish history. He argued that the psalmist represented the voice of oppressed Jews, who questioned God concerning why they must suffer, while their oppressors prosper. Admittedly, attempting to view the texts in light of their historical context was not very widespread among the

1 Volker Küster, “Toward an Intercultural Theology: Paradigm Shifts in Missiology, Ecu- menics, and Comparative Religion,” in Theology and the Religions: A Dialogue, ed. Viggo Mortensen (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2003). 179–180. 2 They argued that faith in God, i.e. one’s relationship to God is crucial for what consequences one receives. See ch. 2. 172 chapter five interviewees, but the recognition that there were references to historical situations or cultural contexts in the texts which were not known to them, and thus made understanding more diffifcult, was acknowledged by quite a few of the interviewees. Finally, quite a few of the interviewees tried to put themselves in the shoes of Christian believers when interpreting texts. Phra Songkran, for example, having stressed that Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 opens up the perspective that man depends on his/her own acts, continued to interpret the text from a ‘we’ perspective. His view can be paraphrased as follows: Let us believe fifrmly in what we think, say and do. But at the same time, let usnotforget where we come from. Therefore man must praise and thank God for what he gives us, that he gives us opportunities, our life, good things. Let us do a lot of good, because God is the one who gives it to us. This way of interpreting the text, by talking about it from an I/we perspective, was used by many of the interviewees, thus showing their willingness and attempt to understand the texts as texts from within the Christian tradition.

A Triple Perspective The interviewees were not only using different perspectives with regard to what frameworks they read the texts within, but also read the texts as contributing to the religious discourse on different levels. First, the texts were read from the perspective of what the texts contributed in terms of doctrine. They were seen as presenting and discussing different points of teaching. For example, on the issue of moral order or on the question of human freedom and God’s might. Second, the texts were read from the perspective of practice. That is, when reading the texts the interviewees had a conscious focus on what implications the different points of teachings could have for practice, and how they could be applied in everyday life. In the Proverbs text, for example, the interviewees emphasised how it encourages people to do good and avoid evil, while in Ecclesiastes the main emphasis is on not being careless with life. Third, the texts were also read on the level of life experience. In other words, the interviewees were also looking for what kind of experiences which were related in the texts and how these experiences related to contemporary society.

Interpretive Perspectives In the process of interpretation the interviewees made active use of comparisons. When reading the texts and interpreting them, they found both conclusion to part i: thai buddhist interpretations 173 similarities and differences with regard to their own belief, that is, Bud- dhism. The interviewees usually pointed out the similarities fifrst, before going on to the differences.3

Finding Similarities In the reading of the texts the interviewees fifrst of all found and pointed out many similarities between their own understandings and the understandings of texts. In analysing how and in what areas the interviewees emphasised similarities, it appeared that similarities were found with regard to all the three levels of religious discourse identififed above—doctrine, practice, and life experience. First, the interviewees all found and pointed out many similarities between the themes and ideas in the texts and their own belief, Buddhism. Further, they pointed out similarities stemming from their own experience. Finally they emphasised similarities between Buddhism and the texts with regard to the didactic function of those texts. One example concerning similarities on the doctrinal level is when the interviewees argue that the teaching of Proverbs 11:18–31, of a correspondence between act and consequence, is similar to Thai Buddhist doctrine of the law of kamma. Another example, which demonstrates how similarities were found on the level of experience, is Mrs. Aporn’s comment that she identififes totally with the psalmist’s experience (Ps 73). Finally, in pointing out that the Proverbs text, similarly to Buddhism, teaches people to do good and avoid evil, the interviewees pointed out similarities with regard to how the text could be applied in practical life.

Discussing Differences In addition to pointing out similarities between the texts and Buddhism, the interviewees also found quite a few differences. In my material I have identififed at least 5 different approaches to differences in teaching. They are: 1. The differences are only apparent differences 2. The differences are pointed out in a matter-of-factly, descriptive way 3. The differences are tuned down

3 Oddbjørn Leirvik distinguishes between an apologetic approach and dialogical approach in the meeting with the Other. In the apologetic approach one search for that which confifrms difference, while in a dialogical approach one search for that which issim- ilar. Oddbjørn Leirvik, “The double sense of recognition in interreligious theology,” Norsk Tidsskrift for Misjon 3–4 (2006). 3–4. In my material, both these approaches are present. 174 chapter five

4. The differences give way to critical questions mainly about Christian- ity, but in one case are also used in a self-critical way 5. The differences are pointed out and then explained or evaluated In the following, I will brieflfy present these different approaches to difference. The Differences Are Not for Real In some cases differences between the texts and Buddhism were pointed out, but then it was argued that these are only different on the surface. One might, for example, realise that different terms might cover the same reality. One example of this approach is Dr. Saichai, who argued that God and the law of kamma are just two different terms for the same reality, namely the natural law of cause and condition. It should be noted, however, that in this approach it was the Buddhist understanding of reality which informed the interpretation of what lies behind the different terms in the biblical texts. The Differences Are Pointed out in a Matter-of-Factly, Descriptive Way Some of the interviewees pointed out the differences they saw between the text and their own Buddhist understanding in a descriptive, non-evaluative way. One example is Mae Chii Phornthip’s general comment on Psalm 73. She just stated that this is about belief in God. Therefore it is not similar to Buddhism, because Buddhism teaches one to rely on oneself. While, as she saw it, the text stresses that one should do good towards God, with the consequence that he will give his blessings, Buddhism teaches that for those who do good, the good result is the natural cause for doing good. Here, the differences are acknowledged and respected on their own terms. The Differences Are Tuned Down In the material there is also an approach to differences in which, in spite of difference being noted, one chooses to concentrate on similarities, instead of focusing much on what is different. An example of this is Phra Suthep, who noted that there is a difference between Christianity and Buddhism as to who, or what, secures a corresponding result of an act. He nonetheless chose to focus on that the Proverbs text encourages people to do good, like Buddhism, independent of whether it is God or the law of kamma that gives the result. The Differences Give Way to Critical Questions Sometimes when comparing the texts’ and Buddhist teachings, the differences were stressed in a pointed way and contrasts were highlighted and used as a starting point for critical questions. Phra Suthep and Phra conclusion to part i: thai buddhist interpretations 175

Phongsak, for example, interpreted Proverbs 11:21 as teaching that God gives good consequence to those who do good, and who believe in him. They further argued that this differs from Buddhist teaching where results follow the acts naturally, independent of religious beliefs. Having pointed out this difference, they preceded to raise the following critical question: how about those who do good, help others, never do bad, have mercy towards others, help animals—if they do not believe, will they not come to heaven? And they added: in Buddhism, regardless of what religion you belong to, we believe that if you do good you’ll receive the result of the action itself. Differences Open up for an Appreciation of the Points of the Text Even though most of the interviewees used the differences to ask critical questions to the texts, there are a couple of examples in the interviews where the interviewees showed appreciation of the points of difference found in the texts. One example is Dr. Phichai, who commented that in the Buddhist scriptures, there are no texts such as Psalm 73, where the psalmist laments or complains to God about his experiences in life. A Buddhist must keep the feelings of injustice in his/her heart. Dr. Phichai used this difference to acknowledge that “This may be a weak point in our ethical thinking, that is, that we don’t know who the thing or principle that allocates justice to us is, or where it is.” Explaining or Evaluating the Differences Quite a few of the interviewees tried to explain the differences they found between the ideas in the text and in Buddhism. The differences were mainly explained in terms of basic differences between the religions, and in terms of spiritual development or maturity. Phra Songkran, for example, argued that in Psalm 73:25 it is expressed that man binds himself to God. This was, according to him, a common feature in theistic religions. But in his opinion this is an expression of the existential fear humans have concerning the fact that we only have ourselves to rely on. Those who believe in God can be compared to children who still rely on their mother. As grown-ups, however, one will understand that we have to take care of ourselves. In his opinion, belief in God therefore is an immature belief, which one will grow out of when one gains more understanding and wisdom.

In this chapter I have summed up the Thai Buddhists’ understanding of the texts, what resources and main frameworks of understanding they drew on in their interpretation and how they related to the texts and their themes. PART II

INTERPRETING PROVERBS 11:18–31, PSALM 73, AND ECCLESIASTES 9:1–12 IN LIGHT OF, AND AS A RESPONSE TO, THAI BUDDHIST INTERPRETATIONS INTRODUCTION TO PART II

In this second part of the study I will discuss how Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73, and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 can be interpreted in light of, and as a response to the Thai Buddhist interpretations presented and analysed in part one. I will analyse the texts in their textual contexts, and address the following two questions: First, how do these texts answer the questions and issues raised in the Thai Buddhists’ interpretations? Second, how can the texts be interpreted as a response to the Thai Buddhists’ own interpretations? The three texts are discussed in separate chapters (ch. 6–8). I offer my own translation of the texts.1 In translating the texts, I have attempted to give a quite literal translation. My task is not to give a discussion of the textual history of the texts. I will therefore limit the text-critical discussion to those points which are of crucial importance to the understanding of the texts. In addition, whenever the Thai Bible version I use follows one of the suggested text-critical emendations in Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia,2 I will discuss this point. Further, I will brieflfy present the texts’ context, form and structure, before I proceed to discuss how they can be interpreted in light of their textual context. In the textual analysis, the main results from the analysis of the Thai Buddhist interpretations will inform which questions and matters I attend to. Finally, the interviewees’ interpretation of the texts, together with the result from the interpretation in textual context, will form the basis for a discussion of how the texts can be interpreted as a response to the Thai Buddhist interpretations of the same texts. Each of the sections will end with an intermediate conclusion, which sums up the main points of discussion. In the fifnal conclusion (ch. 9) to this part of the study, I will suggesthow the three texts together can be interpreted in a way that address the matters and concerns which were relevant to the Thai Buddhist readers.

1 The Hebrew texts as they appear in the following chapters are imported from the computer program Bible Works, version 7. The text is the same as in Biblia Hebraica Stuttgarten- sia. 2 Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, eds. Karl Elliger and Wilhelm Rudolph (Stuttgart: Deut- sche Bibelgesellschaft, 1984). 180 introduction to part ii

For abbreviations of biblical books, modern versions and ancient texts, text types and versions, I have employed the standard used in SBL Hand- book of Style, chapter eight.3 I have used the abbreviation OT for the Old Testament.

3 Patrick H. Alexander and others, eds., The SBL Handbook of Style. For Ancient Near Eastern, Biblical, and Early Christian Studies (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1999). chapter six

INTERPRETING PROVERBS 11:18–31 IN LIGHT OF, AND AS A RESPONSE TO, THAI BUDDHIST INTERPRETATIONS

Introduction

The Thai Buddhist interviewees argued that the main theme of Proverbs 11:18–31 is the corresponding relation between act and consequence (see ch. 2). This theme was also regarded as the basis from which the other themes of the text emerge. The interviewees further asserted that with regard to the emphasis on coherence between act and consequence, the text teaches similar to, or expresses the same as what is taught in Thai Buddhism about kamma and the law of kamma. At the same time they noted that some of the verses in the text indicate that God plays a role in connection with the act-consequence nexus. This raised the question whether the understanding in the text of how consequences are brought about, is similar to how they as Buddhists perceive it or not. In other words, is it only on the surface level that the Proverbs-text appears similar to Buddhist teaching of kamma, or is there a similarity that goes beneath the surface, to the basic understanding of how act and consequence are related to each other? In my opinion, due to the importance of the understanding of kamma and the law of kamma for the interviewees’ interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31, it is necessary, in a meeting between the Thai readings and the interpretation of the text in its textual context, to address the following question: Can the relation between act and consequence in Proverbs 11:18–31 be explained in terms of the law of kamma? Hence, this will be the main issue addressed in this chapter. In the discussion I will address both the question of God’s role, and whether acts inevitably are followed by consequences. When these fundamental questions have been answered, it will be possible to discuss the other issues which were raised by the interviewees in their interpretations. That is, whether humans are free to determine their own destiny through their acts and way of living, and whether the text functions as an admonition to do good deeds and avoid evil. In order to answer the question whether the relation between act and consequence in Proverbs 11:18–31 can be explained in terms of the law of 182 chapter six kamma, I will study each saying in the text separately. The reason for this is that I want to highlight each saying’s distinctive contribution to the theme, and then ask if there is a framework of understanding which can encompass and explain the diverse ways of stating the relation between act and consequence. To support the discussion of identifying the framework within which the different sayings can be understood, I take as a point of departure some theories from OT scholarship on this issue. After I have presented the theories, I will compare them with the theory of kamma, and proceed to test the same theories on the text. Then a conclusion will be drawn as to what extent Proverbs 11:18–31, in light of its textual context, can be said to convey an understanding of the relation between act and consequence which is similar to Thai Buddhist understanding of the law of kamma.

Interpreting Proverbs 11:18–31 in Textual Context

The Relation between Act and Consequence— Some Theories from OT Scholarship In the following I will outline six different ways of conceiving the relationship between act and consequence as developed in scholarly theories.

The Relation between Human Acts and Their Consequences Understood as Divine Retribution One way of looking at the relation between human acts and their consequences is to view it in terms of retribution. Retribution in this connection is understood as the idea that God acts as judge. This means that he punishes or rewards according to principles of law, here understood as revealed law. According to Walter Eichrodt the idea of retribution is central in Israelite religion. He says: “… the Israelite is certain that God in his turn will act towards him in accordance with those principles of law with which he himself is well acquainted.”1 This way of looking at the relationship between human acts and their consequences presupposes given laws that are the norms by which people are judged. Acts do not automatically have consequences, but they may be

1 Cited in Klaus Koch, “Is There a Doctrine of Retribution in the OT?,” in Theodicy in the OT, ed. James L. Crenshaw, Issues in Religion and Theology (Philadelphia, London: Fortress Press, 1983). 57. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 183 rewarded or punished according to norms in religion or society. ‘Wicked’ and ‘righteous’ are then understood as denoting those who violate or live in accordance with these norms. They can not be understood as universally valid designations, since one must gain knowledge about what it is to be righteous or wicked through revelation or the study of laws. In this connection it is interesting to note the question raised by two of the interviewees, based on their observation that the rewards seem to be dependent on the judgment of God: How, then, can one know or explain the consequences? The answer, according to the theory of divine retribution, must be that there exists a clear code of conduct, a law that is approved by God, which he will judge in accordance with.

Human Acts Contain within Themselves Their Consequences In the article “Is There a Doctrine of Retribution in the Old Testament?” Klaus Koch gives his contribution to the understanding of the relationship between act and consequences in the OT. He argues against understanding this relationship in terms of retribution, that is; as the result of a juridical process where reward or punishment is awarded by God according to a judgement based upon principles of law.2 The starting point for Koch’s discussion is the book of Proverbs, because as he says: “The doctrine of divine retribution seems to be most obvious in the proverbs which are found in ancient Israelite wisdom …”3 What are his main arguments against the existence of such a doctrine in Proverbs, and what is his own suggestion concerning the act-consequence nexus? To start with, Koch acknowledges that in Proverbs a blessing is said to follow a good, righteous action, while a wicked action has bad consequences. But what is not stated, he contends, is that this is due to a juridical process, or God acting as a judge. In Proverbs the acts have consequences irrespective of a juridical process. Even though there is no juridical decision, the acts have consequences. Further, there is little specififcation with regard to consequences. This strengthens the case that there is no distributing of punishment according to established principles. His conclusion is therefore that there is no doctrine of retribution in the book of Proverbs. The idea is rather that an action is inevitably followed by a reaction, as a law of nature:

2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. 58–59. 184 chapter six

… a wicked action—just like laws of nature which operate so that an action inevitably is followed by a reaction—inevitably results in disastrous consequence, … [while] it is from the good actions themselves that the consequence of being blessed emerge.4 In other words, as a seed contains the fruit within it, so the acts contain the consequences within them. From the Proverbs text under discussion in this study Koch gives verses 18–21, 27, and 30–31 as examples of this inherent relationship between act and consequence.5 Concerning the role of God, Koch states that he can be compared to a midwife, who assists in the deliverance and completion of that which human actions have initiated. The system of act and consequence is self- operative, that is, God just ensures that it proceeds smoothly according to its own laws.6 From our text verses 20 and 27 are discussed with regard to this role of God, and are seen to support it.7

The Relation between Act and Consequence Understood as Based on a World Order Hartmut Gese agrees with Koch that the sayings in Proverbs whose focus is on the relation between act and consequence, presuppose an inherent relation between them, which can be described as a natural law. But Gese goes one step further by arguing that this relation is thought to be due to an inherent order in the world, an order which the wise have perceived.8 Vielmehr wird hier in der Weisheit auf Grund der Erkenntnis einer der Welt innewohnenden Ordnung gesagt, dass der Flesissige durch sein Tun reich, der Faule arm wird; und ebenso wird der Gerechte Erfolg, der Ungerechte Misserfolg davontragen. Wir könnten fast von einer naturgesetzlichen Weise sprechen, in der sich die Folge aus der Tat ergibt.9 Concerning the sayings which mention God in connection with the relation between act and consequence, Gese agrees with Koch that they do not express the idea of retribution understood in a juridical way.10 In contrast

4 Ibid. 58. 5 Ibid. 58–64. 6 Ibid. 61. 7 Ibid. 62. 8 Hartmut Gese, “Lehre und Wirklichkeit in der alten Weisheit (Ausüge),” in Um das Prinzip der Vergeltung in Religion und Recht des Alten Testaments, ed. Klaus Koch, Wege der Forschung (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1972). 214–215. 9 Ibid. 215. 10 Ibid. 219. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 185 with Koch, however, Gese strongly asserts that God is the one who stipulates the fate of humans, both through the order which he has created, and independent of it. God is namely not tied up by this order in any way, and as such one can talk about a teaching of retribution.11 Gese concludes by stating that, as a consequence, human destiny is dependent on God’s grace.12

The Relation between Act and Consequence Understood as Dialectic between Divine Intervention and Valid Rules Gerhard von Rad uses the word ‘order’ in describing the foundations for the belief in a relationship between act and consequence. He argues that the wisdom literature reflfect the common experience that deeds are followed by appropriate consequences.13 Nevertheless, he is critical to the view that the basis for the sayings in Proverbs is a kind of world order apart from God.14 He fifrmly states that God is at work in the world upholding a moral order: Yahweh himself was at work in so far as he defended goodness and resisted evil. It was he who was present as an ordering and upholding will in so far as he gave a benefifcent stability to life and kept it open to receive his blessings.15 It was due to the observation of God’s work that it was possible to formulate valid rules which people could relate their life to. But, Von Rad strongly emphasises that God is free to work out his own purposes and act as he fifnds good. Therefore, with regard to the relation between act and consequence one should rather talk about valid rules and ad hoc divine actions.16

The Consequences of Human Acts Understood as an Expression of the Justice of God the Creator According to John Barton the main idea is that consequences of acts are understood as an expression of God’s justice, in that God gives men what they deserve. The main point is not to understand how consequences come about, but rather the “ethical consistency of God”.17 He agrees, however, with

11 Ibid. 220–221, 229–233. 12 Ibid. 234. 13 Gerhard Von Rad, Wisdom in Israel, trans. James D. Martin (London: SCM Press Ltd., 1972). 128–129. 14 Ibid. 107. 15 Ibid. 192. Cf. also 194–195. 16 Ibid. 107. 17 John Barton, “Natural Law and Poetic Justice in the OT,” Journal of Theological Studies 4, no. 30 (1979). 12. 186 chapter six

Koch that this is not to be understood as retribution or as punishment of sin according to revealed law, but should be understood on the basis of natural law. The basis, or moral principles, on which God rewards or punishes is the same natural law as is available to all, because it is built into the world.18 In the OT, including the wisdom literature, this natural order of things is understood as a result of God being the creator. God is ultimately behind, or the source of this natural order that can be observed. Therefore, the fact that living in accord with this natural order would bring about good consequences, while defying it resulted in bad consequences, was acknowledged and also seen as an expression of divine justice.

The Relation between Human Acts and Their Consequences Understood as Empirical Experiences Finally, some scholars have warned against treating the statements in Pro- verbs, which address the relation between human acts and their consequences, as philosophical or theological statements about natural laws or as a retribution theology. Rather, these scholars take the sayings to be statements based on empirical observations and think they should be regarded as such. Roland Murphy, for example warns against putting too much emphasis on order and points out that the sages may have attempted more to order the common experiences of man than to refer to a rigid world order: Experience teaches certain lessons: laziness usually leads to poverty and diligence to prosperity. But did such generalizations assume the status of an innate, static order of things? The ambiguities that the sages noted, and their awareness of their limitations, suggest that they did not operate with this concept. The scholarly postulate of order is a reconstruction of Israel’s mentality. It raises a question never asked by Israel; on what is your wisdom insight based? Our answer to this (for silent Israel) might possibly be, on the order in and of creation. It may be the logical and correct answer, but Israel never raised the question nor consciously assumed the answer we give to it.19

The Theories Compared with the Law of Kamma As we have already seen the law of kamma in Buddhism is regarded as a natural law governing the relationship between act and consequence with regard to human behaviour. The way Koch interprets the understanding of

18 Ibid. 9–13. 19 Roland E. Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature, 3rd. ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2002). 116. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 187 the relationship between human acts and their consequences in Proverbs therefore, with the exception of his understanding of God as a facilitator, comes very close to a Buddhist understanding of the workings of the law of kamma: A natural and inevitable relationship between an act and its consequence can be found, hence there is no need for a judge or someone else distributing reward or punishment. Further, the idea of world order or natural law resembles Buddhist thinking of natural laws generally and the law of kamma specififcally. The main difference here concerns the role of God. In the interviewees’ thought there is generally no room for a creator God who is behind the natural law.20 How- ever, functionally there is a close resemblance between this understanding and a Buddhist understanding: Since God is the one who has created the order he also acts in accordance with this order, and ensures that good and evil actions are followed by corresponding results. Concerning the theories which reckon with a more active role played by God, either as a judge or as the supreme ruler—who in his freedom can intervene independently of any given ‘order’—they differ from the understanding of the relationship between act and consequence as found in the teaching about kamma. It is emphatically expressed both in the interviews and in Thai Buddhism generally that there is no room for a god existing independently of, and over, the laws of nature. Finally, it is interesting to note that a couple of the interviewees shared the anti-speculative empirical approach, for which Murphy was mentioned as an advocate. The interviewees argued that for sure experience tells us that acts have corresponding consequences, but they were not willing to speculate further about what causes this. Most of the interviewees, however, used Buddhist ontology to explain how everything goes together.

20 But God can be described as another name of natural law. 188 chapter six

Proverbs 11:18–31 Context, Form and Structure The book of Proverbs is divided into eight separate parts or collections.21 The fifrst part, ch. 1–9, is a discourse which serves as a theological introduction to the book, and which gives a framework of understanding to relate to the different sayings in the other parts. Proverbs 11:18–31 is part of the second collection in 10:1–22:16, titled ‘the proverbs of Salomon’. This collection may again be divided into two parts, that is, 10–15 and 16:1–22:16.22 Within each sub-collection the text mainly consists of short sayings where each saying is an entity in itself. The section Prov 10–15 is distinguished from Prov 16:1–22:16 in that it primarily consists of antithetical sayings, while Prov 16:1–22:16 mainly consists of synonymous and synthetic sayings. In addition, Prov 10–15 is dominated by sayings concerning the just (wise) and the wicked (fool).23 The most common literary genres in the wisdom literature are the saying and the admonition.24 They are both common in the book of Proverbs, but in Proverbs 11:18–31 only the saying is represented. The saying is a pithy saying, expressed in the indicative, which states how things are—based on experience. It usually consists of two parallel lines, which either stand in a synonymous or antithetical relation to each other. In addition, the second line can further the thought of the fifrst, this kind of parallelism is called synthetic parallelism.25 In the interpretation of the different sayings of the text, I will in each case, note the kind of parallelism used.

21 With the exception of the last part, each part is headed by a title or subscription. 1:1 ‘The proverbs of Solomon, son of David, king of Israel.’ 10:1 ‘The proverbs of Solomon.’ 22:17 ‘The words of the wise.’ 24:23 ‘These also are sayings of the wise.’ 25:1 ‘These are other proverbs of Solomon that the offifcials of King Hezekiah of Judah copied.’ 30:1 ‘The words of Agur son of Jakeh of Massa.’ 31:1 ‘The words of King Lemuel of Massa. An oracle that his mother taught him.’ 31:10–31 No title. A poem praising ‘the woman of worth.’ 22 See for example R.N. Whybray, Proverbs, ed. Ronald E. Clements, New Century Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1994). 153. 23 See for example Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature. 21–22. 24 Ibid. 7. 25 Ibid. 6–8. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 189

It is further possible to discern groups of sayings which utilises common expressions. In our text, we fifnd examples of what Roland E. Murphy names “the ‘abomination’ saying” (11:21) and “the a fortiori saying” (11:31).26

Textual Analysis Verse 18 רקשׁ־תלעפהשׂעעשׁר תמארכשׂהקדצערזו The wicked makes deceptive recompense But the one who sows righteousness true reward

The saying in this verse is construed as an antithetical parallelism. ‘The wicked’ is contrasted with ‘the one who sows righteousness’, and ‘deceptive recompense’ is contrasted with ‘true reward’. Further, the verse consists of two nominal sentences.27 In each sentence there are two clauses, a subject clause and a predicative clause. The predicative clause characterises, or states something about the subject clause, but the precise relation between the clauses is open to interpretation, and has to be determined on the basis of a closer examination of the verse as a whole. ,’wicked‘ , עשׁר The subject in the fifrst line of the saying is the adjective here used in the absolute and thus denoting a wicked person—‘the wicked’. The noun is used throughout the OT, but with most of its occurrences in Psalms and Proverbs. It is used both in the specififc sense of being judged guilty in court, i.e. guilty (for example Deut 25:1), and in a more general ethical sense to denote wicked persons or acts (Ps 7:10). Both the forensic and general sense can be found in Proverbs (see for example 17:15; 18:5 for the former and 10:20; 13:5 for the latter sense), but the more general sense is most common.28

26 Ibid. 9. For further explorations into the form of biblical proverbs or sayings, cf. Murray Salisbury, “Hebrew Proverbs and How to Translate Them,” in Biblical Hebrew and Discourse Linguistics, ed. Robert D. Bergen (Winona Lake: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1994), James G. Williams, “The Power of Form: A Study of Biblical Proverbs,” Semeia 17 (1980). 27 A nominal sentence is a sentence without fifnite verb, while a verbal sentence isa sentence with fifnite verb. Harris Birkeland also introduces a third category of sentences, that is; compound nominal sentences. These are sentences where the subject in the sentence comes before a predicative part consisting of a sentence, either verbal or nominal. Harris Birkeland, Lærebokihebraiskgrammatikk (Oslo: Grøndahl & Søn Forlag, 1984). 115. According to Birkeland’s defifnition verses 21b, 25, 26a, 27, 28, 29a are compounded nominal sentences. 28 This is also the case with the many occurrences in Psalms. Cf. Helmer Ringgren, ,in Theological Dictionary of the OT, eds. Johannes G. Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren ”, עשר “ 190 chapter six

, עער / ער wicked’ is often used as a synonym to‘ , עשׁר In its general sense ‘evil’, for example, evil persons (Prov 24:20) and evildoers (Prov 24:19; Ps 26:5). Further, it is used as a contrast to fear in God (Prov 10:27), or as a description of those who are being without faith or regard for God (Ps 10:4; 73:11). The word can thus be understood as quite close in meaning to ‘godless’.29 In Proverbs the word is used mainly in the kind of antithetical parallelism represented in this verse, as a contrast to persons or acts described It should further be noted that in the text under study 30.( קדצ ) as righteous here, this is the case in all three occurrences of the word, in verses 18, 23 and 31. ’righteousness‘ , הקדצ Apart from what is implied in the contrast with (see next paragraph), it is—in this verse—not stated or discussed what it is that makes a person wicked, or what kind of behaviour or actions that characterises him or her. The focus seems to be on what the wicked ‘makes’ In other words, the emphasis is on the consequence of .( השׂע ) ’or ‘earns wickedness. It further looks like this stress on consequences rather than acts is a common feature in this ‘wicked—righteous’ type of antithetical sayings in Proverbs.31 righteousness’, is used‘ , הקדצ In the second line of the saying the noun -sow’, as the subject of the sen‘ , ערז together with the participle of the verb tence. The expression may be translated as ‘the one who sows righteousness’. The metaphor of sowing is taken from agriculture and entails the idea , הקדצ sure reward’.32‘ , תמארכשׂ of a harvest. The harvest in this case is righteous’, which is a‘ , קדצ righteousness’, is the feminine noun of the root‘ term, used extensively in the OT. It is most frequently found in the prophets, the psalms and the wisdom literature,33 and is used both in a forensic and non-forensic sense. Used in a forensic sense ‘righteousness’ basically means innocence, judged in relation to the demands in the law, while used in a non-forensic sense it denotes accordance with the created order.34 and Heinz-Josef Fabry (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004). 3. in Psalms and Proverbs would be עשׁר Ringgren suggest that the best translation for 29 ‘evildoer’ or ‘wicked, godless person’. Ibid. 3. .’wicked‘ , עשׁר In Proverbs 10–15 for example, there are forty-two occurrences of the root 30 .’righteous‘ , קדצ Thirty-four of these are contrasted with one form or another of the root .6 ”. עשר “ ,Cf. Ringgren 31 32 In Prov 22:8 there is also an example of sowing of iniquity. In that case the harvest to be reaped is calamity. ,righteousness’, is used eighteen times in Proverbs. Prov 8:18, 20; 10:2; 11:4, 5, 6, 18‘ , הקדצ 33 19; 12:28; 13:6; 14:34; 15:9; 16:8, 12, 31; 21:3, 21 (2 times). ,in Theological Dictionary of the OT, eds. Johannes G. Botterweck ”, קדצ “ ,B. Johnson 34 interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 191

In the fifrst line of the saying the consequences of wicked actions (what The noun . רקשׁ־תלעפ ,the wicked makes) is expressed in a construct clause is a noun that can הלעפ means ‘deceptive’ (see next paragraph), while רקשׁ mean both ‘work’ and ‘recompense for work’, i.e. wage (Lev 19:13, wages. Ps 17:4, work, deed). If it is taken to denote ‘work’, the fifrst clause in verse 18 reads ‘the wicked do deceitful work’.35 But if it is understood as ‘recompense for work’ the verse reads ‘the wicked makes (or earns) deceptive recompense’.36 In my opinion, the clause opens up for both meanings when read isolated, but read in light of the parallel second clause, and the obvious ref- there, it makes best sense to understand ( רכשׂ ) erence to wages or reward the word as denoting recompense for work, i.e. wage, and thus something that the wicked earns or makes.37 The recompense, the wage of the wicked, is further described through the (which can mean ‘deception’ (Prov 20:17; 31:30), ‘lie’ (Prov 6:17 , רקשׁ noun and ‘falsehood’ (Prov 29:12). In Proverbs the term is mainly used to denote a false witness (Prov 12:17; 14:4; 19:5) or a liar (Prov 10:18; 12:22; Prov 12:19; 26:28).38 On the background of these connotations of the word and read as true’ (see‘ , תמא recompense’, and as a contrast to‘ , הלעפ a description of below), I think that it in this verse the term probably means ‘deceitful’. This might mean that the recompense is not what the wicked expected,39 or as Toy suggests; that the fact is recognized that a wicked sometimes prospers, but that the reward in this positive sense is only seemingly so, it will not last (cf. Prov 10:25; 11:4).40 In the second line of the verse, the act of sowing is highlighted in the fifrst clause. The second clause is thus to be understood as presenting the is used in רכשׂ .’true reward‘ , תמארכשׂ outcome of the sowing, which is

Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Pub- lishing Company, 2003). 243–246, 253–257. 35 So KJV: “The wicked worketh a deceitful work”. 36 Cf. NRSV: “The wicked earn no real gain”, or NAS: “the wicked earns deceptive wages”. 37 Cf. for example Crawford H. Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs, eds. Samuel Rolles Driver, Alfred Plummer, and Charles Augustus Briggs, The International Critical Commentary on the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1988). 231. 38 Cf. also Whybray, Proverbs. 183–184. 39 Ibid. 184. He argues that 11:4a puts the thought more precisely. 40 Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 224. This is also supported by Scott, who states that “one of the answers to the problem of the prosperity of the wicked is that this prosperity does not last (cf. Ps 73:12,16–20)”. R.B.Y. Scott, Proverbs. Ecclesiastes, eds. William Foxwell Albright and David Noel Freedman, 2nd. ed., The Anchor Bible, vol. 18 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1982). 88. 192 chapter six the OT in the sense of ‘wages’ and ‘reward’ (Deut 15:18, Eccl 4:9). For the sowing of righteousness there is recompense, a pay, a reward. This reward true’. This term is used in‘ , תמא is more closely defifned through the word Proverbs about speech which is true, as opposed to lie (Prov 12:9), and about a truthful witness (14:25), but also as absolute together with mercy and truth. Within the frames of the antithetical parallelism between clause one and ,as meaning true in the sense sure, certain תמא two, I understand the word reliable, and as opposed to that which is deceptive.41 In this context it is thus most likely the meaning of true reward that is communicated. How is the act-consequence relation presented in this verse? Both wickedness and righteousness are rewarded. But the rewards are as contrastive as the acts. In this verse it is emphasized that while righteousness is rewarded with true reward, the reward of wickedness is deceitful. Furthermore, the rewards correspond with the acts, in that wickedness and deceit, righteousness and truth, belong together. The correspondence between act and consequence is further pictured as having its analogy in nature. In nature there is a connection between sowing and reaping. Here this connection is transferred to the realms of humans, thus stressing a sort of natural connection between act and consequence. In the fifrst line of the saying the focus seems to be on what thewicked earns. The emphasis is on the consequence of wickedness, not on what the wickedness consists of, or how it is more specififcally brought about. In the second line, the focus is more on the act—sowing righteousness. The act is not described concretely, but in more general terms. That is, it is not specififed what is done, but emphasised that righteousness is promoted. It could further be asked: is it correct to call this an act-consequence relation? Might it not rather be a character-consequence relation? This is a question, raised by Schmid and Boström, which I will address later. Here, I just note the following points: In the fifrst clause, the focus is on the wicked, not on wicked acts. It is on the person, who bears the character wicked, and is designated as wicked. In the second line, it is the act (of sowing righteousness), which is emphasised. In other words, the fifrst line of the saying focuses on the person, and the second on the act. The implication may be that there is no sharp distinction between the act and the person. The one who acts wickedly, for example, is wicked, and the wicked act

41 Bruce K. Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1–15, eds. R.K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard jr., The New International Commentary on the OT (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004). 501. Whybray, Proverbs. 184. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 193 wickedly. Further, acts and persons are described in very general terms and it could be said that it does not so much describe single acts or single persons as an attitude or way of living.

Verse 19 םייחלהקדצ־ןכ ותומלהערףדרמו Truly,42 righteousness [leads] to life and the one who pursues evil [goes] to his death Like verse 18, the saying in verse 19 also consists of two nominal sentences in an antithetical parallelism. In both lines, the predicative clause consists , יח to’.43 The two nouns are‘ ,ל of a noun introduced by the preposition death’. The verse thus presents two contrasting outcomes to‘ , תומ life’, and‘ , הקדצ that which in the fifrst clause of each line of the verse is described as .the one who pursues evil’, respectively‘ , הערףדרמ righteousness’, and‘ righteousness’, in verse 18. In‘ , הקדצ I have already addressed the term .’wicked‘ , עשׁר evil’, instead of‘ , הער verse 19 the antithesis is the adjective ,antithesis is far more common, this is not קדצ – עשׁר Even though the evil’, is used as a‘ , ער however, the only place in Proverbs where the root .righteous’. Other examples are 11:21; 12:13, 21; 29:6‘ , קדצ contrast to the root 44( בוט – ער ) ’Prov 14:19 is especially interesting since the word pair ‘evil-good indicating that in Proverbs ,( קדצ – עשׁר ) is paralleled with wicked-righteous these words can be used interchangeably.45 evil’, and its derivations are the most commonly used words‘ , ער The root in some ער in the OT for that which is bad or evil.46 When a person effects

42 Due to the fact that the parallelism between the fifrst clauses in the two sentences of the verse is not strictly morphological many commentators have suggested emendations truly’. The reason for the proposed emendations is as follows: The noun‘ , ןכ to the particle truly’, does‘ , ןכ evil’, but‘ , הער righteousness’ is used as an antithetical parallel to the noun‘ .(pursue’, since the fifrst is a particle and the second a participle (in piel‘ , ףדר not parallel I am not opting for any emendations due to the following reasons: First, in my opinion the text-witnesses are not strong enough to justify a change. Second, the saying still gives and’, it‘ ,ו good meaning when keeping the word as it is, since together with the conjunctive connects the two lines of the verse in a ‘truly … and …’ expression. Finally, it could be pointed out that in the preceding verse (18), we fifnd a similar set-up, namely, a noun paralleled with the one who‘ , הקדצערז wicked’, is paralleled with‘ , עשׁר ,another noun plus participle, that is sows righteousness’. 43 In the second line, a suffifx is also added to the noun. .evil’, see below, verse 27‘ , ער good’, is the most common antonym to‘ , בוט 44 .’evil‘ , ער wicked’, is used as parallel to‘ , עשׁר Cf. also Prov 4:14 where 45 46 K.Hj. Fahlgren, “Die Gegensätze von ṣedaqa im Alten Testament,” in Um das Prinzip der 194 chapter six way or other, the word denotes evil in general (Prov 12:20; 14:22). If the word is used about the result of actions, the meaning is closer to misfortune, , ףדרמ ,’disaster (Prov 17:20; 24:16).47 In this verse there is ‘one who pursues can be translated ‘pursue’. It bears the ףדר participle piel) evil. The verb) connotation of aiming eagerly at securing something.48 The picture thus emerges of a person, who is actively oriented towards that which is evil. It might be said that he/she has entered the way of the evils, cf. Prov 2:12; 4:14; 8:13; 28:10. wicked’, this verse does not further‘ , עשׁר As was the case with the word that is pursued consists of.49 The focus is, as in ( הער ) explain what this evil verse 18, on the consequences of wickedness, the consequence of pursuing evil as opposed to the consequence of righteousness. are the two very different outcomes for the (מות and חי) Life and death righteous and the one who pursues evil, respectively.50 Literally, ‘life’ and ‘death’ can be understood as denoting a contrast between long life and pre- mature death, like in Prov 10:27.51 In Proverbs however, ‘life’ is often understood as denoting more than only staying alive. In Prov 3:18, for example, wisdom is said to be a tree of life, which in light of the context seems to con-

Vergeltung in Religion und Recht des Alten Testaments, ed. Klaus Koch, Wege der Forschung (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1972). 122. -in Theological Lexicon of the OT, eds. Ernst Jenni and Claus Wester ”, עער “ ,H.J. Stoebe 47 mann (Peabody, Mass. Hendrickson Publishers, 1997). 1251–1252. Cf. Fahlgren, “Die Gegen- sätze von ṣedaqa im Alten Testament.” 122. 48 Francis Brown, S.R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, eds., A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the OT with and Appendix containing the Biblical Aramaic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1951). The object of the pursuing can both be something negative, like here and in Prov 12:11, and something good, like in Prov 15:9; 21:21. (pursue’, in Proverbs is used both about the pursuing of good things (15:7‘ , ףדר The verb 49 and negative things (Prov 12:11). McKane suggests that the use of this verb indicates that the verse deals with two opposed ways of life. William McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach, eds. Peter Ackroyd et al., The OT Library (London: SCM Press Ltd., 1970). 433–434. 50 For other examples of the juxtaposition of life and death in Proverbs, see for instance Prov 18:21; 8:36; 13:14; 14:27. In 2:18; 5:5; 12:28 the issue is the path of life as contrasted with the way of death. In our verse, life is represented as the result of righteousness, see also 12:28; 10:16. Further, in Proverbs life is also said to be the result of wisdom (Prov 3:22), the words of the wise (4:22), instruction (4:13, cf. 10:17), and the fear of God (19:23). Along the same lines, the expression fountain of life is said to be ‘the mouth of the righteous’ (Prov 10:11), ‘the teaching of the wise’ (13:14), ‘the fear of God’ (14:27), and ‘insight’ (16:22). Cf. Helmer Ringgren, in Theological Dictionary of the OT, eds. G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren ”, היח “ (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1980). 335. Further, it could be noted that what delivers from death is that which leads to life; righteousness (10:2; 11:4), the teaching of the wise (13:14), the fear of the Lord (14:27). 51 McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach. 435–436. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 195 note long life, riches, honour and happiness, cf. also 8:35; 21:21.52 We may thus conclude with Crenshaw that ‘life’ in the context of Proverbs mainly refers to “a long existence characterized by robust health, an abundance of friends, a house full of children, and suffifcient possessions to carry one safely through any diffifculty”.53 The stress in this verse is that righteousness and evil actions both have consequences which are as contrastive as the contrast between righteousness and evil. How are acts spoken of in this verse? The fifrst line has a noun as the subject: ‘righteousness’. In the second line it is a participle clause again, focusing more on the acts, pursuing or chasing evil. Chasing evil is an image that makes one see the intention and will of the one who does so very clearly. It is an active, conscious act. Once more, quite general terms are used to describe wickedness and righteousness, thus strengthening the impression of two fundamentally different ways of life. The consequences are pictured in existential terms, as life and death. Two directions are pointed out. Righteousness leads to life, while chasing evil leads to death or ends in death. How the consequences are brought about is not discussed.

Verse 20 בל־ישׁקעהוהיתבעות ךרדימימתונוצרו An abomination to Yahweh [are] those with twisted hearts but to his favour [are] those of wholesome ways In this verse God is explicitly introduced for the fifrst and only time in the verses from Proverbs under study here. As in most of the other verses where Similar .( הוהי ) God is mentioned in Proverbs, he is referred to as Yahweh to verses 18 and 19, this verse consists of two parallel nominal sentences, of ( הבעות ) which together form an antithetical saying. The abomination Furthermore, the respective .( ןוצר ) Yahweh is contrasted with his goodwill objects of Yahweh’s reactions are contrasted and identififed as ‘perverted .respectively ,( ךרדימימת ) ’and ‘complete way ( בל־ישׁקע ) ’heart

I will come back to the expression ‘tree of life’ under the .335–333 ”. היח “ ,Ringgren 52 discussion of verse 30. 53 James L. Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction, 2nd. ed. (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998). 66. 196 chapter six

We will fifrst look at the reactions of God. Most occurrences of thenoun abomination’, is found in Ezekiel, Deuteronomy and Proverbs. In‘ , הבעות Ezekiel and Deuteronomy it is mainly used to describe foreign cultic prac- tises or cultic and ritual offences, and comes close in meaning to cultic taboos (Deut 7:26; Deut 17:1; Ez 7:20).54 But ethical taboos can also be found, for example, the falsififcation of weights is said to be an abomination (Deut 25:13–16). In Proverbs the word is used mainly with regard to conduct in the ethical realm, but examples of its use with regard to cultic abuses are found (Prov 15:8).55 In his discussion of the term ‘abomination’ Preuss succinctly sums up the purpose of these ‘abomination’ injunctions: “[they] not only protect the purity of the cult … but also prohibit conduct that is ethically incompatible with Yahweh and his people.”56 In this verse ‘abomination’ ,is a subject genitive הוהיתבעות is connected to Yahweh. The expression expressing ‘that which is an abomination to Yahweh, that which Yahweh despises’.57 can be translated for example as love, goodwill, favour ןוצר The noun and acceptance. It is used quite often in the Psalms, where it expresses God’s favour and love towards his people (see for example Ps 5:13; 106:4).58 is to be understood as a subjective genitive ‘to his , ונוצר The expression favour’, and means that which is acceptable, and therefore pleasing to God.

-in Theological Dictionary of the OT, eds. G. Johannes Bot ”, הבעות “ ,Cf. H.-D. Preuss 54 terweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerd- mans Publishing Company, 2006). 595–599. R.E. Clements, “The Concept of Abomination in the Book of Proverbs,” in Texts, Temples, and Traditions: A Tribute to Menahem Haran, eds. Michael V. Fox et al. (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1996). 214. 55 Cf. Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 232. Cf. also Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of .596 ”. הבעות “ ,Preuss 56 Proverbs. 80. which is found as many as , הוהיתבעות It is interesting to note that the expression 57 eleven times in Proverbs, is only used in Deuteronomy outside of Proverbs (eight times). Prov 3:32; 11:1; 11:20; 12:22; 15:8; 15:9; 15:26, 16:5; 17:15; 20:10; 20:23. Deut 7:25; 12:31; 17:1; 18:12; 22:5; 23:18; 25:16, 27:15. In Deuteronomy six out of eight occurrences are about wrong worship, while one is about false weights (Deut 25:16) and one about wrong clothing (Deut 22:5). In Proverbs only one of the occurrences is about cultic matters—wrong worship (Prov 15:8), while three are about false weights (for example 20:23). The other occurrences concern different matters in the realm of ethics. There is a discussion on how the relationship between the sayings in Deuteronomy and Proverbs should be understood. McKane says that one cannot abomination to Yahweh’, as‘ , הוהיתבעות entirely rule out the possibility that the phrase used by Deuteronomy, represents a modififcation of an expression which is derived from international wisdom. McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach. 439. See also page 300. -in Theological Dictionary of the OT, eds. G. Johannes Botter ”, ןוצר “ ,Cf. H.M. Barstad 58 weck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004). 625–626. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 197 abomination to‘ , הוהיתבעות The expression stands as an antithesis to can be related to both cultic and ethical ןוצר the noun , הבעות Yahweh’.59 Like practices. In Leviticus, for example, this term, preceded by the preposition to’, is used about acceptable sacrififces (for example Lev 22:21),60 while‘ ,ל in Proverbs the word is clearly related to conduct or attitude in the ethical realm, with the exception of 15:8.61 It is the upright and the good, who obtain God’s favour (14:9; 15:8; 12:2, 11:27). Further, those who fifnd wisdom and act faithfully also obtain favour (8:35; 12:22). What is it in this verse that is pictured as an abomination to God? It is .’heart‘ , בל twisted’, qualify‘ , ישׁקע This is a construct phrase where . בל־ישׁקע What God despises is thus ‘those with twisted heart’, i.e. those twisted with regard to the heart.62 heart’, is a very common word in the OT, including the book‘ , בל The noun of Proverbs where it is used all together 98 times.63 Used literally, the noun signififes heart or chest (1Sam 25:37; 2Sam 18:14),64 but used fifguratively it has a broad aspect of meanings. It is the seat of both physical (Ps 38:11) and mental strength (Deut 26:16). Further, the emotions, both good (Ps 4:8; Prov heart’, is‘ , בל and bad (Isa 7:2, 1Sam 24:6) has the heart as its base. But (15:13 used especially about a person’s basic attitude or value orientation towards life (Ps 51:8; Prov 16:21, 23; 17:20).65 In the religious and ethical realm the heart is thus understood as the seat of all human vices and virtues.66 That means that all actions, whether good or bad, can be understood as the outward manifestations of the heart.

59 Cf. Whybray, Proverbs. 176. .626 ”. ןוצר “ ,Cf. Barstad 60 61 In Proverbs it is used fourteen times, four of these with reference to the king. In eight of the occurrences God is explicitly mentioned as subject, but also the remaining (two) references, including 11:27, probably have God as implied subject. perverted’ or ‘twisted’, occurs nine times in the book of Proverbs‘ , שׁקע The adjective 62 (out of nineteen occurrences of the word in the OT as a whole). In Proverbs it is used two times in connection with ‘heart’ (here and in 17:20) and fifve times in connection with ‘way’ (2:15; 10:9; 22:5; 28:6; 28:18). The two remaining references are to speech in some way or other (8:8; 19:1). in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, eds. Johannes ”, בל “ ,Cf. Heinz-Josef Fabry 63 G. Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1995). 407. 64 Ibid. 411. Cf. also Terje Stordalen, Støv og livspust: Mennesket i Det gamle testamente (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1994). 31. 65 Stordalen, Støv og livspust: Mennesket i Det gamle testamente. 31. Roland E. Murphy, Proverbs, ed. John D.W. Watts, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 22 (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publisher, 1998). 83. .429–425 ”. בל “ ,Fabry 66 198 chapter six

In the second line of the verse, what is described as being in the favour of wholesome way’. The syntactical construction is the same‘ , ךרדימימת God is those who are twisted with regard to heart’, and should be‘ , בל־ישׁקע as with therefore be understood as ‘those who are wholesome with regard to way’.67 -it is used both literally and fifg בל translates ‘way’. Like ךרד The noun uratively in the OT, with a majority of fifgurative occurrences.68 Literally it denotes a physical way one can travel on (Num 22:23). Figuratively used it ,’complete‘ , ימימת can signify journey, conduct and course of life.69 The root -It denotes both an ethically perfect qual . ךרד is frequently connected with ity and also the resultant condition.70 In this saying the picture emerges of two ways of life, one which is twisted, perverse, the other blameless or full of integrity. God reacts to these two opposite ways with blame and favour, respectively. Nothing is said however, about him taking action on the basis of his reactions. The consequences of acts here are God’s reactions. The emphasis is on God’s reactions— abomination and favour—towards certain behaviours and ways of life, and not on how the consequences of acts are brought about. The persons mentioned here are once again described in very general terms. The term ‘way’ parallels ‘heart’, and both words are used about a person’s basic attitude or value orientation towards life.

Verse 21 ערהקני־אלדילדי טלמנםיקידצערזו Assuredly, the evil will not be unpunished, but the descendants of righteous will be delivered This verse consists of two verbal sentences, which stand in antithetical hand in hand’, stands‘ , דילדי parallelism. Presuming that the introductory as an introduction to both sentences, the rest of the verse is chiastic in structure, with the structure BA-AB (verb + subject—subject + verb).

wholesome’, as nomen‘ , ימימת way’, as nomen rectum and‘ , ךרד Construct clause, with 67 regens. -in Theological Dictionary of the OT, eds. Johannes G. Bot ”, ךרד “ ,Cf. K. Koch and others 68 terweck and Helmer Ringgren (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Com- pany, 1978). 276. 69 Cf. Markus Philipp Zehnder, Wegmetaphorik im Alten Testament, ed. Otto Kaiser, Bei- hefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, vol. 268 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1999). 294–295. .288–287 ”. ךרד “ ,Koch and others 70 interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 199

.’literally ‘hand in hand , דילדי The verse is introduced by the expression This phrase probably expresses a strong asseveration.71 The same expression, also followed by ‘will not go unpunished’ occurs in 16:5b. Clifford suggests a tentative translation ‘assuredly’, which I think is reasonable.72 to be empty’, is used in imperfect niphal.73 In‘ , הקנ In this verse the verb niphal the root denotes ‘be cleaned out’, ‘be clean’, ‘free from guilt’ or ‘be free, exempt from punishment’. When the verb is not further explained by the context, it usually denotes the meaning ‘be, exempt from punishment, be unpunished’.74 In our verse the verb is probably used in this last meaning. not’, it has no object, and no further‘ , אל The verb is negated by the particle explanation follows. The clause only states that an evil (person) will not be exempt from punishment. Before it is possible to conclude what the more specififc meaning of this clause is, it must be clarififed what kind of punishment a person is exempt from in the contexts where this word is used. Is it punishment in a specififc legal, or a more general moral realm? A closer investigation reveals that the verb (in niphal) is both used about acts that are within the realm of the law and acts that are within a broader ethical realm. In Exod 21:12–27 and Prov 6:29, for example, the verb is used in a forensic sense, or as a legal term. Many occurrences of the word, however, are in contexts not relating directly to law, but to a wider ethical realm. This is the case of most of the occurrences of this verb in Proverbs, and I also think this is the case in this verse. The one who is not to be exempted from punishment in this verse is is already discussed ער The meaning of the root . ער ,’described as ‘an evil in verse 19. Here the adjective stands alone; it is used in the absolute and functions as a substantive, denoting an evil person.75 Thus, in the fifrst sentence of the verse, it is stated that an evil (person) is not exempted from punishment. There is no mention of violation of an actual law; it

71 The expression is perhaps derived from popular speech or customs. It may have been derived from a custom of sealing an agreement by striking hands together. See for example McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach. 437. Several other solutions are discussed by Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 232–233. 72 Richard J. Clifford, Proverbs: A Commentary, eds. James L. Mays, Carol A. Newsom, and David L. Petersen, The OT Library (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1999). 125. 73 In the Hebrew verbal system, niphal is the reflfexive conjugation of qal (simple action). ,in Theological Dictionary of the OT, eds. Johannes G. Botterweck ”, הקנ “ ,G. Warmuth 74 Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Pub- lishing Company, 1998). 555. 75 This use is not very common in Proverbs, but there are some other examples, where .(righteous’ (Prov 12:13, 21; 29:6‘ , קדצ also, like here, the word is contrasted to the root 200 chapter six represents a more general statement that an evil is not to go free, or to be unpunished. not go unpunished’, is the‘ , הקני־אל The antithesis of the construction be delivered’, which appears in the second line of the verse and‘ , טלמנ verb has the basic טלמ expresses the positive, alternative consequences. The verb meaning ‘to escape’ (from danger).76 In the book of Proverbs the verb is used only three times, and all the occurrences are in niphal.77 G. Hasel has shown that in the OT the niphal of the verb conveys the result of the flfeeing or running away, thus meaning ‘deliverance’ and ‘escape’ (1Sam 19:10; 19:12).78 In the Psalms the verb is mainly used with God as its subject and the stress is on how God delivers those afflficted in various ways (Ps 22:5–6; 116:4).79 The word is also used in the context of forensic justice to express the idea of being acquitted.80 Hasel argues that the verb both in Prov 11:21 and 19:5 should be understood as having a forensic meaning.81 In my opinion, this might be the case in 19:5, but concerning this verse (11:21) I do not agree. I think that as the subject in both lines is the general ‘evil’ and ‘the seed of the righteous’, and not any specififed offences, the meaning of the clauses are to be understood more generally and comprehensively than strictly juridical. I thus understand the verb in this verse to convey the meaning of being delivered. This is also supported by the more general use of the verb both in Psalms and the historical writings. the seed‘ , םיקידצערז Those who are said to be delivered are presented as of the righteous’. How should this expression be understood? The question seed’. In my opinion, ‘seed’ refers to‘ , ערז concerns the meaning of the word descendants. The full expression ‘the seed of the righteous’ should probably be understood as ‘the righteous and all their descendants’.82 In other words, the saying asserts that both the righteous and their descendants will be delivered.

,in Theological Dictionary of the OT, eds. Johannes G. Botterweck ”, טלפ “ ,G. Hasel 76 Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Pub- .Ibid . טלפ is probably a variant of טלמ lishing Company, 2001). 555. The verb 77 In addition to this verse, the verb is used in Prov 19:5 and 28:26. In 19:5 the verb is not go unpunished’. The theme of‘ , הקני־אל negated and appears as a synonym parallel to the verse is false witness. 28:26 consists of an antithetical parallelism, where the contrast is between foolishness and wisdom. .559–558 ”. טלפ “ ,Hasel .( ברח ) 1Sam 19:12 ,( סונ ) See for example 1Sam 19:10, 30:17 78 79 Ibid. 561. 80 Ibid. 562. 81 Ibid. 82 Whybray, Proverbs. 185. Clifford, Proverbs: A Commentary. 125. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 201

All together, this verse stresses that the evil will not escape punishment, while the righteous and their descendants will be delivered. Acts are not in focus here, but persons. They are again described in typical terms, or conventional language, leading our thought to types, rather than specififc persons. Something will befall these persons, namely the acts of punishment and deliverance. This is emphatically emphasised. The verse is not saying who or what the agent of the punishment or deliverance will be. The passive voice indicates an implied subject, but whom? In two of the verses where -not go unpunished’ is used, God is explicitly men‘ , הקני־אל the expression tioned in the parallel sentence (Prov 16:5; 17:5), and should thus probably be understood as the implied subject. Whether this might lead to the conclusion that God is also the implied subject in this verse is diffifcult to decide. I think that the verse invites the question whether God is the agent of deliverance and punishment, but it does not give a defifnite answer.

Verse 22 ריזחףאבבהזםזנ םעטתרסוהפיהשׁא Like a gold ring in a swine’s snout is a woman without discretion This saying will not be addressed, as it does not have any bearing on the act-consequence discussion.

Verse 23 בוט־ךאםיקידצתואת הרבעםיעשׁרתוקת The desire of the righteous ends surely in good The expectation of the wicked in wrath In this saying both sentences are nominal, and together they form an anti- is contrasted ( םיקידצתואת ) ’thetical parallelism. ‘The desire of the righteous -is con ( בוט ) ’while ‘good ,( םיעשׁרתוקת ) ’with ‘the expectation of the wicked surely’, is‘ , ךא In the fifrst sentence the adverb .( הרבע ) ’trasted with ‘wrath added for emphasis. There are two possible interpretations of the relationship between the subject clause and the predicative clause in the nominal sentences of the verse. One possible interpretation is that the predicative clause describes the character of the desire/expectation of the righteous and wicked, as 202 chapter six good and wrath respectively. The second possible interpretation is that the predicative describes the outcome of the desires/expectations of the righteous and wicked, as good and wrath, respectively. I think the second interpretation is most likely, for the following reasons. good’ (noun, masculine‘ , בוט First, the fifrst interpretation is only possible if singular), is understood as an adjective. But if the second clause is to be understood as appositional to the fifrst clause the feminine genus should have been used. Second, the Proverbs in general describes the consequences of action, and the second interpretative options fifts well into the general tone of the book.83 -con ( עשׁר – קדצ ) ’As in verse 18 we here fifnd the ‘righteous—wicked ,’righteous‘ , קידצ wicked’, and‘ , עשׁר trast.84 For a discussion on the nouns see verses 18 and 21, respectively. -desire’, can in Proverbs be found as having the connota‘ , הואת The noun tion of craving (Prov 21:25), thus indicating a strong desire. In Prov 13:12 the expectation’, is also used as a‘ , הוקת .’word is used as a synonym to ‘hope synonym to ‘hope’ (Prov 10:28; 11:7). In 19:18 it is the meaning of desire which is connoted. Put together in this saying the nouns are probably to be understood as synonyms, denoting a hope or a wish.85 The saying thus expresses that both the wicked and the righteous have their desires or expectations, but as we will see, the outcome of the expectations are as contrastive as the contrast between wicked and righteous itself. The second clause of each sentence describes what comes out of the hopes of the righteous and the wicked, respectively. The fifrst line stresses good’, can‘ , בוט . בוט־ךא ,’that the outcome of the desire is ‘surely good denote both ethical good and/or physical good.86 The second line describes wrath’. The noun‘ , הרבע the outcome of the expectation of the wicked as can be used both of persons (Ps 7:7) and of God (Is 9:13).87 In Proverbs it is used six times, once in the meaning ‘arrogance’ (21:24), but in the remaining occurrences as ‘wrath’. In 14:35 the word is contrasted with favour. The king’s wrath is contrasted to his favour, while in 11:4 ‘day of wrath’ is paralleled with death. This last verse may be the reason that Toy argues that here it is

83 Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 234. , עשׁר is plural of the noun םיעשׁר righteous’, while‘ , קידצ is plural of the noun םיקידצ 84 ‘wicked’. 85 Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 234 and McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach. 440. 86 Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1–15. 506. 87 Cf. Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 234. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 203 declared that the result of hope will be in accordance with the character of man; prosperity (divine favour) for the one class, wrath (divine punishment) for the other.88 In short, in this saying it is emphasised that what the wicked and the righteous can expect, are as contrastive as the contrast between wicked and righteous itself.

Verse 24 דועףסונורזפמשׁי רוסחמל־ךארשׁימךשׂוחו There is one who scatters, but is continually increased And one who withholds from uprightness, surely to need/poverty This is also an antithetical saying. Two persons are introduced, which have chosen opposite ways in their lives. The fifrst line refers to “one who scat- scatter’, (here in piel90 participle singular) is not a‘ , רזפ ters”.89 The verb common word in the OT. It is attested only ten times, with half of its occurrences in the psalms.91 Both God (for example Ps 53:6) and humans (for example Ps 112:9) are used as subject for the verb. Its objects are varied, for example enemies (Ps 89:11), bones (Ps 53:6), favours (Jer 3:13). In this clause, however, there is no object, something this verse shares with only one of the give’, and the‘ , ןתנ is used as parallel to רזפ other occurrences, Ps 112:19. There indirect object in the clause, the receivers of the scattering and giving, is the poor, which may indicate that the implied object is alms or gifts to the poor. In 11:24a there is no indirect object. It has been suggested, however, that both the content and the receiver of the scattering could be inferred from the second line of the verse. We will come back to this suggestion below. niphal participle). The) ףסונ ,’The one who scatters is then ‘increased add, increase’, is used in Proverbs among other things about an‘ , ףסי verb increase in learning (1:5; 9:9), in years of life (9:11; 10:27), in amount of friends (19:24); it is thus to be understood as signifying an increase in the amount of increases’, is further qualififed by the adverb‘ , ףסונ something. The participle ,which can be translated in many different ways, depending on context , דוע but it here seems to convey the meaning either of ‘yet’ or ‘continually’. If

88 Ibid. 234. there is’, which means existence. It is probably‘ , שׁי The fifrst line begins with the noun 89 used to emphasise that which follows, compare for example Prov 12:18; 13:7; 14:12. 90 In the Hebrew verbal system, piel is the name of the intensive conjugation. 91 Ps 53:6; 89:11; 112:9; 141:7; 147:16; Esther 3:8; Jer 3:13; 50:17; Joel 4:2, and our text; Prov 11:24. 204 chapter six we choose ‘continually’, a picture of a continuing increase for the one who scatters emerges. If we choose ‘yet’, a paradox emerges, that is, there is an increase for one who scatters. I think that the latter choice is the better one in the context of this line. , ךשׂח qal participle) of) ךשׂוח By contrast, there is one who withholds ‘withhold, refrain’. From what does this person refrain/withhold? This is preposition denoting , ןמ ) ,’from uprightness‘ , רשׁימ explicitly stated, namely uprightness’, noun). What does this word mean? Toy says that‘ , רשׁי + ’from‘ it refers to that which is just, appropriate to the circumstances, and thus translates it ‘proper’92 Waltke argues it denotes ‘duty’, as in Job 33:23, or behaviour appropriate to duty.93 In my opinion, these suggestions narrow is very close in meaning to the noun רשׁי .the meaning of the word too much ‘righteousness’ and seems to be used interchangeably with it. This can be seen from its use in Proverbs, where we fifnd most of its occurrences. As the upright’, is widely used as an antithesis‘ , רשׁי a nominalized adjective , קדצ wicked’ (11:11; 11:15; 12:16; 14:11). It also appears as a parallel to‘ , עשׁר to ‘the righteous’, (21:18). As a noun it is for example used in 2:13 and 4:11, in the expression path of uprightness, contrasted to the ways of darkness in the fifrst example, and as a synonym with the way of wisdom inthe other. I thus conclude that the word uprightness is to be understood in the same way as righteousness, as that which is in accordance with what is right. The eventual result of this withholding of what is right is then emphat- surely’, followed by the result itself, ‘to‘ , ךא ically stated by the adverb .(’poverty‘ , רוסחמ preposition ‘to’ + the noun ,ל) רוסחמל ,’need/poverty is used only thirteen times in the OT, eight of these in Proverbs. It רוסחמ clearly denotes poverty, used as a parallel to a more common expression for and רוסחמ poor in 6:11. In 21:7, it is said that whoever loves pleasure shall be in next clause it is said ‘not rich’. It is interesting to note that the expression -is used four times (including our verse) in Proverbs 10–22:16, giv רוסחמל־ךא ing different causes for what can lead to poverty. These are: merely talking— not acting (14:23), acting hastily (21:15), oppressing the poor and giving to the rich (22:16), and as in our text: withholding from uprightness. So, the picture emerges of one who scatters, yet is increased, and one who refrains from righteousness and becomes poor. But what is the connection between these two lines?

92 Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 235. 93 Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1–15. 507. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 205

I think that the second line of the verse conveys the meaning that abstaining from uprightness, in the wide meaning of righteousness—that is, not living a life in righteousness—leads to poverty. Based on what is said about the way of righteousness and the way of wickedness in the book of Proverbs it is not surprising that such a life leads to poverty. The fifrst line, I think isan example of what being upright means. Among other things, it is to be generous, and the result of generosity is the opposite of what lack of uprightness leads to. Summing up, two different kinds of actions are described in this verse. In the second line, the action is described in general terms as ‘withholding from uprightness’. The fifrst clause in the fifrst line is also focusing onan action; there is one who scatters. As I have interpreted it, this is one aspect of uprightness, namely being generous. These two actions lead to two contrasting results. The one who is generous will be continually fiflled up, while need or poverty is the resultof abstaining from doing what is right, generally, but also in terms of giving. How the results are brought about is not further elaborated on in the text.

Verse 25 ןשׁדתהכרב־שׁפנ ארויאוה־םגהורמו The one who bestows blessing, will be made fat And the one who waters will himself be watered

This saying consists of a synonymous parallelism, which is rare in the context of Proverbs 10–15. ‘One who bestows blessing’ is paralleled with ‘one who waters’, and the respective results are to ‘be made fat’ (25a) and to ‘be watered’ (25b). This is a construct clause . הכרב־שׁפנ The subject clause in the fifrst line is , הכרב life, self’, (nomen rectum) characterises‘ , שׁפנ ,where, in my opinion ‘blessing’, (nomen regens). The clause thus translates ‘a person of blessing’, which might , שׁפנ that is; one who blesses or bestows blessing.94 The noun originally have signififed ‘breath’ (cf. Gen 1:30), is a common word in theOT, and also in Proverbs. It has a lot of connotations, for example ‘life’ (Prov 11:30), ‘soul’ (Prov 13:19), ‘desire’ (Prov 13:2), and ‘person’ (Prov 12:10). It seems denotes הכרב to be person which is intended here. The feminine noun

94 Cf. Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 235. This construct phrase is found only here in the context of the Hebrew Bible. 206 chapter six

‘blessing’, in this context probably in the meaning kindness and benefif- cence.95 ,’fat‘ , ןשׁד The person that dispenses blessing will be made fat. The root is used both to denote the fat (ashes) from burnt offerings (Ex 27:3), and abundance (Ps 36:9). In Proverbs, this verse included, it is used in pual96 about being ‘made fat’ in the meaning enriched, prosperous (Prov 13:4, 28:5). Thus the fifrst line of the saying states that one, who gives blessing toothers, will be ‘made fat’ in the meaning of being prosperous or being enriched.97 The second line is a bit diffifcult to interpret. Probably the imagery of -drink’, is here used in hiphil98 (partici‘ , הור watering is intended. The verb ple) and probably denotes ‘to water’ (Ps 55:10). The participle could be translated as ‘the one who waters’, and functions as the subject of the sentence. is imperfect ארוי ?But how is the remainder of the line to be interpreted ’The basic meanings of this verb are ‘to throw’ and ‘to shoot . הרי hophal99 of (Ps 11:2, Prov 26:18). In hiphil the verb very often denotes ‘to teach’ (Prov 4:4; 4:11; 6:13), but it is also used in the meaning ‘to water’ (Hos 6:3; 10:12). In light of the parallel in line 1, and the reciprocity hinted at there, it is probable that the same kind of reciprocity is intended here, that is; the sentence might be also him/in‘ , אוה־םג ) translated like this; the one who waters will himself turn he’) be watered. The meaning is the same as in the fifrst line, namely that one who is generous will him/herself be blessed. There is a rich imagery used in this saying, probably referring to persons or acts of being generous and kind to others. The verse emphasises that those who are generous will be the receivers of generosity. Reciprocity between act and consequence is emphasised. There is a close connection between what is done and what is received. How the consequences are brought about is not focused on. The verse is kept in the passive voice, like verse 21.

Verse 26 םואלוהבקירבענמ ריבשׁמשׁארלהכרבו The one who withholds grain, people curse him But blessing on the head of the one who sells

95 Ibid. 96 Pual is the passive of piel. 97 Cf. McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach. 433. 98 In the Hebrew verbal system, hiphil is the active conjugation of causative action. 99 Hophal is the passive of hiphil. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 207

This verse is also concerned with the relation between act and conse- .in some way or other ( רב ) quence, and focuses on the handling of grain ’which can be translated ‘withhold , ענמ The fifrst line opens with the verb (see for example Gen 30:2, Neh 9:20). In Job 22:7 Job is accused of withholding bread from the hungry, while in Prov 3:27 the young student is admonished not to withhold help towards those who need it. In light of this, one possible interpretation of 11:26a could be that it refers to a person who does not help those in need, and who consequently is cursed by the people. Seen in light of the antithetical parallel in 26b, however, ‘with- ,’withhold‘ , ענמ .’hold’ seems to have the meaning ‘withholding from sale ’which means ‘to buy’ in qal, and ‘to sell , רבשׁ is namely contrasted with in hiphil (as is the conjugation used here in verse 26). Grain is often the explicit or implicit object of this verb (Qal: Gen 42:3; 41:57. Hiphil: Gen 42:6). Thus it seems that this antithetical saying highlights a specififc case of the connection between act and consequence taken from the market- place, the realm of purchasing and selling grain. Some people may speculate in harsh times, keeping back grain in order to increase prices (the fifrst line), while others do not take advantage of people in need ofgrain, even though they could have done so, and sell the grain they have (line two).100 The consequences of withholding and selling are curse and blessing, -which can be used alter , בבק respectively. The verb translated ‘curse’ is curse’ (see for example the Balaam story, Num 22–24). It‘ , ררא nately with .’blessing‘ , ךרב gains its meaning through being contrasted with To conclude, this saying seems to be referring to a specififc example of acting good and bad in a situation where there is great demand for grain, and indicates that these two opposite way of handling the situation have corresponding consequences. That is, curse for the one who takes advantage of people, blessing for the one who does what is right in such a situation. Inter- esting in this saying is the fact that the consequences are related to people in a society and the reactions of society itself. The consequences are brought about by other people. Hence, it looks like when specififc cases, not only typical are discussed, how consequences are brought about can be more specififed.

100 Cf. Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 235. 208 chapter six

Verse 27 ןוצרשׁקביבוטרחשׁ ונאובתהערשׁרדו The one who seeks good, he seeks favour but [for] the one who seeks evil, it will enter him This saying consists of two verbal-sentences, which are antithetical in meaning. There is one who seeks good, and another who seeks evil, and the two searches lead to different ends, that is, favour and evil, respectively (see below). I will in the following fifrst concentrate on the fifrst (subject) clause of each line, and afterwards examine the second clauses, which both depict the result of the respective searches. look early’,—originally ‘look‘ , רחשׁ In 27a the verb used to denote seek is for dawn’ (here used in participle qal). The verb is used four other times in Proverbs (in piel), denoting an eager search (for wisdom 1:28; 8:17, or for someone to seduce 7:15), or an intent to do something (discipline your son 13:24). This verse is the only place in the OT where the verb is used in qal, but search’, in 27b (see next paragraph) and the‘ , שׁרד in light of the parallel with other occurrences of the verb in Proverbs, it seems reasonable to conclude that the meaning here is to seek, maybe also seek earnestly or diligently. ,seek‘ , שׁרד The verb which is used as a parallel to ‘seek’ in the fifrst line is resort to’, (here in participle qal). There is only one more occurrence of the verb in Proverbs, namely in 21:13 where it denotes a woman’s search for handicraft-material. In the OT it is used about different kinds of searches and also about intentions (Ps 38:13), but here the search is for that which is .(compare with Am 5:14) הער evil The objects for the two verbs signifying ‘seek’, are good and evil, respec- evil’, is a quite common juxtaposition in the‘ , הער good’, and‘ , בוט .tively OT, also found in Proverbs (Prov 11:27; 14:19; 15:3, 17:13; 31:12).101 In its primary meaning this juxtaposition encompasses everything that benefifts life and diminishes or even destroys life.102 The dyad good-evil “characterizes fundamental modes of conduct that transcend the individual and affect the survival of the group and the well being of the community”.103 Both the

in Theological Dictionary of the OT, eds. Johannes ”, עער “ ,Cf. C. Dohmen and D. Rick 101 G. Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004). 564, 583. 102 Ibid. 583. 103 Ibid. 564. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 209 adjectives are here used in the absolute, not as a description of something as good and bad, but just good and evil as two opposite objects for the search. What is the outcome of the searches? First, what is in store for the one who seeks good? This is expressed through a verbal-sentence, ‘he seeks has as its basic meaning ‘to seek’, both in שׁקב The verb . ןוצרשׁקבי ,’favour order to fifnd (2 King 2:17) and secure (Ps 27:4). It can also connote desire or demand (1Chr 21:3).104 In Proverbs the verb is used altogether fourteen times with different objects, among them wisdom (2:4; 146), knowledge (15:4; 18:15), love (17:9), evil (17:11), and here in 11:27, favour. In my opinion, in light of the references in Proverbs, the meaning of the verb in this verse goes in the direction of searching to secure, which is supported by the reading of this line in context of the full saying (see below). favour, approval’. I have already discussed‘ , ןוצר The object of the search is the meaning of the word in connection with verse 20. The main question to be discussed here is whether God is to be understood as the implied subject of the word, and thus referring to a favour from God,105 or whether ‘favour’ should be taken to mean favour of man or public favour, the acceptance of the community.106 Toy argues that if ‘favour’ should be understood as God’s favour, it is a bit strange that it is not explicitly expressed (like in Prov 12:2), but he then points out that to understand it as the favour of man raises more questions than it answers. The reason for this, according to him, is that the clause would then mean that one who wishes good fortune for himself must do what is pleasing to others—an idea not found in Proverbs, and here offers no good contrast to the second clause. Therefore, Toy argues, it may be better to supply the divine name after all.107 I agree with him and think that the fifrst line in the verse expresses that the one who seeks goodwill secure God’s favour. it will‘ , ונאובת Second, what is in store for the one who seeks evil? That is come, enter’, is used in imperfect qal 3f sg with a‘ , אוב enter him’. The verb thus ‘it’ (she , הער ,’suffifx in 3m sg. The gender of the verb points back to‘evil in Hebrew), i.e. evil, is the subject of the verb. With suffifx the verb states that evil ‘will come to him’. The suffifx ‘him’ thus points back to the one who seeks evil. In other words, the second clause declares that evil doing rebounds on its author—such is the implication in the expression ‘enter him’.

104 It is also used in the expression ‘seek the face of’, see for example Prov 29:26, where it probably means to seek the ruler’s favour. .and Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1–15. 509 628 ”. ןוצר “ ,For example Barstad 105 106 For example McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach. 434. 107 Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 237. 210 chapter six

In other words, this verse seems to indicate that by actively pursuing good or evil, one is at the same time actively pursuing or securing the same for him or herself. A very close connection between the act and consequence is given. At the same time this relation is described in general terms; like in the Thai saying: do good, receive good, do evil, receive evil. The personal responsibility for the outcome of one’s acts is emphasised.

Verse 28 לפיאוהורשׁעבחטוב וחרפיםיקידצהלעכו The one who trusts in his riches, he will fall But like leafage the righteous will sprout Once again there is an antithesis between two sorts of persons/acts and the consequences of their character/acts. trust’, conveys‘ , חטב The key term in this verse, as I see it, is trust. The term the idea of being confifdent in (Ps 27:3), or relying on something (Prov 28:26) or someone, for example God (Prov 3:5; Isa 37:10). In this verse, the is a common רשׁע his riches’. The term‘ , ורשׁע object of the person’s trust is word in Proverbs, used about material riches (Prov 3:16; 10:14, 14:24). Even though riches are regarded as something positive (Prov 22:4), a good name, for example, is better (Prov 22:1). Anyway, in this saying to put one’s trust in one’s riches is pictured as something which will lead a person to fall. fall’, is in the context of the book of Proverbs, mainly used‘ , לפנ The term to describe bad happenings (Prov 13:17, 22:14). This is also the case here, something which is underlined by the antithetic parallel in line two, where the person who trusts his/her riches is contrasted to the righteous and his or her fate. pl.) like leafage will , םיקידצ ) The second line states that the righteous ;Here a metaphor from nature is used (Gen 40:10; Num 17:20 .( חרפ ) sprout Isa 35:2). Like leafage sprout on a tree, the righteous will prosper. In light of the parallelism then, the meaning seems to be that the righteous are those who have put their trust in the right place, in God, and will flfourish, while the contrastive character has put his or her trust in the wrong place, and will not last. In this verse a clear connection is stated between a person’s acts or character and their consequences. The act, which is here described as bad, is wrong trust. It is emphasised that the righteous will have life, will flfourish. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 211

Verse 29 חור־לחניותיברכוע בל־םכחלליואדבעו The one who troubles his house inherits wind And the foolish will be slave to the wise of heart This saying is formed as a synonym parallelism. As I read the saying, it describes a person, who ruins or destroys his household in one way or ,’trouble‘ , רכע another. In two of the three other verses where the verb occur, it is used in connection with economic folly and the consequent bad results for the household (Prov 15:6, 22). The same is probably the ;that is ,( חור ) of wind ( לחנ ) case here.108 The consequence is inheritance inheritance of nothing lasting. The same picture emerges in the paral- .’fool‘ , ליוא lel line. ‘The one who troubles his house’ is paralleled to the is one of eight different terms for fool in Proverbs, and refers to “a ליוא person characterized by obstinacy”.109 Such a person is depicted a end- wise’, is in‘ , םכח for the wise of heart. A ( דבע ) ing as a slave or a servant Proverbs the opposite category of the fool. Whereas the fool is on the road of wickedness, the righteous belong to the path of uprightness and righteousness. Hence the calls to be wise abound in Proverbs (Prov 8:33; 19:20; 23:19).110 So the verse puts up two descriptions which are synonyms: one who ruins his household, and a fool. And the result is the same; there is nothing left for them. The focus is again on acts and consequences, which are fiftting to the act or character. In the fifrst clause the focus in on the act, ‘one who troubles his house’, while in the second it is a person, ‘the foolish’. This might be an example of a saying where it is clear that the man directly causes his own destiny. The consequences are seen as directly derived from persons’ acts. It is concrete, stating very concretely that those who trouble their house will inherit nothing.

108 Cf. Ibid. 237–238. 109 Crenshaw, OT Wisdom: An Introduction. 67–68. The quote is from page 68. -in Theological Dictionary of the OT, eds. G. Johannes Botter ”, םכח “ ,Hans-Peter Müller 110 weck and Helmer Ringgren (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Com- pany, 1980). 374. 212 chapter six

Verse 30 םייחץעקידצ־ירפ םכחתושׂפנחקלו The fruit of a righteous is a tree of life But a wise man collects lives The fifrst line in this saying emphasise that the righteous will receive good In Genesis .( םייחץע ) fruits. Here the fruits of the righteous is a tree of life 3:14, the tree of life symbolises eternal life, while here in Proverbs, where the expression is used three times (Prov 3:18, 11:30; 15:4), it probably symbolises all that secures life, or life itself (see verse 19 for a further explication on ‘life’). The second line is a classic crux interpretum. Literally translated it states: life. Many commentators follow LXX and emend ( חקל ) and the wise takes -violence’. One translation could then be ‘but lawless‘ , סמח wise’, to‘ , םכח ness takes away lives’ (RSV). The Thai Holy Bible follows this emendation. I think however, that ‘take lives’ could be interpreted in the sense of winning life.111 That is, the wise saves lives, probably through his activity as teacher. In sum, this saying states that the fruit of the righteous is a tree of life; that is, the righteous has as his/her fruit that which secures life or life itself. Thus the verse emphasises the same correspondence between act and consequence which is found throughout this text. The second line in this verse is diffifcult to understand. In my opinion it has to be understood as emphasising that the fruit of the wise is that he collects, in the meaning saves, lives.

Verse 31 םלשׁיץראבקידצןה אטוחועשׁר־יכףא If the righteous are recompensed on earth How much more the wicked and the sinner In order to interpret this verse, there are two issues that have to be discussed . םלשׁ fifrst, that is, the form of the saying, and the meaning oftheverb First, concerning the question of the form of the saying I note that the fifrst behold’ or ‘if’. In this context‘ , ןה line of the verse is headed by the particle

111 McKane presents and discusses many different suggestions as to one could understand this crux interpretum. McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach. 432–433. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 213 the particle seems to introduce the premise, presented in the fifrst line, to the conclusion in the second line of the saying. The conclusion is introduced expression seems to have become a יכףא The 112. יכףא by the expression standard phrase in the OT, denoting ‘how much more’ (or ‘how much less’ in negative sentences), see for example 2Sam 4:11; Ezek 14:21; Job 25:5. In Proverb it is used six times, two of these in a negative sentence.113 Different suggestions as to how to understand the form of the verse has been offered. Waltke argues that it is to be understood as an a fortiori argument from the lesser to the greater.114 Toy agrees that it indicates an advance from the lesser to the greater, but calls it a progressive parallelism.115 Murphy also calls it an a fortiori saying, but he argues that what characterizes this kind of sayings is that a conclusion is drawn on the basis of an assertion that is accepted by all.116 In my opinion, Murphy’s explanation seems best suited to explain at least the verse under discussion here, as it makes it easier to understand the see next paragraph). In any case the form of the) םלשׁ meaning of the verb verse emphasises the importance of line two. The verb in the OT is ? םלשׁ Second, what is the meaning of the verb mainly found in piel, in the main meanings ‘make restitution’ and ‘recompense’.117 In Proverbs the verb is used ten times, whereof seven times in piel and two times in pual.118 The fifrst meaning ‘make restitution’ is used as a technical term in laws in the Covenant Code for the paying back of— making restitution for—damage to property (Exod 21:34; 22:6–9,119 cf. also Prov 6:31). The verb in its second meaning, ‘recompense’ or ‘repay’, can be used with persons as subject—as for example in Prov 20:22 where it denotes paying back evil with evil—and with God as a subject, in the meaning

112 Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1–15. 513. 113 11:31; 15:11; 19:7; 21:27 (‘how much more’); 17:7; 19:10 (‘how much less’). 114 Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1–15. 513. Cf. Lennart Boström, The God of the Sages: The Portrayal of God in the Book of Proverbs, eds. Tryggve N.D. Mettinger and Magnus Y. Ottosson, Coniectanea Biblica. OT Series, vol. 29 (Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell International, 1990). 121. 115 Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 239. 116 Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature. 9. ,in Theological Dictionary of the OT, eds. G. Johannes Botterweck ”, םלש “ ,K.-J. Illmann 117 Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Pub- lishing Company, 2006). 98–99. He also mentions three more meanings of the verb in piel, ‘pay a vow’, ‘restore’ and ‘complete’. The two last ones are not very often found, while ‘pay a vow’ is more common, cf. for example Prov 7:14. 118 Prov 6:31; 7:14; 13:21; 19:17; 20:22; 22:27; 25:22 (piel); 11:31; 13:13 (pual). In 16:7 the verb is used in hiphil. .99 ”. םלש “ ,Illmann 119 214 chapter six reward (Ruth 2:12, Prov 19:17) or punish (2Sam 3:39; Prov 25:22). In other words, the verb denotes ‘to recompense’—according to good or evil acts, respectively.120 Both in this verse (11:31) and in 13:13 the verb is used in passive voice (pual) and has no explicit subject. In 13:13 the meaning clearly is ‘be rewarded’, in contrast to ‘be destroyed’, but what is the meaning here? The verb appears only in the fifrst line of the saying, but is probably gapped in the second.121 in the fifrst line and ‘the ( קידצ ) ’The object of the verb is thus ‘the righteous -in the second line.122 The interpreta ( אטוח ) ’and ‘the sinner ( עשׁר ) ’wicked tion of the saying could thus be that the righteous are rewarded and the wicked are punished. Against this interpretation Toy argues that since the saying is to be understood as a progression from lesser to greater, an interpretation like this “gives the unsatisfactory sense that God will more certainly punish the wicked than reward the righteous”. It makes more sense to as denoting punishment. The saying is thus expressing that םלשׁ understand even though the righteous might be punished for their wrongs, the wicked will be punished even more.123 In my opinion, this interpretation is not satisfactory. When the wicked-righteous word-pair is used in Proverbs the main point is always the contrasting consequences or results of those acts or life- styles, and I think the same is the case here. As argued above it is possible to understand this saying as an a fortiori argument where a conclusion is drawn on the basis of an assertion that is accepted by all. In my opinion the fifrst line states that a righteous is repaid according to his or her acts/character. The second line argues that if it is so this is certainly true for the wicked, they will also be repaid in accordance with their acts/characters. Where this recompense will take place is explicitly mentioned in the on earth’. The main question here is‘ , ץראב fifrst line of the saying, namely whether an implied contrast is intended here, between the righteous being repaid on earth, while the wicked being repaid in a not more accurately in םלשׁ Ibid. 100. It should be noted however, that Koch has argued that the meaning of 120 piel should be understood on the basis of the primary meaning in qal, ‘to be completed’. The meaning in piel is thus ‘to complete’, indicating that “Yahweh completes the good, or evil action, of the person who does it by means of the appropriate consequences which follows”, and not that he repays them in the sense of reward or punishment. Koch, “Is There a Doctrine of Retribution in the OT?” 60. 121 Cf. Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1–15. 514. ’Wicked‘ .( עשׁר - קידצ ) ’See verse 23 for a discussion of the word-pair ‘righteous-wicked 122 and ‘sinner’ are probably to be understood as synonyms. Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 240. 123 Ibid. 240. This is the meaning conveyed in Thai Holy Bible. Cf. also Boström, The God of the Sages: The Portrayal of God in the Book of Proverbs. 121–122. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 215 defifned future. Waltke argues that it is to be understood so, the righteous will be repaid (in his opinon punished) on earth, while the wicked have a greater punishment in view, a ‘future penal punishment’.124 I think it is more likely, due to the form of the saying, that the expression ‘on earth’ is to be understood as implied in the second line of the saying as well.125 Recompensed in what way—or by whom—is not expressed, but the main thrust of this saying is that the wicked will be re-compensated. The basic premise is that the righteous are re-compensated, no question about that; then, how much more the wicked and the sinner! What the recom- -righ‘ , קידצ pense consist of is not elaborated on. But as the designations wicked’, are used, it is reasonable to interpret this verse‘ , עשׁר teous’, and in the context of other sayings on the righteous and wicked. In those it is clearly emphasised that the righteous are followed by good consequences, while the wicked by bad.

The Relation between Act and Consequence in Proverbs 11:18–31 The brief examination of the different proverbs in this text has shown that all, with one exception (verse 22), express a relationship between act or person and consequence. So far I have referred to this as an act-consequence relationship. The fifrst issue, which needs to be addressed, however, isthe nature of this relationship. Is it to be understood as an act-consequence relationship, or as a character-consequence relationship, as is suggested by for example Schmid and Boström? Schmid argues that as most of the sayings in Proverbs present persons as being either wicked or righteous, characterizing them as either of the two opposites, the emphasis is more on character than on actions.126 Boström is of the same opinion, stating that the focus in the sayings is not on individual acts. According to him two different life-styles are pictured, and his conclusion is also that the sayings picture a character-consequence relationship.127 If we analyse the proverbial sayings under study in this study, we fifnd fifrst that in the act/character part of the sayings some mention onlyaper- son (for example ‘the wicked’ 11:18a, ‘the righteous’ 11:31a), others mention

124 Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1–15. 514. 125 Toy, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 240. 126 I depend on Whybray for this reference. R.N. Whybray, The Book of Proverbs: A Survey of Modern Study, ed. Robert Morgan, History of Biblical Interpretation Series, vol. 1 (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1995). 123. 127 Boström, The God of the Sages: The Portrayal of God in the Book of Proverbs. 90–91. 216 chapter six more specififc aspects like ‘desire’ (11:23a) and ‘righteousness’ (11:19), while quite a few of the sayings use a participle clause focusing more on the acts (for example ‘the one who withholds grain’ 11:26a, ‘the one who trust in his riches’ 11:28a).128 Quite often, one line of the saying focuses on the act and the second line on the person (for example 11:18, 19). No sharp distinction seems to be made between act and person. The probable understanding communicated by the proverbs is that persons, who, for example, act wickedly, are wicked, and that persons who are wicked, act wickedly. Second, when reading the two parallel lines in a saying together we see that in most cases (both in our text and in chapter 10–15 as a whole) there is an antithetical relationship between them. A contrast is pictured between the good persons/acts and their consequences on the one hand, and the wicked and their results on the other, thus giving the impression that these are contrasting types, rather than specififc acts. Third, it must be noted that the acts or persons that are mentioned in the sayings are described in very general terms and in what Boström labels ‘conventional language’.129 A prominent place has been given to the word pair ‘righteous and wicked/evil’. Some examples are:

18 wicked / one who sow righteousness 19 one who pursues evil / righteousness 20 [those with] twisted heart / [those of] complete way 21 evil / the seed of the righteous 23 the hope of the wicked / the desire of the righteous 27 one who seeks evil / one who seeks good 31 the wicked and the sinner / the righteous

By means of conventional language, these expressions do not so much describe single acts, or single persons, as an attitude or way of living (or ‘lifestyle’ as Boström terms it). This supports the contention that the focus in the text is more on character than acts.130 A further support for this is the fact

128 The verses where the focus is on the act, when talking about the subject in the sentence: 18b, 19b, 24, 25b, 26, 27,28a, 29a, 30b. The verses where the focus in on the person: 18a, 19a, 20, 21, 25a, 28b, 29b, 30a, 31. Verse 23 focus on the desires/hopes of persons. 129 “By ‘conventional language’ we mean idioms and phraseology intrinsic to the language of wisdom and religion to such an extent that their content did not have to be interpreted literally”. Boström, The God of the Sages: The Portrayal of God in the Book of Proverbs. 119, footnote 137. 130 This is not only the case here in this text, but a common feature in the sayings in the book of Proverb. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 217 that also the consequences are depicted in general terms, thus applicable to different kinds of acts within the wicked-righteous realm.131 When this is said, there are also, both in our text and in the wider context, examples of sayings that seem to describe more concrete acts, and address more specififc areas of life (for example 11:26, 29). In my opinion, these serve to exemplify, in the overall context of the book, what it means to be ‘righteous’ or ‘wicked’, and thus contribute to a more comprehensive picture of a righteous and wicked lifestyle and what it consist of. According to my understanding, Schmid and Boström have highlighted an important concern regarding the interpretation of the ‘act-clauses’ in an act-consequence relationship, and I agree with them that the ‘act’ clauses could rather be described as ‘character’ clauses. I will however, continue to use the expression ‘act-consequence’ as it is a common way of referring to the relationship, but with the implied qualififcation that acts are not only thought of as specififc concrete acts, but also as encompassing a person’s character and way of life as a whole. The second issue I wish to address concerning the relationship between act and consequence in the text is how the structure of the sayings makes the connection between act and consequence open for interpretation. Reading the different sayings on a linear level it appears that there are two types of sentences, nominal and verbal.132 In the nominal sentences there are two clauses, a subject clause and a predicative clause. The predicative clause characterises, or states something about the subject, but the further relationship between them is open to interpretation. In the sayings containing verbal sentences, three of them are in passive voice, that is, 11:21, 25, 31. Although the subject is not explicitly stated the verb describes the consequences of acts. In the remaining verbal sentences the verb links act and

131 For example: 18 deceptive recompense / sure/true reward 19 death / life 20 abomination to Yahweh / his favour 21 not unpunished / delivered 23 wrath/arrogance / good 25 / fattened/satisfifed 27 overtaken by evil / wins favour 28 fall / sprout 30 violence / tree of life 31 how much more punished / punished on earth 132 Nominal proverbs: verses 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, 26b, 29b, 30, 31b. Verbal proverbs: verses 21, 25, 26a, 27, 28, 29a, 31a. 218 chapter six consequence. But in either case the sayings do not specify how the consequences of the acts are to be brought about. This impersonal and passive way of addressing the relationship between act and consequence is found throughout the book of Proverbs.133 Finally, as we have seen, there appears to be a clear correspondence between an act and its consequence in the sayings, but the sayings are quite open with regard to how this relationship is understood to function, or how the consequences of acts are brought about. In addition to the remarks above, I will here mention some observations from the text under study that are of importance to the discussion.134 First, the correspondence between act and consequence is pictured as having its analogy in nature, see verses 18 and 30. In nature there is a connection between being and growing, and sowing and reaping. In the thinking of wisdom this connection seems transferred also to the realm of humans, thus stressing a sort of natural connection between act and consequence.135 Second, in verse 20 God is said to react strongly with regard to persons’ ways of life. In this verse nothing, however, is said about him taking action on the basis of his reactions. But the question of the role of God in the act-consequence nexus emerges anyway, as this saying stands in a context which stresses that acts have consequences, and where passive voice is used in quite a few of the sayings, thus inviting the question whether God might be the implied subject (11:21, 31), who rewards or punishes people in accordance with their acts or ways of life. Third, one verse, namely verse 26, seems to indicate more directly how the consequences of acts are brought about. This verse concerns a case from the market place, dealing with the buying and selling of grain. The situation seems to be a time when there is a discrepancy between supply and demand in society. There is simply not enough grain. From the sellers’ perspective two different ways of handling this situation are pictured. One sells, so that people may have food, another thinks of profift and keeps the

133 Boström, The God of the Sages: The Portrayal of God in the Book of Proverbs. 132. 134 Looking for important clues to the understanding of the act-consequence relationship, I have found the observations made by Boström in his thorough study of this relationship very helpful. See Ibid. 97–133. 135 This is an important point for Kvanvig in Helge S. Kvanvig, Historisk bibel og bibelsk historie: Det gamle testamentets teologi som historie og fortelling (Kristiansand: HøyskoleFor- laget, 1999). See p. 170. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 219 grain back in order to await increased prices. These two different ‘acts’ are both said to have consequences, and it is clearly stated that the community is instrumental in effecting the consequences. Fourth, at least one of the verses (11:29) can be seen as a simple observation of the way a man causes his own destiny. Here the consequences fully depend on the action of the individuals themselves. Several observations have been made here, and are as follows: – the acts are thought of more in terms of a way of life – the structure of the sayings, including the use of passive voice, opens up for different interpretations – the question of the role of God – the natural relationship between act and consequence – the role of society and the way persons brings down consequence on themselves All these observations and issues will have to be integrated in the discussion of how, in the book of Proverbs, consequences of acts are thought to be brought about. In light of these observations the question emerges; is there an explanation of the relationship between act and consequence that encompasses and clarififes (explain) the different ways of stating the relationship? Before we turn to this problem, however, we have to give some more attention to the role of God in the sayings, as this is more complex in the book of Proverbs than our text seems to indicate. I focus here on 10:1–22:16.

The Picture of God in Proverbs 10:1–22:16 The following presentation of the picture of God in Proverbs 10.1–22:16 is based on Boström’s thorough discussion in his book The God of the Sages: The Portrayal of God in the Book of Proverbs.136 First, we fifnd sayings that focus on the attitude of God towards certain behaviours and characters, like in the saying in verse 20 in our text (for more examples see the interpretation of verse 20). The emphasis is on God’s reactions—abomination and favour—towards certain behaviours and ways of life, and not on how the consequences of acts are brought about.137

136 Boström, The God of the Sages: The Portrayal of God in the Book of Proverbs. 137 Ibid. 105. 220 chapter six

Second, there are sayings that picture God as the one who brings about both the negative and positive consequences of human actions (15:25; 12:2). In these sayings God is pictured as a supreme-being and ruler, who opposes evil men and their plans while he actively provides for the success and well being of the righteous.138 Third, in some sayings it is assured that God will protect the pious, and that piety leads to safety, honour and happiness. How these rewards are realised, however, is not stated, as the focus is not on how God brings about the consequences, but on what kind of character a person has and what consequences follow thereof.139 Finally, there are quite a few sayings that stress God’s might, indicating that he is the ruler and director of the world (14:31).140 There are also some references to him as creator. The sayings that emphasise on God’s freedom to work out his purposes, 16:9; 21:30, are probably related to this.141

Interpreting Proverbs 11:18–31 in Response to Thai Buddhist Interpretations

How to Explain the Relation between Act and Consequence? I now return to the question whether there is an explanation of the relation between act and consequence that encompasses and clarififes (explain) the different ways of stating the relations. Or to phrase the question a bit differently; which of the theories presented in the beginning of this chapter are able to explain the different points concerning the act-consequence relation, found in the interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31 in its textual context? I start with the understanding that consequences of acts are understood as divine retribution, an understanding which is radically different from the Thai Buddhist understanding of the law of kamma. This way of looking at the relationship between human acts and consequences presupposes given laws that are the norms by which people are judged. That is, human acts do not automatically have consequences, but they may be rewarded or punished according to norms in religion or society. I think the fifnding that in the sayings “acts” are thought of more in terms of a way of life, than

138 Ibid. 102, 105. 139 Ibid. 102–103. 140 Ibid. 103, 105. 141 Ibid. 104. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 221 single acts, radically question such an understanding. In addition I agree with Koch’s observation that there is no evidence in the book of Proverbs of any juridical process, where God is involved.142 With regard to the understanding, proposed by Koch, namely that human acts contain within themselves their consequences, and that God can be compared to a midwife, who assists in the deliverance and completion of that which human actions have initiated, its main problem is that it is not able to encompass the composite picture of God and his acts in the book of Proverbs. This understanding, however, comes, as we have seen, close to a Thai Buddhist understanding of kamma, namely that it can be compared to a seed, from which the fruit comes. The suggestion that the sayings in Proverbs not should be interpreted as bringing testimony to a universal order presupposed by the sages, but rather being expressions of attempt to order daily life experiences, is interesting. But in light of the book of Proverbs as it now stands, I think it is quite evident that there is a reflfection of the relation between God and wisdom whichhas led to an understanding that there is an order in the world due to God being its creator. Therefore I think that the different suggestion suggesting a kind of natural law or natural order has much to offer as a basis for understanding the relation between act and consequence as it is described in Proverbs. The emphasis in several sayings on a natural relation between act and consequence, and the fact that by entering on the path of righteousness or wickedness, one enters a path of life either characterised by harmony or by disharmony, seems to support the idea that there is a natural law which humans relate to. But based on the diverse way in which God is described in Proverbs, including Proverbs 8, where the role of wisdom in creation is emphasised, this law can not be seen as functioning mechanically, or independently of God. Therefore, the various statements considering God’s active participation in the world needs to be taken into account, in order to ascertain the underlying basic concept, which serves as an explanation for the totality of the statements concerning the act-consequence relation in Proverbs 11:18–31. Hence, I agree with those scholars (for example Von Rad), who explain the natural order of thing, the relation between act and consequence, as a result of God being the creator. It is God, the creator, who is at work in and through the order which can be recognised in the world. Thus righteousness in this context is to be understood as concurrence with this

142 Koch, “Is There a Doctrine of Retribution in the OT?” 57–58. 222 chapter six

God-willed order, while wickedness is to defy the created order. As a consequence of this understanding of the relation between act and consequence, the answer to the question of whether the relation between act and consequence in Proverbs 11:18–31 can be explained in terms of the law of kamma is in the negative. This does not mean however, that there are no functional similarities between these two ways of thinking. I will come back to this point below, where some of the issues the interviewees raised with regard to the Proverbs text will be discussed.

There Is No Way to Escape the Consequences of Acts This theme was especially mentioned by the interviewees in connection with two verses, namely 11:21, 31. They argued that these verses very clearly state that there is no way to escape the consequences of acts. For sure the wicked must receive punishment, and certainly good will be rewarded with good. Further, it was pointed out that this assurance is similar to Buddhist teaching, where Buddha states that there is no escape for humans with regard to the consequences of their acts. And, like in the Proverbs text, this is also emphasised in the Buddhist scriptures, where, for example, it is said that man cannot escape the law of kamma—not in heaven, nor on sea—there is no escape indeed. When the interpretation of these two verses is seen in light of its textual context I agree with the observation that it seems an inevitable fact that the righteous and the wicked will meet with the respective correspondences of their acts. Both verses 21 and 31 emphasise that there will be punishment and reward for the wicked and the righteous respectively; both verses also use literary devices to stress this point. Verse 21 is introduced by the expression “hand in hand” which conveys the meaning “assuredly”, and verse 31 is built up as an a fortiori argument, thus clearly emphasising the second line in the saying, which states that the wicked and the sinner will be repaid according to their acts. It was further argued by some of the interviewees that verse 31 stresses the fact that if someone does not receive the consequences of their own acts on earth, then this does not mean that they will escape the consequences. Rather they will receive the consequences in the next life. This interpretation is on line with those who read the word “on earth”, as belonging only to the fifrst line of the verse. I do not think that this is the case (see exegesis), but the interpretation implies an acknowledgment of the fact that there is not always a visible connection between act and consequence. Hence the question emerges—does this mean that there are cases where consequences interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 223 of acts can be escaped? This question will be addressed in connection with the discussion of Psalm 73 and not pursued further here. If there is no way to escape the consequences of acts, then, when concep- tualised within the framework of kamma, the present situation might also be interpreted as a result of former kamma. One of the interviewees found this point indicated in verse 31. In the Thai Bible the fifrst line of the verse is translated “if the righteous are punished on earth”, raising the question why the righteous are punished. One of the interviewees related this line to the theme under discussion here; namely that there is no way to escape the consequences of acts. What it points at is that the result one receives in this life is not only a result of acts in the present life, but also dependent on acts in a distant past, or in former lives. So the good that is punished, is punished according his/her former wicked acts. The line thus underlines that there is no escape from the consequences of acts, since sooner or later they will catch up with the actor. This raises the question whether a person is seen to be fully determined by the law of kamma or whether a person is seen to govern one’s own life. As we will see in the next chapter, the belief that the law of kamma secures that one’s actions will necessarily have results—that is; good acts will have good results and bad acts have bad results—this leads to an understanding of humans as being in charge of their own destiny. But at the same time, persons are thought to be caught up in their former acts. The interviewees did not regard this as a big problem. As one of them said: the past is gone, the future is not yet here, the present is what we have, therefore concentrate on doing good.143

Humans Are in Charge of Their Own Lives Another issue raised by the interviewees in their interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31, was the question of humans’ control over their own destiny. It was argued that the text encourages fifrm belief in the power of humans tobein charge of their own lives or destinies. The argument for this interpretation went as follows: The text states that for those who are fifrm in righteousness, goodness will prevail, while evil will stay with those who do evil. This implies that persons can be in charge of their own lives; do good and good will follow, do evil and evil will follow. It was further asserted that this is similar to the Buddhist teaching about action (kamma), which states that when

143 Mae Chii Narumon, (Bangkok, 22. September 2005). 224 chapter six persons act intentionally, the fruit of this action will inflfuence their destiny. Everything one does has consequences for oneself, from birth to death. There is no one outside a person who is in control over him or her, but he or she controls their own actions, and thus their own destiny. The examination of the text in its textual context has shown that almost every saying focuses on acts and their corresponding consequences. This repeated assertion seems to have a didactic and normative function, trying to motivate and encourage the readers to make a choice, to choose doing good and avoiding evil (see next section). A basic premise of the sayings hence seems to be that humans have freedom to choose between the alter- natives offered; righteousness and wickedness, a way of uprightness, or of evil (cf. Prov 1:29–32). At the same time it is emphasised that one’s choices will have consequences—one is made responsible for one’s own choice. But does this mean that humans are thought of in the text as being in charge of their own lives in a similar way as the interviewees interpret it in light of their Buddhist context? In the previous discussion of the relation between act and consequence, I have argued that the sayings seem to reflfect a belief in justice and order, a result of which is that both righteous and wicked acts have corresponding effects. This belief is in Proverbs rooted in the belief of God as creator and ruler of the world. By choosing to live in harmony with this “order”, the righteous persons enter a path that ensures life, in its full meaning of health, prosperity etc. On the other hand, by choosing to defy this ‘order’, persons enter a path leading to destruction (cf. 11:19). Within the given ‘order’ one could thus argue that humans are believed to determine their own fate by their actions, like Buddhists are thought to determine their fate within the given ‘law of kamma’. A person is thought to be in charge of one’s own life within this framework, but do not have the choice of establish one’s own framework.144 Therefore, we fifrst note that the statement that humans are in charge of their own destinies in Proverbs is ultimately based on

144 As we have seen already, in Buddhism the law that governs the relationship between act and consequence is the law of kamma. This law is a law of nature. It is a basic premise in Buddhism that there is nothing over nature, everything is controlled by nature. It is argued that as nature brought us forth, human beings depend on nature and ought to live in accordance with it, not breaking the law of nature. Therefore, it can be argued that persons are not totally autonomous; they are a part of nature and have to live in harmony with nature in order to secure good living. People, who choose to live in a way that is not in harmony with nature, will not be in harmony. For an elaboration on this issue, see Sallie B. King, “From Is to Ought: Natural Law in Buddhadasa Bhikkhu and Phra Prayudh Payutto,” Journal of Religious Ethics 30, no. 2 (2002). interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 225 trust or faith in God,145 and in Buddhism on the law of kamma (as part of Dhamma). But in order to say something more defifnite about how man is in charge of his own life, in light of our text in its context in the book of Proverbs, there are two important issues which have to be addressed, namely the limits of human self-reliance and the freedom of God. If one understands the role of God in the sayings (and in the book of Proverbs) as limited to the role of a midwife (se discussion of Koch’s view) or as a facilitator, who just assists in the deliverance of consequences, then arguably humans are fully in charge of their own destiny. But, as we have already discussed, this limits the picture painted of God in the book of Proverbs, including his activities and might. There are some important passages which stresses God’s freedom and power with regard to human plans and activities, for example Prov 16:1,9; 20:21; 21:30–31. These passages emphasise both the limit of human freedom with regard to God—ultimately man is dependent on him—and the freedom of God to work out his own purposes. Is man in charge of his own life according to the book of Proverbs? The answer is both yes and no. Within the given framework, which is that act have corresponding consequences—and that there are two basic ways to choose among, persons are encouraged to choose the way of righteousness and thus form their destiny. This belief is based on a basic trust in an ordered world, governed by God. At the same time this cannot be understood as a rigid dogma, because God’s freedom to do that which is unexpected is also emphasised. Von Rad puts it this way: Do not hesitate to summon up on all your powers in order to familiarize yourself with all the rules which might somehow be effective in life. Experience, on the other hand, teaches that you can never be certain. You must always remain open for a completely new experience. You will never become really wise, for in the last resort, this life of yours is determined not by rules, but by God.146

Do Good, Avoid Evil According to the interviewees, the text, through its pointing out the corresponding consequences of good and bad acts, functions as an encouragement, and an admonishment to do good and avoid evil. It was further argued

145 Cf. Von Rad, Wisdom in Israel. 102–103. Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature. 114. 146 Von Rad, Wisdom in Israel. 107. 226 chapter six that this is similar to Buddhist teaching, as it also teaches that one should do good and avoid doing evil. Looking at the form of the sayings, both in our text and in 10:1–22:16 as a whole, it is clear that they are not admonitions. The sayings are usually expressed in the indicative mood, and do not explicitly counsel a person how to act. They rather state “the way things are”, and any use or application of the statements could be said to be a second move.147 It is however, commonly agreed on that in the present context the sayings also function as didactic sentences. Crenshaw, for example argues that “the mere placing of these neutral observations into larger collections with didactic intent transforms the maxims in some small way, for they take on the persuasive spirit of the whole unit.”148 The sayings are thus an important part of what seems to be the intent of the book of Proverbs, namely “to train a person, to form character, to show what life is really like and how best to cope with it”,149 and as a result “offer life or salvation to the reader—that is restoration to a full life in the here and now”.150 In the same way the encouragement to do good and avoid evil in Thai Buddhism has a broader aim than just to ensure moral living. It is part of the way to a better future and eventually to ‘salvation’, that is; enlightenment. Hence, with regard to the motivation for ethics, the text’s stress on act-consequence could be said to function the same way as the stress on the act-consequence nexus within a Thai Buddhist context. It was further a common opinion among the interviewees that this text teaches people how to be good. That is, it was a general feeling among them that the examples of good and bad which are presented in the text were on line with their own understanding of what is good or not. Special notice was given to the topic of giving. Further, the thrust of the sayings, in that they were understood as an encouragement to do good and avoid evil, seems to have been central to this feeling that the text teaches people how to be good. When asked about what is good or bad, the interviewees referred to certain common values in Thai society, like being generous, not to bother others, and not to be aggressive. So when they discussed how to do good and avoid evil, there was a set of presuppositions that were common to all, and they had an intuitive feeling for what this entails.151 This means that when

147 Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature. 7–8. 148 Crenshaw, OT Wisdom: An Introduction. 64–65. 149 Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature. 15. 150 Ibid. 29. 151 It is interesting to note that very few referred to specififc religious teaching, like the fifve precepts, but most did, as I mentioned above, rather refer to important values in the society. interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 227 they referred to the saying ‘do good, receive good; do evil, receive evil’, the main point was the encouragement to do good and avoid evil; what is good and evil was not under discussion—it was in a way self-evident. Turning to the Proverbs text, this is probably the case here as well. We have seen that both act and consequences are quite generally framed in the sayings. There are some concrete examples of specififc acts or attitudes, but they mainly use expressions like ‘righteous’, ‘wicked’, thus giving the impression that behind these sayings there probably was a common understanding of what was good and not.152

Intermediate Conclusion

In this chapter I have discussed how Proverbs 11:18–31 can be interpreted in light of, and as a response to Thai Buddhist interpretations and understandings of the text and its themes. Basic to the Thai Buddhist interpretations of the text was the understanding that, through its different sayings, it emphasises an inevitable correspondence between act and consequence. The other themes found in the text were all, with one exception (i.e. the issue of women and virtue), viewed as being based on, or related to, this main theme. In the interviewees’ further elaborations of the themes which they identififed in the text, the teaching of kamma served as the main frame of reference. In addition, the interviewees’ pre-understanding of Christian doctrines was utilised in the interpretation. Due to the important role the teaching of kamma played in the Thai Bud- dhist interpretations of the text, I regarded it as a crucial task to determine whether, in light of the text’s textual context, the relation between act and consequence could be explained in terms of the law of kamma. Hence, I have mainly concentrated my discussion on how the relation between act and consequence is described in the different sayings of the text, and asked whether there is an overarching framework of understanding, similar or comparable to the law of kamma, which can explain the different ways in which this relation is described in Proverbs 11:18–31.

152 This is also a point made by Crenshaw: “To a certain extent, any attempt to characterize life-sustaining conduct and its counterpart is hampered by the sages’ tendency to speak in general categories. For instance, they enjoin right action and justice, which pleases God more than sacrififce (Prov 21:3), and encourage goodness with confifdence that their meaning leaves no ambiguity. In short, these teachers take for granted a common understanding of good and evil, one that modern interpreters must construct with great care if they are to guard against erroneous conclusions.” Crenshaw, OT Wisdom: An Introduction. 68. 228 chapter six

As I have argued in this chapter, there is, according to my understanding, a theological framework discernible in the book of Proverbs, within which the act-consequence relation is to be understood. In the book of Proverbs the world is considered as having a basic moral order due to God being the creator. But this order is not thought of as an impersonal law of cause and effect, which is the case with the law of kamma. Rather it is closely connected with God as creator. It is the creator, who is at work in and through the order which can be recognised in the world, hence the order does not function automatically and independently of God, but according to his free will. Therefore, on the basis of an analysis of Proverbs 11:18–31 in light of its textual context, I have argued that the question whether the relation between act and consequence can be explained in terms of the law of kamma has to be answered in the negative. But even though I do not think that an explanation in terms of the law of kamma is congruent with an interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31 in its textual context, I have argued that functionally there are close similarities between the thought of Thai Buddhism and the teaching contained in Proverbs. That is, both traditions emphasise that by living in accordance with the nature as it is (Buddhism), or the good order created by God (Proverbs), one will experience being in harmony, while on the contrary, by defying God’s good order, or living unskilfully, disharmony will be the result. As a consequence, it could be argued that an implication of the interviewees’ stress on the law of kamma and the text’s emphasis on the coherence between act and consequence is that the only sensible and wise thing to do is to do righteous or skilful deeds, and avoid being wicked and unskilful. Or popularly put; do good and avoid evil. While it is clear that the sayings in Proverbs 11:18–31 are not admonitions in form, that is, that they do not explicitly counsel persons to act, I have nevertheless argued that within the context of the book of Proverbs they indirectly function as encouragement to live a righteous life (i.e. a life in accordance with the created order), and to avoid the way of the wicked. Concerning the question of whether Proverbs 11:18–31, through its emphasis on the connection between act and consequence, can be said to teach that humans are in charge of their own destiny, I have argued that the answer is both yes and no. In the interviews it was strongly emphasised that as Buddhists believe in the law of kamma, they also believe that people only have themselves to rely on with regard to how their lives will turn out. Hence, people are free to form their own destiny. The question is thus if the text, with its emphasis on the connection between act and consequence, can be said to teach that people are free to form their own futures. I have interpreting proverbs 11:18–31 229 argued that on the one hand, the sayings seem to reflfect a belief in justice and order, a result of which is that both righteous and wicked acts have corresponding effects. By choosing to live in harmony with this order, the righteous persons enter a path that ensures life. In contrast, by choosing to defy it, persons enter a path leading to destruction. Within the given order one could thus argue that humans, by their actions, are able to determine their own fate, just as Buddhists are thought to determine their fate by observing the natural law of things and act in accordance with it. On the other hand, and despite the similarity, I think that there is a signififcant difference between these two ways of thinking. The main differences, as I see it, is fifrst that in the book of Proverbs it is emphasised thatthe order is created by God and does not work independently of him; he is at work in and through the order which can be recognised in the world. Second, there are some important passages that stress God’s freedom and power with regard to human plans and activities, such as Prov 16:1, 9; 20:21; 21:30–31. These passages emphasise the limit of human freedom with regard to God—ultimately man is dependent on him,—as well as the freedom of God to work out his own purposes. chapter seven

INTERPRETING PSALM 73 IN LIGHT OF, AND AS A RESPONSE TO, THAI BUDDHIST INTERPRETATIONS

Introduction

In their interpretation of Psalm 73, the Thai Buddhists argued that the text’s basic theme is the problem of incoherence between act and consequence (see ch. 3). The psalm was regarded as conveying both how this problem is to be understood, and how it is to be resolved. Further, the interviewees addressed and commented on the reaction of the psalmist to his experience of lack of coherence between act and consequence. Finally, the Thai Bud- dhists found the psalm to address the question of how to cope in situations similar to the one described in the text. Here trust in God became a central issue. Taking the Thai Buddhist interpretations of Psalm 73 as the point of departure, I will focus on the following questions when interpreting the psalm in light of its textual context: First, what is the problem of the psalm, and what premise(s) is it based on? Second, does the psalm give an answer or offer a solution to the problem raised in the text? If it does, what kinds of answers/solutions are offered, and what is the role of God in regard to this? Finally, how are the reactions of the psalmist related in the text? Does his way of reflfecting on his experience give insight into how persons oughtto cope with similar situations? Is trust in God important in this regard? On the basis of the discussion of these questions (see the section “Inter- preting Psalm 73 in Textual Context”), and of the Thai Buddhist interpretation of Psalm 73 (see ch. 3), I will discuss how the text can be interpreted in response to Thai Buddhist interpretations and understandings (see the section “Interpreting Psalm 73 in Response to Thai Buddhist Interpreta- tions”). 232 chapter seven

Interpreting Psalm 73 in Textual Context

Text and Translation Translation Text Verse 1a ףסאלרומזמ .A psalm of Asaf 1b לארשׂילבוטךא 1 םיהלא ,Surely, God is good to Israel 1c בבלירבל .To those who are pure in heart 2a יוטנטעמכינאו 2 ילגר ,But as for me, I almost stumbled with my feet 2b הכפשׁןיאכ 3 ירשׁא ,my steps nearly slipped 3a םיללוהביתאנק־יכ ,Because I envied the boastful 3b האראםיעשׁרםולשׁ .the peace of the wicked I saw 4a םתומלתובצרחןיאיכ For they have no pains at their death, 4 4b םלואאירבו .and fat are their bellies 5a ומניאשׁונאלמעב ,They are not troubled like humans 5b ועגניאלםדא־םעו .nor like mankind they are plagued 6a הואגומתקנעןכל ,Therefore pride is their necklace 6b ומלסמחתישׁ־ףטעי .Violence covers them like a garment 7a ומניעבלחמאצי Their eyes bulge with fat, 5

to the‘ , לארשׁיל to Israel’, into‘ , לארשׂיל It has been proposed to separate the expression 1 upright, El (God)’, thus creating two parallel lines, which could be translated: ‘Surely, Elohim is good to the upright, El to those who are pure in heart.’ The proposal has no support in the text witnesses, and since the emendation seems to be a harmonising of MT, I think MT is the .’to Israel‘ , לארשׂיל older text and retain 2 Concerning this verb there is a difference between the Kethib and the Qere reading. The to stretch, incline’. The Kethib of the same root has the‘ , הטנ perfect qal 3.pl. of , ויטנ Qere is form of passive participle m.sg.cstr. The Qere rendering ensures a good parallel between line is feminine. I retain ( לגר ) ’a and b, while the Kethib is the more diffifcult text as the noun ‘feet the Kethib and understand it, like Hossfeld and Zenger, as a circumstantial indication. Cf. Frank-Lothar Hossfeld and Erich Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100, ed. Klaus Baltzer, trans. Linda M. Maloney, Hermeneia (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005). 222–223. The Thai translation follows the Qere. .’to pour out‘ , ךפשׁ Another Kethib/Qere problem is found in connection with the verb 3 Both the Kethib and the Qere is pual or qal passive, the difference is that Qere is 3.pl, while Kethib is 3.f.sg. Kethib probably take the noun ‘steps’ in a collective meaning, it is however lectio diffifcilior and is thus retained. 4 The editors of BHS suggest, on line with many modern commentators, to emend the for them’, is then regarded as belonging to‘ , ומל . םתומל at their death’, into‘ , םתומל expression perfect, unharmed’, is read with 4b, describing the noun ‘belly’. Cf. for example‘ , םת 4a, while Hossfeld and Zenger, who translate the verse: “Indeed, they suffer no pain, fat and sleek are their belly”, the argument for the emendation being that the meaning of the MT text is impossible in light of verse 17, where it is emphasised that death is not something good for the wicked. Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100. 223. In my opinion this is a secondary attempt to harmonize the text, and I retain the MT. The Thai translation, however, follows the suggested emendation in BHS. their eyes’, perhaps‘ , ומניע With reference to LXX and Syr. it is suggested in the BHS that 5 their wickedness’. The witnesses are not strong enough to justify‘ , ומנוע should be altered to a change. MT is retained. interpreting psalm 73 233

7b עברו משׂכיות לבב .their hearts overflfow with conceit 8a ימיקו וידברו ברע ,They mock and they speak with malice 8b עשׁק ממרום ידברו .from above they threaten with oppression 9a שׁתו בשׁמים פיהם ,They open to heaven their mouth 9b ולשׁונם תהלך בארץ .and their tongue ranges over earth 10a לכן ישׁיב6 עמו הלם ,Therefore, his people turn hither 10b ומי מלא ימצו למו .abundance of water is drained by them 11a ואמרו איכה ידע־אל ?And they say: how does God know 11b וישׁ דעה בעליון ?Is there knowledge in the Most High 12a הנה־אלה רשׁעים .Behold, these are wicked 12b ושׁלוי עולם השׂגו־חיל .Always at ease, they increase in riches 13a אך־ריק זכיתי לבבי Surely, in vain I have kept my heart clean 13b וארחץ בנקיון כפי .and washed my hands in innocence 14a ואהי נגוע כל־היום I was plagued all day 14b ותוכחתי לבקרים .and rebuked in the mornings 15a אם־אמרתי אספרה כמו ,If I had said, let me recount this 15b הנה דור בניך בגדתי behold, I would have acted treacherously to the generation of your children. 16a ואחשׁבה לדעת זאת ,When I devised to know this 16b עמל היא בעיני ,it was trouble in my eyes 17a עד־אבוא אל־מקדשׁי־אלuntil I entered into God’s sanctuaries. 7 17b אבינה לאחריתם !There I discerned their end 18a אך בחלקות תשׁית למו ,Surely, you set them in slippery places 18b הפלתם למשׁואות .you cause them to fall to desolation 19a איך היו לשׁמה כרגע ,How they become to waste in a moment 19b ספו תמו מן־בלהות they come to an end, they are fifnished by terrors 20a כחלום מהקיץ .as a dream when one awakes 20b אדני בעיר צלמם תבזה .Lord, on awakening, you despise their image 21a כי יתחמץ לבבי When my heart was embittered 21b וכליותי אשׁתונן ,and my kidneys were pierced 22a ואני־בער ולא אדע ,I was brutish and did not know 22b בהמות הייתי עמך !I was a beast before you 23a ואני תמיד עמך .But as for me, I am always with you 23b אחזת ביד־ימיני .You have grasped my right hand 24a בעצתך תנחני ,By your counsel you guide me 24b ואחר כבוד8 תקחני .and afterward, to glory you will receive me

6 Verse 10 is regarded as a crux interpretum, and various emendations are suggested in order to arrive at what different scholars regard as a satisfactory understanding of the verse. As most of the emendations have no textual basis, and the MT text is possible to translate, even though it is a complicated verse, I have retained the MT text, but read the Qere instead .’to turn, return‘ ,שׁוב of the Kethib with regard to the verb sanctuary’, in plural, while LXX and Peshitta has singular. MT is lectio‘ ,מקדשׁ MT has 7 diffifcilior and is retained. The Thai translation has the singular. in, with’, to the noun‘ ,ב It is suggested, with reference to LXX, to add the preposition 8 glory, honour’, thereby indicating a solution to the much debated question of how to‘ ,כבוד understand the meaning of glory in this verse. I think MT should be retained as the evidence for the emendation is not very strong. I have, however, translated ‘with glory’. The reasons for this choice will be given in the text interpretation. The Thai translation has: ‘… and afterward you will lead me to receive honour.’ 234 chapter seven

25a םימשׁביל־ימ Who is for me in heaven? 9 25b ץראביתצפח־אלךמעו .With you I do not delight in anything on earth 26a יבבלויראשׁהלכ ,My flfesh and my heart may fail 26b םלועלםיהלאיקלחויבבל־רוצ .but God is my heart’s rock and my portion forever 27a ודבאיךיקחרהנה־יכ ,Behold, those who are far from you will perish 27b ךממהנוז־לכהתמצה .you annihilate all those who are unfaithful to you 28a בוט־ילםיהלאתברקינאו .But as for me, nearness to God is good for me 28b יסחמהוהיינדאביתשׁ ,I have put my refuge in the Lord Yahweh 28c ךיתוכאלמ־לכרפסל .In order to recount all your works

Context, Form and Structure The book of psalms is in its present form divided into fifve parts or books, each of which is concluded with a doxology. These books are Pss 1–41, 42–72, 73–89, 90–106, 107–150. Psalm 73 introduces the third book.10 How to categorise Psalm 73 has been a question of much discussion. In his article “Psalm 73: A Microcosm of Old Testament Theology”, J. Clinton McCann mentions seven different proposals to the genre of the psalm, but notes that the two most common suggestions are (1); wisdom psalm, and (2); song of thanksgiving.11 According to my understanding, these two are the most relevant to discuss. One the hand, the psalm contains some of the formal elements of the thanksgiving psalm, such as description of a crisis, rescue, and hope. On the other hand, however, the problem of the psalm (cf. the book of Job, Pss 37, 49), the autobiographical style, its many allusions to the wisdom literature and its didactic intent indicate that it has to be understood on the background of the wisdom tradition. In my opinion, Ps 73 uses some of the form elements of the thanksgiving psalm, but is clearly

9 It has been suggested to add: ‘except you’. This suggestion is followed in the Thai translation. I have not emended the text, due to the lack of textual witnesses. 10 In his article “The Psalms and Current Study” David M. Howard jr. points out that today “… the prevailing interest in Psalms studies has to do with questions about the composition, editorial unity and overall message of the Psalter as book …”. David M. Howard jr, “The Psalms and Current Study,” in Interpreting the Psalms: Issues and Approaches, eds. David Firth and Philip S. Johnston (Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Academic, 2005). 24. I will not enter this discussion here, but I note that Psalm 73 is regarded by some scholars to have an important function as canonical marker. See Walter Brueggemann, “Bounded by Obedience and Praise: The Psalms as Canon,” in The Psalms and the Life of Faith, ed. Patrick D. Miller (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1995), Walter Brueggemann and Patrick D. Miller, “Psalm 73 as a Canonical Marker,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 72 (1996). 11 Clinton J. Jr McCann, “Psalm 73: A Microcosm of Old Testament Theology,” The Listen- ing Heart: Essays in Wisdom and the Psalms in honor of Roland E. Murphy, O.Carm. 58 (1987). 247. See also Karl-Johan Illmann, “Till tolkningen av Psalm 73,” Svensk Exegetisk Årsbok 41–42 (1976–1977). 120–122. interpreting psalm 73 235 informed by the wisdom tradition. Hence I think that it has to be interpreted on the background of the wisdom tradition.12 The Psalm is nicely structured. Some observations to the structure of the psalm: – Change in subject. There is a clear division in the psalm based on who is the subject of the sentence. – God (3p.sg) as subject. In verse 1, which has the character of a statement, God and Israel is talked about in 3.person. – ‘I’ (1p.sg) as subject. In verses 2–3, there is a ‘1-person’, which I call the psalmist, speaking about himself. As I understand it, the implied speaker in verse 1 is the same as in verse 2–3. – ‘They’ (3p.pl) as subject. In verses 4–12 ‘they’, which are further described as ‘the wicked’, are described. Verse 12 concludes this section with a ‘behold, these are the wicked’. – ‘I’ (1p.sg) as subject. In verses 13–17 the psalmist is talking of himself again – Mainly ‘you’ (2p.sg) as subject in verses 18–28. – Verses 18–28 can be divided on the basis of who is subject and object. – Verses 18–20, 27 ‘you and them’ play the central role. – Verses 21–26, 28 ‘you/God and me’ play the central role. surely/truly’, is used three times in the‘ , ךא The intensifying adverb – psalm, in verses 1, 13, 18. behold’, is used two times, verses 12, 27, both times‘ , הנה The particle – about the wicked. heart’, appears to be a key word, used fifve times in the‘ , בבל The noun – psalm, verses 1, 7,13, 21, 26. .good’, is found both in the fifrst and last verse‘ , בוט The noun – .until’, marking a change‘ , דע Verse 17 is introduced by – Based on these observations the following structure can be found in the psalm:

12 So also, for example, J. Luyten, “Psalm 73 and Wisdom,” in La sagesse de l’Ancien Tes- tament, ed. Maurice Gilbert, Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovanesium (Gem- bloux and Leuven: Duculot and Leuven University Press, 1979). Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100. A.A. Anderson, “The Book of Psalms. Volume 2: Psalms 73–150,” in New Century Bible Commentary, ed. Ronald E. Clements and Matthew Black (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publ. Co., and Marshall, Morgan & Scott Publ. Ltd., 1972). 236 chapter seven

1: Premise 2–3: The psalmist’s observations, and his reactions 4–12: The wellbeing of the wicked 13–16: The situation of the psalmist, and his reactions 17: The turning point 18–20: The end of the wicked 21–26: The resolution of the psalmist’s problem 27–28: Conclusion

Text Analysis The Psalmist’s Problem The Premise of the Problem can ךא .’surely‘ , ךא Verse 1 (like vv. 13, 18) is introduced by the particle understood either to have an asseverate or restrictive force. As an asseverate particle it emphasises the statement that follows and may signal that it expresses a (newly) perceived truth. It could thus be translated ‘surely’ or ‘truly’ (Gen 26:9; Ps 58:12 [ET13 58:11]). Understood in a restrictive sense it conveys that the following statement is intended as a contrast to what is previously stated or believed (Gen 9:4). If the particle is used in this sense it can be translated ‘yet’.14 The question is how to understand the main force of the particle here in verse 1. In my opinion, both uses of the particle make good sense. On the one hand, it can be translated ‘surely’ and serve to emphasise and strongly affifrm the following statement that ‘God is good to Israel, to those who are pure in heart’. The statement thus functions like an affifrmation of perceived truth, or like a creed.15 On the other hand, it can be translated ‘yet’ and express that what follows is something which is true in spite of objections to the contrary.16 I have chosen to translate ‘surely’ as I think this better covers the double function the verse, according

13 ET is an abbreviation for English Translation. The following reference, hence refer to the verse-number in the English versions of the Old Testament. (The same abbreviation will be used in connection with Ecclesiastes 9:1–12). 14 Brown, Driver, and Briggs, eds., A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament with and Appendix containing the Biblical Aramaic. 15 See for example James L. Crenshaw, A Whirlpool of Torment: Israelite Traditions of God as an Oppressive Presence, eds. Walter Brueggemann and John R. Donahue S.J., Overtures to Biblical Theology, vol. 12 (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984). 98–99. 16 See for example Walter Brueggemann, The Message of the Psalms: A Theological Com- mentary, Augsburg Old Testament Studies (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1984). 115–117, Marvin E. Tate, Psalms 51–100, eds. David A. Hubbard, Glenn W. Barker, and John D.W. (OT ed.) Watts, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 20 (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1990). 235. interpreting psalm 73 237 to my understanding, has in this psalm.17 One the one hand, the statement in verse 1 serves as “the beginning proposition”18 of the psalm. It states the theological conviction of the psalm’s audience, presenting what Walter Brueggemann terms ‘common theology’.19 As such the statement serves as the premise of the psalm—a premise of teaching which in the following verses is contrasted with the life-experience of the psalmist. On the other hand, however, after having read the whole psalm, and thus having followed the psalmist’s struggle with his former convictions and beliefs and his way to a new understanding and renewed trust in God, the statement appears also as a conclusion of the psalm. It becomes a statement which affifrms and sums up the psalmist’s own understanding. But as we will see later on, it is, to say it with Brueggemann, “… a different statement when it is conclusion than when it is premise”.20 First, however, we will have a closer look at the statement as the premise which the problem of the psalmist has to be seen in light of. What is then expressed in verse 1 as the premise of the psalm? The verse states: “Surely, God (Elohim) is good to Israel, to those of pure hearts.” In those of‘ , בבלירב Israel’, is qualififed by the clause‘ , לארשׂי my opinion pure hearts’. Hence, verse 1 emphasises that God is good to those within Israel who can be described as having pure hearts. Who are they, or what those of pure hearts’? A contrast‘ , בבלירב is meant by the expression is drawn between ‘those of pure hearts’, and ‘the wicked’. Therefore, I ,’those of pure hearts‘ , בבלירב would argue that in Psalm 73 the phrase expresses the same as the term ‘righteous’. That is, it denotes persons, living in accordance with God’s created order and according to his will, who might enter the temple, the place of God’s presence (see Ps 24:4).21 With regard to these people it is then said that they are the recipients of God’s goodness. In other words, verse 1, when it functions as a premise of the psalm, affifrms the teaching of traditional wisdom, namely that a life onthe path of righteousness leads to blessings or wellbeing (Prov 11:18–21, cf. also Ps 1).

17 This is also how the particle is translated into Thai. 18 Tate, Psalms 51–100. 232. 19 Walter Brueggemann, “A Shape for Old Testament Theology, 1: Structure Legitimation,” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 47, no. 1 (1985). See especially 39–41. 20 Brueggemann, The Message of the Psalms: A Theological Commentary. 116. 21 So also, for example, Hans-Joachim Kraus, Psalms 60–150: A Continental Commentary, trans. Hilton C. Oswald (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993). Brueggemann, The Message of the Psalms: A Theological Commentary. 86–87. 238 chapter seven

The Problem Having stated what was commonly believed and asserted, the psalmist goes right to the heart of the matter for him, namely that the assertion that God is good to those of pure hearts is not in line with his own experience. but I’, which signals that there is a contrast‘ , ינאו Verse 2 is introduced by between the proposition in verse 1 and the experience of the psalmist. Hence I have translated it ‘but as for me’. What the psalmist has observed and experienced is namely that the wicked prosper, while he himself suffers. This experience is in total contrast to the teaching of wisdom—referred to in verse 1—that by following the path of righteousness wellbeing, or harmony, (shalom, see below) is ensured, while by following the path of the wicked, one has to reap the bitter fruit of wickedness, which is lack of harmony. Ample space is used to describe different aspects of the situation of the wicked (3–12), but the psalmist is also relating his own situation, both with regard to physical suffering (14), and inner turmoil (16). In describing his own situation the main focus is on the impact of his observations and experience on his faith and religious understanding (2–3, 13–16). In the following I will fifrst present the psalmist’s description ofthe wicked, and afterwards contrast this with how he describes his own situation. The Prospering of the Wicked. We may start by asking, who are the wicked; what characterises them? Two terms are used to denote them, namely the wicked’, (vv. 3, 12). The term‘ , םיעשׁר the boastful’, (v. 3) and‘ , םיללוה to boast, to praise’. About half‘ , ללה is a qal participle of the verb םיללוה the occurrences of the verb are in the Psalms, where it is mainly used in the positive sense of praising God (Pss 74:21; 104:35). It is, however, also used with negative connotations, like in Ps 97:7 where it is used about boasting in idols, and in Ps 49:7 about the wicked who boast of their riches. The two other times the verb is used in the same form as here in Ps 73:3, namely in Pss 5:6 and 75:5, it is used as a parallel to evildoers (5:6), and to the wicked (75:5). The latter is also the case here in 73:3. It thus clearly has a negative value. The wicked’, denotes those who are not following the good order of‘ , עשׁר noun God, or the godless.22 In this Psalm we get one of the most comprehensive descriptions of their acts and attitudes in the whole Old Testament. Thus what characterises the wicked will become clearer after we have studied verses 3–12.

22 See also chapter 6, especially the discussion of Prov 11:18. interpreting psalm 73 239

Further, what was it that the psalmist observed concerning the wicked? This is the topic of verses 3–12. In verse 3 the psalmist states: “I saw the peace, wellbeing’, often expresses‘ , םולשׁ wellbeing of the wicked”. The noun that which God blesses his people with (Ps 29:11). It is the portion of the meek (Ps 37:11) and those who love the law (Ps 119:165). But what the psalmist observes is that in this case it is the boastful, not the meek; the wicked, not the God-abiding people (pure in heart), who enjoy this wellbeing. What this wellbeing more specififcally consists of is further expanded on in verses 4–5. Verse 4 underlines that the wicked “have no pains at their death”. The ,is used only twice in the Old Testament , הבצרח ,’noun translated ‘pain here and in Isa 58:6, and has as its literal meaning ‘fetter’. Here it probably expresses the idea of pain or torment. Whether it is physical or emotional pain is hard to determine, but in light of the second clause of the verse (4b), which emphasise the physical healthiness of the wicked, it might be the physical pain which the wicked are spared. In verse 4b the wicked are namely described as having fat bellies,23 which probably is a picture of their ,’fat‘ , אירב good health, and maybe also prosperity, cf. the use of the noun in connection with healthy men in Dan 1:5 (and also Gen 41:2, 5, where it describes fat and healthy cattle and plump corn). As a whole, verse 4 emphasises that the wicked are healthy and satisfifed, to the point that even at their death they have no pain. Verse 5 continues the description of the good fortune of the wicked by focusing on what the wicked do not experience of hardship. The lot of the .’humankind‘ , םדא humans’, and‘ , שׁונא wicked is contrasted with the lot of By contrasting the wicked to ‘humankind’ the psalmist creates the impres- ,’trouble/toil‘ , למע sion that the wicked are excepted from life’s common plague’. In this context, these terms probably refers to suffering or‘ , עגנ and In 24.( עגנ ) Job 3:20; Ps 90:10), and to being plagued with illness , למע ) troubles other word, the psalmist describes the wicked as people who do not experience the same trouble and hardship in life as ordinary people do. They are spared the harsh realities of life. They are healthy and not prone to illness. therefore’, signalling that what‘ , ןכל Verse 6 is introduced by the particle follows give the consequences of the smooth and worriless life of the wicked.

23 The word I have translated ‘belly’ is a hapax legonomen, literally it means ‘front part’. ’is found in pual only in this verse. As the piel of the verb ‘strike/afflfict עגנ The verb 24 is used in context with illness, in the meaning of afflficting someone with illness (Gen 12:12; 2Kgs 15:6), the pual is probably to be translated ‘to be stricken’ or ‘to be plagued’ and entails the idea of being plagued with illness. 240 chapter seven

In verse 6 these consequences are expressed through two clauses, where arrogance is their necklace’. The noun‘ , הואגומתקנע :the fifrst goes as follows arrogance’, is not a very common word in the Old Testament. It is only‘ , הואג used nineteen times, whereof seven times in Psalms. It can be used about God and is then expressing his majesty or strength (Deut 33:26; Ps 67:35). More often it is used about humans, and then mainly in a negative sense, about wicked people (Pss 10:2; 36:12 [ET 36:11]), denoting pride or arrogance. This arrogance seems to be of such a character that it shows itself in bad acts towards the righteous (Pss 10:2; 31:19 [ET 31:18]), which also seems to be the implication here, cf. verse 6b. It might also imply that the wicked are putting themselves on high; giving themselves an elevated position, cf. verse 8. This arrogance is not something the wicked are ashamed of; rather they show off and make it their pride. This is in verse 6a expressed through in perfect qal 3.f.sg with— קנע —is their necklace’ (verb‘ , ומתקנע the phrase suffifx 3.m.pl.). This word is used concretely about a piece of jewellery to wear around the neck (Cant 4:9), but also fifguratively like here (Prov 1:9), about that which is one’s decoration, one’s pride. In Prov 1:9 it is the teaching of mother and father that should be the son’s pride, but here, far from this ideal, it is arrogance that the wicked use as their pride. ומלסמח :The second clause used to describe the wicked in verse 6 states violence’, is a‘ , סמח violence drapes them like a robe’. The noun‘ , תישׁ־ףטעי widely used word for violence. God hates those who love it (Ps 11:5), and it is said about the wicked that their violence will come back on themselves garment’, (the‘ , תישׁ Ps 7:17 [ET 7:16]). In this verse violence is pictured as a) term is used only here and in Prov 7:10) which the wicked wear. How should one understand this expression? In light of verse 6a it could be seen as something they show off. Arrogance is their necklace, their robe is violence. This is what they show the world and this is what they deck themselves in, and are proud of. In sum, verse 6 emphasises that the wicked are not plagued like other people. This makes them feel elevated over ordinary people, and they do what they want. Their arrogance and violence is not something they are ashamed of. On the contrary, this is what they pride themselves of. The description of the wicked continues in verse 7, with two clauses .of the wicked, respectively , בבל ,and the hearts , ןיע ,focusing on the eyes Like the concept of ‘heart’, ‘eyes’ are in the Old Testament used fifguratively as organs of perception and cognition (Deut 29:2–4; Isa 6:9–10).25 The con-

25 Terje Stordalen, Støv og livspust: Mennesket i Det gamle testamente (Oslo: Universitets- forlaget, 1994). 28–30, 90. interpreting psalm 73 241 cept of heart is further used to express the basic attitudes or values of life, which forms the way of life of the individual person (Deut 6:4–9; Ps 24:4; Prov 23:26),26 while eyes can be seen as expressing the inner life of a person, for example a person’s attitudes (Pss 35:19; 101:5; Prov 6:17).27 According to my understanding, in this verse heart and eyes are understood as the seat of, or as expressing the attitudes and values of the wicked. Both eyes and heart are pictured as being fiflled up to their bursting point, or in fact they seem to overflfow. The eyes are described as going out, i.e. fat’. This word is‘ , בלח and that which makes them bulge is , אצי ,bulging used most often in Leviticus where it denotes fat on animal meat. But it can ( שׁפנ )also be used fifguratively. In Ps 63:6 [ET 63:5] it is used about the soul to describe a satisfifed person. In Ps 17:10 it is stated about the enemies of the righteous, that they are enclosed in their own fat, expressing their lack of empathy, while in Ps 119:70 fat is used as a description of the heart of the wicked, as a contrast to persons who delight in the law of God. , תיכשׂמ with , רבע ,In verse 7b the image of a heart which overflfows is a rare word in the Old תיכשׂמ .conceit’, is used to describe the wicked‘ Testament. There are only six references to this noun, and in half of them it denotes carved images, i.e. idols (Lev 26:1, Num 33:52, Ezek 8:12). The noun denotes imagination in Prov 18:11, but it is the meaning of conceit which is conveyed here in Ps 73:7. Summing up verse 7, it expresses that the attitude of conceit and lack of empathy or goodness is so dominant in the wicked, that it fiflls up their inner life. Whereas the preceding verse focused on the inner life of the wicked and how it presses itself out, verse 8 describes their speech. The verse consists of two clauses which both have the speech of the wicked as their theme. 28, קומ In 8a the acts of the wicked are described through two verbs ,’from high‘ , רבד ,speak’. In 8b ‘they’, i.e. the wicked, speak‘ , רבד mock’, and‘ high/height’, can be used‘ , םורמ preposition + noun). The noun) םורממ about mountain heights, or high places (2Kgs 9:23, Prov 8:2), but is often used about the high heavens (Ps 71:19) or to indicate the elevated state of God and his dwellings (Pss 7:8; 18:17 [ET 18:16]; 92:9 [ET 92:8]). Used about the wicked and where they speak from, the implication seems to be that they are elevating themselves high and speak from there, strengthening the picture of arrogance and hubris.

26 Ibid. 30–31. 27 Ibid. 191. 28 This word is a hapax legoumenon. 242 chapter seven

Verse 9 continues the focus on the expressions of the wicked. Here the and ( הפ ) organs of speech come into the centre of attention, that is, mouth The verse elaborates on the extension/outreach and goal of .( ןושׁל ) tongue the speech of the wicked. Both heaven and earth are within its reach. Does this mean that they talk against heaven? Or does it mean that they spread their message everywhere, in other words, that there are no limits for them? In my opinion, both solutions are possible, hence I keep the question open. therefore’, pointing out a new set‘ , ןכל Verse 10 is introduced by another of consequences of the shalom of the wicked, and their ways and speech as a result of that. This verse is a matter of much debate with regard to its meaning. In my opinion, the verse states that the people of God seem to be impressed by the rhetoric of the wicked, and so to say drink their words. In verse 11 the message of the wicked is presented. So far, we have heard more generally of their mocking, and how their speech travels wide and far, but now we get some specififc content to their speech. Their message is radical; they are questioning God’s power and knowledge. In other words, the verse seems to imply that the wicked do not longer reckon with God, cf. Ps 10:4. This section of the psalm, which presents the prospering of the wicked, is concluded in verse 12. After the comprehensive presentation of the wicked in verses 3–12 the psalmist concludes by stating: “Behold, these are the behold’ introduces the verse and serves to‘ , הנה wicked”. The particle emphasise the statement: ‘these are the wicked.’ A fifnal statement sums up the shalom (wellbeing, cf. verse 3) of the wicked, elaborated on in the preceding verses, namely that they are “always at ease, their increase their riches”. There does not seem to be an end to their wellbeing and success. The Suffering of the Pure of Heart. In verses 13–16 the subject is ‘I’, the psalmist. After the conclusion of the description of the wicked in verse 12, -surely’, of the psalm. Accord‘ , ךא these verses are introduced by the second in this verse is “in spite of all the ךא ing to Marvin E. Tate the force of indications of well-being of the wicked, I kept my heart clean and washed my hands in innocence”—which means that the speaker refused to run after the prosperous wicked and adopt their ways. The psalmist remained among those Israelites who were ‘pure in heart’, those who could ‘wash their here emphasises the ךא hands in innocence’.29 I think it is more likely that psalmist’s feelings or thoughts about the futility of his purity, on the background of the success of the wicked.

29 Tate, Psalms 51–100. 235. interpreting psalm 73 243

In these verses a clear contrast between the wicked, their acts and their situation, and the psalmist is drawn. Whereas the wicked have hearts full of conceit, and are described as violent and proud, mocking and godless, the psalmist is pictured as one, who has attempted to keep heart pure, and his hands clean. The expressions in verse 13 lead the thought to preparations for worship, which included the ritual of washing hands symbolising that a person was ‘clean’ for worship (see Ps 26:6; 23:4; Deut 21:6; Matt 27:24).30 The problem of the psalmist is that in spite of their wickedness the wicked 5a), but this is exactly what , למע ) v. 5b) and troubled , עגנ ) are not plagued the psalmist is (v. 14, v. 16). It is not to wonder that he exclaims ‘in vain’, and seems to be tempted to renounce his faith publicly (15). His attempts to come to terms with the situation and understand it, only increased his pain and troubles (v. 16).

The Solution to the Problem until’.31 From here on‘ , דע In verse 17 a turning point is marked by the particle the psalmist relates how he now sees the situation in a new light, both with regard to the wicked, elaborated on in verses 18–20, and his own situation, reflfected on in verses 21–26. In the two fifnal verses of the psalm (vv.27–28) he sums up his new-won insight. According to verse 17, the turning point occurred, when the psalmist the sanctuaries of God’. The noun‘ , לא־ישׁדקמ ,( אוב ) came into, or entered is used in the singular throughout the Old Testament to denote the שׁדקמ sanctuary of God. It is used about old Israelite sanctuaries, for example at Shechem (Josh 24:26), the tabernacle (Exod 25:8), the temple (1Chr 22:19) and holy places within the precincts of the temple (Jer 51:51). It can also be used about other peoples’ sanctuaries (Isa 16:12). Here in Ps 73:17 the noun is used in the plural, however, which is unusual. Hence, its meaning is much debated. The two main suggestions are: One, it denotes the temple or sanctuary of God, in other words, the physical place of worship.32 Two, it is referring to a mystical experience of God.33 In my opinion, it is the sanctuary of God as a place which is denoted. Admittedly, the use of the plural to

30 Ibid. 235. 31 This particle is commonly used to mark an epoch or a turning point. 32 Kraus, Psalms 60–150: A Continental Commentary. 89. 33 Martin Buber, “The Heart Determines: Psalm 73,” in Theodicy in the Old Testament, ed. James L. Crenshaw, Issues in Religion and Theology (London, Philadelphia/Pennsylvania: Fortress Press, 1983). 113. 244 chapter seven refer to the sanctuary of God is unusual, but there are examples of this use, which in my opinion show that it probably refers to the sanctuary and its precincts (Ps 68:36 [ET 68:35]; Lev 21:23; Jer 51:51). A fifgurative use, however, is according to my knowledge, not attested anywhere in the Old Testament. The sanctuary of God is the place of God’s presence (Pss 26:8; 27:4; 43:3; 65:5 [ET 65:4], 84), hence it can be argued that “on entering the sanctuary, the teacher entered the sphere of the powerful presence of God”.34 The impact of God’s presence can be seen from the fact that from this stage on the psalmist is consistently relating to God as a ‘Thou’.35 The psalmist’s stay in the sanctuary, in the presence of God, played a signififcant role in his struggle to fifnd an answer to the problem ofhow it could be that the blessings, which should be reserved for the pure of heart, had become the portion of the wicked instead. Having come into the premises of the sanctuary of God, the psalmist describes what happens as follows: “I discerned their end”, in other words, the end of the wicked. to discern’, is commonly used in the wisdom literature in the‘ , ניב The verb , עדי meaning of observe or perceive (Prov 7:7). It is often used as parallel to ‘to know’ (Job 15:9, Prov 1:2), thus expressing the meaning ‘to understand’. posterity, end’, seems to denote the fifnal outcome of the‘ , תירחא The noun lives of the wicked. Verses 18–20 are devoted to a further elaboration of what this end consists of, and in verse 27 their fate is summed up. The Fate of the Wicked surely’, of the psalm. While‘ , ךא Verse 18 is introduced by the third and fifnal the fifrst affifrmation of the psalmist (v. 1) concerned God’s action towardsthe pure of hearts, here, contrastively, it focuses on his acts towards the wicked. smooth’, is used concretely about smooth surface, for‘ , קלח The noun example skin (Gen 27:16), but can also be used fifguratively as flfattering (Ps 12:3). Here it probable conveys the meaning of slippery places. I think this is a reasonable interpretation in light of the image of falling in the next clause. desolation’. The noun is used only fifve times in OT, and only here‘ , האושׁמ and in Ps 74:3 in plural. In Job it is used twice about land, which is described as waste and desolate. In Zeph 1:15 it is used about the day of the Lord, a day

34 James Luther Mays, Psalms, ed. James Luther Mays, Interpretation: A Bible Commen- tary for Teaching and Preaching (Louisville: John Knox Press, 1994). 243. 35 This is also noted by Crenshaw, who says that “a subtle change takes place in this verse. The psalmist directs these remarks to God rather than to human beings, who have so far been the target of speech”. Crenshaw, A Whirlpool of Torment: Israelite Traditions of God as an Oppressive Presence. 105–106. interpreting psalm 73 245 of ruin and devastation. In Ps 74:3 is it used in the meaning or ruins, i.e. the ruins of sanctuary. Thus this image evokes a picture of someone who falls into desolation, or ruin, there is nothing more for him/her there. Verse 19 continues the description of the end of the wicked. They will to’, and‘ ,ל to waste’. The phrase consists of the preposition‘ , המשׁל become desolation, waste’. Thirty out of forty times when the noun‘ , המשׁ the noun is used, it is used in this combination. More than half of the occurrences are in Jeremiah, mainly to describe the fate of the land and Jerusalem (Jer 25:11, 18), but it can also be used about waste of persons. The second use of the noun is to convey the meaning of being an object of horror for other (Jer 42:18). Two meanings thus offer themselves here, one, how they become to waste, i.e. are destroyed, and two, how they become an object of horror. ,to come to an end’, is used only six times in the OT‘ , ףוס The verb three of them in hiphil with God as a subject, conveying to make an end of, consume (Jer 8:13, Zeph 1:2, 3). Two are in imperfect qal, that is, in Esth 9:28 about commemoration of days, that it shall never cease, and in Isa 66:17 about idolatries that they shall come to and end. Only here one fifnds perfect qal, but probably in the meaning that they shall cometo an end. The next verb also has the meaning of being complete or being fifnished, thus strengthening the point, that the wicked will really cometo by terror’. The noun is not‘ , ההלב and end, be consumed. This will happen a very common word, but seems to express terrible events, destruction and calamity (Job 27:20, 30:15). The contrast between this and verse 12 is striking. In addition, there is a contrast to the psalmist. Whereas the psalmist nearly slipped (v. 2), it is the wicked who will inevitably fall. Further, there is a marked contrast between the well-being and ease presented in verses 3 and 12 and the ruin and terror which are depicted here. Finally, they, who mocked God for not knowing, are now depicted as bad dream in God’s image (v. 20). behold’, makes a formal‘ , הנה .Verse 27 concludes the fate of the wicked reference back to verse 12, where their good fortune is highlighted. Thus once again, a contrast is drawn between the good fortune they have experienced and how everything in the end will turn out for them. In short, verse 27 stresses that those who distanced themselves, or turned away from ,will perish ,( הנז God (here an expression from the worship of idols are used they “fifnd themselves on a path without a goal, or on a road that leadsinto abyss (1:6).”36

36 Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100. 236. 246 chapter seven

The Psalmist From verses 23 through 26, and in the fifnal conclusion (v. 28), the psalmist describes his new-won insight into his own situation. Verses 23–24. Verse 23 is introduced by the same expression as verse 2, but as for me’. In verse 2 the expression signalled that the‘ , ינאו namely psalmist’s experience of suffering, and his observation of the shalom of the wicked, stood in contrast to the assertion of God’s goodness towards the pure of heart (v. 1). But here it signals the experience and new-won insight of the psalmist that he, in contrast to the wicked, belongs to God.37 This new insight is further expressed through the statement in verse 23a but as for me, I am always with you’. What is implied in this‘ , ךמעדימתינאו assertion is further elaborated on in three sentences (vv. 23b–24), which all have God as the active subject, indicating that: “The speaker is recipient, not agent. Life with God is gift, not achievement.”38 you have grasped my right hand’. In the ancient‘ , ינימי־דיבתזחא ,First Near East the king was described as being led by the deity by his right hand, indicating the king’s high position, his closeness to God, and his being a governor on behalf of God. In the Old Testament, this motif is also present; God takes Cyrus, the Persian king, by his right hand (Isa 45:1), expressing that Cyrus is on a God-led mission. Further, the motif is also used in connection with the servant Israel (Isa 41:14; 42:6), not only indicating that the servant is a representative of God’s mission, but also indicating communion with God. When this expression is used in the psalm it thus seems to emphasise communion between the psalmist and God, and that God leads the psalmist (Pss 16:8; 139:10).39 That the psalmist is being led by God, is emphasised in the second , ינחנתךתצעב ,elaboration to the statement ‘I am always with you’, namely guide’, is commonly used in‘ , החנ by your counsel you guide me.’ The verb‘ the Psalms, mainly with God as subject. He guides his people on the path of righteousness (Ps 23:3), and he leads them in the desert (Pss 77:21 [ET 77:20]; 78:14). It is further the prayer of the community, or the individual, that they may be lead by God (Pss 27:11; 31:4; 61:3 [ET 61:2]). Here in Ps 73:24, the psalmist expresses his assurance that he is in fact led by God. Further, it is

37 Kraus, Psalms 60–150: A Continental Commentary. 90. 38 Brueggemann, The Message of the Psalms: A Theological Commentary. 120. 39 See Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100. 233, Kraus, Psalms 60–150: A Continental Commentary. 90. interpreting psalm 73 247 which is an assurance of ,( הצע ) added that God is guiding him by his counsel being led on the right way. There are many who counsels, even the wicked (Ps 1:1), but as it emphasised in Prov 19:21, it is “the counsel of the Lord which will stand” (cf. Job 12:13). The third elaboration on the meaning and implications of the assertion ‘I a sentence I have translated ‘and , ינחקתדובכרחאו :am always with you’, is afterward, to glory you will receive me.’ How to translate and understand this sentence is, however, highly disputed. I will not go into a detailed discussion of all the different suggestions offered in the scholarly literature, but only present how I understand the statement.40 Three questions are raised in connection with how to interpret the state- They are as follows (as formulated by Tate):41 . ינחקתדובכרחאו ment ?’and afterward‘ , רחאו What is the meaning of .1 ?’take or receive‘ , חקל What is the meaning of .2 ?’glory‘ , דובכ What is the meaning of .3 First, I understand ‘afterward’ as an adverb, rather than as a preposition. I further agree with Crenshaw, who argues that in light of verse 26—which ,—( םלועל ) stresses that God will be the psalmist’s rock and a portion forever ‘afterward’ probably points beyond death.42 Second, I think that the verb is used in the meaning ‘take up, to receive’ (Gen 5:24), indicating that חקל glory’ to‘ , דובכ God will take him to himself. Finally, I understand the term indicate that the psalmist will be received into the realm of God. I think it is diffifcult to ascertain what this means in more detail, but the mainpoint conveyed is that the psalmist will never be separated from God. Verses 25–26. In verses 23–24 the focus was on what is implied in the assertion that the psalmist is always with God. In verses 25–26 there is a slight change of focus to what God, and nearness to God, means for the psalmist. God is: – The only thing that really matters to the psalmist, verse 25 – The rock of the psalmist’s heart, verse 26b – The portion of the psalmist, verse 26b

40 For a discussion of different suggestions to the understanding of this verse, see Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100. 233–235. 41 Tate, Psalms 51–100. 230. 42 Crenshaw, A Whirlpool of Torment: Israelite Traditions of God as an Oppressive Presence. 71. 248 chapter seven

In verse 25 the psalmist states that there is nothing that is more important to him than God. This is expressed through a rhetorical question (“who is for me in heaven?”) and the statement that being with God, the psalmist does ,in anything else on earth. The merism heaven and earth ( ץפח ) not delight contributes to the strong force of this statement.43 In verse 26, the psalmist emphasises that God’s presence endures, even though both heart and flfesh fail. In this verse the psalmist describes Godas rock’, is a common metaphor‘ , רוצ his heart’s rock and his portion. The term for God in the book of Psalms (Pss 18:3; 19:15 [ET 19:14]; 62:2), and emphasises ,’portion‘ , קלח his endurance, reliability, protection and strength.44 The term may be understood on the background of the portion of the Levi tribe. While the other tribes got a share of the land as their portion, God is said to be the portion of the Levites (Deut 10:9). In a similar way, the psalmist’s portion is the nearness of God.45 Verse 28. Verse 28 sums up the main message of the psalm with regard but as for me’ of the‘ , ינאו to the psalmist. It is introduced by the third psalm, which points back to verses 1–2, where ‘but as for me’ introduces the psalmists questioning of God’s goodness towards the pure of heart. Here, it introduces the psalmist’s new understanding of what is meant by the expression that God is good towards the pure of heart. What the psalmist has newly perceived is namely that nearness to God is the good, which the righteous receive. Von Rad, and others with him, thinks that the solution of the psalm affifrms the traditional teaching of a correspondence between act andcon- sequence. He argues that: There was the old question of the correlation between a man’s act and its consequence which demanded, if not exactly a new response, then at least a modififed one. The psalms [including Ps 73] gave such a response that,inthe face of confusing experiences, they taught men, in a more decisive fashion than had hitherto been the case, to look at the end of God’s ways with a man. To this extent then, by means of the modififcation of a no longer entirely suffifcient perception, they strengthened anew faith in the divine order, while they succeeded in propping up the sphere of order in the face of attack.46

43 Cf. Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100. 235. 44 Cf. Tate, Psalms 51–100. 230. 45 Cf. Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100. 235–236. Crenshaw, A Whirlpool of Torment: Israelite Traditions of God as an Oppressive Presence. 108. 46 Gerhard Von Rad, Wisdom in Israel, trans. James D. Martin (London: SCM Press Ltd., interpreting psalm 73 249

In view of the interpretation I have given above, I disagree with him on this. I think Psalm 73 is taking the discussion one step further, and offers a much more radical solution to the psalmist’s suffering than was the case in the more traditional wisdom thinking. In my opinion, the psalm stresses that, the relationship to God is the ultimate good which the psalmist receives. In this light, the premise of the psalm receives a new meaning. When stating that “God is good to Israel, to those of pure heart”, good is no longer understood as material goods and prosperity, but as nearness to God, community with God. In other words, true shalom is nearness to God. “The goodness of God is the self of God. God is good to the pure in heart precisely in being their God.”47 When the psalmist has ascertained this fact, he adds two more points, namely, that (1) he has put his refuge in God, and (2) he will recount God’s works. First, what is meant when the psalmist states that he has put his refuge in refuge’, is used frequently about God in the book of‘ , הסחמ God? The term Psalms. To state that ‘God is my refuge’ seems to be a common expression of trust in God (Pss 14:6; 46:1; 62:9 [ET 62:8], 91:2).48 Hence, in the conclusion to the psalm, the psalmist declares his trust in Yahweh. Where he earlier was about to fall, where he was tempted to depart from the way of Yahweh, he now underlines his trust in God. Second, on the basis of his new-won understanding and trust, the psalmist ends the psalm by stating that he will recount all God’s work. In contrast to verse 15, where he felt that he had nothing to recount, now he wish to tell about what God has done to him.

The Reactions of the Psalmist Verses 2–3 In these two verses the psalmist is talking in fifrst person about himself. , ינאו There is a synonymous parallel between the two clauses in verse 2, and ‘but as for me’, is placed in the beginning of the verse and is thus emphasised.

1972). 206. So also Fredrik Lindström, “Theodicy in The Psalms,” in Theodicy in the World of the Bible, eds. Antti Laato and Johannes C. de Moor (Leiden: Brill, 2003). 296. 47 Mays, Psalms. 243–244. 48 See Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2: A Commentary on Psalms 51–100. 236, note 4. J.F.D. Creach, Yahweh as refuge and the editing of the Hebrew Psalter, eds. D.J.A. Clines and P.R. Davies, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series, vol. 217 (Sheffifeld: Sheffifeld Academic Press, 1996). 44. 250 chapter seven because’, and describes the reasons for‘ , יכ Verse 3 is linked to verse 2 with the reactions of the psalmist related in verse 2. Hence, I will comment on verse 3 fifrst. envied’, the boastful, and‘ , אנק In verse 3, the psalmist states that he ? אנק of the wicked. What is the meaning of ( םולשׁ ) saw’, the peace‘ , האר It is mainly used in the meaning of envy something which belongs to someone else, for example possessions or children (Gen 26:16; 30:10). What is interesting to our context is that in Proverbs the verb is used four times and all occurrences is a warning against being envious of the wicked (Prov 3:31; 23:17; 24:1; 24:19). This is also the case in Ps 37:1. In addition, both in Prov 3:31 and 24:1 this warning is followed up by the admonition to not choose the ways of the wicked, or desire to be with them. As I read the psalmist in verse 2–3, he is admitting that this is what almost happened to him; he envied the wicked and desired their ways (see v. 15). Due to the parallelism see’, might convey the‘ , האר envy’, Tate suggests that the verb‘ , אנק with meaning of watching with desire, in other words: covet.49 I think that he might have a point, but, according to my understanding, the word also expresses the meaning of observation. The psalmist observed and envied the wicked. Because of his observation and envy, he had a diffifcult time. The psalmist’s situation is described in two parallel clauses. The fifrst my feet almost stumbled’, while the second‘ , ילגריוטנטעמכ :clause states my steps nearly slipped’. Both the‘ , ירשׁאהכפשׁןיאכ :clause goes as follows word feet and step combined with words for slipping or stumbling evokes the picture of someone walking on a way and being in the process of falling. stumble’, can also mean to depart, or turn away. In Job 23:11‘ , הטנ The verb and Ps 44:19, for example, it is used to express that a person has not turned away from the way of God. Having this in mind, I think that a probable interpretation of verse 2 is that the psalmist, who was among those of pure heart, was about to fall away from, or depart from the way of the righteous, in favour of the way of the wicked.50 Verses 13–16 Further, in verse 13–16 we are back to the psalmist description of his reactions. After having described the situation of the wicked in detail, his response in verse 13 is: “Surely, in vain I kept my heart clean, and washed my hands in innocence.” The psalmist seems to feel being a faithful fol- lower of God, on the way of righteousness, has been in vain. There is

49 Tate, Psalms 51–100. 228. 50 So also Kraus, Psalms 60–150: A Continental Commentary. 87. interpreting psalm 73 251 no reward for him, just suffering (verse 14), in sharp contrast to the prospering of the wicked. In verse 15, the fifrst line let us implicitly understand that he has considered recounting in public his conclusion so far, namely that it has all been in vain. The reason why he did not do so, however, was his sense of responsibility for the community. He felt that by relating what he thought, he would have acted treacherously to the children of God. But even though he decided not to make public his thought, his problem did no go away. Verse 16 emphasises that the psalmist made a serious attempt to under- In .( תעד ) stand what he saw and experienced; he searched for knowledge other words he tried to fifnd a way to understand his problem, but he could ,him. That the wicked ( למע ) not fifnd a solution to it. It continued to trouble v. 5), only made the contrast , למע ) on the other hand, was spared trouble between the situation of the psalmist and the wicked even more pointed. Verses 21–22 In these verses, we have come to the time after the turning point of the psalm in verse 17. Here the psalmist is relating and evaluating his own reactions in the period before he went into the sanctuary. Hence, these verses are to some extent also fiflling out the picture of verses 2–3 and 13–16. In verse 21 the psalmist describes his situation as follows: His heart was can ( הילכ ) and kidney ( בל ) embittered and his kidney pierced. Both heart express the inner, hidden aspects of human, they are the seats of feelings and perceptions, and may contain a person’s orientation of life (Pss 16:7; 7:10 means to ‘be leavened’, and is used about dough , ץמח ET 7:9]). The verb] (Exod 12:34). In this verse it is, as the only place in the OT, used in hitpael ,’to sharpen‘ , ןנשׁ imperfect, and probably means to be ‘embittered’. The verb is here (alone in OT) used in hipolel imperfect, and conveys the idea of being pierced. Hence, the verse expresses the bitterness and pain the psalmist experienced in the innermost part of his being. In verse 22 the psalmist confesses that when he was bitter and in deep agony, he behaved like a brute and an animal towards God. The word fool’, (Pss 49:11‘ , ליסכ means stupid or brutish. It is used as a synonym to רעב [ET 49:10]; 92:7 [ET 92:6]; 94:8), and is the opposite of being wise (Ps 49:11 [ET 49:10]). The additional statement of the psalmist in verse 22a, namely that he had no knowledge, underlines the point he is making, namely that he has appeared as a fool. (Ps 92:7 [ET 92:6). In the second line of the verse, 22b, he very much states the same thing, here stating that he has been like see for example Job 18:3, where Job is blamed for regarding ,( המהב ) a beast the friends as cattle and stupid. 252 chapter seven

Summary The basic premise of the psalm is the understanding that by belonging to those of good heart, i.e. to be among the righteous, one’s life ought to be characterised by shalom. With this premise as a starting point, the psalm, from the perspective of the speaker in the text, raises the problem of why the righteous suffer, while the wicked experience shalom. In verses 1–16, the situation of the wicked and the psalmist is elaborated on. In verse 17, a turning point occurs in the psalmist’s interpretation and understanding of the problem. From that point on, he views the premise of the psalm in a new light. What he is made to understand is that the good which is the portion of the righteous, is a relation to God; is communion with God. The portion of the wicked however, is that they, who turned away from God, will perish away from his presence. When the psalmist describes his thought and feelings in the psalm, he does so retrospectively. He relates to his audience that he almost slipped away from the way of the righteous (v. 2), because he envied the wicked and desired what they had (v. 3), something which he had observed in detail (vv. 4–12). Based on the observation of the wellbeing of the wicked, and his own experience of suffering (14, 16), the psalmist drew the conclusion that he had followed the path of righteousness in vain (v. 13). He did not take the last step, however, that is, denouncing his former beliefs and announcing it publicly (v. 15). He thus kept his pain to himself and tried by all his might to understand what he saw and experienced within the framework of his tradition, but was not successful (v. 16). Then, in the temple, something happened which gave him new understanding. Reflfecting on his former thinking from the vantage point of his new knowledge, he evaluates himself as having been a fool (vv. 21–22).

Interpreting Psalm 73 in Response to Thai Buddhist Interpretations

In this section the following three issues will be discussed as a response to the Thai Buddhist interpretations: First, the problem of the psalm. Second, how the psalmist’s reaction to, or way of coping with his situation can be interpreted and understood. Finally, the question of what trust and refuge is. interpreting psalm 73 253

Why Do the Good Suffer, While the Wicked Prosper? The situation related in the psalm—the prospering of the wicked, and the suffering of the good—apparently conflficts with the premise of both the psalm and Thai Buddhist understanding, namely that there is a connection between moral responsibility and destiny. An interpretation of Psalm 73 in dialogue with, or as a response to Thai Buddhists must thus address the question how to explain the shared experience of incoherence between act and consequence in light of this commonly accepted premise. When defifning the question of the psalm more precisely, many of the interviewees framed it as a question of theodicy. That is, how to understand the suffering of the psalmist in light of the contention that God is good toward the pure of hearts? This was compared to the question of how to understand the incoherence between act and consequence in light of Buddhist teaching.51 In other words, the question must be asked whether, in light of the psalms discussion, the suffering of the good and the fortune of the wicked can be explained within the frames of traditional religious doctrine in a way which also upheld the understanding of God’s goodness. That is, from the point of view of the wisdom thinking, within the understanding of a created order governed by God. From the point of view of the Thai Buddhists interviewed the question is if this problem can be answered within the framework of the teaching of kamma. From the point of view of Old Testament scholarship, we have already seen that some scholars argue that Psalm 73 confifrms the traditional wisdom understanding of a correspondence between act and consequence.52 Other scholars—and I am among those, emphasise that the resolution

51 In the further discussion, when I refer to ‘the problem of theodicy’ it is applied not only to the attempts to understand God’ justice and goodness in light of human suffering, but in a more general way to the question of how to explain human suffering or fortune. Cf. Obeysekere who defifnes theodicy as follows: “When a religion fails logically to explain human suffering or fortune in terms of its system or belief, we can say that a theodicy exists.” Gananath Obeysekere, “Theodicy, Sin and Salvation in a Sociology of Buddhism,” in Dialectic in Practical Religion, ed. E.R. Leach, Cambridge Papers in Social Anthropology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968). Instead of ‘a theodicy’, I prefer to say ‘a problem of theodicy’, as I rather reserve the term theodicy to the solutions offered to the problem of suffering. Cf. also Antti Laato and Johannes C. de Moor, “Introduction,” in Theodicy in the World of the Bible, eds. Antti Laato and Johannes C. de Moor (Leiden: Brill, 2003). xiii. 52 Von Rad, Wisdom in Israel. 206. Cf. also Lindström, who argues that: “Pss 73 and 37 presuppose the existence of a divine and perceptible good world order—and support that belief. The individual cannot at every moment see the conclusion of everybody’s way of life, but can nevertheless be confifdent that God’s salvation and judgment will fifnally be revealed to humans.” Lindström, “Theodicy in The Psalms.” 296. 254 chapter seven of the psalm goes beyond the traditional understanding of the relation between act and consequence. I will come back to this understanding below. The interviewees all read the text as affifrming the central premise ofa correlation between act and consequence ensured by God. But they differed in their conception of how this correlation would come about. Some interpreted the role of God as similar to that of the law of kamma, while others understood God as a free agent. Either way they understood the text to affifrm that there is a correlation between act and consequence. In order to answer the question of how the problem of the Psalm can be solved, most of the interviewees referred to the teaching of kamma. By and large, they did not fifnd the premise of the corresponding relation between act and consequence to be threatened by the experience and situation related in the psalm. The fortune of the wicked and the suffering of the good are both related to their former acts (i.e. kamma) and thus come as the result of their own former doings. Thus both the wicked and the psalmist are seen as morally responsible for their own destiny. From this point of view the statement of Weber rings true: “Karma doctrine transformed the world into a strictly rational, ethically-determined cosmos; it represents the most consistent theodicy ever produced by history.”53 It is however, also in the interviews, opened up for the understanding that there might not always be a clear-cut connection between deeds and destiny. Other factors, like other natural laws, social conditions, or just plain luck were mentioned as possible explanations. In other words, for Thai Buddhists there is not only one consistent explanation to this problem.54 In any case, it might be argued that there are many resources which Thai Buddhists may draw on in answering this question, and it was only a couple of the interviewees who expressed that they felt really troubled by the problem. From the perspective of most of the Thai interviewees, both the explanation of and the solution to the psalmist’s problem lie within himself. Like Job’s friends (in the book of Job) some of the interviewees consequently argued that the psalmist should not complain, but rather scrutinize himself in order to fifnd out where he had done wrong. In my opinion, however, the psalm does

53 Max Weber, Hans H. Gerth, and Don Martindale, The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1992). 121. 54 Cf. Keyes, who argues that Weber’s theory does not fift with the actual belief concerning kamma in Southeast Asia. Charles F. Keyes, “Introduction: The Study of Popular Ideas of Karma,” in Karma: An Anthropological Inquiry, eds. Charles F. Keyes and E. Valentine Daniel (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1983). 15. interpreting psalm 73 255 not try to explain why the psalmist suffered. There are for example no hints at all that the psalmist is blamed for his own suffering. The focus in the psalm is not on giving a theoretical answer to the problem of theodicy. I would argue that the answer in the psalm is much more radical than was recognized by the interviewees. The starting point of the psalmist was that he believed in accordance with the tradition, namely that the wicked should meet with hardship and the good and righteous (pure of heart) be blessed with prosperity. But what he is made to understand is that the goods that the righteous receive do not consist of benefifts such as health, riches and good standing in the community, but of a relationship with God, communion with God. In contrast the wicked, they fade off from God, they are exempted from the closeness or the relation which is the portion of those with pure hearts. Given this more radical solution to the psalmist’s problem, I would suggest that in a further dialogue with Buddhists over this text one should consider interpreting it within the ‘higher teaching’ of Buddhism, where the ultimate goal is not better rebirth, but enlightenment (Nibbana); an ultimate stage where suffering in not an experienced reality anymore.

How to Evaluate the Psalmist’s Question? The psalmist’s question and the way he described his situation evoked different reactions in the readers (i.e. the interviewees) of the text. In this section I will discuss brieflfy how the text can be interpreted in response to the two contrasting reactions; critique and identififcation.

Critique One of the main contentions raised in the interviews was that the psalmist’s question and complaint reveal that he lacks a basic trust in God, or is wanting in understanding.55 Due to what he observes and experiences he appears to have lost faith in God’s justice or goodness. Hence, some of the interviewees were quite critical in their remarks on the psalmist, claiming that he appears as a person without faith and understanding,56 and without integrity.57

55 Cf. for example Dr. Saichai, (Bangkok, 28. July 2005), Dr. Somsri, (Bangkok, 19. Septem- ber 2005), Mrs. Chanpen, (Bangkok, 24. August 2005), Mr. Chakkri, (Bangkok, 23. August 2005), Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak, (Bangkok, 1. September 2005). 56 Cf. for example Dr. Somsri. 57 Cf. especially Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak, who argued that the psalmist could not 256 chapter seven

The critique of the psalmist was, to a certain extent, informed by the psalmist’s own description of what happened before the temple incident, and the interviewees understanding that a believer in God is obliged to trust him in all situations. In addition, their own Buddhist understanding of to behave or respond in such a situation as related in the Psalm was crucial to the reactions to the psalmist’s question and complaint. From the interviewees point of view, the psalmist should have known that both his and the situation of the wicked were a result of their own doing, but that their present acts, either good or bad, would eventually bear fruit, according to the law of kamma. Thus the prescribed reaction for the psalmist is to stay calm and continue doing good. His questioning reveals that he does not trust in, or understand the law of kamma and its functioning. When the psalmist describes his thought and feelings in the psalm, he does so in retrospect. He relates to his audience that he almost slipped away from the way of the righteous (v. 2), because he saw the blessings the wicked received (v. 3, cf. vv. 4–12, where the psalmist elaborates on the fortune of the wicked). Based on the observation of the wellbeing of the wicked, and his own experience of suffering (vv. 13–16), the psalmist drew the conclusion that he had followed the path of righteousness in vain (v. 13). This is a description of an existential crisis where the psalmist fifnds himself at his wit’s end, totally exhausted, without being able to fifnd any rational, logical or theological answer to his problem within the framework he operated. It looks like he was on the verge of denouncing his former beliefs and announcing it publicly (v. 15). He did not do this, however, and it looks like it was his sense of responsibility to the tradition and the community, which at this crucial point hold him back from taking this radical step. He thus kept his pain to himself and tried by all his might to understand within the framework of his tradition, what he saw and experienced, but he was not successful (v. 16). Then, in the temple, something happened which gave him new understanding. Reflfecting on his former thinking from the vantage point of his new knowledge, he evaluates himself as have been a fool, and lacking in trust (vv. 21–22). Based on this reading of the psalm, it could be argued that there is a convergence between the psalmist’s own evaluation and the critique raised by some of the interviewees. But, does this means that the psalmist’s way

be as good as he claimed, in light of what he experiences and the way he expresses himself in the Psalm. In their critique these two monks form an interesting parallel to Job’s friends in the book of Job. interpreting psalm 73 257 of reacting to his situation is illegitimate? Further, does his way of reacting justify a questioning of his integrity or an evaluation of him as lacking in faith? Before turning to address these questions, I will brieflfy address another response to the psalmist’s question, namely identififcation.

Identififcation As we have seen, many of the interviewees argued that the situation described in the Psalm were familiar to them, it is a situation commonly seen; wicked people have success, while good people meet with hardship. One of the interviewees did not only describe the situation as a common one, but said that this is exactly how she herself experiences life. Her whole life she has tried to be a good person, but she is still as poor as she came into this world, while she has met a lot of corrupt and arrogant people, who become richer and richer day by day. Knowing that this is probably due to old kamma, she still cannot stop asking, why is it like this?58 She thus felt that the psalmist described both her feelings and situation in a way she could totally identify with. As the psalmist she felt that the traditional explanation of how things should be did not fift with her situation and she asked; what could be my refuge? As one who does not meet her situation in calm acceptance and trust in the law of kamma, Mrs. Aporn is also hit by the critique related above, but is her reaction, like the psalmist’s illegitimate from a Thai Buddhist point of view, or from the point of view of the Psalm?

From Trust to Insight Starting with the psalmist it could be argued that his reaction to his experience, far from being an expression of lack of faith, is an expression of bold faith and deep personal integrity. I agree with the interpretation of Cren- shaw: The psalmist is described as a true child of faith, because he refused to deny the fundamental tenets passed on from one generation to another, but groped in the darkness for a means of affifrming traditional views, while simultaneously raising the discussion to another level.59

58 Mrs. Aporn, (Bangkok, 25. July 2005). Cf. also Mr. Chakkri, he explained that he was sometimes struck by the feeling that there is no answer to why some people suddenly die or experience bad things. 59 Crenshaw, A Whirlpool of Torment: Israelite Traditions of God as an Oppressive Presence. 98–99. 258 chapter seven

Therefore, I think that the way of the psalmist can be described though that which Brueggemann in his theological commentary on the Psalm calls “two moves of faith”: First, a move out of a settled orientation into a season of disorientation. It constitutes a dismantling of old, known world and a relinguishment of safe, reliable confifdence in God’s good creation. Second, a move from a contextof disorientation to a new orientation, surprised by a new gift from God, a new coherence made present to us just when we thought all was lost.60 Using this framework on Psalm 73 it could be said that the psalmist went from a settled orientation (“Surely, God is good to Israel, those of pure heart,” v. 1), through disorientation (“But as for me …” vv. 2–3. “Surely, in vain I kept my heart clean …” v. 13), and to new orientation (“But as for me, nearness to God is good,” v. 28). The question is then if we look at the psalmist’s way in the psalm from this perspective whether we could compare this to the Buddhist way to insight, and as a consequence enable a more positive view of the psalmist reactions to his experience and his way to a renewed understanding. According to Payutto, the Buddhist way to insight may brieflfy be described as follows: All training begins with persons having trust (saddha) in some part of the teaching as their starting point, such as trust in the teachings of kamma. On the basis of this trust, the teaching is put into practice, and as one fifnds it to work, trust is strengthened and confifdence growing. As a consequence, one continues to practice with even stronger commit- ment, and experience an even deeper understanding of the truth of the teachings. Gradually this leads to an increased acceptance of the teachings, and eventually to a point where the inner logic of it is realised. This level is called “proper understanding” (sammaditthi). But this is not the fifnal point, Payutto explains: When this understanding increases and gradually becomes clearer—through practice and by comparing teachings with actual experience—knowledge and insight become more certain. At this point, we can say that wisdom has reached the level of proper knowledge or insight (sammanana), a level beyond mere faith and beyond mere reason and logic. This is then the end of the road, the attainment of meaning—that is, the freedom of fifnal liberation that is called sammavimutti.61

60 Brueggemann, The Message of the Psalms: A Theological Commentary. 20–21. 61 Phra Prayudh Payutto, Buddhadhamma: Natural Laws and Values for Life, trans. Grant A. Olson (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1995). 199. cf. also Khantipalo interpreting psalm 73 259

It is important to note the stress put on trying out faith assertions in practice. If it does not work in practice, then there might be good reasons to question these basic faith assertions.62 I think that when the way of the psalmist is looked at from the vantage point of the Buddhist way from trust to insight, the psalmist stands forth as a good example of one who honestly tries to fifnd meaning in what he experiences, instead of blindly accepting what is handed down in the tradition. As a result he got a refocused faith, a new won insight.63 Looking at the psalmist and his questioning in this way it might be possible to argue that the psalmist’s question is legitimate both within the framework of the psalm and Buddhism. Another point which could be noted is that in the Buddhists way as it is described above, the phase of disorientation has not been addressed. A further point for discussion could be how one, within the Buddhist search for fifrm faith and wisdom could relate to the phase of disorientation asa necessary and legitimate phase in the search for knowledge.

Trust and Refuge The question of how to understand the teachings of trust and refuge in the text as compared to a Buddhist understanding was an issue of importance to the interviewees. The interviewees argued that after the psalmist had experienced his turning point in the temple he regained his trust in God, and understood that God would secure that both he and the wicked would receive the appropriate consequences of their acts. This was a great comfort to him and he confessed that from now on he would take refuge in God, that is, to trust that God would allocate justice to the good and the wicked. Many of the interviewees continued to argue that this could to a certain extent be compared to trusting in the law of kamma. Trust in the law of kamma may serve as a comfort in a situation like the one in the psalm. When one meets with suffering in one’s own life, and further observes that those who do wicked have success, one might comfort oneself in the trust

Bhikkhu, Buddhism Explained: An Introduction to the Teachings of the Lord Buddha with Reference to the Belief in and the Practice of those Teaching and their realization (Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 1994). 1–2. 62 “Buddha suggested that teachings not validated by personal experience were of little value.” Damien Keown, Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996). 6. 63 Cf. Brueggemann, The Message of the Psalms: A Theological Commentary. 119–120. 260 chapter seven that all acts have their own inherent consequences. Both the good and the wicked will experience the corresponding good and bad results of their acts. Furthermore the teaching of kamma might also serve as a comfort in the sense that it relieves one from speculating about the causes of suffering and hardship. It can be ascribed to one’s own doing in the past. As it is in the past, nothing can be done about it, but the present is now yours to make merit and prepare for a better future. But, among those interviewees who argued that God is different from the law of kamma, in which I agree, it was also pointed out that there is a signififcant difference between these two types of trust. Trusting in thelawof kamma is eventually to trust in oneself, whereas to trust in God is to trust in someone outside oneself. Thus, this group of interviewees understood the text’s teaching of God as a refuge to differ from the Buddhist teaching. To take refuge in the Triple Gem (Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha), is not to rely on someone else, but show the intention to practice according to the Buddhist teaching in order to eventually reach the fifnal goal of Nibbana. In other words it means to rely on oneself in order to fifrst secure better rebirths, and eventually Nibbana. To rely on God might in this perspective be viewed as a preliminary phase before one is strong or wise enough to rely on oneself. In my opinion, there is a need to go deeper into the issue of trust in God when interpreting Psalm 73 in a response to the Thai Buddhist interpretations. For the psalmist trust and refuge in God was not fifrst and foremost a belief that God would punish the wicked and reward the good. The language of trust which the last part of the psalm is steeped in is rather expressing the close relationship the psalmist has to God. It is this relationship—the experience that God has taken his hand—that informs his way of speaking. Trust in God is an expression of communion with God, not an expectation that God will reward or punish the good and the wicked.

Intermediate Conclusion

In this chapter I have discussed how Psalm 73 can be interpreted in light of, and as a response to Thai Buddhist interpretations and understandings of the text and its themes. Taking as my point of departure the Thai Buddhist understandings of what the main themes of the text were, I asked the following three main questions to the text: First, what is the problem of the psalm, and what premise(s) is it based on? Second, does the psalm give an answer or offer a solution to the problem raised in the text? If it does, what kinds of interpreting psalm 73 261 answers/solutions are offered? Third, how are the reactions of the psalmist related in the text, and how are they to be interpreted? Based upon the Thai Buddhist interpretations of Psalm 73, and the discussion of how the three questions outlined above could be answered in light of an interpretation of the text in textual context, I proceeded to discuss how the text could be interpreted in response to Thai Buddhist interpretations. Three main problems were discussed. First, how is the problem of lack of coherence between act and consequence in the text to be understood? Sec- ond, how can one understand the issues of trust and refuge? Third, how is the question of the psalmist to be evaluated? The fifrst theme discussed was how to understand the problem of the experienced lack of correlation between act and consequence exposed in the text. Is there an answer to this problem in the text, and how can this answer be compared to how the interviewees themselves explained the situation? As we have seen, the interviewees did fifnd the text to offer, if not an explanation to the psalmist’s situation, then at least a solution to his problem. Like some Old Testament scholars, they argued that the psalm confifrms the (traditional wisdom) understanding of a correspondence between act and consequence. All acts will be met with their corresponding results, but it might take some time before they are realised, hence one must look at the situation from the perspective of what in the end will be the result for the wicked and good. This solution the interviewees compared to the Buddhist belief in the law of kamma that eventually, either now or later, all acts will have corresponding consequences. Concerning how to explain the present situation of the psalmist and the wicked, as it is described in the psalm, the interviewees did not fifnd the psalm to offer a concrete answer. In explaining the question from their own point of view, however, the interviewees had many resources to draw on, but the main explanation offered was that situations like the one described in the psalm is due to old kamma, that is, due to acts done either earlier in this life, or in a previous life. I agree with the interviewees that the text does not seem to give a direct answer to the question of why the psalmist suffers or the wicked prosper. There is, for example, neither any indication in the psalm that the psalmist is wrong in understanding himself as belonging to those of pure hearts, nor that the wicked are not as bad as the psalmist describes them. I further agree with the interviewees that the psalm offers a solution to the psalmist’s problem, but I regard the solution as much more radical than were recognized by the interviewees. As I see it, the starting point of the psalmist was that he believed in accordance with the tradition, 262 chapter seven namely that the wicked should meet with hardship and the good and righteous (pure of heart) be blessed with prosperity. But what he was made to understand is that the goods that the righteous receive do not consist of benefifts such as health, riches, and good standing in community butofa relationship with God. In contrast, the wicked are exempted from this close relation with God. In light of this interpretation, I think that in a further dialogue with Buddhists over this text, it might be a fruitful approach to explore whether this text could be interpreted as relating to the “higher teaching” of Buddhism, where the ultimate goal is not a better rebirth, but enlightenment (Nibbana). Second, the problem was discussed of how to understand the teachings of trust and refuge in the text as compared to the interviewees own understanding. According to many of interviewees, the psalmist, by his way of questioning his situation, showed a lack of trust in God. But they further read the psalm as stating that after the psalmist had experienced his turning point in the temple he regained this trust in God, and understood that God would secure that both he and the wicked would receive the appropriate consequences of their acts. As a consequence, the interviewees argued, the psalmist confessed that from now on he would take refuge in God, that is, rely completely on him, to allocate justice both to the good and the wicked. On this basis, those interviewees who compared God to the law of kamma proceeded to argue that this could to a certain extent be compared to trusting in the law of kamma. That is, to trust and take comfort in the understanding that all acts have their own inherent consequences. But another group of interviewees, who argued that God is different from the law of kamma, pointed out that there is a signififcant difference between these two types of trust. To trust in God is to rely on someone outside oneself, whereas to trust in the law of kamma is the same as relying on oneself. Thus, the interviewees argued that the text’s teaching of God as a refuge is different from the Buddhist teaching of taking refuge in the Triple Gem (Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha). To take refuge in the Triple Gem is to show the intention of prac- tising according to the Buddhist teaching in order to eventually reach the fifnal goal of Nibbana. Every individual is responsible for his or her practice. To rely on a god might only be considered as a preliminary phase before one is strong or wise enough to trust in oneself. In response to these interpretations I have argued that the emphasis in Psalm 73 is different from what is suggested by the interviewees. In the end, the psalmist realised that trust and refuge in God was not fifrst and foremost to believe in or rely on God to punish the wicked and reward the good. Towards the end of the psalm, it is the psalmist’s experience of the nearness interpreting psalm 73 263 of God which informs his way of speaking and thinking. His conclusion is that to trust in God is to be in communion with God, it is not an expectation that God will reward or punish the good and the wicked. The third issue discussed in this chapter was how to interpret the psalmist’s reactions to his situation. As discussed in chapter 3, the way the psalmist described his situation evoked different reactions in the interviewees as they read the texts. One main reaction was to criticise the psalmist that he was lacking in faith and understanding. This critique was to a certain extent informed by the psalmist’s own description of what happened before the temple incident, and by the interviewees’ pre-understanding that a believer in God is obliged to trust him in all situations. In addition, their own Bud- dhist understanding, of how to behave or respond in such a situation, was crucial to the reactions to the psalmist’s question and complaint. From their point of view, he should have known that both his situation and that of the wicked were a result of their own doing, but that their present acts, either good or bad, would eventually bear fruit, according to the law of kamma. Thus the prescribed reaction for the psalmist was to stay calm and continue doing good. Another, and very different response, was to identify oneself with the psalmist and interpreting his response as a genuine reaction from the heart, to the injustice of the situation that he, as a good person, suffers, while the wicked are successful and happy. This reaction was informed by a life-situation which was felt to be very similar to that of the psalmist. Based on these two reactions I addressed the question whether the psalmist’s question is illegitimate and shows a lack of faith. In my opinion, the psalmist’s reaction to his problem does not show a lack of faith, but on the contrary expresses bold faith and personal integrity. Instead of just accepting his situation, which he is unable to harmonize with the traditional teaching, he honestly tries to explore how he may understand the situation in light of his faith in God. As such his way of approaching the problem could be compared to the Buddhist way which moves from trust to insight, and which emphasises the importance of trying out every faith assertion in practice. As a response to the Thai Buddhist interpretations I have therefore argued that the psalmist’s reaction to what he experiences is not illegitimate and should not so easily be identififed as lack of faith and understanding. chapter eight

INTERPRETING ECCLESIASTES 9:1–12 IN LIGHT OF, AND AS A RESPONSE TO, THAI BUDDHIST INTERPRETATIONS

Introduction

In the Thai Buddhist interpretations of Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 (see ch. 4) it was argued that the text raised the following main issues: First, the question of how, in light of the inevitable fact of death, human beings ought to live their lives; second, the opportunities of humans to be in charge of their own destiny; third, the problem of God and his governance with regard to human knowledge, freedom and destiny; fourth, and fifnally, the question of how the concept of khraw (fate) is to be understood. The second and third issue, were by some of the interviewees regarded as standing in contrast to each other, while others found ways to harmonize them. Concerning the term khraw, a great deal of confusion was expressed as to what meaning this term is meant to convey in the context of the text. Based on the interviewees’ interpretation of the text, I will address the following questions when interpreting Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 in light of its textual fate), which) הרקמ context. First, what is the meaning of the Hebrew term is translated into Thai as khraw. Second, how is the relationship between God and humans pictured in the text, and what are the implications of God’s governance for human beings? Third, what motivates the encouragement to enjoy life, and how are the different advices in vv. 7–10 to be interpreted? In this section I will interpret the text, verse by verse, and address these issues as they appear in the text. After having interpreted the text in its textual context, I will proceed to discuss more thematically how the text can be interpreted in response to Thai Buddhist interpretations and understandings. 266 chapter eight

Interpreting Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 in Textual Context

Text and Translation The Hebrew Text Verse 1 כי את־כל־זה נתתי אל־לבי ולבור1 את־כל־זה אשׁר הצדיקים והחכמים ועבדיהם ביד האלהים גם־אהבה גם־שׂנאה אין יודע האדם הכל לפניהם 2 הכל3 כאשׁר לכל מקרה אחד לצדיק ולרשׁע לטוב2 ולטהור ולטמא ולזבח ולאשׁר איננו זבח כטוב כחטא הנשׁבע כאשׁר שׁבועה ירא 3 זה רע בכל אשׁר־נעשׂה תחת השׁמשׁ כי־מקרה אחד לכל וגם לב בני־האדם מלא־רע והוללות בלבבם בחייהם ואחריו4 אל־המתים 4 כי־מי אשׁר יבחר5 אל כל־החיים ישׁ בטחון כי־לכלב חי הוא טוב מן־האריה המת 5 כי החיים יודעים שׁימתו והמתים אינם יודעים מאומה ואין־עוד להם שׂכר כי נשׁכח זכרם 6 גם אהבתם גם־שׂנאתם גם־קנאתם כבר אבדה וחלק אין־להם עוד לעולם בכל אשׁר־נעשׂה תחת השׁמשׁ 7 לך אכל בשׂמחה לחמך ושׁתה בלב־טוב יינך כי כבר רצה האלהים את־מעשׂיך 8 בכל־עת יהיו בגדיך לבנים ושׁמן על־ראשׁך אל־יחסר 9 ראה חיים עם־אשׁה אשׁר־אהבת כל־ימי חיי הבלך אשׁר נתן־לך תחת השׁמשׁ כל ימי הבלך כי הוא חלקך בחיים ובעמלך אשׁר־אתה עמל תחת השׁמשׁ 10 כל אשׁר תמצא ידך לעשׂות בכחך עשׂה כי אין מעשׂה וחשׁבון ודעת וחכמה בשׁאול אשׁר אתה הלך שׁמה

.’to make clear or examine‘ ,בור MT has infifnite construct qal of the hapax legomenon 1 LXX and Syr. have a common word for insight ‘to see’ (which probably derive from the .MT is lectio diffifcilior. I thus retain its text .(ראה Hebrew verb and for the evil’, as is found in LXX, even‘ ,ולרע I have here followed MT and not added 2 though it is a probable scenario that MT reflfects a haplography. The Thai translation follows the MT. ,הכל vanity’, instead of‘ ,הבל LXX, Symmachus and Vulg. read the fifrst word of verse 2as 3 ‘everything’, and as belonging to the last sentence of verse 1. If one follows this reading the end of verse 1 reads: ‘Everything before them is vanity.’ (See for example RSV). In my opinion the witnesses mentioned are not strong enough to justify an emendation, as long as MT makes sense as it stands. I have thus translated: ‘Everything is before them.’ The Thai translation follows the MT. literally means ‘after it’. The singular suffifx is a break with the ואחריו The expression 4 series of plural suffifxes preceding it. LXX, Syr. and Vulg. have the suffifx in plural insteadof singular as in MT. This harmonizes with the plural suffifxes in the preceding sentence. MT is the more diffifcult reading and is retained. The Thai translation used the same pronoun throughout the verse, in other words, they follow LXX, Syr. and Vulg. to choose’, while the Qere understand‘ ,בחר The Kethib has imperfect pual of the root 5 .’to join‘ ,חבר the Kethib to reflfect a textual error (metathesis), and reads imperfect pualof The Thai translation follows the Qere, as is a quite common practice, see for example KJV and NRSV. I have, however, retained the Kethib text, regarding it as lectio diffifcilior. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 267

The Hebrew Text Verse 11 אלםגוהמחלמהםירובגלאלוץורמהםילקלאליכשׁמשׁה־תחתהארויתבשׁ םלכ־תאהרקיעגפותע־יכןחםיעדילאלםגורשׁעםינבנלאלםגוםחלםימכחל 12 הערהדוצמבםיזחאנשׁםיגדכותע־תאםדאהעדי־אלםגיכ םאתפםהילעלופתשׁכהערתעלםדאהינבםישׁקויםהכחפבתוזחאהםירפצכו

Verse English translation 1 For all this I took to my heart and examined all this; that the righteous, and the wise, and their works are in the hand of God, whether it is love or hate humans do not know. Everything is before them. 2 Everything is the same for everybody: One fate for the righteous, and the wicked, for the good, and for the clean and the unclean, and for the one who sacrififces and the one who does not sacrififce. As the good person,so the sinner, the one who takes an oath as the one who fears to take an oath. 3 This is an evil in all that is done under the sun, that there is one fate for all, and also the heart of humans is full of evil, and foolishness is in their hearts during their lives, and after this? Off to the dead! 4 For whoever is chosen among all the living, there is hope, because a living dog is better than a dead lion. 5 For the living know that they will die, but the dead, nothing they know of anything, and there is no more reward for them, because the memory of them is forgotten. 6 Whether their love or hate or zeal, it has already perished, and there is no longer a portion for them anymore among all that is done under the sun. 7 Go, eat with joy your bread, and drink with a glad heart your wine, for God has already approved your works. 8 At all times, let your garments be white and do not lack oil on your head. 9 Enjoy life with a woman you love, all days in your flfeeting life which he has given to you under the sun, all your flfeeting days, for that is your portion in life and in your toil which you have toiled under the sun. 10 All which your hand fifnds to do, do it with strength, for there isnowork, reckoning, knowledge, or wisdom in Sheol, whereto you are going. 11 Again I observed under the sun that the race is not to the swift, and the battle not to the strong, neither is bread to the wise, nor wealth to the clever, nor favour to the knowledgeable, because time and chance encounter them all. 12 Indeed, humankind does not know its time, like fifsh that are caught inan evil net, and like birds caught in a trap, human beings are ensnared by evil time, which fall upon them suddenly. 268 chapter eight

Context, Form and Structure As a whole the book of Ecclesiastes is often characterised as royal autobiography,6 or royal testament.7 Due to the book’s reflfective character, Michael Fox suggests that: “Perhaps the best way to characterize Qoheleth8 would be ‘reflfective autobiography’, as opposed to a celebratory autobiography that narrates deeds and accomplishments.”9 I concur in his characteriza- tion. Within this wider framework, Qoheleth makes use of different forms, like for example proverbs, exemplary stories, aphorisms, admonitions and better sayings.10 Our text, Eccl 9:1–12, consists mainly of reflfection (vv. 1–6, 11–12), and admonition (vv. 7–10), but two aphorisms (vv. 4, 11), and a simile (v. 12) are also used. There is no general agreement to the overall structure of the book of Ecclesiastes, except that the book has a short introduction (Eccl 1:1–2) and an epilogue (Eccl 2:9–14).11 It is even doubted whether the book could be said to have a unifying structure at all.12 Among those scholars who fifnd the book to have a discernible structure, there is a vide variety of suggestions offered with regard to structure, some of which are based mainly on literary considerations, while others, on the structure of the argument in the book.13 As a consequence, the text under discussion in this study is placed under various sections and headings, depending on how the different scholars conclude with regard to the structure of the book.14 I follow

6 Michael V. Fox, A Time to Tear Down and a Time to Build Up: A Rereading of Ecclesiastes (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1999). 153. 7 James L. Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction, 2nd. ed. (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998). 128. 8 The ‘speaker’ in the book of Ecclesiastes names himself Qoheleth (see, for example Eccl 1:12). Hence I will use this name when referring to the person talking in fifrst person in the book of Ecclesiastes. I have used the spelling ‘Qoheleth’, instead of ‘Qohelet’, in accordance with SBL Handbook of Style. 9 Fox, A Time to Tear Down and a Time to Build Up: A Rereading of Ecclesiastes. 155. 10 For a listing of different forms used, see for example Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom: An Introduction. 128–129. 11 Roland E. Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature, 3rd. ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2002). 209. 12 Aarre Lauha, Kohelet, eds. Siegfried Herrmann and Hans Walter Wolff, Biblischer Kommentar Altes Testament, vol. 19 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1978). 4–7. 13 For a critical presentation of the main lines in the scholarly discussion see: Diethelm Michel, Qohelet, Erträge der Forschung, vol. 258 (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchge- sellschaft, 1988). 9–45. 14 See for example Graham Ogden, Qohelet, ed. John Jarick, Readings: A New Biblical interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 269

Roland E. Murphy, who outlines the book as follows, based upon the struc- tural analysis of A.G. Wright:15 I. Prologue, 1:1–11 II. Part I, 1:12–6:9 III. Part II, 6:10–11:6 IV. Poem on youth and old age, 11:7–12:7 V. Inclusion, 12:8 VI. Epilogue, 12:9–14 Eccl 9:1–12 is part of the second part of the book (6:10–11:6), which again can be divided into two main sections: 6:10–8:17 and 9:1–11:6.16 The main issues discussed in 6:10–8:17 are that everything is elusive and the world is arbitrary, while 9:1–11:6 are concerned with the issue of how to cope with uncertainties and death.17 According to my understanding, the passage Eccl 9:1–12 is to be regarded as one unit, framed as it is by two inclusions:18 (v. 12) םדאהעדי־אל v. 1) and) םדאהעדויןיא :First – (v. 11) הרקי v. 2) and) הרקמ :Second – The unit can further be divided into three main, but interrelated sections, namely verses 1–6, 7–10, and 11–12. The reasons for this division are as follows: הז־לכ־תארובלויבל־לאיתתנ :Verse 1 is introduced by the expression for all this I took to my heart and examined all this’, a way‘ , הז־לכ־תאיכ of expression similar to other introducing statements in the book (for example Eccl 1:13, 17; 7:2; 8:16). Here the fifrst person singular form is used. whether love or hate’, (v. 1), and‘ , האנשׂ־םגהבהא־םג The expressions (whether their love or hate or zeal’, (v. 6‘ , םתאנק־םגםתאנשׂ־םגםתבהאםג make an inclusion between verses 1 and 6.

Commentary (Edinburgh: JSOT Press, 1987). 13, C.L. Seow, Ecclesiastes:ANewTranslationwith Introduction and Commentary, eds. William Foxwell Albright and David Noel Freedman, The Anchor Bible, vol. 18C (New York: Doubleday, 1997). 46–47. 15 Roland E. Murphy, Ecclesiastes, eds. David A. Hubbard, Glenn W. Barker, and John D.W. Watts, Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 23A (Dallas, Tex.: Word Books, 1992). xxxix–xli. Cf. also Seow, who has a similar (but not identical) outline. Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 46–47. 16 Murphy, Ecclesiastes. xl–xli. 17 Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 47, 50–53. 18 Cf. Murphy, Ecclesiastes. 89. 270 chapter eight

From verse 7 there is a shift from the indicative to the imperative form of the verb, and Qoheleth is addressing the reader in second person singular, as a ‘you’. This form continues throughout verses 7–10. ,’again I observed‘ , הארויתבשׁ ,From verse 11 there is a new introduction and a shift back to the fifrst person singular. Verse 12 continues the thought .’indeed‘ , יכ of verse 11, introduced by an emphatic

Text Analysis Verses 1–6 Qoheleth introduces this section in a, for him, characteristic way. That is, by emphasising his intention to examine and analyse what he observes and all this’, which refers to‘ , הז־לכ experiences (Eccl 1:12–18). The expression themes of the following unit, is repeated twice and makes an inclusion, to‘ , רובל taking to my heart’, and‘ , יבל־לאיתתנ framing the two expressions examine’. Both expressions lead the thought to a cognitive analysis. ‘Heart’ -prob , רוב is used to denote the cognitive centre of a person,19 and the verb ably means to examine or to make clear.20 Together with the repetition of all this’, and the use of fifrst person, these two expressions emphasise‘ , הז־לכ both the seriousness with which Qoheleth approaches his material and the comprehensive aim of his investigation.21 As I see it, in verses 1–6 Qoheleth makes three main points. First, he states that it is God, not humans, who is in charge of, and decides, humans’ lives and futures (verse 1). Second, he contends that there is an evil fate for all, regardless of moral or religious standing, namely death (verses 2–3). Third, he argues that in spite of the sure knowledge of death, there is hope in being alive, and not dead (verses 4–6). In the following, I will go into some more detail concerning Qoheleth’s elaboration on these three points. Verse 1 The object of Qoheleth’s analysis is fifrst the relationship between the righ- -and the impli 22,( םיהלאה ) and God ,( םימכחה ) and the wise ( םיקידצה ) teous

.421–419 ”. בל “ ,Fabry 19 20 Brown, Driver, and Briggs, eds., A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament with and Appendix containing the Biblical Aramaic. 21 Cf. R.N. Whybray, “Qohelet as a Theologian,” in Qohelet in the Context of Wisdom, ed. A. Schoors (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1998). 241–245. , םיהלא Yahweh’, when referring to God. The term‘ , הוהי Qoheleth does not use the name 22 ‘God’, is used forty times; in twenty-six of these occurrences the defifnite article is added. Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature. 57. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 271 cations of this relationship. Qoheleth states that both the righteous and the in‘ , םיהלאהדיב wise, and their works, are in God’s hand. The expression God’s hand’, might both express God’s saving providence (Ps 31:6) and his control and power (Prov 21:1). In light of the context, however, it seems to be God’s control and power which are emphasised.23 Qoheleth thus states that the righteous and the wise are under God’s their works’, are subjected‘ , םהידבע control. But not only are the people, also has as its basic דבע to God. What is the meaning of this statement? The root meaning service or work for someone. Thus as a noun it is used to denote slaves or servants (Eccl 2:7; 7:21) or labourers (Eccl 5:11 [ET 12]). As a verb it emerges as a technical term for cultivating or tilling the land (Gen 2:15; Prov 28:19; Eccl 5:8). It is also a common term for serving or worshipping God (Deut 10:12; Ps 2:11, Job 21:15). What kind of work or service is thought of in this context? Graham Ogden, for example, argues that it refers to the activities of the wise and righteous, with a special emphasis on the result of their activities, in other words, their accomplishments.24 Dominic Rudman service’, is chosen‘ , דבע points out that it might be signififcant that the noun work’ (used for example in Eccl‘ , השׂעמ instead of the more common term service’, to a greater extent than‘ , דבע His argument is that the term .(9:10 work’, underlines that humans are dependent on God, and under his‘ , השׂעמ control.25 I agree with him. Hence, as I understand it, in this verse a picture is drawn of wise and righteous persons who serve God, and it is emphasised that they and their service are in God’s hand, under God’s control. So both the righteous, the wise, and their works are under God’s control. Then Qoheleth elaborates even further on this point by stating -How this is to be trans . םהינפללכהםדאהעדויןיאהאנשׂ־םגהבהא־םג lated depends on the interpretation of the statement. If we do not consider the interpretative options which are dependent on an emendation of the text (see footnotes to the translation of verse 1–2), there are, according to my understanding, two main interpretative options with regard to verse 1. Which option is preferable depends on how the following questions are

23 This is commonly agreed on in the commentaries, see for example Murphy, Eccle- siastes. 90, Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 298, Tremper Longman, The Book of Ecclesiastes, eds. R.K. Harrison and Robert L. Hubbard jr, The New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998). 226–227. 24 Ogden, Qohelet. 144. 25 Dominic Rudman, Determinism in the Book of Ecclesiastes, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series, vol. 316 (Sheffifeld: Sheffifeld Academic Press, 2001). 121–122. 272 chapter eight answered: First, whose love and hate are referred to here, is it God’s love or hate or that of the righteous and wise? Second, and partly dependent on ,everything’, refer to? Finally‘ , לכה how this question is answered, what does -humans do not know’, belong to the fifrst sen‘ , םדאהעדויןיא does the phrase tence (whether love or hate) or to the last (everything is before them)? whether‘ , האנשׂ־םגהבהא־םג In the fifrst interpretive option the phrase love or hate’, is related to humans. The main argument in favour of this understanding is that in verse 6 the same expression is used clearly to describe human emotions. If this interpretation is chosen, the main point in the verse is that humans, including their love and hate, are totally under God’s control (in God’s hand). According to this understanding, then, the :humans do not know’, introduces a new sentence‘ , םדאהעדויןיא phrase -every‘ , לכה Humans do not know everything that is before them’. Here‘ -before’, can be under‘ , הנפ thing’, has a general reference, while the adverb stood either in a temporal or spatial sense, emphasising either that humans lack knowledge of what lies ahead of them or that they do not understand what they see in the present.26 האנשׂ־םג The second way of interpreting verse 1 is to relate the phrase ןיא whether love or hate’, to God, and understand the phrase‘ , הבהא־םג humans do not know’, as belonging to the fifrst sentence. Then‘ , םדאהעדוי the point is made that humans do not know whether God loves or hates them. Taken together with the last sentence: ‘everything is before them’ everything’, as referring to ‘love and hate’, and the‘ , לכה and understanding before’, in a temporal sense, the meaning is that humans do not‘ , הנפ adverb know their future. That is, they do not know whether good or bad things await them, whether God is favourable or not favourable disposed towards them.27 In my opinion it is the second interpretative opinion which is the most reasonable. This is because I think that the phrase ‘whether love and hate’ relates to God. I do not fifnd the argument used for relating ‘love and hate’ to humans convincing enough to go for that option. It is true that verse 6 contains a similar expression to the one found here in verse 1. There is, however, also a marked difference in that, in verse 6, it is made clear through

26 See for example Seow, who translates: “Indeed, all this I have laid on my heart, even to examine all this: that the righteous and the wise are in the hand of God, (including) both love and hate. People do not know everything that is before them.” Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 296. cf. also Lauha, Kohelet. 166. 27 For example Crenshaw. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 273 the use of suffifxes that the terms love and hate refer to people. Ifloveand hate were to be related to humans in verse 1, I would have expected suffifxes in third person plural also here. This even more so, because a suffifx is added service, works’, thus making it clear that it is the works of‘ , דבע to the term the wise and the righteous which are referred to. In addition, the experience that the wise and the righteous may not be assured the expected reward is also a topic in the immediate context of our text, see Eccl 8:14, and also Eccl 9:11. It might be argued that all in all the total interpretation of the verse does not differ very much, regardless of choosing the fifrst or second interpretative options: “God controls men’s lives absolutely, and men are left in ignorance of what is going on.”28 But there is a small, but signififcant difference, namely that if love and hate are related to God, the issue of divine retribution comes up. The text is then questioning the common expectation that the wise and righteous were assured of God’s love, i.e. his favour. If love and hate are related to humans, the verse emphasises that God determines everything and humans lack knowledge of what happens, but the reference is not so clear to the teaching of an expected correspondence between act and consequence (for this teaching in traditional wisdom thinking, see ch. 6). To sum up, the emphasis in the verse stands in contrast with the traditional wisdom teaching, namely that the righteous and wise could be assured that blessing or good would follow from their righteous and wise ways of living (as to what kind of connection that was expected—see v. 11, where the principle of merit totally collapses). In fact, Qoheleth points to the possibility that the wise might get the opposite of what they expect; instead of love, hate (cf. also Eccl 8:10–15).29 Verses 2–3 The second point made by Qoheleth in this text is that there is one fate ,for all. Verse 2 emphasises that this one fate befalls all people ( דחאהרקמ ) regardless of their moral quality or cultic observance, while in verse 3 the fact that there is one fate is evaluated as bad, and it is further made clear what this fate consists of—namely death. everything is the same‘ , לכלרשׁאכלכה Verse 2 starts with a catchy phrase for everybody’, which is then further explicated in the rest of the verse.

28 R.N. Whybray, Ecclesiastes, ed. Ronald E. Clements, The New Century Bible Commen- tary (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1989). 141. 29 Longman, The Book of Ecclesiastes. 226. 274 chapter eight one fate’, while ‘everybody’ is‘ , דחאהרקמ Everything’ is another word for‘ exemplififed in opposing pairs, which probably have an inclusive function.30 The classes of people mentioned are: The righteous and the wicked, the good,31 the clean and the unclean, those who sacrififce and those who do not, the good and the sinner, the person who readily swears an oath and the one who is afraid to do so. These are classes of people between which, according to traditional wisdom teaching, there should have been a clear difference with regard to the outcome of their actions, and “time and manner of death”.32 Nonetheless, the point made by Qoheleth is that on equal terms they share in one fate (cf. also Eccl 4:1–3; 7:15, 8:10–14). .’occurrence, happening‘ , הרקמ We will take a closer look at the noun This noun is used only ten times in the Hebrew Bible, with as much as seven of the occurrences found in Ecclesiastes (Eccl 2:14, 15; 3:19 [3x]; 9:2, 3). In the to‘ , הרק text for discussion in this study the noun is used twice. The verb happen, befall’, occurs three times in Ecclesiastes, including one occurrence in our text (Eccl 2:14, 15; 9:11), and altogether twenty-two times in the Hebrew Bible as a whole. Further it should be noted that in Ecclesiastes both the noun and the verb in all their occurrences are related to death or used to describe death in some way or other (Eccl 2:14–16; 3:19; 9:2–3).33 The only exception might be Eccl 9:11 (see 11.4.3).34 -occurrence, hap‘ , הרקמ What is then conveyed by describing death as pening’? Looking at the three texts (Ruth 2:3; 1Sam 6:9; 20:26) where the occurs outside the book of Ecclesiastes, we fifnd that the word הרקמ noun denotes a chance happening, that is “… something that takes place by itself, without intent or cooperation on the part of the person affected and without that she happened הרקמ a visible author.”35 For example, for Ruth it was a to come into the fifeld of Boaz when she went out to collect corn (Ruth 2:3), is הרקמ ,while in 1Sam 6:9, in the story about the ark and the Philistines explicitly used in the sense of a chance happening as contrasted with divine

30 Cf. Ogden, Qohelet. 144. .”for the good’, is not followed by a contrasting character. See “text and translation‘ , בוטל 31 32 James L. Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary, Old Testament Library (London: SCM Press, 1988). 160. 33 Murphy, Ecclesiastes. 83. Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 296. 34 Rudman, Determinism in the Book of Ecclesiastes. 35, 9:11 seems to denote the occurrence of ill-fortune. Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary. 84–85, 9:11 emphasise the unpredictability of events and do not have the same ominous nuance as elsewhere in Ecclesiastes. .161 ”. הרק “ ,Ringgren 35 interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 275 retribution.36 The question is if it is the same meaning which is expressed in Ecclesiastes. Is it chance as “the occurrence of events in the absence of any obvious design or cause”?37 Or is it more the meaning of fate which is conveyed, understood as “the development of events outside a person’s control, regarded as predetermined by a supernatural power”?38 in Ecclesiastes indicate that Qoheleth הרקמ Does the use of the term thinks of death as a chance happening or as fate? It is clear that death is not a chance happening in the meaning that it happens to some persons and not to others; death is something which happens to all. But is it predetermined, that is, is its timing a question of chance or not? There are different opinions concerning this matter. Michael Fox, for example, argues that the term does not convey the meaning of something predetermined. In his opinion the noun here just makes clear that it is something which is not caused by the person him/herself.39 Others, like for example Dominic Rudman, argue , תע that Qoheleth clearly regards death as predetermined, using the term cannot convey the הרקמ appointed time’, about it (Eccl 3:2; 7:17), thus‘ meaning of a chance happening.40 I agree with Rudman that in light of the referent of the word in this case, namely death, it is not the meaning of chance which is conveyed. In my opinion, the word ‘fate’ seems to cover the meaning of the word in a better way, including the understanding that death is determined by God in some or way or other, and hence outside the control of humans (cf. also Eccl 9:11–12). ,’for all‘ , לכל In verse 3 it is once more emphasised that there is one fate and it is made clear that this fate is death. In addition, an evaluation is made in all that ( ער ) of the fact that there is one fate for all, namely that it is an evil ,that death is terrible ער is done under the sun. Is the meaning conveyed by a tragedy,41 or does ‘evil’ convey the idea that this is morally bad, implicitly to emphasise that ער judging God to be immoral?42 In light of the use of which is tragic, I think it is most probable that it is the meaning terrible which is intended here (Eccl 5:12, 14; 6:1). Hence, Qoheleth states that in all

36 See for example the discussion in Rudman, Determinism in the Book of Ecclesiastes. 35. 37 Concise Oxford English Dictionary on CD-ROM 2001 Version 1.1, (Oxford: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 2001). 38 Ibid. 39 Fox referred to in Rudman, Determinism in the Book of Ecclesiastes. 35–36. 40 Ibid. 36. 41 For example Ogden, Qohelet. 146–147. Murphy, Ecclesiastes. 91. 42 Longman, The Book of Ecclesiastes. 227. 276 chapter eight that is done under the sun,43 the knowledge of death lies there as a looming possibility.44 Finally, the verse (3b) also comments, in quite negative terms, on the condition of humans lives before death ends them. It states that “and also the heart of humans is full of evil and foolishness in their hearts during their lives”. What does it mean that the hearts of humans are full of evil In this context, focusing on the quality of ?( תוללוה ) and foolishness ( ער ) ,evil’, most probably means moral evil, or in other words‘ , ער heart, the noun foolishness’, is only found in the‘ , תוללוה wickedness (Prov 11:21). The noun book of Ecclesiastes, where it appears fifve times, including the verse under discussion here. In the other four occurrences it is used together with the folly’, apparently functioning as synonyms, denoting folly (Eccl‘ , תולכס noun 1:17; 2:12; 7:25; 10:13), as in contrast to wisdom (Eccl 1:17, 2:12; 7:25).45 To the meaning of 3b, I agree with Murphy who states that “… Qoheleth is not moralizing, but recognizing facts.”46 It is an evil fact that death is the fate of all, regardless of who they are, and what they have done, and it is also a tragic fact that human lives are characterised by wickedness and folly.47 Verses 4–6 Verse 4 starts by stating that for those who are still alive there is hope. םייחה־לכלארחבי ) ’The expression ‘for whoever is chosen among the living entails two points, as I see it. First, it refers to those who are still 48,( רשׁאימ־יכ alive, who are among the living, and second, it implies that whether people live or die is not incidentally, there is a will behind it (cf. vv. 2, 12). Then it is This noun is very . ןוחטב emphasised that for those who are still alive there is rare, it occurs only here and in 2Kgs 18:19 and its parallel Isa 36:4. What is the

43 The expression ‘under the sun’ is typical to the book of Ecclesiastes, where it is used twenty-nine times. Seow argues, and I am convinced by his argument, that the expression means ‘the realm of the living’, hence covering the breadth of human experience. Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 104–106. 44 Cf. Martin A. Shields, The End of Wisdom: A Reappraisal of the Historical and Canonical Function of Ecclesiastes (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2006). 202. . תולכשׂ is spelled תולכס In Eccl 1:17 the word 45 46 Murphy, Ecclesiastes. 91. 47 Some commentators ascribe this human condition to the knowledge that death is a universal fate. William P. Brown, for example, put it this way: “The universal fate of death permits a madness to take root in the human heart that compels one to shirk all sense of responsibility. Such is the outcome of hopeless despair.” William P. Brown, Ecclesiastes, ed. James L. Mays, Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching (Louisville, Ky.: John Knox Press, 2000). 91–92. Cf. also Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary. 160. 48 I am not going to discuss the interpretations of the verse which are dependent on an emendation of the text. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 277

.any other place חטב meaning of the noun? Qoheleth does not use the root means to trust or have confifdence in. It is often used about חטב As a verb trust in God (Pss 4:6; 25:2; Prov 16:20), but can be used with other objects as well, both persons (2Kgs 18:21) and material things, like riches (Prov 11:28). ;expresses the idea of something which is secure (Lev 25:18 חטב The noun ’is thus by some translated ‘certitude ןוחטב Deut 12:19; Job 24:23). The noun or ‘confifdence’,49 while others choose to translate it ‘hope’.50 In light of the conveying trust or confifdence, and the use of the noun , חטב use of the root in the story of Hezekiah’s rebellion against Assyria, where it refers to ןוחטב the basis of trust which made Hezekiah rebel, I think that the word is best translated hope. The noun expresses that there is something on which to build one’s trust or confifdence—indeed a slight hope. The reason why there is hope is further explicated in verses 4b–5. Verse 4b states that: “a living dog is better than a dead lion”. What does is in the Hebrew Bible mainly pictured ( בלכ ) this aphorism express? A dog negatively and used as a metaphor for the wicked, the evil and the fools (Pss 22:16; 59:6 [ET 7]; Prov 26:11), and for despised or worthless persons (1Sam on the contrary, is pictured as strong, scary ,( הירא ) 2Sam 9:8). The lion ;17:43 and mighty (Am 3:8), and is used as a metaphor for bravery (2Sam 17:10). God is also compared to a mighty lion whom no one can challenge (Jer 49:14). So if a person was to choose whether he or she wanted to be a dog or a lion the choice would be easy. But then, what if the lion is dead and the dog living, as is the case pictured here? Many commentators view the statement as ironic, not at least in view of the following sentence, that the living; they know they will die (v. 5a). Life as a despised dog, which only advantage or hope over the dead lion is the knowledge that it is going to die, entails no real hope—hence the statement is regarded as bitter irony.51 In other words, according to this view, Qoheleth stresses that life is not to be preferred to death, cf. Eccl 4:2–3; 6:3–6. Others do not think the aphorism is ironically meant, but that Qoheleth, despite the vanity of life, realizes that “in life there may still be things to enjoy in the future (Eccl 9:7–9), whereas in death all possibility of further change of fortune is impossible (Eccl 9:5–6)”.52

49 Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 300, Murphy, Ecclesiastes. 92, Shields, The End of Wisdom: A Reappraisal of the Historical and Canonical Function of Ecclesiastes. 203. 50 Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary. 158. 51 See for example Murphy, Ecclesiastes. 91–92, Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary. 161. 52 Whybray, Ecclesiastes. 142, cf. also Brown, Ecclesiastes. 92–93. Longman, The Book of Ecclesiastes. 224, 227. 278 chapter eight

, יכ I agree with this latter group of scholars. In my opinion, the conjunction ‘therefore’, in verse 5 introduces the reasons for why, in the end, Qoheleth fifnds life to be preferable to death. These reasons are elaborated onin verses 5–6, and serve as the background for the exhortations in verses 7–10. In the following paragraphs, we will take a closer look at the argumentation in verses 5–6. The main emphasis in these two verses is on what the dead lack. Accord- ing to my understanding, it is exactly by focusing on what the dead do not have access to, or lack, that Qoheleth argues the advantage of life, or argues why life is preferable to death. Here I am on line with Christianson, who states: The dead have no knowledge, no wages, no memory, no emotion (love, hate, envy) and no portion (5–6). But this is another way of pinpointing what should matter most to the living. Even bread and wine, love and celebration that readers should seize (7–9) only become meaningful for Qoheleth cast against the locale of Sheol, where there is no activity, reasoning, knowledge or wisdom (10).53 So, let us have a short look at what Qoheleth emphasises in these two verses. In verse 5 he contends: “the dead, nothing they know of anything.” We have earlier seen that verse 1 makes it clear that human beings do not know whether it is love or hate which awaits them, and below we will discuss the emphasis in verse 12 that humans do not know their time. This lack of knowledge is a serious enough matter for Qoheleth, and colours his opinion see v. 9). Nevertheless, the , לבה ) of life, namely that it is vain or futile situation for the dead is even worse, because they know nothing of anything. The living, at least they know that they will die, and this awareness enables them to realise that they must use their time, as time is limited. The dead, however, do not know of anything and there is nothing more which awaits them. Thus nothing more awaits the dead. This point is underscored in verses .( רכשׂ ) 5b–6. First, it is emphasised that for the dead there is no more reward is used in the OT in the sense of רכשׂ What is meant by this? The term ‘recompense’ and ‘reward’. It could be an economic recompense, i.e. wages (Gen 30:28, Ex 2:9, possibly also Eccl 4:9), or benefifts as a reward for services rendered (Num 18:31). Further, it can be used more generally in the meaning of reward (Gen 15:1), something deserved. Here, however, it seems to refer

53 Eric S. Christianson, EcclesiastesthroughtheCenturies, eds. John Sawyer et al., Blackwell Bible Commentaries (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishing, 2007). 207. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 279 of persons already dead. Reward, in ( רכז ) to the remembrance, or memory terms of benefifts and material goods beyond death, is outside Qoheleth’s horizon.54 In light of the wisdom literature in the OT, this way of thinking is not new. Quite novel in his thinking, however, is the statement that there will be no lasting memory for the dead.55 In the traditional wisdom thinking, it is namely emphasised that a good memory is a lasting reward (Prov 10:7). But Qoheleth is fifrm; indeed there is no lasting memory. Here he reinforces central points from the introduction of the book, where he established that there are eventually no profift and remembrance left after a person (Eccl 1:3, 11). , הבהא .Second, it is argued that at death all emotions come to an end .(hate’, are strong, contrastive emotions (Prov 10:12; 15:17‘ , האנשׂ love’, and‘ The pair is probably meant to function inclusively, and this makes clear that both good and bad feelings are terminated by death. In addition to zeal, jealousy’, as an example of human‘ , האנק love and hate, Qoheleth uses is האנק emotions which will be put to an end by death. Crenshaw argues that an example of a more moderate passion than love and hate, and that it is added in order to make clear that all passions perish in death, not only the ,is a strong passion , האנק ,strong.56 According to my understanding, however used to express both the zeal of God (Deut 29:19; Ps 79:5), jealousy between spouses (Num 7:14; Prov 6:34, cf. Prov 27:4 where jealousy compared to wrath and anger is seen as the stronger feeling), and envy or rivalry as a main motivation for humans in their life and work (Eccl 4:4). Hence, I think that Qoheleth, in this verse, uses the dominant and driving passions in humans’ life as examples, in order to make his point that death is the place of no emotions. Third, and fifnally, it is stated that that for the dead there is nolonger portion’, a‘ , קלח a portion in that which is done under the sun. The noun common word in the Hebrew Bible, is used eight times in Ecclesiastes (Eccl 2:10, 21; 3:22; 5:17, 18 [ET 5:18, 19]; 9:6, 9; 11:2). What does portion mean in our context? Here it seems to convey in a general way, that the dead have no share in that which happens or takes place in the realm of the living. The term returns in verse 9, where it is more closely defifned. I will come back to it there.

54 Longman, The Book of Ecclesiastes. 229. . רכז – רכשׂ :There is a nice play on words in this verse 55 56 Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary. 161–162. 280 chapter eight

Verses 7–1057 This is one of several passages, popularly called the carpe diem passages,58 which encourages the enjoyment of life (Eccl 2:24–26; 3:13–14; 5:17–19 [ET 5:18–20]; 8:15; 9:7–10). But whereas the other passages take the form of advices, using indicative forms, this section is characterised by its many imperatives, making it more like a command. The impression is thus that this is a matter of great urgency. Following verses 1–6—where humanity’s common fate of death is underlined, and where death is described as an evil in which there will be no more knowledge, reward, passion or portion—this section urges one to enjoy and use life to the full. For an even stronger emphasis the section closes, in verse 10, with a reinforcement of the points made in verses 5–6, that in death (Sheol, v. 10) there is an absence of everything that characterises life. Verse 7 come, go’. Then in two‘ , ךל The verse is introduced by the imperative sentences, each of which is also introduced by an imperative, that which one should go and do is highlighted. The fifrst admonition is to ‘eat with joy your bread’, while the second is to ‘drink with a glad heart your wine’. Bread and wine symbolise both the basic food needed, and pleasure (Ps 104:14–15).59 ,’literally ‘good heart , בוט־בל joy’, parallels the expression‘ , החמשׂ The noun and thus makes probable the translation ‘glad heart’. Qoheleth urges to enjoy bread and wine, that is, to enjoy the pleasures of a meal (cf. Eccl 8:15). This encouragement must be seen on the background of the preceding verses, which emphasise that in death there will be no more possibilities for such enjoyment—a point, which is reinforced in verse 10. In addition to the for’, that is: God‘ , יכ backdrop of death, verse 7 adds a premise introduced by .of your actions ( הצר ) has already approved can mean ‘to approve’ or ‘accept’ and is used in Leviticus as הצר The verb a technical term for accepting sacrififces (see for example Lev 22:27). Related to this is the meaning of ‘taking pleasure in’, Ps 147:11, Prov 3:12; 16:7. In this context it is probably the meaning of acceptance which is conveyed. The while its object is ‘your works’. The ,( םיהלאה ) subject of the verb is God

57 Many scholars note the similarity between these verses and an Old Babylonian frag- ment of the Gilgamesh epic, Egyptian harpers’ songs, and grave inscriptions, as well as some Greek texts. I will not go into that matter here, but for a brief discussion, see Thomas Krüger, Qoheleth, ed. Klaus Baltzer, trans. O.C. Dean Jr., Hermeneia—A Critical and Historical Com- mentary on the Bible (Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 2004). 172–174. 58 Longman, The Book of Ecclesiastes. 229. 59 Murphy, Ecclesiastes. 92. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 281 works’, is used as a generic term for activities and deeds. It can‘ , השׂעמ noun be used about both humans’ and God’s works (see for example Eccl 1:4; 4:3; already’, (see for example Eccl 3:15; 4:2; 6:9), makes‘ , רבכ The adverb .(8:14 clear that the approval or delight is already in place. What does it then mean that ‘God has already approved your works’? Does it mean that God has approved persons’ former acts, and that the enjoyment of the goods of life, like bread and wine, is to be understood as a reward for those previous deeds? Or does it rather mean that God approves what persons are doing now, in other words, their present enjoyment of bread and wine? In my opinion, it is the latter interpretative option which is to be preferred. The main argument is that in the other carpe diem passages it is clear that both bread and wine, and the ability to enjoy such are God’s good gifts (for example Eccl 2:24–26; 3:13). In other words, to say it with Murphy: “… they [i.e. God’s gifts] are not “earned”, for humans have no claim on them; they depend on the inscrutable will and generosity of God …”60 Hence, the enjoyment of bread and wine is not a reward for former works, but is the ‘works’, i.e. actions which God approves.61 An implication of this interpretation is that anyone who is able to enjoy eating and drinking can regard this as a sign of God’s approval; “if one is able to do it, it has been permitted by God”.62 Verse 8 The exhortation to enjoy life is continued in verse 8, where the readers are encouraged to dress in white and be generous with oil on their head. Oil, and the use of oil, are in the OT often used to symbolise joy (Pss 23:5; 45:8, Prov 27:9), and this is probably the background of Qoheleth’s exhortation. Likewise, it is likely that the encouragement to wear white should be interpreted in the same way, as an encouragement to enjoy life (cf. Esth 8:15 where Mordekai’s festive garment is described). Verse 9 [”see life“ , םייחהאר .In verse 9, the readers are encouraged to “enjoy life [lit lacks defifnite ( השׁא ) with a woman you love”.63 Since the word for woman

60 Ibid. 92. 61 See for example Whybray, Ecclesiastes. 144, Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary. 162, Shields, The End of Wisdom: A Reappraisal of the Historical and Canonical Function of Ecclesiastes. 203–204. 62 Rudman, Determinism in the Book of Ecclesiastes. 69. Cf. also Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary. 162. 63 This verse makes it clear that Qoheleth primarily had a male audience in mind. This is a point also made by Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary. 163. 282 chapter eight article it is discussed whether Qoheleth here encourages enjoyment of one’s wife, or of any woman whom one might desire.64 I agree with those who argue that Qoheleth is probably having one’s own wife in mind, as there are used without defifnite article to refer toa השׁא many examples of the noun wife (Gen 21:21; 24:3; Lev 20:14, 1Sam 25:43).65 love’, appears for the third‘ , בהא It might be signififcant that the root time in our text. In verse 1 it was emphasised that humans do not know God’s love (or hate), while in verse 6 the point was that love is one of the strong emotions that is terminated by death. Hence, I think Crenshaw has a point when he argues that “the command to enjoy life with a woman one loves seems a defifant attempt to beat death itself, at least for a flfeeting moment”.66 After the encouragement to enjoy life with a woman, the verse continues with a description of the life in which one is supposed to carpe diem. -which I here (v. 9) have trans , לבה Life, and the days of life, are described as is one of the key-words in לבה .(lated ‘flfeeting’ (see below for the reasons Ecclesiastes,67 used thirty-eight times (out of altogether seventy-three times in the Hebrew Bible), and fifgures in the thematic statements which frames the book (Eccl 1:2; 12:8). Its literal meaning is ‘breath, vapour’ (Ps 62:10), but it is most often used in an abstract sense, having different nuances of meaning in different contexts.68 Some of the most common nuances, most of which are found in Ecclesiastes,69 are: ephemeral (fleeting) or insubstantial ((Pss 39:5–12 [ET vv. 4–11]; 78:33; Job 7:16; Eccl 6:12; 7:15), of no lasting consequence (Job 21:34; Prov 31:30; Eccl 5:6 [ET 7]; 6:4, 11), unreliable (Isa 30:7; Deut 32:21), unpredictable, arbitrary and incomprehensible (Eccl 1:2, 14; 2:17).70 The question is then, what meaning is conveyed in our text? Due to two reasons, I think that it is the meaning of flfeetingness and unpredictability which is most likely meant here. First, because verses 7–10 are framed by verses which note the inevitability of death (see especially vv. 2–3), and which

64 See for example Ibid. 163. Murphy, Ecclesiastes. 93. 65 Cf. for example Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commen- tary. 301. 66 Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary. 163. 67 See for example the list in Murphy, Ecclesiastes. xxix. in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, eds. G. Johannes ”, לבה “ ,K. Seybold 68 Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1978). 313–315. use elsewhere makes it clear [ לבה ] Cf. Seybold, who states that: “A comparison with its 69 that Qoheleth knows and uses all its nuances.” Ibid. 318. 70 Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 101–102. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 283 point out the unpredictability of its coming. Second, because verse 9 is part of a section (vv. 7–10), which is characterised by its many imperatives urging to use life in the full here and now. Finally, verse 9b gives an explicit reason for why one should enjoy life with one’s wife. That is, “for that is your portion in life and in your toil which , קלח you have toiled under the sun.” In other words, in this verse the noun ‘portion’, refers to enjoyment of one’s wife. Elsewhere, the noun is also used about enjoyment of one’s assigned lot of toil and works (Eccl 2:10; 3:22),71 and food and drink (Eccl 5:17–18 [ET 5:18–19]). In light of verse 1, which strongly emphasises God’s sovereign power, and verse 7, which defifnes enjoyment becomes the קלח ,([as God’s free gift (cf. also Eccl 2:24; 3:12; 5:18 [ET 5:19 portion or assigned lot, given by God, which people can enjoy, or should enjoy when they can, because in death there is no such portion available (Eccl 9:6, cf. 9:10).72 Verse 10 Verse 10 might be regarded as a conclusion to this section. It concludes that the reader, the ‘you’, should do all that he is able to do, and make the most of it: “all which your hands fifnds to do, with strength do it.”73 The reason given Sheol, the underworld’. Sheol‘, לואשׁ for this urgent message is the reality of is to be understood as parallel to death (Ps 89:49; Prov 5:5; 7:27), thus the encouragement to enjoy life in verses 7–10 is framed by a reminder of the reality of death (vv. 6, 10b). The argument of Qoheleth is: that which one is able to enjoy and do, one no thoughts ,( השׂעמ ) should do, because in Sheol there are no work or action In other words, both .( המכח ) and no wisdom ( תעד ) no knowledge ,( ןובשׁח ) physical and mental processes are discontinued;74 Sheol is a state of non-life. For Qoheleth death is the fifnal end of existence (Eccl 3:18–20).75

toil’, is another of Qoheleth’s key concepts, which he uses to describe the lives of‘ , למע 71 in ”, למע “ ,humans. It “denotes the ceaseless toil that characterizes human existence”. B. Otzen Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, eds. G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001). 200. It is wearisome (2:18–23; 4:6, 8), but it bear fruit, which is to be enjoyed (2:10, 24; 5:17–18 [ET 5:18–19]), even though it is flfeeting. Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 55. 72 Cf. Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 58. 73 Cf. for example Longman, The Book of Ecclesiastes. 231. Murphy, Ecclesiastes. 93. 74 Longman, The Book of Ecclesiastes. 231. Murphy, Ecclesiastes. 93. 75 Cf. the discussion in James L. Crenshaw, “The Shadow of Death in Qohelet,” in Urgent AdviceandProbingQuestions:CollectedWritingsonOldTestamentWisdom, ed. James L. Cren- shaw (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1995). 577–579. 284 chapter eight

Verses 11–12 Verse 11 In verse 11 Qoheleth relates fifve different examples of cases or situations where the outcomes are not as could be expected. The fifrst two cases are examples of people, who have superior physical skills which normally are expected to ensure them success. The last three cases concern the wise and knowledgeable and their presumed advantages, due to their wisdom and knowledge. In short terse statements Qoheleth points out that the expected results are not achieved. The point is probably not that people with these skills never experience success, but to emphasise that they can not be assured of it. 2Sam 2:18; Isa , לק ) First, the surprising assertion is made that the swift is unsure, as it is a ץורמ The meaning of the . ץורמ might not win the (18:2 hapax legomenon, but it is usually translated ‘race’.76 What kind of race it refers to is, however, discussed. It is suggested that it refers to an athletic contest,77 but it is also argued that it might refer to pursue in the course of a battle,78 or running as part of a courier commission.79 The main point made, however, is clear regardless of how the term ‘race’ is more closely defifned, namely that the one who is expected to win, due to hisorher superior speed, does not always come fifrst. Second, Qoheleth points out , רובג that the strongest might not emerge victorious from a battle. The term ‘strong, mighty’, is a common word for a strong or mighty soldier (1Sam is an ordinary word for battle or war (Josh המחלמ 1Chr 5:24), while ;14:52 4:13; 1Kgs 15:16, Eccl 3:8). Consequently, what is stated is that, contrary to what is expected, the mightiest soldiers are not assured of victory.80 Third, is not assured of bread. This assertion ( םכח ) it is stated that the wise contrasts with what was traditionally assumed, namely that being wise ensured being well sustained (Prov 14:11, 28:19). To lack food, or being poor, was considered as the fate of the lazy fool (Prov 20:13; 24:30–34).81 Fourth, Qoheleth further emphasises that the wealth is not for the clever. The noun denotes material wealth or riches (2Chr 9:22; Eccl 5:19), while the word רשׁע to‘ , ןיב I have translated ‘clever’ is a niphal participle absolute of the verb

76 See for example KJV, NAS, RSV and NRSV. 77 Ogden, Qohelet. 156. 78 Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 307. 79 Murphy, Ecclesiastes. 93. 80 Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary. 164. Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 307. 81 Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 307. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 285 discern, perceive, understand’. In this form the verb might denote persons of understanding or discernment, hence the translation clever82—understood as a parallel to the wise, cf. Prov 1:5. In the traditional wisdom thinking such persons were thought of as being blessed with riches (Prov 3:16; 14:24), while Qoheleth here states that there is no wealth for them. Fifth, and fifnally, it is emphasised that there is no favour for the knowledgeable (qal participle know’). The knowledgeable is another parallel to‘ , עדי absolute of the verb favour’, is another of the‘ , ןח .(the wise and clever (Prov 28:2, cf. also Prov 1:5 blessings which is thought to be the share of the wise and righteous (Prov 3:1–4), even regarded as better than riches (Prov 22:1). It might refer to the respect which the knowledgeable receive from people in general (Prov 3:34; 28:23),83 but in light of the previous statement I think it is probable that it here refers more specififcally to benevolence from those in power, who benefifted from the knowledge of the wise and knowledgeable.84 In other words, these fifve examples, in light of the understanding ofan ordered world, emphasise that, that which should normally have been the result of the different activities is not accomplished (cf. also Eccl 7:15–29). The reason why it is not accomplished is expressed in a short motivation for, because’, stating that ‘time and‘ , יכ clause, introduced by the particle .’them all ( הרקי ) encounter ( עגפותע ) chance which I have translated , עגפותע What is thus meant by the expression ‘time and chance’? In order to answer this question I will fifrst elaborate on -is often translated ‘chance’, but sometimes also as ‘inci עגפ . עגפ the noun dent’ or ‘happening’. As a noun it appears only twice in the Hebrew Bible, , ער here and in 1Kgs 5:18 [ET 5:4]. In 1Kgs 5:18 it is modififed by the adjective ‘evil’, and denotes a misfortune. As a verb the root denotes different kinds of meetings and encounters; planned and unplanned, positive and negative. But what does it mean here in verse 11? Scholars are divided in their opinions. Some, for example Whybray, regard the noun as referring simply to that which happens, without connoting either chance or intention.85 Others, -in many of its occur עגפ like for example Rudman, argue that, as the root rence refers to meetings which are “intended by at least one of the parties involved”, the noun probably expresses the idea of an incident or happening which is intended by God.86 Finally, quite a few scholars, and I agree with

82 So also for example Murphy, Ecclesiastes. 93. Longman, The Book of Ecclesiastes. 232. 83 Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. 308. 84 Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary. 164. 85 See for example Whybray, Ecclesiastes. 146. 86 Rudman, Determinism in the Book of Ecclesiastes. 40. 286 chapter eight

-as referring to a chance occurrence. The main argu עגפ them, understand ment in favour of this interpretation is that this seems to be the case in 1Kgs 5:18 [ET 5:4].87 When understanding the noun as conveying the idea of chance, a second question emerges: Is the noun used neutrally or does it have negative connotations, referring to a mischance or calamity? Even though the noun is not qualififed by an article, like in 1Kgs 5:18 [ET 5:4], I think thatalsoin this context it most probably refers to mischance or misfortune.88 This is so because it refers to outcome of acts which are contrary to what is expected in light of the skills of the persons performing these activities. To say it with Rudman: denotes something that prevents the strong from victory in war and the עגפ A swift from winning the race. In other words, it deprives those with a peculiar talent from experiencing the just reward of that talent.89 it is time to return to the expression , עגפ Having discussed the meaning of time and chance’. According to my understanding, this expression‘ , עגפותע is an example of a hendiadys, the main point thus being that misfortunes like the ones described in the fifrst part of the verse might happen toall.90 .’in verses 2–3) probably just means ‘to encounter הרקמ .cf) הרק The verb To sum up, verse 11 states that no one can be sure of what will be the result of their actions and activities in life, because misfortune is something that might happen to all. In verse 12 the argument is furthered through Qoheleth’s contention that humankind does not know its time. Verse 12 ?time’, to be understood‘ , תע Humankind does not know its time.’ How is‘ In the Hebrew Bible it may refer to “a specififc time, a span of time, or time in general”.91 In Ecclesiastes the term is frequently used to denote the idea of an appointed time, relating the concept of time theologically to God, the creator (see especially Eccl 3:1–11). God is the one who determines the times for what happens, both in the life of humans and in the cosmos. This

87 Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary. 164. 88 This is the common understanding of the commentators of the text. See, for example, Murphy, Ecclesiastes. 93. 89 Rudman, Determinism in the Book of Ecclesiastes. 39. 90 Cf. for example also Fox, A Time to Tear Down and a Time to Build Up: A Rereading of Ecclesiastes. 296. -in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, eds. G. Johan ”, תע “ ,Tryggve Kronholm 91 nes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001). 435. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 287 understanding is also found in other texts of the Hebrew Bible (Job 38:32, Ps 31:16 [ET 31:15]), and includes the understanding that there is a proper time in accordance with which humans should act (Prov 15:23).92 What is radical in Qoheleth’s message is that “… the mysteries of God’s appointed times are impenetrable not only to the swift, the strong, the intelligent, and the skilful, but also to the wise …”93 In other words, ‘humankind does not know its time’. The situation of humans not knowing their time is further explicated in and birds caught in a 94,( הדוצמ ) a comparison with fifsh caught in an evil net Like the fifsh and the birds, which, at one moment are swimming .( חפ ) trap or flfying freely, and in the next suddenly are caught in a trap, human beings evil‘ , הערתע might suddenly be ensnared, not by a net or a snare, but by time’. This comparison emphasises both the surprise of what happens—it might happen anytime, without any prior notice—and that it lies beyond the control of human beings. evil time’, in this verse refer to‘ , הערתע time’, and‘ , תע But what does more specififcally? Is it death, or is it a more general time of calamity, which is indicated? Scholars are divided in opinion at this point. One group of scholars argues that the comparisons with birds and fifsh caught in a trap, evil time’, indicate that it is death‘ , הערתע together with the expression which is alluded to here, as to be caught in a net or a snare will lead to death. The point is then that “no one, including the wise, is aware when his end will come”.95 Others argue that verse 12 explicates further on the last sentence in verse 11 (time and chance encounter all), and hence that it is primarily times of calamity, or unexpected misfortune, which is meant, even though it might include the time of death.96 I agree with the latter group that, in light of the connection between verses 11 and 12, it is most probable time of calamity, or misfortune, which is meant by the evil time that might fall upon humans anytime. But I also think it is likely, in light of the wider context (Eccl 9:1–12), that the time of death is included into that which human beings do not have sure knowledge of.

92 Ibid. 447–449. cf. also Von Rad, Wisdom in Israel. 229. .449 ”. תע “ ,Kronholm 93 evil’, probably is to be understood as emphasising that the net is‘ , הער The adjective 94 bad news for the one who is caught, it is not to be understood in moral way. So also Rudman, Determinism in the Book of Ecclesiastes. 47. 95 Longman, The Book of Ecclesiastes. 233. Cf., for example, also Fox, A Time to Tear Down and a Time to Build Up: A Rereading of Ecclesiastes. 297. Ogden, Qohelet. 157. 96 For example Whybray, Ecclesiastes. 146. Shields, The End of Wisdom: A Reappraisal of the Historical and Canonical Function of Ecclesiastes. 205. 288 chapter eight

Summary Verse 1 states, in contrast with traditional wisdom teaching, that the righteous and wise have no assurance of blessing. God is the one in charge of human lives and futures, and human beings have no insight into his works and plans. Verse 11 reinforces the point that there is no guaranteed connection between act and consequence, while verse 12 reinforces the emphasis that humans lack knowledge and are not in control of what awaits them. Further, the text stresses that there is no advantage for the wise and righteous with regard to death, either. All people, regardless of moral and cultic observance face the same fate, namely death (vv. 2–3), and nobody knows of or are in control of the time of their death (v. 12). God only has control of the times of human beings. The uncertainties of life, the lack of advantage for the wise, coupled with the knowledge that death might occur any time, leads Qoheleth to urge his readers to enjoy life, and to make the most of life’s opportunities, when they are given the possibility to do so (vv. 7–10). This encouragement is framed by an elaboration on what death implies, namely the absence of all that characterises life; passions, works, knowledge and thinking (vv. 5–6, 10), hence indirectly stressing what the goods of life are like.

Interpreting Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 in Response to Thai Buddhist Interpretations

In the following section I will address three issues as a response to the Thai Buddhist interpretations of the text. These are: First, how is one to live one’s life in the shadow of death? Second, can death be characterised as khraw? Finally, I will address the question of the relation between God and human beings, and its consequences for human freedom and knowledge.

Life in the Shadow of Death97 How is one to live one’s life in the shadow of death? How can one live one’s life in the knowledge that time is limited, and death—whose time of coming is unpredictable—is an unavoidable fact? In other words, how is life to be lived in the best possible way when one has it?

97 The heading is inspired by Crenshaw, who titles his exposition of Eccl 9:1–10 “The Shadow of Death”. Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes: A Commentary. 158. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 289

These are questions which came into focus through the Thai Buddhist readings of the text, and which, as the interpretation of the text in its textual context has shown, reflfect central issues in the text. As the questions reveal, in an interpretation of Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 the issue of how to live one’s life in the best way possible has to be understood on the background of, or in light of, death as the inevitable outcome of human lives. In the textual analysis we have seen how the encouragement to enjoy or use life to the full is based on Qoheleth’s argument that all people will eventually share the same fate, namely death, which marks the end of all human efforts and feelings. In addition, we have also seen that the uncertainties of human life with regard to what awaits a person more generally, or what will be the outcome of a person’s acts and deeds, contribute to Qoheleth’s reflfections on how life should be lived. Further, the textual analysis has shown that the statement in the text that there is hope for the living, together with the urgent encouragement to life, makes it reasonable to conclude, like the Thai Buddhist readers did, that there is a very strong emphasis in the text on using one’s life in the best way possible. On the basis of the study of the Thai Buddhists interpretations of the text, and the analysis of the text in its textual context, it has, however, become clear that what is meant by ‘in the best possible way’ depend on how death is understood, and what role life plays in relation to death. Therefore, in the following I will fifrst compare the interviewees’ understanding of death—and the role of life in relation to death, to the understanding of death in Ecclesiastes 9:1–12. Then, secondly, I will discuss the different understandings of what it means to use one’s life in the best possible way, and point out similarities and differences between these and the emphasis in the text itself.

Death—And the Role of Life in Relation to Death Most of the Thai interviewees do not think that death mean the end of existence (see ch. 4). That is, they believe that even though death certainly means the end of the existence in this life—and also might mean the end of an existence as a human being—, it does not normally lead to extinction from samsara, the conditioned world of rebirth.98 As a consequence, the

98 We have seen that for the interviewees, as for most Thais, the possibility of entering Nibbana is thought to be out of reach for ordinary people. Hence they are not to concerned with the issue of kamma that ends kamma, or the way to enlightenment. P.A. Payutto, Good, Evil and Beyond: Kamma in the Buddha’s Teaching, trans. Bruce Evans, 2nd. ed. (Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation, 1996). 73. In order to be released from suffering (dukkha), 290 chapter eight interviewees regard death as a crossing point into a new existence, either into the human realm again, or into one of the fifve other possible realms of rebirth, and not as the end of existence. When interpreting the text in light of its textual context, Qoheleth’s understanding of death appears to be quite different from the interviewees’ understanding as described in the previous paragraph. In his opinion, death means the end of life, the end of existence as such. All that characterise life—for example emotions, actions, knowledge and thoughts—come to an end in Sheol. There is no indication in the book of Ecclesiastes of a hope of afterlife in heaven, or fear of hell. Death is regarded as the inevitable end of all human life, and there is no concept of rebirth into other forms of existence, like for example as spirits or gods or animals. Most of the interviewees, however, in their reading of the text, seem to have read the text with the pre-understanding that Qoheleth reckons with a life after death, either in heaven or hell. As noted before, this pre- understanding was predominantly formed by their understanding that the wisdom texts were Christian texts. Hence they did not grasp the crucial difference between the text and their own understanding in this matter. This led them to conclude that the motivation in the text for using one’s life in the best way possible is quite similar to their own Buddhist understanding (see below). Some of the interviewees, however, did notice that the text seems to emphasise the fifnality of death. Among these were the two interviewees, who themselves did not believe in rebirth. This group then interpreted the encouragement in verses 7–10 somewhat differently from the others (see below).

Using Life in the Best Possible Way According to the majority of the interviewees, verses 7–10 admonish not to be careless, but do good deeds in preparation for a next life. This interpretation is dependent on the understanding of death and rebirth which is outlined above. With regard to rebirth, the interviewees understood kamma

however, it is necessary to be freed from the continued circle of rebirths. Hence death is normally not considered as the end of suffering. Seree Lorgunpai argues that it could be argued that for Qoheleth death is the end of suffering, as it is the end of everything. But I agree with him that this is not Qoheleth’s main focus, he is more concerned about how the fact of death contributes to human experience of suffering. See the discussion in Seree Lorgunpai, “World Lover, World Leaver: The Book of Ecclesiastes and Thai Buddhism” (Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 1995). 255. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 291 to play a crucial role. This is so, because the movement between rebirths is thought to be governed by the law of kamma. This means that a person’s rebirth is dependent on his or her kamma. Hence, a person’s way of life becomes crucial with regard to what kind of rebirth may be expected. It is this understanding that forms the background of most of the interviewees’ understanding of what it means to use life in the best possible way. To use life in the best possible way is understood as not being careless. This means, for most of the interviewees, on the one hand, not to be careless in doing good deeds preparing for next life, and on the other hand, not to be careless with regard to evil acts, but avoid doing bad deeds. Further, the urgency in Qoheleth’s advice might, according to the interviewees, also be understood on the background of the teaching of kamma and rebirth. As the human life is a privileged position, where one can perform good kamma which might secure a better rebirth, it is important to use this opportunity when one has it. In addition, the interviewees agreed with the emphasis in the text that no one knows their time of death; it might come totally unexpected. Hence, one ought to be mindful in the here and now. In addition to the understanding of not being careless in terms of ethics, one of the interviewees pointed out that not being careless with life could be connected to the Buddhist teaching of the Middle Way, as a way of moderation and non-attachment. That is, Buddhism teaches a way of practice which aims at helping people not to become, or stay, attached to what they might perceive as permanent entities, but which in reality is impermanent. Also this way of understanding reckons with rebirths, but the fifnal goal of the Middle Way of practice is not a better rebirth, but an escape from all rounds of rebirths—escape from samsara. According to my understanding, however, Qoheleth’s admonition in verses 7–10 must be interpreted on the background of death as the fifnal end of all there is, and the unpredictability of the human situation in this life. I would argue that for Qoheleth the main point is that people ought to use the opportunities which life offers in the best way possible. For him this life is not a preparation for an afterlife, but is the single life a person is given, for better or worse. Even though this life offers a mixture of happiness and suffering, pleasure and toil, and can be characterised as arbitrary, incomprehensible, and ephemeral—, it is to be preferred— לבה to death, where there is no more portion in anything of that which constitutes life. As a consequence, Qoheleth encourages his readers to enjoy the goods of life, and to use the strength and ability one has to participate in work and thought. Hence, the understanding of what it means to use life 292 chapter eight in the best way possible is different from that held by many of the interviewees. Concerning the reasons for the urgency in which Qoheleth encourages people to enjoy life, the most important is, as the interviewees also pointed out, that the time of death is not known to anyone. From the point of view of the text in its textual context, however, the point is also made that life seems to be utterly unpredictable, and that eventually everything, including death, is in the hands of God, whose actions and plans are impenetrable for human beings—including the wise and righteous. Whether one is to experience happiness or suffering, or whether one will be rewarded according to one’s talent and skills cannot be known. But as long as one is able to enjoy life, to work and think, however, this should be regarded as a gift, or a favour, from God and be embraced. In other words, the focus is not on doing good deeds in order to prepare for a better future, but to embrace life’s opportunities as they are offered in the here and now. Those among the interviewees who found the text to stress the fifnality of death, did interpret verses 7–10 in accordance with what I think is the way of thinking in the text, namely that it encourages its readers to enjoy life when one is able to do so. When comparing this to their understanding two main lines of thought emerge. First, one of the interviewees, Mr. Deecha, stated his agreement with the way of thinking in the text. He did not believe in kamma and rebirth and found that the encouragement of Qoheleth to enjoy, and use the opportunities life offers is the only sensible thing to do in light of impending death. A critical objection was raised by another of the interviewees, Ms. Laksami. She argued that this way of thinking, reflfected both in the text and in modern Thai society, would lead to a materialistic and amoral society where people care only about themselves. Second, the other interviewee who did not believe in kamma and rebirth, Ms. Laddawan, interpreted Qoheleth’s advice to be characterised by panic. Instead of just accepting the fact of life, that death is its inevitable outcome, Qoheleth urges one to use the day today as if were the last. In Ms. Lad- dawan’s opinion, death is a natural part of human life, and one should not be too much worked up about this fact, but rather live one’s life as normal. In other words, she questions the whole idea that the knowledge of death should inflfuence life in any special way. In light of the comparisons in the preceding paragraphs, I think that Dr. Phimpan’s comment is appropriate, namely that “… the notion that one should not be careless in the use of one’s life, but be aware of death, is similar, but the method of how to use life is different”. In other words, there interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 293 is a shared understanding between Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 and Thai Buddhists that one should not be careless with life. But as to what this means in more detail the two have different angles. Summing up, there are three main ways of understanding what it means to be careless. First, it is not being careless in doing good kamma, while preparing for a better rebirth. This is based on a different presupposition concerning life and death than what is the case in Ecclesiastes 9:1–12. Sec- ond, it is living a life of moderation, not being too attached to the things in this world. This is based on an understanding of everything in this world as not having a permanent existence and that becoming attached to them only leads to suffering, and also to further rebirths. Finally, one should not be careless with life, but enjoy the goods that it offers. The last understanding is the one that Qoheleth advances. From one point of view the advice to enjoy life in the here and now is criticised for encouraging egotism and materialism. I agree that this might be a danger, but I do not think it is a necessary conclusion. It depends on a wider set of values, what kind of values which frame the advice. For Qoheleth however, I think, his main focus was on how to deal with the uncertainties of life, and fifnding a meaning to life. Further, this way of approaching life might be criticised as leading to attachment to that which is impermanent. Life can thus be seen to bind one closer to samsara, and as such Qoheleth’s advice might reveal a person, who cannot let go, but attaches or clings to the impermanent things of life. On the other hand, it could also be viewed more positively as a person living in the present, who takes things as they are, here and now—also a Buddhist ideal.

Can Death Be Characterised as Khraw (เคราะ)? Due to the confusion created among the interviewees by the use of the term khraw in Ecclesiastes 9:1–12, I think that in a response to the Thai Buddhist interviewees’ interpretations of the text, it is necessary to address , הרקמ the question whether khraw is a proper term to use as a translation for ‘fate’. This will be the theme of the following brief discussion. In the text from Ecclesiastes 9:1–12, death is characterised as the one fate which befalls all humanity, regardless of moral quality or religious and cultic which in the , הרקמ observance. As already noted, it is the Hebrew term in Eccl הרקמ Thai Bible is translated khraw. The investigation into the term 9:2–3, especially on the background of its use in the book of Ecclesiastes, has shown that in Ecclesiastes it is exclusively used in context with death. 294 chapter eight

The term conveys the idea of an occurrence or event which just happens to someone independently of them willing it or not. In other words, it occurs outside their control. When used to characterise death, it underlines the unpredictability of death, and that humans have no control of this decisive event. As time of death in Ecclesiastes—and also in our text (Eccl 9:1–12)—clearly is in the hand of God, it is not likely that the term conveys the idea of pure chance. The question is then if the term khraw has the same connotations as or not. According to the interviewees who commented , הרקמ the term on the term, they argued that in a Thai context khraw basically expresses the idea of bad luck. This they further explained as happenings without a clear cause—which might happen to some people, but not to others—, in other words, chance happenings. It might be used about death, but not as a general of death, only certain cases of death which seem to be bad luck. According to my understanding, then, the word khraw does not in a suffifciently clear way express the ideas, which are implied bytheword . הרקמ Hence it is not a proper word to use as a translation of the term . הרקמ Which word is a more adequate rendering is, however, a theme to be dealt with by the Thai Bible translators.

“Whether It Is Love or Hate, Humans Do Not Know”99 In addition to the theme of how life should be spent in light of the inevitable fact of death, another major theme also came up in the Thai Buddhist interpretations of Ecclesiastes 9:1–12. It was the question of God and his role with regard to human life and destiny. Most of the interviewees, who commented on this theme, took as their point of departure the statement in verse 1 that “whether it is hate or love, humans do not know”. Hence, in the following discussion I will do the same. The text’s statement that ‘whether it is hate or love, humans do not know’ was by one group of the interviewees understood as expressing that human beings have no way of knowing what the future brings. This lack of knowledge was regarded as being due to the fundamental belief, which the interviewees found to be expressed in the fifrst half of verse 1, namely that God is in charge of human life and destiny. What do the interviewees mean stating that humans are not in charge of their own destiny? For them this is connected to the question whether there is a connection between act and

99 A statement in Eccl 9:1. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 295 consequence: Do people receive the consequences of their own acts and are they consequently in charge of their own destiny, or is it God who decides what people are going to meet in life? The interviewees interpreted the statement ‘whether it is love or hate, humans do not know’, combined with the emphasis of God’s governance, as expressing that there is no inherent connection between act and consequence, but that God is the one who allocates the consequences. Further, they understood the text as stating that there is no way for humans to know what God will do. Hence, in their opinion, the text teaches differently from Buddhism, which teaches that people are in charge of their own destinies through their own acts (more on this below). Another group of interviewees interpreted the statement ‘whether it is hate or love, humans do not know’ as relating to humans’ present situation rather than to their future. That is, the statement is regarded as being a description of the inability of humans to know the cause of, or the reason for, their present situation in life. This way of interpreting the phrase is, however, based on the same presupposition, which is outlined above. That is, regardless of who they are, and what they do, humans cannot know what will meet them in life, because they are under God’s control and do not have insight into God’s plan. In other words, there is no discernible connection between humans’ way of life and what will meet them in life. Hence human beings cannot be said to be in control of their own fate or destiny. They depend on God, his will and plans. This way of understanding the basic presupposition of the statement ‘whether it is hate or love, humans do not know’ is quite close to what I, in the discussion of the text in its textual context, concluded with regard to the interpretation of verse 1. In my opinion, Qoheleth both emphasises the all-encompassing control and power of God, and radically questions the basic assumption in traditional wisdom thinking of a clear correspondence between act and consequence. Consequently he also questions the ability of humans, even the wise and righteous, to be in control and know how life will turn out. Comparing this way of thinking about the human situation to how the interviewees themselves, as Buddhists, viewed it, the following three questions come into focus. First, are humans in charge of their own destinies, or phrased a bit differently; are they free to form their own destinies? Second, to what extent can people have knowledge about what awaits them in life? Third, based on the answers to question one and two, what are the implications of this for human lives? In the following, I will address these three questions. 296 chapter eight

First, are humans in charge of their own destinies? Are they free to form their own destinies? As noted above, Qoheleth seems to imply that humans are not in charge of their own destiny. On the contrary, they are under God’s control. God is in control of human times; hence the nature and time of events are out of human control. This way of understanding is different from how the interviewees understand the question of human destiny. According to their understanding—as Buddhists—people only have themselves to rely on; they determine their own destinies through their own acts (kamma).100 Some of the interviewees, however, argued, based on verse 11, that the text also seems to emphasise the opportunity of human beings to change or form their own destines. Decisive for this interpretation was the understanding ,โอกาส denotes chance .( עגפ of โอกาส (okat, the Thai translation of the noun but mainly in the sense of opportunity and that is how the interviewees understood it here. Thus verse 11 was seen to make the point that people are free to act and determine their future through their acts. A person is not determined by his or her situation in life, like as for instance one of the verse’s examples show; a person who is not very fast, might win the race. In order to make sense of both the statements of vv. 1 and 11, a couple of the interviewees suggested that God might have allocated human beings the freedom to be in charge of their own destinies. He has made it so that acts are kammic acts, that is acts which have inherent consequences, and hence people are in charge of their own destines. In my opinion, this understanding of the text is not possible in light of is not opportunity, but rather עגפ an interpretation in textual context. A misfortune or accident. Quite to the contrary of what the interviewees thought, verse 11 underscores the point that no one is assured that one’s acts will be followed by corresponding consequences, and the continuation in verse 12 makes clear that human beings are not in control with what happens in their life, misfortune and death might happen to all, anytime. Behind this looms God, who is the one in charge of human times. A fifnal issue with regard to the question whether humans are incharge of their own destiny, is the question whether human acts are based on free choice. Most of the interviewees took it for granted that, in light of the admonitions in verses 7–10, the text implies that humans are free to act the way they want. But some of the interviewees, in light of verse 1, argued that the text seems to imply that human freedom to act is limited. As we

100 For a more extensive elaboration of the interviewees’ way of thinking with regard to this issue, see ch. 2. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 297 have seen in chapter 4, Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak, argued that there is no real freedom of choice when people are thought to be in the hands of God; that is, subjected to God and his law. This they found to be very different from Buddhism, where it is emphasised that humans are totally free to choose how to act. The point of view that humans are determined with regard to how to act is also contended by some scholars reading the text in its textual context. But, in my opinion, their argument for such a view is not convincing. According to my understanding Qoheleth seems to take for granted that humans can choose their way of acting and behaving, even though they cannot determine, or have knowledge about, how life will turn out. Second, to what extent can people have knowledge about what awaits them in life? Qoheleth seems to emphasise that contrary to what was commonly believed, there is no sure connection between act and consequence, and that the wise can neither know nor be assured that there will be good results of their acts, or that they will meet with favour in life. People are not secured the expected results of their skills. Misfortune can happen to all, and death—the fifnal end of life—comes unexpectedly to anyone, regardless of moral and cultic qualities. As we have already seen, this was how many of the interviewees interpreted the text. But, even though they did not agree with the view that there is no sure connection between act and consequence, most of the interviewees in fact, agreed with the text in that people do not normally know what awaits them, whether it is love or hate, good or bad.101 For Qoheleth this is due to the break with the traditional understanding of an ordered world and his understanding that humankind lacks insight into the workings of God. The reason according to Buddhism, they argued, is that ordinary people neither have full insight into their former kamma, nor the intricacies of the workings of the law of kamma. In other words, there is a similarity between the text and the interviewees with regard to the understanding that there is a limit to human knowledge concerning their future. It should be noted, however, that for a Buddhist this lack of knowledge may be attributed to lack of wisdom and insight. At least this is how Dr. Somsri saw it. She contended that if one is a wise person, one has knowledge,

101 It should be noted, however, that one of the interviewees, Dr. Somsri, radically questioned both Qoheleth’s and the other interviewees’ contention that people cannot know what awaits them. She pointed out that people, if they are truly wise, they have insight into their former acts (kamma) and as a consequence they are in the position to know what awaits them. 298 chapter eight based upon insight into former and present acts, about what will be the result of one’s acts and deeds. So, from her point of view, both Qoheleth and others, who stress that the future is unknown, reveal their lack of wisdom. Qoheleth, however, would not have agreed with her analysis. In fact, it is rather this way of thinking which he radically argues against. His experience and observation have namely convinced him that reality as it was previously thought to function does not seem to work that way, hence he fundamentally questions the advantages of being wise. Third, what are the implications of the understanding of “whether it is love or hate, humans do not know”, for how humans should think and live? Some of the interviewees suggested that as both Qoheleth and Buddhists think that the future is unknown, it could be argued that in practical life, the implication of both the teachings of Qoheleth and Buddhism is that one should concentrate on the present. A Buddhist knows that the present acts are decisive for life in the future; hence one should concentrate on doing good today. For Qoheleth one should regard the opportunities that life offers today as the gifts of God, and make the most of these gifts when one is able to do so. An important implication of the view that the future is not known to anyone was, according to Dr. Phimpan, that people are relieved of worrying about the future. She argued that an implication of the stress in verse 1, that everything is in God’s hand, is that people do not have to worry about the future, because there is nothing they can do about it. Hence they should concentrate on today, like Qoheleth argues in verses 7–10. According to her understanding this is similar to the Buddhist teaching that one should concentrate on today, and not worry about the past or the future. She further pointed out that from a Buddhist point of view, being attached to the past, or worrying about the future, is the cause of suffering. In my opinion, her comments open up for a further discussion of whether the fact that everything is in God’s hands might relieve people of suffering, because they can let go of their attachment to the past and future. In other words, the question might be raised if it is possible that belief in God might lead to non-attachment. Another implication, which was pointed out in the interviews, was that people who believe in God must rely on him. As they are not in charge of their own destinies, they must rely on God. This was regarded as very foreign to the interviewees who commented on the text. Qoheleth, however, does not draw this conclusion. His point is rather that the unreliability of life should lead to a focus on living life to the full when one is able to do so. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 299

Intermediate Conclusion

In this chapter I have discussed how Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 can be interpreted in light of, and as a response to Thai Buddhist interpretations and understandings of the text and its themes. First, I analysed the text in light of its textual context, taking as my main point of departure the main themes and issues which the interviewees found as relevant to discuss with regard to the text. I secondly proceeded to discuss how the text could be interpreted in response to Thai Buddhist interpretations. I dealt with that discussion under the three following headings: First, life in the shadow of death. Second, can death be characterised as khraw? Third, whether it is love or hate, humans do not know. Concerning the fifrst issue, we have seen that the interviewees understood the text to emphasise that, in light of death as an inevitable fate for all human beings, it is important to use life in the best way possible. On the background of most of the interviewees’ belief in rebirth and their understanding that the kamma done in this life is decisive for their next existence, the text was understood as emphasising that one ought not to be careless with life. That is, human beings ought not to be careless in doing good, but be mindful and avoid evil. In light of the investigation of the text in its textual context, I agree that the fact of death, and the unpredictability of its coming, is a main motivation for Qoheleth’s encouragement to enjoy or use life to the full. According to my understanding, it has, however, become evident, that the understanding of death, and hence what role life plays in relation to death, is understood differently by Qoheleth than by most of the Thai interviewees. Therefore, the understanding of what it means to use life in the best possible way also differs. According to my understanding, for Qoheleth life is not a preparation for an afterlife, but the only life a person is offered. In his opinion, life is unpredictable and nobody, not even the wise, can be assured of a blessed and long life. Therefore, his advice is to regard the blessings life offers as gifts from God, and enjoy them when one is still able to do so. This way of thinking was however, as we have seen, met with criticism from a couple of the interviewees. From one point of view, it was criticised as contributing to materialism and egotism, while from another point of view, as leading to attachment to that which is impermanent. Concerning the fifrst point, I think it might depend on how Qoheleth’s advice is heeded,and within what set of values the advice is read. However, I do not think it was his intention to further egotism; he was only concerned with fifnding a meaning 300 chapter eight to life in a flfeeting and unpredictable world. With regard to the last point, I think this is a criticism worth considering. I have argued, however, that as the advice in the text is rooted in a realisation that nothing is completely sure (except for death), Qoheleth might have agreed that one should not get attached to the things in this world. The second issue dealt with in the response to the Thai Buddhist inter- ,(fate) הרקמ pretations was the question if khraw is a proper translation of fate) be used to refer to death. Based on) הרקמ and can, in the same way as (fate) הרקמ an analysis of the term in its textual context, I have argued that is, in the book of Ecclesiastes, used in connection with death to express the idea of an event which occurs outside the control of human beings. In light of the interviewees’ understanding of the term khraw, as conveying the idea of bad luck—something which might struck some people, but others not—, I have concluded that the term does not, in a suffifciently clear way, seem to .(fate) הרקמ express the ideas which are implied by the word The fifnal issue which I discussed, in response to the interviewees interpretation of Ecclesiastes 9:1–12, was the problem of God’s role with regard to human life and destiny. According to my understanding, the text emphasises the all-encompassing control and power of God, and questions the basic assumption in traditional wisdom thinking that there is a clear correspondence between act and consequence. As a consequence, not even the wise can have sure knowledge of ‘whether it is love or hate’, which awaits them. The interviewees, who commented on verse 1, interpreted the text quite similarly to how I have outlined it here. They argued that, as the text stresses that humans are in God’s hand, it must mean that God is in charge of human destiny, and hence that human knowledge concerning their own destiny is limited. It was, however, by some of the interviewees, argued that the emphasis in verse 11 might be in conflfict with an understanding of humans as not being in charge of their own destiny. As we have seen, this interpretation is due to what I think might be a not very good translation of -chance). The word used in Thai, namely โอกาส (okat, oppor) עגפ the noun tunity/chance), made most of the interviewees read verse 11 as emphasising the opportunities of human beings to take control over their own lives. This, I have argued, is a misinterpretation. In my opinion, verse 11, together with verse 12, underscores that life is uncertain, and that human beings are not in control of their destiny. Further, some of the interviewees asked whether the emphasis on God as being in charge of human destiny implies that humans are not free to act the way they want. I do not think that this is an implication of the view in Ecclesiastes 9:1–12, since Qoheleth seems to take for granted that humans can choose to enjoy, act, and think. interpreting ecclesiastes 9:1–12 301

When comparing the text’s teaching with regard to the theme of God and human destiny to their own Buddhist understanding, the interviewees by and large argued that this teaching is different from Buddhism. The reason, they argued, is that Buddhism teaches that people are in charge of their own destinies through their own act. Nevertheless, many did agree with the emphasis of the text that people do not normally know what awaits them. But whereas for Qoheleth this is due to a limited insight into God’s plan, for the interviewees it is due to a limited insight into the workings of the law of kamma. Finally, several of the interviewees discussed implications of not knowing what the future brings. One of them, for example, argued that not knowing one’s future might relieve people of worries. Therefore, I have argued that a further point of discussion might be whether the fact that everything is in God’s hands could relieve people of suffering, because then they can let go of their attachment to past and future. chapter nine

CONCLUSION TO PART II

Introduction

In this part of the study (ch. 6–8), I have addressed the following two questions: First, from the point of view of an interpretation of the texts in their textual context, how do these texts answer the questions and issues raised in the Thai Buddhists’ own interpretations? Second, in view of the answers to the preceding question, and of the results from part one, how can the three texts be interpreted as a response to the Thai Buddhists’ own interpretations? In the intermediate conclusions to each chapter, I have summed up the main fifndings regarding these two questions. Hence, inthe following, I will, on the basis of the discussion of each text, suggest how these three texts together can be interpreted in a way that addresses the matters and concerns which were relevant to the Thai Buddhist readers. In addition, I will also brieflfy address some of the more separate issues which cameup in the Thai Buddhist interpretations of the texts.

“As You Sow, You Will Reap”

First and foremost, the previous discussion has affifrmed that an interpretation, which aims at taking into account the matters and concerns actual and relevant to the Thai Buddhist readers, has to address the theme of the act- consequence relation in light of Buddhist understandings of the teaching of kamma. Hence, I will now brieflfy present the three text’s contribution tothis theme, in light of, and as a response to, the interviewees’ understandings. I will organise the presentation under the following four headings: – “As you sow, you will reap”: the basic understanding – “As you sow, you will reap”: implications for human life and destiny – “As you sow, you will reap”: in light of experiences to the contrary – “As you sow, you will reap”: in light of death 304 chapter nine

“As You Sow, You Will Reap”: The Basic Understanding First, the texts can be interpreted with the aim to explore how the relation between act and consequence is to be understood. According to my understanding, it is the text from Proverbs 11:18–31, which, in light of its context in the book of Proverbs, presents the conventional way of understanding this relationship. This way of understanding further informs the framework which the other two texts relate to. As is the case with the Buddhist teaching of kamma, also Proverbs 11:18–31 emphasises that there is a correspondence between act and consequence. But whereas this correspondence is explained in terms of the law of kamma in Buddhism, it is, in the context of the book of Proverbs, regarded as being due to God’s created order. These two basic frameworks of understanding cannot be identififed as similar. The law of kamma is a natural law of cause and effect, where the effect is inherent in the cause, just as the fruit in the seed. Hence, the effect springs out naturally from the act or action itself. The created order of God, however, cannot be regarded as functioning automatically and independently of God, because God as creator is at work in and through it.

“As You Sow, You Will Reap”: Implications for Human Life and Destiny Second, the texts can be interpreted as indicating important implications for human life and destiny, based on the teaching of a correspondence between act and consequence. Two implications emerged as important to the interviewees, namely, the question of ethics, and the question of humans as being in charge of their own destiny. Hence I will brieflfy address these two. Even though the basic framework for understanding the relation between act and consequence is different in the teaching of Buddhism and the book of Proverbs, the implications of the teachings for ethics might be quite similar. That is, according to Buddhism, by acting (skilfully) in accordance with nature as it is, one will experience being in harmony with it, while on the contrary, by acting against nature disharmony will be the result. This way of thinking can be compared to the understanding which informs the sayings in Proverbs. That is, by being righteous, or living a righteous life, one’s life will be blessed—since this is a life in accordance with the good order created by God; while by defying God’s good order, one has put oneself outside the blessed path of the righteous. As a consequence, the only sen- conclusion to part ii 305 sible thing to do is to do righteous or skilful deeds, and avoid being wicked and unskilful. Or as some of the interviewees put it; do good and avoid evil. With regard to the implication of the teaching of kamma, namely that human beings are in charge of their own destiny, it could be said that Proverbs 11:18–31 seems to be closer to a Buddhist understanding than Eccle- siastes 9:1–12. It seems to be a premise of the admonitions and sayings of the book of Proverbs that persons are free to make a choice between the path of righteousness and the path of wickedness. Further, as we have seen before, the sayings are informed by an understanding that by living in accordance with God’s created order, i.e. on the path of righteousness, a person is in harmony or has shalom (peace, wellbeing). While by choosing the path of wickedness, i.e. defying God’s created order, disharmony will follow as a consequence. Therefore, one could argue that humans are in charge of their own lives and destinies, just as Buddhists are thought to determine their fate by observing the natural law of things and act in accordance with it. On the other hand, the emphasis in the book of Proverbs, on the freedom of God to work out his purposes, contrasts with the Buddhist teaching that everything is submitted to the natural law of cause and effect. The emphasis on God and his freedom and ability to work out his own purposes is, however, a major point in the book of Ecclesiastes. In the text from Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 it is emphasised that God eventually is in charge of human life and destiny, and his plan and purposes are hidden for humankind. Hence, with regard to this emphasis, the teaching of Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 differs from a Buddhist understanding.

“As You Sow, You Will Reap”: In Light of Experiences to the Contrary Third, in the interpretation of two of the texts, namely Psalm 73 and Ecclesi- astes 9:1–12, an important issue to address is the questioning in these texts of the basic premise, related in Proverbs 11:18–31, of a correspondence between act and consequence. These texts can be interpreted as addressing the common experience of a lack of coherence between act and consequence. The premise of the psalm is the expectation, which it shares with Buddhism, that a righteous and good life bears good fruit, while a wicked person meets with the corresponding results of his or her wicked acts. Whereas this incoherence is explained by most of the interviewees as being due to former kamma—in other words, that it can be explained within the framework of kamma—, the psalmist is not really trying to explain the reasons behind this experience. In other words, the focus in the psalm is not on giving a theoretical answer to the problem of the lack of incoherence, which, in light of 306 chapter nine the understanding that God acts in and through the created order, can be understood as a problem of theodicy. According to my understanding, the psalm rather relates the deepened understanding of the psalmist that it is the relationship with God, which is the good portion of the righteous, and not benefifts such as health, riches, and good standing in the community. Hence, the psalm can be considered a new interpretation of the conventional framework of understanding which, for example, is found in the book of Proverbs. The problem of a lack of coherence between act and consequence is also addressed in Ecclesiastes 9:1–12. Qoheleth has observed, and points out, that there is no guaranteed connection between act and consequence. But, like Psalm 73, he does not offer a theoretical solution to theodicy. The reason is, in the words of Antoon Schoors: “… that this is beyond his capacities, for man cannot fathom God.”1 Everything is in the hands of God, under his control, and human beings have no insight into his work and purposes. How the incoherence between act and consequence is explained also informs, to a certain extent, the answers to the questions of how to cope in a situation like the one described in Psalm 73. Here the psalmist and Qoheleth offer two different answers. For the psalmist the answer is to trust God, understood as relationship with God, while for Qoheleth it is to take the opportunities life offers to enjoy and use life to the full. For some of the interviewees this was a question of trust and insight into the law of kamma, while for others, it could be meditating on the basic matrix of reality as impermanent and hence ever-changing, or it could be to search the help of supernatural beings.

“As You Sow, You Will Reap”: In Light of Death From the interviewees’ point of view, the teaching of kamma and rebirth was crucial to their understanding of the emphasis in Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 regarding how to use one’s life in the best way possible. The acts in this life, determine the existence in next life, hence it is crucial not to be careless with life, but concentrate on doing good, and avoid evil. For Qoheleth however, the motivation for the use of one’s life to the full is based on a different premise. For him death is the end of all existence. Since it puts an end to all that characterises life, one must use the possibilities which life still gives.

1 Antoon Schoors, “Theodicy in Qohelet,” in Theodicy in the World of the Bible, eds. Antti Laato and Johannes C. de Moor (Leiden: Brill, 2003). 407. conclusion to part ii 307

Other Issues

Is the Way in Which the Psalmist Reacted to His Situation Illegitimate? (Psalm 73) The psalmist’s question, and especially the way in which he described his situation, evoked quite strong reactions among the interviewees. Many expressed a critique of the psalmist, interpreting his question and strong feelings as lacking trust, wisdom, self insight and self control. Hence, I think that the question, whether the way the psalmist reacted to his situation is illegitimate, needs to be addressed in an interpretation of the text, which aims at addressing the main concerns of the Thai Buddhist readers. My main response to the critique related above is that, in my opinion, the psalmist’s way from desperate questioning to an assured confifdence that he is always with God, is not a way from lacking faith to faith, but from trust to insight. Hence, I would like to argue that the psalmist could be said to heed the advice of Buddha to try out all faith assertions in practice, and question them, instead of blindly accepting that which is handed down by tradition. The psalmist’s way of reacting to his experience could then be said to be an example to follow on the way to deeper insight or understanding.

Trust and Refuge The question of how to understand trust and refuge was also an issue which emerged as a result of the Thai Buddhist interpretations of Psalm 73. When the interviewees commented on their own understanding of trust and refuge, two different emphasises emerged. One group of interviewees understood trust and taking refuge, for example in the law of kamma or the Triple Gem, as reliance on something outside themselves. This, they argued, could to a certain extent be compared to reliance on God. Another group of interviewees, however, emphasised that trust in the law of kamma, and taking refuge in the Triple Gem, eventually mean to rely on oneself, and is radically different from reliance on God. According to my understanding, the understanding of trust and refuge, which is implicated in the psalmist’s new insight into his problem, is different from how the interviewees perceived it. In the psalm, as I see it, to trust and take refuge is understood as having a relationship with God; living in communion with him. Hence, the issue of trust and taking refuge is an issue which needs to be further discussed in a dialogue with Thai Buddhists. 308 chapter nine

Attachment or Non-Attachment In interpreting Ecclesiastes 9:1–12, one of the interviewees—Dr. Phimpan— focused on the point that while Qoheleth encourages enjoyment of life, Bud- dhism teaches moderation. Buddhism teaches a way of practice—the Noble Eightfold Path (the Middle Way of practice)—which aims at helping people to be free from their attachment to what they might perceive as permanent entities, but which in reality is impermanent. The question is if Qoheleth’s way of approaching life could be criticised as leading to attachment to that which is impermanent. One the one hand, I think that is a possibility, but on the other hand, as also noted by Dr. Phimpan, the realisation that everything is in God’s hand might contribute to make persons stop being worried and attached to life, but take the days as they come, and relate to the opportunities they give. Therefore, it could be argued that the advice of Qoheleth to live for the moments could contribute to non-attachment. CONCLUSION

In this study I have discussed the problem of how Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73 and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 can be interpreted in light of, and as a response to, Thai Buddhist interpretations of the same texts. In order to answer the problem I have fifrst presented and analysed Thai Buddhist interpretations of the three texts under study (part I). The main fifndings of this analysis have been presented in chapter 5. Building on the results in part I, I have further discussed critically in part II how the texts can be interpreted in a response to the Thai Buddhist understandings of the texts and their themes. In the interpretation care has been taken to respect the texts’ meanings within their own textual contexts, while at the same time discussing the signififcance which the texts may have in light of a Thai Buddhist context. The main results of this discussion have been summed up and presented in chapter 9, hence they will not be repeated in detail here. My research has served two purposes. On the one hand it has aimed at identifying and analysing some Thai Buddhists’ understanding of three Old Testament wisdom texts, and how this interacts with an interpretation of the same texts in their textual contexts. This has been the quest for meaning in my study. On the other hand I have also aimed at employing and testing out the usefulness of a specififc method in Buddhist-Christian encounter in dialogue. Starting with the meaning of the texts, the analysis of the Thai Buddhist interpretations of the three texts has shown that the teaching of kamma was the central framework of understanding which the interviewees used in their interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31. It has also revealed that the framework of kamma played an important role with regard to their exposition of Psalm 73 and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12. Further, even though there were both a more dogmatically oriented, and a popularly oriented understanding at play with regard to what kamma is, and how it works, the interviewees to a great extent utilised the framework of kamma in similar ways. The framework of kamma was, however, not the only resource which the Thai Buddhists drew on in their attempts to understand the text. Other resources were also utilised in the interpretations of different aspects of the text. There were, for example, other points in Buddhist teaching, popular beliefs—such as beliefs in spirits and fate—, personal experiences, cultural values, and knowledge and understanding of Christian teaching. In 310 conclusion addition, it became evident that the Thai Buddhist interviewees did not only interpret the text with regard to their main points of teaching, but were also concerned with the implications and practical applications of the teaching. Together, this shows that an interpretation of Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73, and Ecclesiastes 9:1–12, in light of, and as a response to, Thai Buddhist interpretations must fifrst and foremost relate to the kamma framework. Further, it must also take notice of alternative or complementary frameworks of understanding, together with cultural values and a consideration of the interviewees’ pre-understanding of Christian doctrines related to the themes of the text. Finally, it must also take into consideration further implications of the texts, both with regard to doctrinal points and practical application. (See chapter 9 for more details.) Throughout the discussion, I have also aimed at addressing the more comprehensive question of method. That is, how biblical texts, in the course of interreligious dialogue, can be interpreted in a way which both communicates with Thai Buddhists and opens up for further dialogue about biblical issues and themes. More specififcally, I have aimed at exploring whether the method used in this thesis, namely of inviting Thai Buddhists to read and interpret biblical texts, and using their interpretations as a starting point for further interpretations and dialogue, could be a fruitful approach both to Bible interpretation, and interreligious dialogue between Christians and Buddhists in a Thai context. I conclude that this thesis has demonstrated the fruitfulness of such an approach, and for the following reasons. By inviting Thai Buddhists to read and interpret biblical texts this study has demonstrated that: First, one gains insight into what themes and issues in the texts which the Thai Buddhists fifnd most relevant to discuss, given their background and interests. As a consequence, one is ensured that the interpretation of the texts and the following discussion and dialogue are related to the context of the dialogue partner and not only reflfect the interests of the Christian interpreter. Second, one learns how the dialogue partners understand the texts to present and discuss the themes and issues under discussion. This knowledge gives the Christian interpreter important insight into whether he/she and the Buddhists dialogue partner perceive the themes of the texts in similar or different ways. Further, in the course of the conversation, the possibility has been opened for learning more about these, or related issues, from a Buddhist point of view, thereby gaining insight into the dialogue partners’ interpretive framework with regard to these issues. As a consequence, one conclusion 311 gets a good basis for an interpretation of the texts which can communicate with Thai Buddhists. Third, one gets insight into what the Thai Buddhists view as main conver- gences and differences between themes in the texts and their own understanding of them. Not only do their comparisons give deeper insight into the basic framework which informs their reading, but also into such questions which Buddhist readers and interpreters have to the texts and their themes. Fourth, one gets insight into some of the Thai Buddhists basic pre-understandings in relation to the Bible, Christians and Christianity. This makes one aware of what kinds of frameworks of understanding that are activated in the meeting with a Christian text. Knowing this is of help in the interpretation of the texts, as it enables the interpreter to relate to, comment on, and eventually correct, these pre-understandings in the actual interpretation of the texts. Fifth, when interpreting biblical texts in Thai Buddhist context, it is not suffifcient to discuss the texts with regard to their doctrinal teachings; one must also address their practical application for life. Additionally, by inviting Thai Buddhists from different walks of life, different age, gender, and occupations, this study has demonstrated that one gets a more comprehensive picture of the Thai Buddhist contexts than if one, for example, studies Thai Buddhism only on the basis of books or dialogue only with offifcial representatives of the Thai Sangha. Aa a consequence, the Christian interpreter has the opportunity to relate the texts to the actual issues and understandings, not only of religious specialists, but of common people as well. In other words, inviting different Thai Buddhists to a dialogue over biblical texts ensures a more context-sensitive interpretation. More generally this study has shown that, by giving Thai Buddhists a voice in the interpretation of the texts, one has a better chance of avoiding the danger of ignoring such issues and concerns as are important and relevant to address in a Buddhist context, than if the interpreter sets a strict agenda for the conversation about the texts. In addition, one opens up for a real engagement with the texts and their issues on the part of Buddhist readers, as their point of view is given a central part in the course of the conversation with the Christian partner in dialogue. Thus, I have shown that the method explored is a fruitful approach both to Bible interpretation and interreligious dialogue in a Thai context. It has demonstrated its usefulness as an approach in academic research for gaining empirical knowledge of Thai Buddhists’ understanding of Christian normative texts, as well as a step in practical Buddhist-Christian dialogue, 312 conclusion aimed at establishing Thai Buddhist interpretation of the normative texts of the Other. Therefore, based on my research, I will argue that in order to interpret biblical texts in a way which both communicates with Thai Buddhists and opens up for further dialogue it is a fruitful approach to do this interpretation as part of a process of dialogue, where the starting point is how Thai Buddhists read and interpret the biblical texts. Further, I think that the result of this study may contribute to the fifeld of interreligious dialogue in general, and specififcally to the methodological approach in such dialogue. The World Council of Churches’ Guidelines on Dialogue between People of Living Faiths and Ideologies make use of experience from previous events of dialogue and aim at providing useful guidelines for different kinds of dialogue, including inter-faith dialogue.1 In part III of these Guidelines the issue of “Learning and understanding in dialogue” is addressed and includes several guidelines for conducting such dialogue. In order to facilitate a more thorough understanding of each other’s faith, the importance of letting the dialogue partners reflfect, and freely present, their own faith, convictions, values and experiences are emphasised. In this study I have not only demonstrated how important it is that “Partners in dialogue should be free to ‘defifne themselves’” (Guidelines §4), I have shown that an approach where, in this case, Buddhists, as representatives of one faith in bilateral dialogue, are invited to engage in a study of representative texts of the Other—the Christian faith—have much to contribute to the actual practice of dialogue. My research has shown that an approach where the partners in dialogue are invited to read and interpret selections of each other’s important texts seems to be a good method fifrst, for enabling a development from the initial ‘getting to know each other’ phase, to a more thorough understanding of each other’s faith, and second, for opening up for in-depth dialogue about the themes and issues under discussion.

Suggestions for Further Research

As this study has been restricted to how three selected Old Testament wisdom texts can be interpreted in light of, and as a response to how Thai Bud- dhists read and interpret the same text, the response to the many central themes and issues raised by the Thai Buddhist readers has been addressed

1 World Council of Churches. Guidelines on Dialogue between People of Living Faith and Ideologies. Accessed 03.02.06 http://www.wcc-coe/wcc/what/interreligious/77glines-e.html. conclusion 313 exclusively within the framework of Old Testament wisdom thinking. Many of these issues need to be further explored in light of Thai Buddhist teaching and practice, not only within the context of Old Testament, but also within the New Testament and the wider framework of systematic theology. In addition, further research is needed in order to detect potential differences between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism with regard to the themes and issues raised in connection with the three Old Testament wisdom texts under study here. Further, my study is but one contribution to the methodological concerns of Christian-Buddhist dialogue limited to a study of Old Testament wisdom texts. Hence, how the method works with regard to the New Testament (for instance in a study of Gospel texts), and whether it will work well the other way round, namely by Buddhists inviting Christians to read some central texts from their tradition, and whether the method is also applicable as an important step in dialogue between Christians and representatives of other religions than Buddhism, need to be further investigated. APPENDIX

Interview Guide—English Translation

The texts—Proverbs 11:18–31, Psalm 73, Ecclesiastes 9:1–12 (discussed one by one) – Which text do you want to start discussing? – What do you think is the main message of the text? – Why do you think this is the main message? – As you see it, what kinds of topics are discussed in the text? – Follow-up questions to the different topics concerning how the interviewees understand that the topics are presented in the texts, and how they themselves think about the topics – From your perspective, what kinds of questions or problems does the text raise? – Do you think the text answers these questions or problems? What kind of answers did you fifnd that the text gives to these questions or problems? – Are these topics or problems something with which you are concerned? Why are you concerned, or why are you not concerned? – What are your feelings concerning these matters and the way they are handled in this text? – Do you agree or disagree with the way these topics or problems are presented or discussed in the text, and in the answers the text gives? Why agree/disagree? – What are your own thoughts or ideas on these topics or problems? – Are these topics or problems discussed in Thai society – Is there something in the text that is strange and unclear? – Is it something you want to add?

Final Question after Having Discussed All Three Texts

– When you now have read all three texts, what do you think of the connection between them? 316 appendix

The Bible

– Have you ever read in the Bible, or heard someone read or preach from the Bible? If yes, what did you read, hear? What was your purpose for reading the Bible text(s)? SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY1

Primary Sources

Dr. Phichai. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 3. August 2005. Dr. Phimpan. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 26. August 2005. Dr. Saichai. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 28. July 2005. Dr. Somsri. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 19. September 2005. Mae Chii Narumon. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 22. September 2005. Mae Chii Phornthip. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 20. September 2005. Mr. Chakkri. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 23. August 2005. Mr. Deecha. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 23. September 2005. Mr. Santi. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 4. September 2005. Mr. Wibun. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 18. August 2005. Mrs. Aporn. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 25. July 2005. Mrs. Chanpen. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 24. August 2005. Mrs. Chittra. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 19. September 2005. Mrs. Manee. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 26. July 2005. Ms. Laddawan. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 18. August 2005. Ms. Laksami. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 24. August 2005. Phra Songkran. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 14. Septem- ber 2005. Phra Suthep and Phra Phongsak. Interview conducted by Kari Storstein Haug. Bangkok, 1. September 2005. Thamjaruwat, Orawan. E-mail to Kari Storstein Haug, 13.12.2007. Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. eds. Karl Elliger and Wilhelm Rudolph. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1984.

1 To generate footnotes and bibliography, I have used the template ‘Turabian Bibliog- raphy’ in the computer programme End Note X. The bibliography is divided into “primary sources” and “secondary sources”. The secondary sources are organised alphabetically by author and chronologically by year. Under the heading “primary sources”, the interviewees are listed alphabetically by title; and followed by other sources. 318 sources and bibliography

Thai Holy Bible (in Thai). Bangkok: Thailand Bible Society, 1994. The Dhammapada. Translated by John Ross Carter and Mahinda Palihawadana. Oxford World’s Classic. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.

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Genesis 11 Numbers 1:30 205 7:14 279 2:15 271 17:20 210 3:14 212 18:31 278 5:24 247 22:23 198 9:4 236 22–24 207 12:12 239n24 33:52 241 15:1 278 21:21 282 Deuteronomy 24:3 282 6:4–9 241 26:9 236 7:25 196n57 26:16 250 7:26 196 27:16 244 10:9 248 30:2 207 10:12 271 30:10 250 12:19 277 30:28 278 12:31 196n57 37–50 13 15:18 192 40:10 210 17:1 196, 196n57 41:2, 5 239 18:12 196n57 41:57 207 21:6 243 42:3 207 22:5 196n57 42:6 207 23:18 196n57 25:1 189 Exodus 25:13–16 196 2:9 278 25:16 196n57 12:34 251 26:16 197 21:12–27 199 27:15 196n57 21:34 213 29:2–4 240 22:6–9 213 29:19 279 25:8 243 32:21 282 27:3 206 33:26 240

Leviticus 197, 241, 280 Joshua 19:13 191 4:13 284 20:14 282 24:26 243 21:23 244 22:21 197 Ruth 22:27 280 2:3 274 25:18 277 26:1 241 1Samuel 6:9 274 330 index of biblical references

1Samuel (cont.) Job 13, 234, 244, 251, 254, 14:52 284 256n57 17:43 277 3:20 239 19:10 200, 200n78 7:16 282 19:12 200, 200n78 12:13 247 20:26 274 15:9 244 24:6 197 18:3 251 25:37 197 21:15 271 25:43 282 21:34 282 30:17 200n78 22:7 207 23:11 250 2Samuel 24:23 277 2:18 284 25:5 213 3:39 214 27:20 245 4:11 213 30:15 245 9:8 277 33:23 204 17:10 277 38:32 287 18:14 197 Psalms 35, 89, 90, 97, 109, 1Kings 114, 115, 124, 168, 189, 3:4–20 13 189n28, 190n29, 196, 4:20–34 13 200, 235, 238, 240, 5:18 285, 286 246, 248, 249, 254, 15:16 284 256, 256n57, 257, 258 1 237 2Kings 1:1 247 9:23 241 1–41 234 15:6 239n24 2:11 271 18:19 276 4:6 277 18:21 277 4:8 197 5:6 238 1Chronicles 5:13 196 5:24 284 7:7 202 21:3 209 7:8 241 22:19 243 7:10 189, 251 7:17 240 2Chronicles 10:2 240 9:22 284 10:4 190, 242 11:2 206 Nehemiah 11:5 240 9:20 207 12:3 244 14:6 249 Esther 16:7 251 3:8 203n91 16:8 246 8:15 281 17:4 191 9:28 245 17:10 241 18:3 248 index of biblical references 331

18:17 241 65:5 244 19:15 248 67:35 240 22:5–6 200 68:36 244 22:16 277 71:19 241 23:3 246 73 1, 3, 5, 13, 14, 16, 33, 23:4 243 49, 65, 70, 83, 85, 86, 23:5 281 91, 95, 97, 98, 109, 24:4 237, 241 124, 127–129, 167, 168, 25:2 277 171, 173–175, 179, 223, 26:5 190 231, 234, 234n10, 237, 26:6 243 248, 249, 253, 258, 26:8 244 260–262, 305–307, 27:3 210 309, 310, 315 27:4 209, 244 73:3 238 27:11 246 73:7 241 29:11 239 73:11 190 31:4 246 73:12 191n40 31:6 271 73:17 243 31:16 287 73:24 246 31:19 240 73:25 175 35:19 241 73–89 234 36:9 206 74:3 244, 245 36:12 240 74:21 238 37 234 75:5 238 37:1 250 77:21 246 37:11 239 78:14 246 38:11 197 78:33 282 38:13 208 79:5 279 39:5–12 282 89:11 203, 203n91 42–72 234 89:49 283 43:3 244 90:10 239 44:19 250 90–106 234 45:8 281 91:2 249 46:1 249 92:7 238, 251 49 234 92:9 241 49:7 238 94:8 251 49:11 251 101:5 241 51:8 197 104:14–15 280 53:6 203, 203n91 104:35 238 55:10 206 106:4 196 58:12 236 107–150 234 59:6 277 112:9 203, 203n91 61:3 246 112:19 203 62:2 248 116:4 200 62:9 249v 119:70 241 62:10 282 119:165 239 63:6 241 139:10 246 332 index of biblical references

Psalms (cont.) 7:14 213n117, 213n118 141:7 203n91 7:27 283 147:11 280 8 221 147:16 203n91 8:2 241 8:13 194 Proverbs 13, 35–37, 37n2, 38, 8:18 190n33 41, 49, 51, 58, 63–65, 8:20 190n33 72, 73, 78, 80, 82, 8:33 211 83, 97, 119, 172–174, 8:36 194n50 181, 183–185, 187, 10–15 188, 190n30, 205 188, 188n22, 189, 10–22:16 204 189n26, 190, 190n29, 10:1–22:16 219 190n33, 191–194, 10:2 190n33 194n49, 194n50, 10:7 279 195, 196, 196n57, 10:11 194n50 197, 197n61, 197n62, 10:12 279 199, 199n75, 200, 10:14 210 202–206, 208–215, 10:25 191 216n130, 218, 219, 221, 10:27 190, 194 222, 224–229, 250, 10:28 202 304–306 11:1 196n57 1:2 244 11:4 191, 190n33 1:5 285 11:5 190n33 1:9 240 11:6 190n33 1:29–32 224 11:7 202 2:12 194 11:18 238n22, 190n33 3:1–4 285 11:18–21 237 3:5 210 11:18–31 1, 3, 5, 13, 14, 16, 33, 3:12 280 35, 37, 40, 42, 43, 50, 3:16 210, 285 57, 64, 73, 77, 79, 3:18 194, 212 81–83, 97, 98, 124, 3:22 194n50 127, 128, 167, 168, 171, 3:27 207 173, 179, 181, 182, 188, 3:31 250 220–223, 227, 228, 3:32 196n57 304, 305, 309, 310, 315 3:34 285 11:19 190n33 4:4 206 11:20 196n57 4:11 206 11:21 175, 200, 276 4:14 193n45, 194 11:24 203n91 5:5 283 11:24–26 169 6:13 206 11:27 197n61, 208 6:17 191, 241 11:28 277 6:29 199 11:30 205, 212 6:31 213, 213n118 11:31 69n118, 213n118 6:34 279 12:2 209 7:7 244 12:9 192 7:10 240 12:10 205 index of biblical references 333

12:11 194n48, 194n49 16:31 190n33 12:13 199n75 17:5 201 12:17 191 17:13 208 12:18 203n89 17:15 196n57 12:19 191 17:20 194, 197 12:20 194 18:11 241 12:21 199n75 18:21 194n50 12:22 191, 196n57 19:5 191, 200, 200n77 12:28 190n33 19:17 213n118, 214 13:2 205 19:20 211 13:4 206 19:21 247 13:6 190n33 20:10 196n57 13:7 203n89 20:13 284 13:12 202 20:17 191 13:13 213n118 20:21 225, 229 13:14 194n50 20:22 213, 213n118 13:17 210 20:23 196n57 13:19 205 21:1 271 13:21 213n118 21:3 227n152, 190n33 14:4 191 21:21 194n48, 190n33 14:11 284 21:25 202 14:12 203n89 21:30–31 225, 229 14:19 193, 208 22:1 210, 285 14:22 194 22:4 210 14:24 210, 285 22:8 190n32 14:27 194n50 22:14 210 14:34 190n33 22:27 213n118 15:3 208 23:17 250 15:4 212 23:19 211 15:6 22, 211 23:26 241 15:8 196, 196n57 24:1 250 15:9 190n33, 194n48, 24:16 194 196n57 24:19 190, 250 15:13 197 24:20 190 15:17 279 24:30–34 284 15:23 287 25:22 213n118, 214 15:26 196n57 26:11 277 16:1 225, 229 26:18 206 16:1–22:16 188 26:28 191 16:5 196n57, 201 27:4 279 16:7 280 27:9 281 16:8 190n33 28:2 285 16:9 225, 229 28:5 206 16:12 190n33 28:10 194 16:20 277 28:19 271, 284 16:21 197 28:23 285 16:23 197 28:26 200n77, 210 334 index of biblical references

Proverbs (cont.) 5:6 282 29:6 199n75 5:8 271 29:12 191 5:11 271 29:26 209n104 5:12 275 31:12 208 5:14 275 31:30 191, 282 5:17–18 279, 283 5:17–19 280 Ecclesiastes 2, 10, 13, 35, 85n1, 5:18 283 138n26, 168, 171, 172, 5:19 284 268, 268n8, 274–276, 6:1 275 279, 282, 286, 290, 6:3–6 277 293, 294, 300, 305 6:4 282 1:1–2 268 6:9 281 1:2 282 6:11 282 1:3 279 6:12 282 1:4 281 7:2 269 1:12 268n8 7:15 274, 282 1:12–18 270 7:15–29 285 1:13 269 7:17 275 1:17 269, 276, 276n45 7:21 271 2:7 271 7:25 269, 276 2:9–14 268 8:10–14 274 2:10 279, 283 8:10–15 273 2:12 276 8:14 273, 281 2:14 274 8:15 280 2:14–16 274 8:16 269 2:15 274 9:1 294n99 2:17 282 9:1–10 288n97 2:21 279 9:1–12 1, 3, 5, 13, 14, 16, 33, 2:24 283 129, 131, 132, 134, 161, 2:24–26 280, 281 164, 167, 168, 172, 179, 3:1–11 286 236n13, 265, 268, 3:2 275 269, 287, 289, 293, 3:8 284 294, 299, 300, 305, 3:12 283 306, 308–310, 315 3:13 281 9:2 155n78 3:13–14 280 9:2–3 274, 293 3:15 281 9:5–6 277 3:18–20 283 9:6 279, 283 3:19 274 9:7–9 277, 280 3:22 279, 283 9:9 279 4:1–3 274 9:10 271, 283 4:2 281 9:11 144, 144n49, 273, 274, 4:2–3 277 274n34 4:3 281 9:11–12 275 4:4 279 10:13 276 4:9 192, 278 11 282 index of biblical references 335

11:2 279 49:14 277 12:8 282 51:51 243, 244 14 282 Ezekiel 196 Isaiah 7:20 196 6:9–10 240 8:12 241 7:2 197 14:21 213 9:13 202 16:12 243 Daniel 18:2 284 1:5 239 30:7 282 35:2 210 Hosea 36:4 276 6:3 206 37:10 210 10:12 206 41:14 246 42:6 246 Joel 45:1 246 4:2 203n91 58:6 239 66:17 245 Zephaniah 1:2 245 Jeremiah 245 1:3 245 3:13 203, 203n91 1:15 244 8:13 245 25:11 18, 245 Matthew 42:18 245 27:24 243 INDEX OF SUBJECTS

Abidhamma Pitaka, 91n22 66, 66n110, 67, 68, 78, 80, 83, 105, abomination, 189, 195, 196, 196n57, 197, 106, 128, 132, 143, 146, 151, 153–155, 198, 217n131, 219 161, 162, 164, 165, 167, 168, 181, 185, admonition, 226, 228, 268, 296, 305 211, 219, 223–225, 228, 253, 254, 265, afterlife, 142, 143, 162, 165, 290, 291, 299 294–296, 298, 300, 301, 303–305 Anatta (devoid of self), 122, 138 Dhamma, 49, 51, 54, 55, 70, 80, 83, 121, Anicca (impermanence), 122, 128, 122, 123, 125, 133, 138n27, 160, 170, 136–138, 138n26, 138n27, 159n92, 225, 260, 262 162, 165, 170 Dhamma, law of, 55, 104 antithetical saying, 188, 190, 195, 203, Dhammaniyama (natural law 207, 208 governing the relation and approach interdependence of all things), anti-speculative empirical 55n75, 104, 104n62 approach, 187 Dhammapada, 59, 59n86, 60, 60n94, apologetic approach, 173n3 64n105 dialogical approach, 173n3 Dukkha (suffering), 122, 138, 138n26, appamada (carefulness), 134 289n98

Bhikkhunis (ordained female nuns), enlightenment, 7, 112, 140, 226, 255, 7n12 262, 289n98 Bijaniyama (natural law governing equanimity, 118, 118n101, 125 heredity), 55n75, 104n62 ethics, 73, 74, 133–135, 196n57, 226, 291, Buddhist-Christian dialogue, 13, 311 304 carefulness, 134 faith in God, 54, 65, 81, 96, 98, 171n2, careless, 132, 133, 133n7, 134, 137–143, 225, 255, 263 161, 163, 165, 172, 290–293, 299, 306 fate, 83, 102n54, 124, 128, 132, 137, 145, carelessness, 133, 140 148, 155–157, 157n84, 164, 168, 170, carpe diem passages, 280, 281 185, 210, 224, 229, 244, 245, 265, 267, chance happening, 274, 275, 294 270, 273–276, 276n47, 280, 284, 288, Cittaniyama (natural law governing 289, 293, 295, 299, 300, 305, 309 the workings of the mind), 55n75, fifve precepts, 7n12, 74, 75, 75n148, 81, 104n62 127, 137n21, 139n30, 226n151 communicative norms and strategies, flfeetingness, 282, 300 18, 19, 23, 24 foolishness, 92, 200n77, 267, 276 content, 93, 103, 106, 119, 120, 123, 136, 150, 163 giving and sharing, 35, 43–45, 47, 49, contentment, 100, 136, 137, 142, 165 74, 169 God’s governance, 146–148, 151, deliverance, 184, 200, 201, 221, 225 153–155, 161, 162, 164, 265, 295 destiny, 13, 36, 53, 63, 64, 65, 65n108, index of subjects 337 human freedom, 36, 64, 65n110, 78, khraw (fate), 132, 155, 156, 156n80, 144, 147, 151–153, 155, 164, 168, 172, 156n81, 157–161, 163–165, 265, 288, 225, 229, 288, 296 293, 294, 300 kreng jai (to have consideration for), interreligious dialogue, 1–3, 5, 10, 11, 21, 22 310–312 lament, 88–92, 94, 100, 113, 124, 127, 129, kamma, 7, 9, 14, 14n36, 36, 38, 39, 39n11, 169, 175 40–42, 42n24, 45, 46, 48, 48n47, 50, lokhadhamma (eight worldly 51, 53, 53n67, 56, 58–64, 64n104, conditions), 159, 159n92 65–73, 75, 77, 80, 82, 83, 88n12, lokiya path (path of the ordinary 92–94, 96–102, 102n54, 103–106, 108, people), 8, 46n41 109, 112, 118–120, 123, 124, 128, 134, lokuttara path (path of persons who 135, 139, 140, 141, 143–145, 146, 149, have renounced their civil life to 150, 152, 154, 155, 157–160, 162–165, follow the Noble Eightfold Path), 8 167, 169–171, 181, 182, 187, 221, 223, luck, 105, 145, 156, 156n81, 156n82, 157, 227, 253, 254, 254n54, 257, 258, 158, 158n89, 160, 163, 164, 254, 294, 260, 261, 289n98, 290–293, 296, 300 297, 297n101, 299, 303–306, 309, 310 mae chii (nun), 7n12, 23, 23n62, 27n69 akusala kamma, 39, 46, 51, 74, 75 Mahayana Buddhism, 313 kamma, law of, 14, 14n36, 35, 36, materialism, 135, 136, 162, 293, 299 38, 40–42, 50–58, 58n83, 59, 60, merit, 7, 8, 39, 43, 43n30, 44, 44n33, 45, 62, 63, 66–69, 71, 73, 78, 80–83, 46, 46n41, 47, 48, 48n47, 49, 50, 60, 85, 92–95, 97, 97n43, 98, 100, 61, 68, 73–76, 79, 81, 83, 101, 101n52, 104–107, 112, 114, 117–120, 122, 124, 102, 105, 107n71, 121, 122, 126, 128, 136, 126–128, 138n27, 146, 149, 163, 165, 136n17, 136n18, 139n30, 145n52, 260, 167, 168, 173, 174, 181, 182, 186, 187, 273 220, 222–225, 227, 228, 254, 256, Bun (merit), 44n33 260–263, 291, 297, 301, 304, 306, demerit, 145n52 307 merit-making, 44n32, 45, 47, 49 kammic acts, 39, 59, 62, 154, 296 merit-transference, 60n93 kammic results, 103, 104 meritorious act, 46, 77, 79, 83 khrawkamma, 155, 158 punna (merit), 44n33 kusala kamma, 39, 46, 46n41, 74, 75 meta-communication, 18n45, 19, 19n49 Kammaniyama (natural law govern- meta-communicative features, 20, ing the area of human behaviour), 22, 24, 24n66 55n75, 104n62 meta-communicative repertoire, karma, 14n36, 40n18, 59n85, 59n89, 22n61 61n97, 66, 66n110, 73, 120n105, mindfulness, 133, 134 158n89, 254 kamma-phala (result of karma), natural law, 40, 52, 53n67, 55, 55n75, 40n18 66, 80, 104, 105, 124, 126, 138n27, kamma-vipaka (result of karma), 174, 183, 184, 186, 187, 187n20, 221, 40n18 224n144, 229, 254, 305 karma, law of, 59n89, 65n110 natural law of cause and effect, 55, karmic prospect, 68 104n62, 105, 228, 304, 305 338 index of subjects

niyama (natural law), 55, 104n62, rebirth, 7, 8, 41n24, 42, 42n24, 49, 105 49n55, 66, 83, 139n30, 141, 142, 162, next life, 7, 48, 62, 67, 69, 69n120, 165, 169, 170, 255, 260, 262, 289, 290, 70, 90, 96, 96n41, 97, 97n42, 105, 290n98, 291–293, 299, 306 118–120, 124, 133, 135, 140–143, 222, samsara (repeated rebirth), 139n30, 290, 291, 306 141, 165, 289, 291, 293 Nibbana (enlightenment), 7, 8, 49, redemption, 52, 53 49n55, 255, 260, 262, 289n98 refuge, 64n105, 65, 66n110, 112, 116, 117, Noble Eightfold Path, 8, 134, 308 121, 121n109, 123, 125, 126, 234, 249, nomen rectum, 198n67, 205 252, 257, 259–262, 307 nomen regens, 198n67, 205 take refuge in Dhamma, 121, 126 take refuge in God, 116, 117, 125, 249, okat (chance), 144, 296, 300 259, 260, 262 take refuge in Triple Gem, 260, 262, parallelism 307 antithetical parallelism, 189, 190, reliance on God, 155, 307 192, 193, 193n42, 198, 200n77, 201, retribution, 54n72, 59n89, 97 207 divine retribution, 182, 183, 220, progressive parallelism, 213 273 synonymous parallelism, 205, 211, righteous (the), 53, 61n97, 69, 69n118, 249 71, 86, 99, 100, 113, 121, 124, 146, 159, synthetic parallelism, 188 183, 190, 194, 194n50, 198, 200–204, paticcasamuppada (Dependent 210–212, 214–217, 220, 222–224, 228, Origination), 148n64, 160n95 229, 240, 241, 248, 250, 252, 255, 256, Phra (monk), 27n69 262, 267, 270–272, 272n26, 273, 274, principle of cause and effect, 160, 161, 285, 288, 292, 295, 304–306 163 righteousness, 64, 98, 189, 190, punishment, 50, 54n72, 57, 68, 69, 71, 190n33, 192, 193, 193n42, 194, 78, 183, 186, 187, 199, 201, 203, 214, 194n50, 195, 204, 205, 211, 216, 221, 214n120, 215, 222 223–225, 237, 238, 246, 250, 252, 256, 305 relation act-consequence relation, 35–37, sammaditthi (proper understanding), 37n5, 38, 40–43, 45, 49, 50, 258 50n57, 51–55, 57–62, 62n100, sammanana (proper knowledge), 112, 63, 64, 66, 68–73, 76–83, 85, 258 89, 92, 93, 96, 96n41, 97, 98, 101, sammavimutti (the attainment of 105–109, 111, 113–120, 124–128, meaning), 258 143, 145, 151, 153, 154, 167–169, 171, Sangha (the ‘Community’ of monks 173, 181–187, 190–192, 194, 195, and nuns), 2, 2n1, 6, 6n7, 7n12, 198, 201, 202, 206, 207, 210–212, 27n69, 122, 260, 262, 311 214, 214n120, 215–218, 218n134, self-help, 64 219–224, 224n144, 225–228, 231, self-reliance, 64, 65n106, 151, 169, 225 239, 240, 248, 253, 254, 259–262, shalom (harmony), 238, 242, 246, 249, 273, 288, 295–297, 300, 303–306 252, 305 character-consequence relation, Sheol (death/the underworld), 267, 215 280, 283, 290 index of subjects 339 situatedness, 15, 25 vinaya (code of rules for monastic Sutta Pitaka, 91n22 life), 49 Vinaya Pitaka, 91n22 Thai Holy Bible, 28n70, 138n26, 144n49, 155n78, 212, 214n123 wicked (the), 52, 54, 57, 58, 69, 69n118, the Middle Way, 134n9, 291, 308 70, 79, 85, 86, 88–90, 92, 93, 95, the Way of Meekness, 8 97n41, 100, 101, 103, 104, 107, 107n71, Theravada Buddhism, 5, 5n4, 14n36, 108–111, 113–115, 114, 116–118, 119, 124, 38n8, 67, 105n64, 139n31, 313 125, 126, 149, 159, 183, 184, 188–193, theodicy, 124, 253, 253n51, 254, 306 201–203, 212, 214–217, 222, 223, problem of theodicy, 87, 253n51, 224, 228, 229, 232, 232n4, 235–247, 255, 306 250–257, 259–263, 267, 274, 277, 305 thiaw (fun), 122n115 wickedness, 57, 60, 107, 149, 190, 192, Tipitaka, 91, 91n22 194, 195, 205, 211, 221, 222, 224, toil, 239, 267, 283, 283n71, 291 232n5, 238, 243, 276, 305 Trai Phum, 139, 139n31, 164 wisdom, 13, 36, 71, 71n129, 72, 79–82, training-precept, 75n148, 137 92, 113, 115, 122, 127, 149, 153, 175, Triple Gem, 122n113, 170 183, 186, 194, 194n50, 196n57, 197, trust, 56, 85, 90, 92, 98, 98n45, 102, 200n77, 204, 208, 209, 216n129, 218, 109–112, 112n81, 113–119, 125–127, 221, 237, 238, 253, 258, 259, 261, 267, 148, 149, 210, 216, 225, 249, 252, 256, 276, 278, 283, 284, 307 257–263, 277, 306, 307 lack of wisdom, 92, 95, 297, 298 saddha (trust), 112, 258 wisdom tradition, 234, 235 trust in Buddhism, 90 wisdom books, 13 trust in God, 55, 85, 92, 95, 96, 98, wisdom literature, 11–14, 185, 186, 109, 109n76, 110–117, 124, 125, 127, 188, 190, 234, 244, 279 145, 168, 225, 231, 237, 249, 255, wisdom psalms, 13, 234 259, 260, 262, 263, 277, 306 wisdom teaching, 273, 274, 288 trust in the law of kamma, 111, 112, wisdom texts, 1, 3, 12, 17, 33, 34, 169, 114, 117, 121, 125, 257, 259, 260, 290, 309, 312, 313 262, 307 wisdom thinking, 13, 249, 253, 273, 279, 285, 295, 300, 313 upekkha (equanimity), 118 wise (the), 72, 145, 146, 184, 188, 188n21, uprightness, 203–205, 211, 224 189, 191n35, 191n36, 194n50, 211, 212, Utuniyama (natural law governing 225, 228, 238, 244, 251, 253, 260, 262, physical objects and the nature), 267, 270–272, 272n26, 273, 281, 284, 55n75, 104n62 285, 287, 288, 292, 295, 297, 297n101, 298–300 INDEX OF NAMES

Ackroyd, P., 194n49 Carter, J.R., 59n86 Alexander, P.H., 180n3 Chaiwan, S., 9n22 Andersen, T.M., 24n65 Chakkri, Mr., 27, 46n42, 51n58, 52n63, Anderson, A.A., 235n12 70n128, 75n149, 89n17, 92n24, Aporn, Mrs, 27, 75n149, 88n11, 89n17, 100n50, 102n55, 103n58, 107n70, 90, 90n20, 90n21, 91, 147n60, 151, 108, 108n74, 115n92, 117n98, 134n13, 151n70, 152, 153n73, 156n81, 173, 257, 142n42, 158, 159n91, 164, 255n55, 257n58 257n58 Chanpen, Mrs., 27, 41, 41n23, 43n29, Badman, P., 139n30 44n34, 44n35, 48n47, 51n58, 51n59, Baltzer, K., 232n2, 280n57 52n62, 54n74, 69, 69n121, 76n156, Barker, G.W., 236n16, 269n15 88n12, 88n13, 92, 94n32, 99, 99n47, Barstad, H.M., 196n58, 197n60, 209n105 100, 100n49, 116n96, 117, 120n106, Barton, J., 14n37, 185, 185n17 142n41, 146n58, 147, 147n60, 148n65, Berentsen, J.-M., 11n32 149, 160, 160n94, 255n55 Bergen, R.D., 189n26 Chittra, Mrs., 28, 61n95, 76n156, Bevans, S.B., 12n32 100n50, 156n81 Bhamorabutr, A., 71n130 Christianson, E.S., 278, 278n53 Birkeland, H., 189n27 Clements, R.E., 188n22, 196n54, 235n12, Black, M., 235n12 273n28 Boström, L., 192, 213n114, 214n123, 215, Clifford, R.J., 199, 199n72, 200n82 215n127, 216, 216n129, 217, 218n133, Clines, D.J.A., 249n48 218n134, 219, 219n136 Cohen, E., 9n24, 10n24, 108n73 Botterweck, G.J., 189n28, 190n34, Creach, J.F.D., 249n48 194n50, 196n54, 196n58, 197n63, Crenshaw, J.L., 182n1, 195, 195n53, 198n68, 199n74, 200n76, 208n101, 211n109, 226, 226n148, 227n152, 211n110, 213n117, 282n68, 283n71, 236n15, 243n33, 244n35, 247, 286n91 247n42, 248n45, 257, 257n59, 268n7, Bradley, D., 21n56 268n10, 272n27, 274n32, 274n34, Briggs, C.L., 17n42, 18n45, 19, 19n46, 276n47, 277n50, 277n51, 279, 19n47, 19n50, 20, 191n37, 194n48, 279n56, 281n61, 281n62, 281n63, 282, 236n14, 270n20 282n66, 283n75, 284n80, 285n84, Brown, F., 194n48, 236n14, 270n20 286n87, 288n97 Brown, W.P., 276n47, 277n52 Brueggemann, W., 234n10, 236n15, Dahl, Ø, 18n45, 19n48 236n16, 237, 237n19, 237n20, 237n21, Daniel, E.V., 14n35, 39n12, 68n116, 246n38, 258, 258n60, 259n63 105n65, 122n116, 254n54 Buber, M., 243n33 Darnell, R., 20n51 Buddhadhasa, 10 Davies, P.R., 249n48 Bunnag, J., 7n15, 49n53, 108n73 Davis, J.R., 9n21, 14n35 Dean Jr, O.C., 280n57 index of names 341

Deecha, Mr., 27, 41, 42, 42n26, 44n36, Hasel, G., 200, 200n76, 200n78 67n113, 70, 70n128, 72n131, 72n132, Hatton, H.A., 11n31, 21n56 73n138, 75, 75n151, 85n1, 89n17, Haug, K.S, 10n26, 11n30 95n34, 103n58, 105, 105n67, 106, Hawkes, P., 5n4 134n13, 136, 136n18, 142, 144n46, Heikkilä-Horn, M.-L., 6n10 144n50, 158n87, 292 Henriksen, J.-O., 15n38 Denzin, N.K., 16n39 Herrman, S., 268n12 Dhammapitaka, P., 5n5, 6n7, 134n9 Hewison, K., 90n20 Diller, A.V.N., 21n56 Higbie, J., 20n54 Dohmen, C., 208n101 Holmes, H., 21n57, 22n60, 22n61 Donahue S.J., J.R., 236n15 Holter, K., 11n30 Driver, S.R., 191n37, 194n48, 236n14, Hong-Shik, S., 9n19 270n20 Hossfeld, F.-L., 232n2, 232n4, 235n12, 245n36, 246n39, 247n40, 248n43, Eakin, P.A., 9n21 248n45, 249n48 Eichrodt, W., 182 Hovemyr, A., 9n21 Elliger, K., 179n2 Howard jr, D.M., 234n10 Engelsviken, T., 11n32 Hubbard jr, R.L., 192n41, 271n23 Evans, B., 38n9, 104n60, 159n92, Hubbard, D.A., 236n16, 269n15 160n95, 289n98 Hudgins, F.E., 9n20 Hughes, P.J., 10n24 Fabry, H.-J., 190n28, 191n34, 196n54, Hymes, D., 20n51 196n58, 197n63, 197n66, 199n74, 200n76, 208n101, 213n117, 270n19, Illman, K.-J., 213n117, 213n119, 234n11 283n71, 286n91 Ingersoll, J., 123n118, 157, 157n84, Fahlgren, K.Hj., 193n46, 194n47 157n86, 158, 158n90 Firth, D., 234n10 Ishii, Y., 5, 5n4, 5n6, 6n7 Fiske, J., 18n45 Fontana, A., 16n39 Jackson, P.A., 6n10, 8n18 Fortes, M., 7n15, 49n53, 108n73 Jakobsen, K.A., 134n9, 140n36, 141n39, Fox, M.V., 196n54, 268, 268n6, 268n9, 160n95 275, 275n39, 286n90, 287n95 Jarick, J., 268n14 Foxwell Albright, W., 191n40, Jenni, E., 194n47 269n14 Johansson, R.E.A., 38n8 Freedman, D.N., 191n40, 269n14 Johnson, B., 190n34 Frey, J.H., 16n39 Johnston, P.S., 234n10 Jørgensen, K., 11n32 Gerth, H.H., 254n53 Gese, H., 184, 184n8, 185 Kaiser, O., 198n69 Gilbert, M., 235n12 Kaplan, S., 10n24 Grether, H.G., 9n21 Kee, H.C., 10n26 Gumperz, J.J., 20n51, 20n52 Keown, D., 39n14, 259n62 Kerbo, H.R., 6n8, 7n16 Hanks jr, L.M., 145n52 Keyes, C.F., 14n35, 39n12, 49n52, Harrison, R.K., 192n41, 271n23 49n54, 60n93, 67, 68n116, 105n65, Harvey, P., 2n1, 75n148, 137, 137n21, 122n116, 157n84, 254n54 138n27 King, S.B., 6n10, 8n17, 224n144 342 index of names

Koch, K., 182n1, 183, 184, 184n8, 185, Maloney, L.M., 232n2 186, 194n46, 198n68, 198n70, Manee, Mrs, 28, 74n146, 75n149, 214n120, 221, 221n142, 225 76n156, 87n6, 89n17, 101n52, 105n66, Komin, S., 7n15, 14n35, 22n59, 39n16, 107n71, 120n107, 122n115 41n24, 62, 62n100, 66, 66n112, Martin, J.D., 185n13, 248n46 105n65, 108n73 Martindale, D., 254n53 Koyama, K., 9n21 Mays, J.L., 199n72, 244n34, 249n47, Kraus, H.-J., 237n21, 243n32, 246n37, 276n47 246n39, 250n50 McCann, C.J. Jr., 234, 234n11 Krüger, T., 280n57 McKane, W., 194n49, 194n51, 196n57, Kvale, S., 16, 16n40, 24n65 199n71, 202n85, 206n97, 209n106, Kvanvig, H.S., 218n135 212n111 Küng, H., 2n1, 10n25 Mejudhon, N, 8, 8n19 Küster, V., 171, 171n1 Mejudhon, U, 8, 8n19, 9n19 Mettinger, T.N.D., 213n114 Laato, A., 249n46, 253n51, 306n1 Michel, D., 268n13 Laddawan, Mrs., 28, 41, 42, 42n25, Miller, P.D., 234n10 52n65, 74, 74n140, 74n144, 76n153, Moltmann, J., 2n1, 10n25 76n155, 88n13, 89n17, 94n30, Moor, de, J.C., 249n46, 253n51, 306n1 99n48, 106, 106n69, 107, 107n72, Morgan, R., 215n126 123, 123n119, 134n13, 141, 141n40, 142, Mortensen, V., 171n1 142n42, 154, 158n87, 292 Mosel, J.N., 156n81, 158, 158n88 Laksami, Ms, 28, 35, 35n1, 44n35, Mulder, N., 7n15, 108n73 47n45, 48, 50, 50n57, 52n65, 54n70, Murphy, R.E., 186, 186n19, 187, 188n23, 74n147, 88n12, 89, 89n16, 94n31, 189, 197n65, 213, 213n116, 225n145, 97n42, 99n48, 102n55, 112n83, 226n147, 226n149, 234n11, 268n11, 117n99, 118n100, 119, 119n103, 119n104, 269, 269n15, 269n16, 269n18, 121n110, 123n117, 135n16, 136, 145n51, 270n22, 271n23, 274n33, 275n41, 150, 154n75, 292 276, 276n46, 277n49, 277n51, Lauha, A., 268n12, 272n26 280n59, 281, 282n64, 282n67, Leach, E.R., 253n51 283n73, 283n74, 284n79, 285n82, Lefébure, M., 2n1, 10n25 286n88 Leirvik, O., 173n3 Mäkelä, J., 6n9 Liangphibun, T., 101n50 Müller, H.-P., 211n110 Lim, D., 9n19 Lincoln, Y.S., 16n39 Na-Rangsi, S., 59n85, 59n89, 61n97, Lindberg Falk. M., 7n12 62n100, 64n105, 73, 73n134 Lindström, F., 249n46, 253n52 Narumon, Mae Chii, 27, 43n29, 44n34, Lithai, P., 139n31 44n35, 44n36, 45n37, 47n44, 48, Longman, T., 271n23, 273n29, 275n42, 48n49, 58n82, 58n84, 59, 59n85, 277n52, 279n54, 280n58, 283n73, 70, 70n123, 72, 72n132, 88n12, 101, 283n74, 285n82, 287n95 101n51, 102n54, 121n110, 135n14, Lorgunpai, S., 2, 3, 3n3, 10, 10n27, 11, 139n30, 144n48, 158, 223n143 11n28, 49n55, 56n79, 136n17, 138n26, Newson, C.A., 199n72 290n98 Nontawasee, P., 9n22 Luyten, J., 235n12 Obeysekere, G., 253n51 index of names 343

Ogden, G., 268n14, 271, 271n24, 274n30, Phongpaichit, P., 89n15 275n41, 284n77, 287n95 Phongphit, Seri, 2n1, 10n25, 90n20 Olsen, G.A., 38n7, 112n82, 134n10, Phongsak, P., 27, 50n56, 52n65, 53, 258n61 53n66, 53n67, 53n69, 54, 54n71, Onkom, S., 53n68, 62n99, 66n110, 54n73, 55, 56n77, 58n82, 62n98, 76, 76n157, 88n12, 97n42, 101n50, 62n101, 74n145, 74n147, 75n152, 120n105, 122, 122n112 88n11, 89n17, 89n18, 92n24, 93, Oswald, H.C., 237n21 93n28, 100, 102n53, 103n56, 109n75, Ottoson, M.Y., 213n114 114n87, 116n95, 122n114, 137, 137n19, Otzen, B., 283n71 138n27, 141n38, 144n45, 145n54, 146n56, 151, 151n69, 152, 152n71, Padamalangula, N., 139n31 159n92, 171, 175, 255n55, 255n57, Palihawadana, M., 59n86 297 Payutto, 5n5, 6n7, 6n11, 38, 38n7, Phornthip, Mae Chii, 27, 43n29, 44n34, 38n9, 38n10, 39n13, 39n15, 40n20, 44n35, 44n36, 47n44, 47n46, 48n50, 41, 41n22, 46n41, 54n72, 55, 55n75, 52n65, 53n68, 61n96, 70n126, 73, 56n79, 59, 59n87, 59n89, 60n92, 73n136, 98n46, 100n50, 121n110, 64n105, 65n106, 65n109, 68n116, 104, 133n5, 153n74, 174 104n60, 105, 105n63, 112n82, 122n111, Piker, S., 6n10 122n112, 134, 134n9, 134n10, 134n11, Piriyarangsan, S., 89n15 141n39, 148n64, 159n92, 160n95, Plummer, A., 191n37 224n144, 258, 258n61, 289n98 Podhisita, C., 7, 7n16, 8n17, 39n16, Peirce, 18n45 49n51, 118n101 Petchsongkram, Wan, 9, 9n20, 13n35 Pongsapich, A., 7n15, 7n16, 39n16, Petersen, D.L., 199n72 62n100, 108n73, 118n101 Phichai, Dr., 27, 37n3, 44n35, 51n58, 52, Pongudom, M., 11, 11n29 52n61, 57, 57n80, 57n81, 58, 58n84, Preuss, H.-D., 196, 196n54, 196n56 59, 69, 69n120, 69n122, 70, 70n125, Promta, S., 5n4, 38n7, 58n83 72, 87n4, 88n13, 89n17, 89n18, 91, Punno, V., 2n2 91n23, 94, 94n31, 94n33, 99, 102n54, 102n55, 116n96, 117, 120n108, 122n114, Quaritch Wales, H.G., 106n68 133n5, 133n6, 138n28, 140n33, Queen, C.S., 6n10, 8n17 144n47, 150, 150n68, 154n77, 171, 175 Philipp Zehnder, M., 198n69 Rad, von, G., 185, 185n13, 221, 225, Phimpan, Dr., 27, 37n4, 39, 39n17, 225n145, 225n146, 248, 248n46, 40n19, 41, 41n21, 45, 45n39, 46, 47, 253n52, 287n92 52n65, 53n68, 61, 61n96, 63n102, 65, Rahula, Walpula, 40n18 65n108, 67n114, 71, 71n130, 72n132, Rajsuddhinanamongkol, P., 101n50 73n137, 74n142, 74n147, 87n3, 89n17, Rapley, T., 16n41, 17n42, 23, 23n63 90n19, 92n26, 98n45, 102, 102n53, Reynolds, F.E., 5n4, 139n31 109n76, 110, 110n78, 112n81, 113n84, Reynolds, M.B., 139n31 116n94, 121, 121n109, 122, 122n112, 123, Rick, D., 208n101 127, 131, 131n1, 132, 132n2, 132n3, 133, Ringgren, H., 189n28, 190n29, 190n31, 133n5, 133n8, 134, 139n31, 139n32, 191n34, 194n50, 195n52, 196n54, 146n57, 147, 148, 148n61, 148n63, 196n58, 197n63, 198n68, 199n74, 148n64, 154n75, 156, 156n80, 157n85, 200n76, 208n101, 211n110, 213n117, 292, 298, 308 274n35, 282n68, 283n71, 286n91 344 index of names

Rudman, D., 271, 271n25, 274n34, 52n62, 54n74, 58, 58n82, 58n83, 275, 275n36, 275n39, 281n62, 285, 60n91, 68n117, 69, 69n119, 69n120, 285n86, 286, 286n89, 287n94 72, 88n11, 88n12, 92n25, 96n37, Rudolph, W., 179n2 96n39, 98n44, 114n88, 115n90, 135, Ruth, 214 135n14, 135n15, 137n24, 140n34, Rygge, J., 24n65 145n53, 149, 149n67, 154n77, 156n81, 157, 157n83, 255n55, 255n56, 297, Saichai, Dr., 27, 43n29, 51n58, 51n60, 297n101 54n74, 70n124, 71n129, 72, 72n132, Songkran, Phra, 27, 46n40, 52, 52n64, 72n133, 74, 74n141, 74n143, 75n148, 54n73, 64, 64n103, 65n107, 66n111, 76, 76n154, 87n7, 89n14, 89n16, 75, 89n17, 103, 103n57, 104, 104n61, 92n24, 93n27, 103, 104n59, 113, 122n114, 152, 152n72, 154, 154n76, 172, 113n85, 117n98, 118n102, 121n110, 175 133n5, 137n25, 138, 142, 142n42, Sparkes, S., 108n73 142n43, 144n46, 148n62, 156n80, Spaulding, S., 9n19 156n81, 174, 255n55 Spiro, M.E., 7, 7n14, 7n15 Salisbury, M., 189n26 Stoebe, H.J., 194n47 Santi, Mr, 6, 6n10, 28, 73n139, 74, Stordalen, T., 197n64, 197n65, 240n25 74n141, 75n152, 76n156, 87n5, Suthep, Phra, 27, 50n56, 52n65, 53, 103n58 53n66, 53n69, 54, 54n71, 54n73, Satha-Anand, S., 6n10 55, 56n77, 58n82, 62n98, 62n101, Saussure, 18n45 74n145, 74n147, 75, 75n152, 88n11, Sawyer, J., 278n53 89n17, 89n18, 92n24, 93, 93n28, Schmid, 192, 215, 217 100, 102n53, 103n56, 109n75, 114n87, Schollon, R., 18n45, 19n49, 20n53 116n95, 122n114, 137, 137n19, 138n27, Schoors, A., 270n21, 306, 306n1 141n38, 144n45, 145n54, 146n56, 151, Schreiter, R.J., 12n32 151n69, 152, 152n71, 159n92, 171, 174, Scott, R.B.Y., 191n40 255n55, 255n57, 297 Seale, C., 16n41 Suwanbubbha, P., 9, 9n23, 10n25 Seely, F.M., 9n20, 11n31 Swanson, H.R., 2n1, 9, 9n22, 10n24 Seow, C.L., 269n14, 269n15, 269n17, Swearer, D.K., 5n4, 6n9, 6n10, 7n13, 271n23, 272n26, 274n33, 276n43, 10n26, 38n7, 49n55, 123n120 277n49, 282n65, 282n70, 283n71, 283n72, 284n78, 284n80, 284n81, Tambiah, S.J., 7n15, 108n73 285n83 Tangtongtavy, S., 21n57, 22n60, 22n61 Seybold, K., 282n68, 282n69 Tate, M.E., 236n16, 237n18, 242, Sherzer, J., 20n51 242n29, 247, 247n41, 248n44, 250, Shields, M.A., 276n44, 277n49, 281n61, 250n49 287n96 Taylor, S., 10n24 Sivaraksa, S., 10n25, 139n30 Terwiel, B.J., 7n15, 42n24, 108n73 Slagter, R., 6n8, 7n16 Thamjaruwat, O., 158, 158n89 Smith, A.G., 9n19 Thampusana-Abold, T., 20n54 Smith, B.L., 5n4, 6n9, 6n10 Thinsan, S., 20n54 Smyth, D., 20n54 Thiselton, A.C., 14n37 Somsri, Dr., 27, 43, 43n28, 43n29, 44, Tomizawa, R., 21n57, 22n60, 22n61 44n32, 44n34, 44n35, 44n36, 45n38, Toy, C.H., 191, 191n37, 191n40, 196n55, 47, 47n43, 48, 48n47, 51n58, 52, 196n56, 199n71, 202, 202n83, index of names 345

202n85, 202n87, 204, 204n92, Wibun, Mr., 28, 51n58, 52, 52n64, 205n94, 207n100, 209, 209n107, 213, 67n115, 86n2, 88n10, 95n35, 96n38, 213n115, 214, 214n122, 215n125 96n40, 97n41, 99n48, 111n80, 114n89, Trudgill, P., 18n45 115n91, 117n97, 133n5, 133n7, 139n29, 140n35, 140n37, 144n48, 156n81, Wajanathawornchai, W., 43n31 156n82, 157n84, 160n93 Waltke, B.K., 192n41, 202n86, 204, Widerberg, K., 17, 17n43 204n93, 209n105, 213, 213n112, Williams, J.G., 189n26 213n114, 214n121, 215, 215n124 Wolff, H.W., 268n12 Warmuth, G., 199n74 Wong Schollon, S., 18n45, 19n49, 20n53 Watts, J.D.W., 197n65, 236n16, 269n15 Wright, A.G., 269 Webb, R., 91n22 Weber, M., 254, 254n53, 254n54 Zehner, E., 10n24 Westermann, C., 194n47 Zenger, E., 232n2, 232n4, 235n12, Whybray, R.N., 188n22, 191n38, 192n41, 245n36, 246n39, 247n40, 248n43, 197n59, 200n82, 215n126, 270n21, 248n45, 249n48 273n28, 277n52, 281n61, 285, 285n85, 287n96