The Use of Mythology in the Poetry of Keats
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THE USE OF MYTHOLOGY IN THE POETRY OF KEATS ABSTRACT THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD^ ^ THE DEGREE OF Doctor of Philosophy IN ENGLISH BY SEEMIN HASAN DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AUGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH (INDIA) ABSTRACT Over the years, John Keats's unique imaginaticn has been profusely studied and analysed and critics have recognized mythology as one of the major influences on his thought and imagery. The present study attempts to elaborate this aspect further. It consists of an assessment of his poems, both mythic and non-mythic, in the conte>± of the poet's o'.-m mythic vision. It throws light on the sub-stratum, of mythical themes that lend coherence and unity to the entire range of his poetry. It elaborates the convic- tion that mythologizing comes naturally and easily to Keats. Like a pagan from the mythical Golden Age, he freely re-enacts, weaves and at times even creates new- myths and thus exploits fully the archetypal power inhe- rent in his material. Keats's use of mythology is personal and without any extra-literary design. Keats believed that the artist does not prcceed to the root of all feeling and impulses by the simplest path. His artistic intuition leads him to the elemental forms of nature and human life incorpo- rated in mythology. Keats's doctrine of Negative capa- bility supplies the base for his mythic vision. Myths <1 record the primary unconscious process of shaping human responses to the varied conditions of life. Instinct serves as the chief generative agent in Keats's mytho- logiaing processes. ^tythology provides him with substance not only for his poetry but also for his philosophy. It leads him to a deepened understanding of man and the universe. He is attracted to mythology and mythologizing as the very means of comprehending and communicating his artistic experience. The two systems of mythology that have influenced him in particular are the Greek and Roman sys- tems. Traces of Biblical and Hindu mythology can also be found in his poetry. However, he does not rigidly follow any given system of mythology. He retells myths as though they are his own creations. This gives him the license to freely mingle the different systems, to add or delete events and incidents wherever it suits him. At times, he even breaks the barriers of time and for the purpose of expressing an idea clearly, he brings together different mythological stages and presents them as co- existent. He frequently interknits smaller myths into the framework of the major one. It is possible that Keats was not always conscious C' of the full potential and relevance of every mythic image, allusion, and archetype that he used in his poetry. However, as mythic images and archetypes have their own unconscious organisations and design, they were easily and effectively absorbed into his poetry. Keats' s long poem Endymion highlights the pro- found sensitiveness of Keats to ancient mythology. The quest of Endymion can be defined as a venture of the poet's mind into its o'/^n hidden depths. It can also be treated as the quest of the poet for his medium as well as aesthetic goals. Keats's second epic Hyperion is a mythological elaboration of his own poetic desires. Keats's ballads and romances are a reworking of the tales of ritual origin. The dom.inant mythological motifs of his epics can be located in these poems also. The heroines of The Eve of St. Agnes and ' Isabella' are chaste and virtuous women and represent the beneficent aspect of the Great Goddess who is one of the mythological divinities whom Keats especially reveres. In a shift, she becomes the death-goddess. The heroines of Lamia and 'La Belle Dame Sans Merci' represent this evil aspect of the Great Goddess. All female family associations can be traced to her. So deep was Keats's preoccupation with these c rorrantic archetypes that he transported them into his ovm situation. In the poems addressed to or inspired by his beloved Fanny Brawnv the same motivations are seen at work. Fanny is cast as a character in his larger mythical plot. In the major odes, the Great Goddess appears vari- ously. She symbolizes the generative spirit behind all creation. Keats instinctively perceives the communica- tive relevance of certain ancient divinities of his artistic purpose and through their fictionalized experi- ences he seeks deliverence from the oppressive forces that limit his own creative potential. Keats seems to adopt Apollo as a personal symbolic deity. Apollo occurs in his poetry as the emlx)diment of artistic integrity and the highest form of beauty. The father-figure too, has a specific status. In all situations, he extends support to the quest of the younger man. The archetypal green bower has regenerative conno- tations. It is linked to the death and rebirth of vege- tation. In Keats's mythic vision it comes to represent the constantly changing state of man. Trees, in his mythic vision, are the immortal historians with oracular proper- ties. Water represents the life spirit. Air represents the spiritual ascent that recharges the intuition. The four elements, earth, water, air and fire are used to connect the mortal and immortal worlds. Poetry for Keats is not the mere literary rende- ring of ideas but a comprehensive cognitive crystalliza- tion of relationships of life itself to all its primary form,s viz. the elements (earth, air, v/ater, fire) to love, to death to all the agonies of the human heart. Mythology serves as the sensual and fertile metaphor for his poetic vision. ***** THE USE OF MYTHOLOGY IN THE POETRY OF KEATS THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF Doctor of Philosophy IN ENGLISH BY SEEMIN HASAN DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY. ALIGARH (INDIA) xe93 T4479 CONTENTS Page Ko. Preface i - iii Abbreviations iv Chapter I The l^thic Modes in Literature - 1-32 A B rie £ Su rvey Chapter II The Quest for the ' Khoi/>n:i Unknown' 33-73 Chapter III The Cosmic Marriage 74 - 112 Chapter IV The Course of Nature's Law 113 - 158 Chapter V The Goddess of Many Aspects 159 - 198 Chapter VI ' The Viewless Wings of Poesy' 199 - 246 Chapter VII Conclusion 247 - 259 Select Bibliography 260 - 267 iif Preface Over the years, John Keats's unique imagination has been profusely studied and analysed and critics have recognized mythology as one of the major influences on his thought and imagery. Critical concepts have linked all mythological allusions to the verbal and visual sources available to the poet. The significance of the poet's mythological imagery has been generally analysed in the light of the classical texts available to him. While acknowledging the value of such works, the present study attempts to elaborate this aspect further. It consists of an assessment of his poems, both mythic and non-mythic, in the context of the poet's own mythic vision. It throws light on the sub-stratum of mythical themes that lend coherence and unity to the entire range of his poetry. It elaborates the conviction that mytho- logizing comes naturally and easily to Keats. Like a pagan from the mythical Golden Age, he freely re-enacts, weaves and at times even creates new myths and thus exp- loits fully the archetypal power inherent in his material. Mythologizing is an essential component of his ii psychic and creative processes. As it is difficult to separate the psychological and biographical elerr^ents, there are junctures at which the poet and his hero merge into each other. The poet's own ejq^eriences are woven into the fabric of his larger mythical plot. Infact, the mythical mode serves as the deepest and most fertilizing source of poetic energy. Keats's letters have been used as the testimonials to these observations. Relevant passages have frequently been cited. They highlight the fact that Keats's use of mythology does not suggest a deliberate contrivance for the sake of mere poetic effect but represents bis artistic response to the world around him. I have made use, where appropriate, of Sir James Georga ?razor's The Gqljejn Bough, rfebert Graves's The ffl^lta Goddess and Joseph Campbell's The Hero .With a Thousand Faces. A number of myths have bean cited in this study. They are based on versions offered by Thomas Bulfinch'j _of _?able, Charles Mills Gayley'i; Myths _ln _L1 tqratu ra j in _Art, i^bsrt Graves's The Greek r;jYth3, H.j. fuse's A Handbook of Lit3ratura. 3ir Paul Harvey's The Oxford Companion to iii Cl^S3i^l_I;iteratu^ and Donald i^acKenzie's Indian Myth and Legend. In the preparation of this study I have received help, cooperation and encouragement from many quarters. I owe a deep sense of gratitude to my teacher Professor Masoodul Hasan who with his keen insight and amazing perspicacity not only guided me throughout my research but also gave me immeasurable moral and intellectual support. In the same vein, I must acknowledge the contribution of Professor Azizuddin Tariq, Chairman, Department of English who helped and encouraged me at every stage of this thesis. I would like to thank the staff of the Seminar Library, Department of English, Aligarh Muslim University, and the staff of the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim Univer- sity for their generous assistance. I am extremely grateful to the British Council Library, New Delhi and the American Centre Library, New Delhi for promptly making books and reprints of articles available to me. I must also thank Mr. Shafaat Ali Khan, the typist for his prompt and efficient service.