Neogene Molasse Sedimentation in a Portion of the Punjab-Himachal Pradesh Tertiary Re-Entrant, Himalayan Foothill Belt, India: A

Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Retrospective Theses and Dissertations Dissertations

1971 Neogene molasse sedimentation in a portion of the Punjab-Himachal Pradesh Tertiary re-entrant, Himalayan foothill belt, India: a vertical profile of Siwalik deposition Gary Dean Johnson Iowa State University

Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd Part of the Geology Commons

Recommended Citation Johnson, Gary Dean, "Neogene molasse sedimentation in a portion of the Punjab-Himachal Pradesh Tertiary re-entrant, Himalayan foothill belt, India: a vertical profile of Siwalik deposition " (1971). Retrospective Theses and Dissertations. 4890. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/4890

This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Retrospective Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 71-26,864-

JOHNSON, Gary Dean, 1942- NEOGENE MOLASSE SEDIMENTATION IN A PORTION OF THE PUNJAB-HIMACHAL PRADESH TERTIARY RE-ENTRANT, HIMALAYAN FOOTHILL BELT, INDIA: A VERTICAL PROFILE OF SIWALIK DEPOSITION.

Iowa State University, Ph.D., 1971 Geology

University Microfilms, A XEROX Company, Ann Arbor. Michigan

TUTg DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED Neogene molasse sedimentation in a portion of

the Punjab-Himachal Pradesh Tertiary re-entrant,

Himalayan foothill belt, India:

A vertical profile of Siwalik deposition

Gary Dean Johnson

A Dissertation Submitted to the

Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of

The Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Major Subject: Geology

Approv

Signature was redacted for privacy.

In Charge of Major Work

Signature was redacted for privacy.

Iowa State University Of Science and Technology Ames, Iowa

1971 Neogene molasse sedimentation in a portion of

the Punjab-Himachal Pradesh Tertiary re-entrant,

Himalayan foothill belt, India:

A vertical profile of Siwalik deposition

Gary Dean Johnson

An Abstract of

A Dissertation Submitted to the

Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of

The Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Approy.

Signature was redacted for privacy. In Char^ of Major Work

Signature was redacted for privacy. Head of Major Departm^^k

Signature was redacted for privacy. D Luate College

Iowa State University Of Science and Technology Aaes, Iowa

1971 1

Neogene molasse sedimentation in a portion of

the Punjab-Himachal Pradesh Tertiary re-entrant,

Himalayan foothill belt, India:

A vertical profile of Siwalik deposition

Gary Dean Johnson

Under the supervision of C. F. Vondra From the Department of Earth Science Iowa State University of Science and Technology

Neogene sedimentation in the vicinity of Haritalyangar, Bilaspur Dis trict, Himachal Pradesh, India (a portion of the Gumbhar-Sarkaghat fault block of the parautochthonous-autochthonous foredeep) is represented by

5000 meters of Late Cenozoic fluvial molasse (the Siwalik "Series") which reflects the complex denudation of adjacent allochthonous thrust plates developed within the Himalayan orogen.

The earliest molasse phase, represented by the Nahan Sandstone, is chiefly a multistoried, multilateral fluvial complex ccaposad primarily of channel lag and lateral accretion deposits. In the vicinity of Haritalyan gar, H. P., thirteen composite fluvial cycles evidence a greater relative thickness for the lateral accretion sandbodies than for the associated floodbasin sediments, suggesting quite rapid aggradation by a loosely sinuous stream regime in a rapidly subsiding basin analogous to the modem

Indoganetic Plain. Mineralogically, these sediments are poorly sorted, fine-skewed, and predominantly phyllarenites with polymictic extraformational lag gravels. The mineralogical composition of framework grains reflects denudation of a stratigraphically normal metasedimentary terrane 2

(Main Central Thrust Sheet) yielding high-rank detritus. Sedimentary debris is also present, but decreases considerably upwards in the molasse sequence.

The "Lower Alternations" reflect the development of a distinct meander belt facies distribution as a result of increased sinuosity and decreased

basin subsidence. Paleosol development is noted and prolific fossil verte

brate occurrence is noted in some vertical accretion deposits. Mineralogi-

cally, the "Lower Alternations" are somewhat more mature, being predominant

ly poorly sorted, more strongly fine-skewed than the Nahan, and quartzose

phyllarenites. A higher grade metamorphic accessory mineral suite (kyanite),

in addition to the epidote and staurolite of the Nahan, evidences continued

unroofing of the metamorphosed Main Central Thrust Sheet.

The "Upper Alternations" are sedimentologically similar to the "Lower

Alternations" except being somewhat more immature. Polymictic extraforma-

tional channel lag is again evident, the channel sands being less quartzose

than below. Carbonates increase noticeably and a new metamorphic suite is

introduced (chlorite-sericite) possibly related to the initial unroofing of

the reversely metamorphosed Chail Thrust Sheet, Granitic and gneissic de

tritus and plutonic plagioclases having compositions and twin-law relation

ships similar to the Outer Himalayan intrusions (e.g. the Chor Massif) sup

port this conclusion,

Pedogenic modification of most proximal and distal floodplain deposits

of the "Lower Alternations" and "Upper Alternations" is present. Although

hydromorphic paleosols are most abundant and are associated with the most

fossiliferous horizons, some pedogenic alteration seems to suggest oxisol

development. In all cases, pedogenic modification is masked by the primary

depcsitional character of the parent material. 3

Fossiliferous horizons appear to be generally proximal, poorly drained sites with pedogenically immature parent material. Older, well drained, pedogenically mature horizons appear poorly fossiliferous. The interrela- tionahips of carbon, silica (soluble), modification of sesquioxides by certain drainage characteristics, and re-arrangement of soil structure is useful in developing a model of the fossiliferous, fluventic soils of the

"Lower Alterations", ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION 1

MAJOR TECTONIC ELEMENTS OF THE PUNJAB HIMALAYAS 4

Parautochthonous Thrusts of the Foredeep 6

SIWAIIK SEDIMENTATION: EVIDENCE FROM THE GUMBHAR-SARKAGHAT THRUST UNIT (PLATE B) 12

Age and Correlation of the Gixmbhar-Sarkaghat Unit 12

Stratigraphie terminology 12

Sedimentology 18

Distribution of lithologie features - sedimentologie 18

Fining-upward cycles 21 Grain-size analysis 30 Petrology 36

Summary 44

Distribution of lithologie features - pedogenie 45

Soil development in multistoried parent material - alluvium 45 Landscape position (natural drainage) 46 Increment addition 47 Soil formation 47 Application 51 Floodplain deposits of the "Lower Alternations" 51

Analysis 52 Physical data 57 Pedogenie oxides 60 Coloration 61 Clay mineralogy 63 Evidence of biologic activity 65 Paleobotanical evidence 68

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 73

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 75

SELECTED REFERENCES 76 iii

LIST OF FIGURES

Index map showing the area of study and illustrating the major tectonic features of South Asia 2

Generalized tectonic map of the Punjab Himalayas, showing interpretation of thrust plate geometry within the foredeep 5

Geologic map of the sub-Himalayan Tertiary re-entrant, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, India 8

Geologic sketch map of the Hamirpur-Haritalyangar region, Gumbhar-Sarkaghat thrust plate (Plate B), Bilaspur District, Himachal Pradesh, India 13

General overview of the Middle Siwalik sequence of Plate B 16

Faunal zonation, lithostratigraphic nomenclature, and important faunal associations of the Siwalik sequence exposed near Haritalyangar, H.P., India (Plate B, this report) 19

Fluvial fining-upward composite cycles present in the Hamirpur-Haritalyangar region of Plate B 23

Sedimentologic features of the Nahan Sandstone and "Lower Alternations" 25

Sedimentologic development of the Bhabar 29

Composite plot of inclusive graphic standard deviation vs. graphic mean for Nahan, "Lower Alternations", and "Upper Alternations" samples 32

Composite plot of inclusive graphic skawness (Folk) vs. graphic mean for Nahan, "Lower Alternations", and "Upper Alternations" samples 34

Composite plot of inclusive graphic standard deviation vs. inclusive graphic skewness (Folk) for Nahan, "Lower Alternations", and "Upper Alternations" samples 35

Ternary compositional plot of sandstones from the Nahan, "Lower Alternations", and "Upper Alternations" 38

Frequency of occurrence of plagioclase twin type 41

Heavy mineral persistence in the Siwalik sequence of Plate B 43 iv

Figure Page

16. Soil profile variation as a function of depositional form on alluvial floodplains

17. Topographic map of the "Lower Alternations" exposures in the vicinity of Haritalyangar, Bilaspur District, H.P., India

18. Overview of the southwestern scarp of Hari Mandar Dhar, cuesta scarp near Haritalyangar

19. Profile variation of pedogenic oxides, clay, and porosity in a paleosol sequence from fluvial cycle #38 in the "Lower Alternations" near Haritalyangar

20. Profile variation of pedogenic oxides, clay, and porosity in a paleosol sequence from fluvial cycle #43 in the "Lower Alternations" near Haritalyangar

21. Plot of free Mn oxides (dithionite-citrate extractable) vs. effective porosity for pedogenically altered floodplain siltstones of the "Lower Alternations" 62

22. Plot of free A1 oxides (dithionite-citrate extractable) vs. free Fe oxides (dithionite-citrate extratable) relative to Munsell color hue. 64

23. Bioturbation and associated features in floodplain paleosols of the "Lower Alternations"

24. Relationship between high water level, groundwater table, soil condition and vertical distribution of some soil organisms 69 V

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Tertiary stratigraphie nomenclature of the parautochthonous thrust plates of the Punjab re-entrant 9

2. Compositional make-up of selected sandstones from the same facias (large-scale trough stratified) in the Nahan, "Lower Alternations", and "Upper Alternations" 37 1

INTRODUCTION

The Middle Miocene to Lower Pleistocene Siwalik fluvial molasse deposits of the Siwalik Hills of West Pakistan, India, and Nepal record an almost continuous sequence of terrestrial vertebrate evolution from

Sarmation to Villafranchian and later. As a result, many paléontologie investigations have been carried out with the intent of unraveling this history. This investigation is a direct outgrowth of one such study

(The Chandigarh-Yale Project).

The study was initiated at the invitation of Professor Elwyn L.

Simons of Yale University in the fall of 1967, with field work being carried out from February - June, 1968 and March - May, 1969 in the Bilas- pur District of Himachal Pradesh, India, a locality long known to be rich in Tertiary vertebrate fauna, particularly dryopithecine and early hominoid primates (Figure 1). The classic localities in the vicinity of the village complex of Haritalyangar, Bilaspur District, yielded over 1000 vertebrate specimens including several prisâtes from some 2500 meters of strata during the two seasons of collecting. Unfortunately, the majority of the collection has not as yet been studied. The results of the impor tant primate discoveries have, however, been recently published (Simons and Chopra, 1969a, 1969b; Simons and Ettel, 1970).

Prior published geologic studies have produced only a cursory know ledge of the Siwalik molasse deposits at a few localities. The order of superposition, lithology, and lateral and vertical facies relationships were poorly understood. Therefore, there was little basis for accurate stratigraphie documentation of the prolific fauna collected and for 2

TARIM BASIN ^-WLATEAU PAMIR A

TIBET PLATEAI

BU«MA

KABfA

WSEAs

1» Index map showing the area of study and illustrating the major tectonic features of South Asia. Base after Butt (1968) 3 a adequate paleoenvironmental interpretations.

Paléontologie investigations have been earried out in exposures of the Siwalik molasse in the Siwalik Hills of Himachal Pradesh, India, and the extensive exposures of the same sequence from south of Rawalpindi,

West Pakistan. The studies of the Geological Survey of India (Pilgrim,

1910-1938; Prasad, 1962-1964), the Yale North India Expedition of 1932-

1934 and the Yale-Cambridge India Expedition of 1935 (Lewis, 1934-1937;

Gregory et al., 1935-1936; Colbert, 1935), and the Paleontological

Society of India-Punjab University (Sahni and Khan, 1961-1964) deserve

mention for contributing important biostratigraphic data to the Indian

Siwalik strata. Important geologic contributions to the problems of the

stratigraphy of the Siwalik molasse and the Himalayan foredeep have been

made by the Indian Oil and Natural Gas Commission (Babu and Dehadrai,

1958; Dehadrai, 1958; Raju, 1967; Raiverman, 1968; and Sinha, 1970),

the former Attock Oil Company (Gill, 1951a, b), the Yale North India

Expedition (Krynine, 1937), the Geological Survey of India (Wadia, 1931-

1932), Panjab University (Sahni and Khan, 1961-1964; Chaudhri and

Chaudhri et al., 1968-1970), and Lucknow University (Misra and Valdiya,

1961). Further reference is made to a summary published during the 22nd

International Geological Congress (New Delhi, 1964) for a detailed dis

cussion of the problem of lithologie correlation and nomenclature of the

Siwalik strata along the foothill belt (Sahni and Mathur, 1964).

During the first field season of the present study, 2800 meters of

stratigraphie section were measured in a vertical stratigraphie traverse

from the Gumbhar Fault along the Makhan Khad (see Figure 4, southwestern

margin of thrust plate B) to the Sir Khad (see Figure 4) in the vicinity 3b of the village of Bam, Due to Government of India restrictions on the use of any aerial photography and topographic maps at scales larger than

1:250,000, this entire study was conducted with minimum surveying instru mentation. No aerial photography or topographic maps were used. Strati-

graphic traverses were controlled by, and the topographic map of Figure 17,

was constructed from data obtained by a theodolite.

The second field season experienced similar research restrictions, but

a second 3000 meters of stratigraphie section were measured along the Kunah

Khad near the villages of Bahota-Didwin-Mehal. In addition, "non-essential"

reconnaissance of outcrops in areas other than in the immediate vicinity of

Haritalyangar was held to a minimum at the request of the host organization

(Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh).

It might be noted that as of this writing. Government of India restric

tions on the use and purchase of large-scale topographic maps (up to 1:48,

000) of certain areas has been lifted. This came too late for the present

study. 4

MAJOR TECTONIC ELEMENTS OF THE PUNJAB HIMALAYAS

The Punjab Himalayas consist of a complex of allochthonous and parautochthonous thrust sheets in close proximity to a complexly folded and faulted foredeep (Figure 2).

In the Inner Himalayas, in the upper reaches of the Beas River, the

Main Central or Jutogh Thrust displaces southwards a complex suite of the

high grade netamorphics of the Jutogh "Series".* In the Punjab, these

strata are composed of interbedded quartzites, schists, phyllites (gamet-

iferous) and slates with associated amphibolites. Displacement of this

sequence, termed the Jutogh Nappe (Pilgrim and West, 1928), but now con

sidered to be a thrust sheet (Gansser, 1964b) is in excess of 100 kilo

meters from the Sutlej River to the vicinity of the Chor granitic massif

in the Simla Himalayas (Berthelsen, 1951). Here the thrust sheet is ex

posed as a klippe overlying the Chail, Simla, Jaunsar, and Blaini "Series"

of the Chail Thrust Sheet.

The Chail Thrust Shaet (originally termed the Chail Nappe, Pilgrim

and West, 1928) is displaced southwards by the Shali and Giri thrusts of

the Simla Himalayas and can be traced northwestwards towards the Dhaula-

dhar Range near Dharmsala just west of Mandi (the intersection of the

Beas River and the Main Boundary Fault) where it becomes undiscemable.

^Throughout this text, Indian lithostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic nomenclature is used. It may be noted that in several instances, this usage does not conform to the guidelines set forth by the Interna tional Subcommission on Stratigraphie Terminology. Many chronostratigraphic terms should probably be replaced by lithostratigraphic terms having similar hierarchical position. I have chosen not to modify this termin ology at present. f::

% 4 EXPL>NAT)ON

•Mil FiriiMi SHAU

SVTUJ RIVER

reutMKkAL 0IU1EIMIT M à s ® i I ««« a TKweiU'iNAL KiAWAV I ' siiMir» KASAUI.I .illtflA'tiONJ) l'*rt»nlfANTLY «AKINK TUlOtlK I SI'IIATVU NMirs

S" i UPPER PAUOZaCÎ SIIILL- MAMCIK SlUOu:s-T! N s -sssssc i 10 ao 30 40 so s : PJE^WW* Y/A CKYSTAI.U2SI; MStJOKl s - lOKIPil£OZBCj2^

!<.?(%:* sLRiis -cri L-xturnuttcriATto crrsTALi.tNF. MH.-C.M; SI PK-CAHBUkll crr5iM.L;n» I>A.S»W:KT = furcbvr ro tha !«or(h

MTMBIVES ? AlTUOIl/J CHANITI'.

Figure 2. Generalized tectonic map of the Punjab Himalayas, showing in terpretation of thrust plate geometry within the foredeep 6

The thrust sheet is characterized by interbedded quartzites, quartzose schists and phyllites, arkoses, conglomerates and basic eruptives (Darang volcanics).

Metamorphism in the Main Central Thrust sheet is normal, and decreases

in stratigraphically younger metasediments. Metamorphism in the Chail

Thrust sheet is reversed, with stratigraphically younger sediments having higher metamorphic grade. This phenomenon is interpreted as reflecting

proximity to the Main Central Thrust (Gansser, 1964b).

The Krol belt (Auden, 1934), bounded by the Giri Thrust on the north

east and floored by the Krol Thrust on the southwest consists of a series

of interbedded shales, slates, and metaquartzites (Infra-Krol "Series")

overlain by a transgressive sequence of poorly sorted quartzarenites

(Krol Sandstone) followed by some 600-1500 meters of interbedded limestones

and calcareous shales (Krol Limestones). The entire sequence is conform

ably overlain by a possible regressive cycle of litharenites, carbonaceous

shales, micaceous shales and orthoquartzites of the Tals "Series".

Further north, in the fenster developed by the Sutlej and limited

by the Shali Thrust, the stratigraphie equivalent of the Krols, the Shall

sequence (West, 1939) is developed. In each area, the Krol or Shali units

form the southwestern-most limit of the Outer Himalayas and are thrust over

the predominantly Tertiary deposits of the foredeep along the Main Boundary

Fault (Plates A1 and A2 of map. Figure 2).

Parautochthonous Thrusts of the Foredeep

The Punjab re-entrant represents the widest exposure (about 50 kilo

meters) of the Himalayan foothills along its 800 kilometer strike in Figure 3. Geologic map of the sub-Himalayan Tertiary re-entrant, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, India. (Compiled after numerous sources) mAiu svaa AÙVNddlVIlU

psip|l|i|

# -a

g%#

_eS®P?2yWS h 'k f i.,.>M^^ a;'

a# «nyj

nnvJ iiyd

TERTIARY QUATERNARY

I ? & s iilii II!!!)} m il ^ I..ul IKM! ill ^ i UfP^r U/>pfr L'rpa nebtocrnt

MiiHxitc MiUle PimloceiK

PRF TFRTIARY (PALEOZOIC) H ill Silil i#

Ftile^'Um yi^if'îiiuJSSs

i-i-'.m

^•^{^ULLUNDUR 1

jy sutlej river / 3roo

LUDHIANA

75®30 Tè^'OO id ItxnSuor» nan-men HTtm,1 )?6,7Î0. ««cw*! •dition. 1039. Prmnt » cowpue. (ton of tM BfMkr» Oam.tl HtnçÈi. Th## np—«^ r«wr<«ir Cobmd St

GEOLOGIC MAP OF SUB-HIMALA PUNJAB AND HIMACt taSsSf y J Jf7

am «:oxs

1 M %

ills5'

mmm

•UNA

A._.

"4 >«

ten-r-^t/v ^

BUDfhl I mm

: MAP OF SUB-HIMALAYAN TERTIARY RE-ENTRANT PUNJAB AND HIMACHAL PRADESH, INDIA onu pwpw g«Kin* - fo inttrbedded. moderate brownownpT^ pr, tockes, j ok/ silntonei. Inciudn the DefifiaiDetthti J Formahon ot bw arid the KueuU Fofmû" nofi at top. TTuekhess. 2700 n.

Dashed where approximûtely hatted mr

Dathed where cpproximately locand; . upihrown side: O.downlhrown ode

Reverse fault

Dashed ^•hereapproximaiely located; R. upthrown side

Itirunt fault

Dashed where approximately loaited. sawteeth on upper plate

Anticline

Shtwin/i Crestline artd direction of p/urtjpr; dashed where probable, ^hort arrow uidieates ueeprr Itmb of asymmetric anticline

•i h- Syscllne Showwx OVtithtine and direction of pMre. dotAerf where probable. Short arrow indicates steeper Umb of asynunctric synctme

Sources of iofortucioa used la 1. Cansser (1966) compiling map. Complete ref 2. ,D. Gill (1951) erences are listed «c ead of 3. ,D. Johason (1968/1969) 4. ,S. Krishnaswamy and B.M. Hukku* (1964) 5. P. Mathur «nd P. Evans* (1964) 6. ,B. Medlicott (1864) 7. ,R. Sahni and L.P, Kathur* (1964)

compiled by In«i«n Cil N'-tural Cas Cosmistlon

INDEX MAP TO SOURCES OF INFORMATION yumhers. keyed to list in explanation, ihow pnnctple sources of informât ton

v.-v

compiled by: G.D. Johnson INDEX MAP SHOWING AREA COVERED Tertiary stratigraphie nomenclature of the parautochthonous thuùst plates of the Punjab Table 1. re-entrant

Hi! Hall faliBlii- iMllSI litii lilifiik Tiiiflir- Fan $111 Tktitt littir fllll IibIi Fiitt llliiMt III! Tkutl 3^ Hull Plata D2

Holoaoe

GDJ 10 northern India. In response to tectonic breakup, no less than eight imbri cate thrusts plates, each involving progressively younger Tertiary sedi ments southward from the Main Boundary Fault, are present.

The eight tectonic plates distinguished (Figure 2), have been labeled

Plates Al, A2, A3, B, C. Dl, D2, and D3. Plate A1 is the lowest. Plates

Dl, D2, and D3 may be more appropriately termed autochthonous, but in con

sideration of the total tectonic style of this foredeep, they are included

with the older thrusts.

Similar stratigraphie sequences are noted within each thrust unit,

but lithostratigraphic terminology varies considerably. Figure 3 illus

trates the geology of the foredeep (thrust plates are not labeled);

Table 1 summarizes the nomenclature and relative movements of thrust

plates within the foredeep.

Although numerous exposures of the Neogene in North India have proven

fossiliferous, most stratigraphie detail during the Chandigarh-Yale Project

was directed towards the fossiliferous sediments of the Gumbhar-Sarkaghat

Thrust unit (designated Plate B in this report).

Plate B, bounded on the northeast by the Paror and Sarkaghat struc

tures, for the most part, is monoclinally folded, bounded on the southwest

by the Gumbhar Fault (sometimes termed Jawalamukhi Fault). By far the

most complete exposures of the fluvial Siwalik molasse of the Himalayas is

exposed along this plate. An aggregate thickness of some 3000 meters of

Neogene sediments is present (Vondra and Johnson, 1968).

The stratigraphie sequence exposed in Plate B from the base upwards

is: 1) interbedded quartzarenites giving way to moderate brown litharenites 11 and siltstones of the Kasauli Formation (infra-Nahan of Gill, 1951b);

2) massive sublitharenites and litharenites with occasional interbedded

polymictic conglomerates and moderate brown siltstone lenses of the Nahan

Sandstones; 3) interbedded sublitharenites and moderate brown to varie

gated siltstones of the Middle Siwalik "Lower Alternations" (Gill, 1951b);

4) interbedded sublitharenites and litharenites and variegated siltstones

of the Middle Siwalik "Upper Alternations" (Gill, 1951b); 5) massive

polymictic fanglomerates of the Upper Siwalik "Boulder Conglomerate Stage". 12

SIWALIK SEDIMENTATION: EVIDENCE FROM THE

GUMBHAR-SASKAGHAT THRUST UNIT

(PLATE B)

Age and Correlation of the Gumbhar-Sarkaghat Unit

Stratigraphie terminology

The problem of terminology of the fluvial molasse of the Himalayan foredeep has been one of correlation of similar stratigraphie intervals from widely separate areas, which due to the nature of the sedimentation, are lithologically quite different.* The lowest lithostratigraphic unit of Plate B (Figure 4) belonging to the Siwalik "Series" is the Nahan

Sandstone (named after exposures near Nahan, Himachal Pradesh; Medlicott,

1864). For the most part, this 500 meter plus sequence of interbedded litharenites, sublitharenites and mudstones has been interpreted inter bedded fluvial channel lag and lateral accretion deposits of a loosely sinuous stream with few preserved floodbasin deposits (Vondra and Johnson,

1968). It has been earlier differentiated on its resistant, ridge-forming character. The Nahan are differentiated in the field from the underlying

Kasauli Formation of the Dharmsala Subgroup on the relative proportion

of sandstones and an increase in the percent of heavy minerals (plus lithic

fragments), giving them a "salt and pepper" appearance (Pascoe, 1963).

*As previously mentioned, lithostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic terminologies are not consistent with the Code of Stratigraphie Nomencla ture. The term "Siwalik Series" should probably be replaced by Siwalik Group, and the various subdivisions re-named accordingly. This paper will use the established terminology: the "quotes" will be mine. 13

3i»«r ïfw

31*» ji'jr 7t°3ir rrtt

PIATE C ^ ^ WATE A !ST»L»?ED j wtmtpkb HOLOCENE Tsnci Fimk I ilttt u

5 niUFUICIlUN BaaUirttip -a.-i3 • tnun y i iwewtmiuw: sh*mnk5«h* a njuaucum i ranuN laa^gwnm StUUTUX

(saXFnallN

Figure 4. Geologic sketch map of the Hamirpur-Haritalyangar region, Gumbhar-Sarkaghat thrust plate (Plate B), Bilaspur District, Himachal Pradesh, India The Nahan are transitional with the overlying Middle Siwalik "Lower

Alternations" of Gill (1951b). Previous investigations have differentia ted these units on the basis of the lack of resistant, ridge-forming sandstones and the increased frequency of occurrence of interbedded siltstones in the overlying unit. Vondra and Johnson (1968), explain this change in lithologie character as a response to a change in the fluvial regime, such that definite meander belt deposits were developed. In addition to a sequence of interbedded lateral accretion deposits, a much

greater amount of vertical accretion floodbasin deposits were preserved.

This would account for the change in the geomorphic expression of Plate B

in its central portion and the occurrence of the scarp and dip-slope topo

graphy mentioned by Gill (1951b). (See Figure 5a).

The "Upper Alternations" ("Upper Sandy Alternations" of Gill, 1951b)

lie conformably above the "Lower Alternations" and are sedimentologically

similar to them. A change in the compositon of the channel lag gravels

and channel sandstones in noted, thus making a field division possible on

the basis of increased variety of mixed lithic fragments.

Both the "Lower Alternations" and "Upper Alternations" of the Middle

Siwalik sequence of Plate B have been given lithostratigraphic nomencla

ture comparable to the faunal zones of the Siwalik Series of the type area

in the Attock District, West Pakistan. The use of the South Asian faunal

zone terms Nagri and Dhok Pathan for lithostratigraphic units of the

Middle Siwalik sediments of Plate B is untenable for obvious reasons. The

use of this terminology by Chaudhri and Gupta (1969) and others implies

lithostratigraphic significance although it can be demonstrated that these Figure 5. General overview of the Middle Siwalik sequence of Plate B

A. Overview of the "Lower Alternations" and "Upper Alternations" of Plate B from a vantage point above the village of Dhanghota (see Figure 4) on the crest of the ridge (Janghar Dhar) formed by the upthrusted Nahan Sandstone adjacent to the Gumbhar Fault, View is to the northeast; the village of Haritalyangar is situated above the road in foreground

B. Overview of the "Lower Alternations" one kilometer northwest of Haritalyangar. The productive fossil horizons of cycles #37-38 are in the foreground and those of cycles #42-43 are in the central background. The "Boulder Conclomerate Stage" is exposed along the horizon to the right; the upthrusted Chail Thrust sheet of the Dhauladhar Range be yond the Main Boundary Fault is the snow-capped peaks in the horizon (at 22,000 feet)

17 zones transgress field mappable or true lithostratigraphic units.

Pascoe (1963) and Sahni and Mathur (1964) provisionally included the

Middle Siwalik succession in Plate B with the Middle Siwalik succession

in Plate C near Nurpur, and proposed the use of the term Nurpur beds for

this sequence. This use would include those sediments, i.e., the "Lower"

and "Upper Alternations", lying above the Nahan Sandstone and below the

Upper Siwalik "Conglomerate Stage".

No attempt will be made to justify this proposed terminology in view

of the fact that the writer has not made an extensive study of the Nurpur

area. The use of Nurpur as a formational name with the "Lower" and "Upper

Alternations" designated as members could be acceptable terminology. In

this paper "Lower Alternations" and "Upper Alternations" will continue to

be used as informal lithostratigraphic divisions of the Middle Siwalik

sequence in Plate B, i.e., the area designated in Figure 4.

Occurring disconformably above the "Upper Alternations" are some

1000 meters of polymictic conglomerates with interbedded, loosely con

solidated sublitharenites and minor amounts of grayish-orange siltstones.

This sequence has been termed the Upper Siwalik "Boulder Conglomerate

Stage" and represents a proximal to medial position fanglomerate cor

responding to Plio-Pleistocene uplift along the Main Boundary Fault to

the northeast. Considerable confusion has arisen concerning the strati-

graphic occurrence of the "Boulder Stage" relative to other Upper Siwalik

sediments exposed in the outer foothills. The paucity of fauna in the

"Boulder Stage" makes correlation imprecise, but some workers favor an

Early to Medial Pleistocene age. 18

The important primate and equid associations of the Haritalyangar sequence in perspective with their stratigraphie occurrence and inferred limits of the South Asian faunal zones, have recently been re-evaluated in light of new data. Recent reviews of the major collections from the Mio-

Pliocene of North India (Simons, 1964; Simons and Pilbeam, 1965;'.

Simons and Ettel, 1970; Simons et 1971) have clarified the encumbering synonomy and confusion as to stratigraphie occurrence. These results are summarized in Figure 6.

Sedimentology

Distribution of lithologie features - sedimentologic

The recognition of ancient fluvial deposits on the basis of their sedimentological character rather than their contained fauna is still a rather new approach (summarized in Allen, 1965b). Although there has never been much problem in the recognition of such deposits developed from al luvial systems possessing a definite meander belt structure, i.e. high sinuosity (Fisk, 1947; Leopold and Wolman, 1957, 1960; VJolman and Leo pold, 1957; Lattman, 1960; and Iowa State University^'^), this is not the case with those streams having low sinuosity. A loosely sinuous stream may deposit channel lag and lateral accretionary sand bodies several

J. L. Glenn. 1960. Missouri River studies: alluvial morphology and engineering soil classification. Unpublished M.S. thesis. Library, Iowa State University of Science and Technology. Ames, Iowa. 2 A. R. Dahl. 1961. Missouri River studies: alluvial morphology and Quaternary history. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Library, Iowa State University of Science and Technology. Ames, Iowa. 19

South Stratigraphie Asian Succession Important Faunal Faunal of Plate B Age?* Associations Zones (Vicinity of (BP) s Haritalyangar) g

V "Boulder Equus sp. Stage" 2 eu Ulpparion theobaldl "Upper H. antilopinum Dhok Alternations" 7ay Gisantopithecus bilaspurensls Fathan Middle Pliocene

9-lOmy

Hipparion antilopinum "Lower l| Ramaplthecus punlabicus** Nagrl Altemaïions" 13-14my Drvoplthecus Indicus**

o « s Nahan Chili J i Sandstone • 1 *from Simons and others **sensu Simons and Pilbeaia (1965) ••^equivalent to Ft. Temaa strata, dated at 14s7

Figure 6. Faunal zonation, lithostratigraphic nomenclature, and important faunal associations of the Siwalik sequence exposed near Hari- talyangar, H.P., India (Plate B, this report) 20

kilometers or more wide and up to ten or more meters thick in addition to destroying the floodbasin deposits in its path. This model can be illus trated in the Holocene of the North American Gulf Coast deltaic plain

(Bernard et al., 1970; Bernard and LeBlanc, 1965) and in the Brahmaputra riverine plain of East Pakistan (Coleman, 1969). This is precisely the problem encountered with some previous interpretations of the mode of deposition of the earliest Siwalik molasse (the Nahan Sandstone).

The paucity of well preserved terrestrial fauna and flora in the

Nahan, and the preponderance of (compositional) litharenites are not the only factors which have led some investigators to conclude the "marine" nature of these sediments (Sikka et, al»» 1961; Saxena, e^ al, 1968). The

interpretation that the Subathu/Dagshai-Kasauli/Siwalik transition is one

of evaporite and black shale (exunic)/graywacke (flysch)/subgraywacke

(molasse) faciès transition within a géosynclinal cycle (Swaminath, 1961;

Saxena et al., 1968) is completely unfounded (Ganj.u and Srivastava, 1962;

Cummins, 1962; Gansser, 1964a, b, 1966). The géosynclinal cycle of

Pettijohn (1957) is not applicable here, since no eugeosynclinal phase

preceeded the molasse phase as in the Alpine geosyncline. The sediments

of the so-called Himalayan exunic and flysch facies are deposited on and

involved with sediments of the Gondwanan shield margin in the most recent

Himalayan thrusting.

In spite of the "uncontrovertable" evidence that the Dagshai-Kasauli

sequence is definitely of marine origin, based on its boron content

(Saxena e^ al., 1968), enough analyses have been made (Cody, 1970) to

indicate that this paleosalinity test is unreliable in ancient sediments 21

without additional evidence. In view of these problems of interpretation, other data is needed to substantiate the fluvial nature of the Siwalik molasse.

Fining-upward cycles Ideally, fluvial cycles are characterized by an erosional base cut into (and possibly through) the underlying cycle, and upon which may be developed various small scour features. Deposition of a coarse-grained channel lag containing both extraformational debris from upstream, and intraformational debris fragmented bone and wood derived locally by bank caving and erosion during channel meandering follows (Figure 8B). This grades vertically into finer-grained, lateral accretion (sub-stratum) point bar sandstones. The internal geometry of these sands reflects not only the fining-upward nature of the sediment, but also the stratification associated with the changing flow regime.

Large-scale trough cross-stratification gives way to horizontal bedding with parting lineations and finally small-scale trough or ripple-drift stratification. The final phase in the cycle is the fine-grained verti cal accretion (top-stratum) deposits, floodbasin siltstones and splay sands in the more proximal portions of the floodplain. Pedogenic modifi cation, usually present in the vertical accretion deposits, will be dis cussed in a later section.

The frequency of fining-upwards fluvial cycles from the Siwalik

molasse exposed in Plate B near Haritalyangar is illustrated in Figure 7; all cycles encountered in the Nahan Sandstone, "Lower Alternations" and

"Upper Alternations" being numbered in sequence from the Gumbhar Fault to

the disconformity with the "Boulder Stage". Figure 7. Fluvial fining-upward composite cycles present in the Hamirpur-Haritalyangar region of Plate B. (Important hominoid levels are indicated. One composite cycle is made up of channel lag, lateral accretion, and vertical accretion deposits) GUMBHAR FAULT

4j 200 Hahan Lower Alternations Upper Alternations Boulder stage o Sandstone p4

(a 200- (0 0)

•wI 100 o 100 ojho •p

Composite Cycle Number

0jj Varticol accretion deposit»

QJuoterol accretion deposits

polymictic Chonnel log deposits reworked v.a dep Figure 8. Sedimentologic features of the Nahan Sandstone and "Lower Alter nations"

A. Flute casts from a basal channel sand directly overlying floodbasin siltstones in the Nahan

B. Basal lateral accretion sandstone exhibiting large-scale trough to horizontal stratification transition. Porous texture is due to weathering out of intraformational mudstone clasts. From the "Lower Alternations". Scale, three feet

C. Multistoried channel filling in the Nahan. Outcrop height is eight feet

D. Clay drap occurring at channel margin in the "Lower Alternations"

E. Interbedded floodplain siltstones and fine-grained splay sand stones. Exposed along Haritalyangar road in outcrops of the "Lower Alternations". Outcrop is eight feet high

F. Ferruginous concretions developed in an inferred paleosol from the "Lower Alternations". Unit is not fossiliferous 25 26

The Nahan Sandstones at the base of Plate B are not simple cycles, the initial erosional channel cuts down below underlying vertical accretion deposits. As a result, many sand bodies within the Nahans are multistoried (Figure 8C) and laterally complex. It is, however, possible to differentiate each phase based on the above criteria (see also Allen, 1965b;

Bernard et al., 1970) if these are traced laterally.

The thirteen composite, multistoried, fluvial cycles representing the

Nahan, individually evidence a greater relative thickness for the lateral accretions sand bodies than for the associated floodbasin intervals, sug gesting quite rapid aggadation. Where floored in a rather cohesive bed

(floodbasin siltstones) the base of the cycle usually exhibits current scouring (Figure 8A).

The overlying "Lower Alternations", reflect drastic changes in stream regime, the development of a meander belt, and distinct distal to proximal facies variations within the vertical accretion floodplain deposits. With few exceptions the channel sand bodies of the "Lower Alternations" are not multistoried but reflect single phase erosion and lateral accretion

(Figure 8D). This is not the case with the floodplain mudstones; multi storied alluvium and splay sandstones (Figure BE) often reach unusual thicknesses (as in the important hominoid-bearing vertical accretion de posits up-section from and to the East of Haritalyangar) (Figures 7, 17, and 18). The semi-permanence of the floodplain landscape during Nagri times is reflected in the abundant faunal remains from these strata in contrast to the less stable and, therefore, more barren Nahan sequence below. The cycles of the "Upper Alternations" reflect the continued "multistoried nature" of the vertical accretion deposits with occasional multistoried channel sands. On the basis of the field interpretation of the fining-upwards cycles alone, however, not enough variation can be noted.

Beerbower (1964) related alluvial depositional morphology to basin sub sidence and concluded that unless subsidence and floodplain allu/iation are extremely rapid, definite meander belt deposits are likely to form.

Proximal and distal depositional environments will be differentiated-

successive channels in the belt will be wider and shallower, and channels

can be diverted within the belt more often. Channel fills may be more numerous, but shallower, so that the sandy member of each fluvial cycle

will display sheet sand characteristics. Deep channel fills, therefore,

are restricted to more rapidly subsiding and aggrading basins.

This phenomena has been observed by the .'Iter in the Bhabar (the

Recent coalesced alluvial apron at the foot of the Siwalik Hills) and

Indogangetic Plain. Here, due to continued rapid subsidence of the Indo-

gangetic Plain paired with an accompanying uplift of the outermost

Siwalik Hills (autochthonous Plates Dl, D2, and D3 of Figures 2 and 3)

along an inferred thrust, rapid modification is noted. Above the so-

called "hinge" or fault line, the alluvial apron is segmented, giving rise

to the small sloping paired terraces termed "bhangar". Below the "hinge"

the apron is buried by younger alluvial fill. In the area of subsidence,

below the hinge, the entire fluvial sequence is preserved, with individual

sand bodies reflecting this rapid aggradation. This feature is illustra

ted in Figure 9. Continued subsidence and thrusting results in a subsequent Figure 9. Sedimentologic development of the Bhabar

A. Inferred structural development of the Bhabar and its influence on terrestrial sedimentation in the northern portion of the Indogangetic Plain

B. Overview of the Bhangar (segmented terraces) and the Bhabar (alluvial apron) from a vantage point above the Nalagarh Fault on autochthonous thrust plate D1 29 Foothills Siwalik Hills

Nalagarh Fault tarai bhabhar bhangar

Rapid Subsidence Uplift 30 movement outward, away from the uplift, of the zone of maximum sediment accumulation in the Indogangetic Plain — a process not unlike the develop ment of the entire foredeep itself.

A mechanism similar to the Himalayan example is seen in the Texas

Gulf Coast, where Late Tertiary and Pleistocene alluvial deposits have

been segmented above a hinge line coincident with or slightly offshore

from the present coastline. The sediments are preserved offshore below

the hinge (Bernard and LeBlanc, 1965).

In view of these processes, the Nahan Sandstones were deposited in

a rapidly subsiding basin by aggrading streams of low sinuosity. Meander

belt deposits are poorly developed and preserved and terrestrial fauna1

and floral remains are not abundant due to this depositional mechanism.

The "Lower Alternations" reflect a period of quiescence with decreased

basin subsidence, definite meander belt construction in response to

increased channel sinuosity (decreased gradient), and decreased multi-

storied construction of channel sandstones. The "Upper Alternations" in

Plate B continue to reflect quiescence or slow rate of subsidence. Flood-

plain construction is evident and there is preservation of floral and

fauna! remains.

Grain-size analysis The analysis of grain-size statistics has

proven to be a useful tool in differentiating between many Holocene

environments. Scatter diagrams which compare various combinations of the

parameters, mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis have been

used by Friedman (1961), Moiola and Weiser (1968), and McGowen and Gamer

(1970) on fluvial sands and other terrestrial environments. Some environ

ments may now be defined on the basis of clustering. 31

Disaggregated channel sandstones and floodplain siltstones of the

Nahan, "Lower Alternations" and "Upper Alternations" were sieved and the fine fraction analysed by standard hydrometer methods. Scatter diagrams of the three most useful combinations of the above parameters for fluvial sediments (graphic mean, vs. inclusive graphic standard deviation, O"^

(Folk); vs. inclusive graphic skewness, Sk^ (Folk); CTj (Folk) vs. Sk^

(Folk)) were plotted. The standard plot of graphic kurtosis. Kg (Folk) vs.

Skj was of little help in differentiating individual environments an obser vation made also by others, (Moiola and Weiser, 1968).

A plot (Figure 10) of vs. CT^ (Folk) shows definite clustering of all samples within the fluvial field defined by Friedman (1961) and the less restrictive field defined by Moiola and Weiser (1968). This is true for all Nahan sandstones as well. Texturally, they are not related to flysch-related sediments as previously suggested. The field of clustering of similar data from Alpine flysch studied by Hubert (1967) is plotted for comparison. The Nahan channel sands examined display an average mean size of 2.80 with a standard deviation of 1.60 units. Floodplain deposits ex hibit a similar degree of sorting (1.80) and have an average mean of 5.90.

The "Lower Alternations" are generally more moderately sorted in the channel sands (average, 1.40 units standard deviation). Mean grain size is somewhat smaller (3.10) evidencing a greater degree reworking of the sedi ment. This relationship has been observed for other fluvial sands (Folk and Ward, 1957); with decreased mean particle size sorting is better, in dependent of distance transported.

The "Upper Alternations" reflect a similar pattern of textural 32

3.0 - Phi Units Fly*ch \ . Hubert (1967) \

!.. ••

2.0 -*—#- I8 (0 y o®oéb o 9 oo o •& 1.5 c95 V „o •«. / o ^ = 1.0 -v- Mixed -—Friedman (1961) River

Sefich •..Hubert (1967) Flytch 8 Phi Units

Moiola & Uelier (1968) Graphic Mean (m.)

# "Upper Mterriations"

O "L-iwrr Alternations"

A Nahan Sand#tone

Figure 10. Composite plot of inclusive graphic standard deviation vs. graphic mean for Nahan, "Lower Alternations", and "Upper Alternations" samples 33 variation vith one exception: extreme distal floodplain sediments (backswamp environments) are finer-grained (average 6.90). This may represent sampling variation, however, since the number of total samples from this environment is both the "Lower Alternations" and "Upper Alternations" is only 18 samples.

The plot of Skj against (Figure 11) provides better differentia tion of specific fluvial facies. However, since most Holocene terrestrial sediments are positively skewed in nature (Folk, 1968), Friedman's cluster obtained with 0"^ vs. Sk^ aids little in specific facies differentiation

(Figure 12).

Large scale trough cross and horizontally stratified sands of the

Nahan are generally near symmetrical to fine-skewed. Sorting is poor.

Floodplain sediments, where present, are fine-skewed to slightly strongly

fine-skewed, whereas, in the overlying "Lower Alternations", channel sands

and floodplain deposits are more strongly fine-skewed. Back swamp deposits

from both units are uniformly fine-skewed. The channel sands of the "Upper

Alternations" become less strongly fine-skewed with the floodplain silt-

stones being similar to the "Lower Alternations".

Changes in stream competency and alluvial facies variability based

solely on particle size distributions cannot be demonstrated effectively

for the Middle Siwalik sequence due to the great amount of overlap noted

in the above textural parameters.

There is a tendency for the trough cross-strata of each cycle in each

formation to be more platykurtic and slightly finer-skewed than the over

lying horizontally stratified sands. However, between the Nahan and the 34

+1.00

Snall^acale Horizontal StratlCicaclon Trough Strat. rloodplato Sllcstonaa '+0.75 \ I Large-icale Flyach Hubert (1967) Trough Strat.

CA t A. E 0 +0.25 o \ "to Backawaap Flne-Skeved ..A.t ~oa a 1 Flyach o 2 Near a--' Friedmao (1961) ^ 0 Syonetrlcal -»—#-

jlub«rt (1967) -0.25 U_ 8 Phi Units Graphic Mean (m.)

# "Upp»?r Alternations"

O "Lower Alternation*"

^ Kahan Sandstone

Figure 11. Composite plot of inclusive graphic skewness (Folk) vs. graphic mean for Nahan, "Lower Alternations", and "Upper Alternations" samples 35

Phi Units 3.0

Strongly Fine-Skewed

.2 2.5

? 2.0

1.0 Entlr* Fl«ld • River (Molola & Welter. 1966) 0.b -0.25 +0.25 +0.50 +0.75 +1.00 Friedman (1961) Inclusive Graphic Skewness

# "Upp#r

O "Lower Alcematlons"

^ Nahan Sandstone

Figure 12. Composite plot of inclusive graphic standard deviation vs. inclusive graphic skewness (Folk) for Nahan, "Lower Alterna tions", and "Upper Alternations" samples 36

"Lower Alternations" there is a change, all sand bodies becoming more lep- tokurtic. The trend reverses somewhat higher in the section, with the sands of the "Upper Alternations" being on the whole more platykurtic.

Floodplain siltstones from all three formations become more platykurtic and fine-skewed in distal floodplain positions.

Petrology Point-count modal analyses based on 300+ counts in

traverses normal to bedding, were made of oriented thin-sections from

selected sandstones of the Nahan, "Lower Alternations" and "Upper Alterna

tions". Both calcareous and non-calcareous sands were selected. For the

purpose of comparison, the pétrographie composition of a number of sands

from similar fluvial facies (large scale trough stratified) is summarized

in Table 2 and a ternary scatter diagram (Figure 13).

Most Siwalik sands are litharenites, the exception is the Nahan which

include some intermediate feldspathic litharenites. The mean composition

(40% quartz, 15% feldspar, 45% rock fragments) for the Nahan field closely

approximates the compositional average of typical Siwalik "schist arenites"

from the Potwar region of West Pakistan (Krynine, 1937). Krynine's work

describes the petrology of sediments from the type area of the Siwalik

biostratigraphic zones, 300 kilometers to the west of Haritalyangar. The

compositional mean for the "Lower Alternations" (60% quartz, 6% feldspar,

34% rock fragments) and the "Upper Alternations" (43% quartz, 7% feldspar,

and 50% rock fragments) deviate somewhat from this average.

The lithostratigraphic divisions of the Siwalik sequence in Plate B

can also be considered valid petrologic units; they are separable on

pétrographie data alone. Quartz-type variation among framework grains sets 37

Quartz* Feldspar Mica Rock Fragments Matrix

• to : ^ S

8701 76 26 3 — 2 12 3 6 2 T 3 — T 8102 68 11 4 T T 15 2 17 6 T T 6 -- 7501 63 12 2 — 1 20 2 5 2 1 1 23 1 A 7101 57 7 4 T T 16 4 14 8 T t 9 — 6901a 54 4 2 — T 14 1 14 27 — T 9 — 6701 52 7 4 — 2 22 5 14 6 — 3---- 1 6302 47 6 3 — — 1 18 4 9 21 — 2 14 T 5902 42 24 3 — 1 8 4 4 3 T T 23 T

5501 38 19 2 — — 2 14 2 14 5 4 1 § 5102 36 22 1 T — 6 7 t 9 2 7 1 T S 4501 33 30 1 T — 1 6 T 11 3 6 —— 1 S 3902 30 20 3 1 — 3 7 T 12 8 5 14 — — 3101 24 25 3 T 5 --7 6 5 2802 22 28 2 T — 2 3 1 11 4 12 — T 2301 20 21 2 — 1 6 3 9 9 5 — T 1702b 17 10 2 — — T 14 2 12 7 1 10 T

1501 14 15 1 T — 1 8 1 15 12 4 T -- 1303 12 8 1 1 15 4 14 13 1 1 15 T

1101 9 11 2 — — T 12 3 11 13 T 1 13 1 u 0902 6 5 2 T — T 12 5 17 19 1 1 13 2 0303 2 11 10 2 1 9 13 -- 7 3 - 5 4 3 0102 1 17 6 1 — 3 14 -- 14 6 4 4 2 T il 0101 1 8 4 1 — 1 16 2 21 6 2 3 4 1

—GumbharFault

*Quart2 type after Folk (1968)

Table 2. Compositional make-up of selected sandstones from the same facies (large-scale trough stratified) in the Nahan, "Lower Alternations", and "Upper Alternations" 38

,95%

75% Boulder S cage

Upper AlcemACions

D Lower AlccrriAtions

N'lhon Sandstone

\x!

Feldspathic Litharenite Litharenite

Figure 13. Ternary compositional plot of sandstones from the Nahan, "Lower Alternations", and "Upper Alternations" 39 the "Lower Alternations" apart from either the Nahan below or the "Upper

Alternations" above. Straight to slightly undulose extinction varieties increase relatively some 200-300% from an average of 11% in the Nahan to

24% in the "Lower Alternations". A relative decrease in occurrence of this extinction type is noted again in the "Upper Alternations". The dispro portionate increase in single-grain quartz varieties in the "Lower Alter nations" appears directly related to a decrease in the percentage of lithic fragments (metasedimentary, metavolcanic, detrital). Composite quartz varieties having either simple undulose or complexly undulose extinction are proportionally persistent throughout the entire Siwalik sequence, no apparent decrease noted in the "Lower Alternations". The balance of all quartz types within the "Lower Alternations" suggests some moderate sedi ment reworking prior to final deposition. With little or no preferential destruction of metaquartzite debris, only the least stable metasediments appear to have been destroyed.

The proportional increase in biotite mica during the "Lower Alterna tions" interval seems to substantiate this. It might be noted that the un stable chlorite mica suite encountered in the "Upper Alternations" was not yet being eroded or brought to the basin during "Lower Alternations" or Nagri time (Table 2).

The paucity of detital feldspar throughout the entire Siwalik sequence is further enhanced by the conditions of sedimentation during the "Lower

Alternations" interval. There is an expected decrease in relative percent of feldspar occurring as framework grains which corresponds to the observed decrease in unstable rock fragments. Even in channel sands, argillation of 40 feldspars occurs in more than 50% of all samples. Sericitization and kaolinitization are both present, with sericitization being dominant.

A determination of twin law, composition, and structural state was made of 23 coarse-fraction detrital plagioclase crystals selected at ran dom from the Nahan, "Lower Alternations" and "Upper Alternations". Analy sis was by a standard technique outlined by Turner and Weiss (1963, pp.

200-202) with the resulting indicatrix data referred to Slemmons (1952) for interpretation. The results are summarized in Figure 14.

Although it is not possible to be quantitative with such few determin ations there is a persistence of certain structural states within differ ent portions of the Siwalik sequence at Haritalyangar. Twin law relation ships are not precise enough to differentiate between igneous and metamorphic suites completely since both of the two dominant twin types, albite and manebach, occur in volcanic and plutonic igneous and metamorphic rocks

(Gorai, 1951).

Most twins were composed of few sub-individuals, with a prevalence of simple twins. This suggests a preponderance of metamorphic plagio clase (Turner, 1951) a factor not inconsistent with the high occurrence of

other lithic fragments in these sediments. The percent of anorthite (An)

is generally low, ranging from 3-36%. Sodic rich volcanic populations

occur at 3-8% An and at 15-18% An; three plutonic populations occur at

9-12% An, 20-23% An, and 28-36% An. The volcanic populations are per

sistent from the Nahan to the "Lower Alternations", whereas, the plutonic

populations are persistent throughout the entire sequence. In the "Upper

Alternations", only the 28-36% An plutonic field was found.

Accessory detrital minerals have been evaluated by Dehadrai (1958), Frequency o ui om Albite XXXXXXXXXXXXXX Pericllne XXXX Manebach xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Alblte-Ala B xxxx Manebach.-Ala xxxxxx Raju and Dehadrai (1962a), Raju (1967) and Raiverman (1968). The results of these workers are summarized in Figure 15. The most apparent relation ship between heavy mineral suites of the Siwalik sequence is the presence of the high-rank metamorphic minerals of the almadine-amphibolite facies.

Progessively younger Siwalik sediments reflect more complex suites and higher-grade metamorphic detritus. The impers is tence of epidote and staurolite in the Kasauli and a corresponding greater abundance in the

Nahan serves to provide a local marker for the base of the Nahan Sandstone

Kyanite is locally abundant from the base of the Middle Siwalik sequence

("Lower Alternations") upwards. The base of the "Boulder Stage" is similarly differentiated on the presence of hornblende and sillimanite.

The entire sequence seems to suggest progressive unroofing of a metasedimentary terrane which exhibits stratigraphically normal metamorphism. As mentioned previously, the Main Central Thrust sheet of the Inner Himalayas displacing southwards the metamorphic mudstones of the Jutogh Series ex hibits this character.

In addition, relative abundance of rutile and zircon increases within

the "Lower Alternations". Raiverman (1968) found a similar increase in

stratigraphically equivalent strate (Pétrographie Zone D^) in the Sarka-

ghat Anticline to the east of Plate 3. [The Sarkaghat Zone was similar

ly characterized by reduced mean grain size, decreased quantity of rock

fragments and feldspar, increased quantity of quartz, matrix, and grain

roundness (Raiverman, 1968, p. 44)].

The amount of clay matrix increases considerably in the "Lower Alter

nations". Both the Nahan and "Upper Alternations" sequence reflect this

difference in the higher proportion of carbonate matrix present (Table 2). Boulder x Conglomerate x X- Hornblende Marker X x Upper Alternations m

Lower Alternations -Kyanite Marker X Nahan x x -Staurolite Marker X X X Kasauli x X X X X 1 4j 01 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) J •ïJ 4J c .p •u s s m

Figure 15. Heavy mineral persistence in the Siwalik sequence of Plate B. (In part from data in Sinha and Khan (1965) and Sinha (1970))-' 44

Although some sparry calcite can be seen replacing detrital quartz in the "Upper Alternations" most occurs in the Nahan Sandstones which are almost always calcareous. An unfortunate consequence of this is the sel ective replacement of detrital grains by carbonate. As a result, the gross compositional plot for these sands (Figure 13) may be misaligned.

Detrital carbonate clasts constitute most of the reworked chemical sediments in the Nahan, and are recrystallized so that the original tex ture has been obliterated. Carbonate clasts are not abundant again until the "Upper Alternations" where they account for about 50% of chemical sedimentary rock fragments. The remaining chemical clasts in the "Upper

Alternations" and most of those from the "Lower Alternations" are crypto- crystalline quartz. Both chert and chalcedony are present, chalcedony

abundantly so.

Summary Siwalik sandstone petrology appears to reflect sig nificant changes in the character of both the basin of deposition and the

minéralogie provenance: 1) rapid deposition, minimal reworking, and a

very complex suite of detritus characterize the phyllarenites of the Nahan

Sandstone; 2) considerable reworking and subsequent loss of the more

liable fraction characterizes the "Lower Alternations"; and 3) increased

immaturity of the sediment characterizes the "Upper Alternations", petro-

graphically somewhat similar to the Nahan.

Progressive unroofing of a stratigraphically normal metamorphic

provinance is apparent from the higher-grade metamorphic detritus encoun

tered in younger Siwalik sediments. Although no extant Himalayan volcanic

plagioclases have been analysed which suggest composition and twin law

similar to those described from the Siwalik sequence, Bisaria and Saxena 45

(1968) describe intrusions within the Jutogh metamorphics of the Chor area

(Simla Himalayas) which are quite similar to the 28-36% An type plagioclases found in the "Upper Alternations". This occurrence coincides with the highest grade metamorphic assemblage of the Chor area and similarly the highest-grade metamorphic suite in the unstable detrital minerals of the Siwalik sequence.

Distribution of lithologie features - pedogenic

Soil development in multistoried parent material - alluvium The

'normal' pedological concept of soil profile development imposed upon pre viously unaltered parent material encounters some problems when applied to the environmental conditions in which fresh, unweathered parent material is added to the surface in vairying incrément amounts. Complicating factors, such as insufficient time for detectable horizonation, nonuniform parent material addition, lack of distinct lithologie breaks (gradational bound aries), irregular distribution of sedimentary bodies, and a depositional regime contemporary' with pedogenesis, may also exist.

The concept that parent material accumulation and its association with alluvial soil is somewhat unique and is different from the standard ABC concept of soil horizonation is not a new one. Nikiforoff (1949) differ entiated non-cumulative and cumulative soil types and thereby opened up a sensible approach to the study of alluvial soils. The typical ABC soil or non-cumulative type develops from parent materials which are more or less static in relation to further addition of parent material to the pro file. Cumulative soils, on the other hand, are those which develop on parent material which is not static but is undergoing a slow but steady 46 process of upbuilding by increment additions of sediment (alluvium, collu- vium, wind-blown sediment), As suggested by Folks (1954), Poetsch (1956),

Plyusnin (1960), and Riecken and Poetsch. (1960), the path of horizonation is not simply C transformed to an or B directly, but rather genesis of new surficial C into a new A^ and the former A^ into a B horizon. A former B horizon, therefore, becomes a highly modified substratum which cannot be confused with C material. To simplify,

b"= C transformed to B plus additional C from above, yields C C C

(modified from Poetsch, 1956)

Modification of prior sola into undifferentiated subhorizons, C^, proceeds at obviously different rates depending on a wide variety of factors, par ticularly climate and degree of weathering of the fresh material.

In general, there has been mixed progress in developing a sound concept of evolution of alluvium-derived soils. Initial studies (Sibertzev,

in Glinka, 1927) implied that no pédologie evolution could be expected to occur, but rather that the geologic process of sedimentation was the prin ciple factor characterizing alluvial soils. Later, Glinka (1927), Kellogg

(1941), and Dobtovolsky (1958) stressed the influence of soil forming pro cesses over geologic, with the result that most modern concepts specifi cally relate a particular form of horizonation to pedogenesis.

Landscape position (natural drainage) The influence that construc

tional landform has on soils of the floodplain is considerable. Abandoned channelways (oxbow cutoff), the low-level backswamp, and other low energy 47 depressional landforms of the floodbasin are almost always filled by fine- to very fine-grained overbank vertical accretion material. As a result, and due to their low-lying position, they are invariably poorly- to very poorly-drained. Conversely, the higher constructional landforms (natural levee, crevasse splay, and fan) are almost always well-drained. This is a function of both relief relative to the water table of the region (river level), and the coarse texture exhibited by these proximal landforms.

Increment addition Increment addition of new parent material to the profile, if in relatively small quantities and of fine-grained size, may in some distal positions on the floodplain not greatly affect the character of the soil sola other than to effectively *overthicken' the A horizon. More than likely, however, this increment addition will impose a new initial condition with subsequent change in the profile. In the en vironment distal to the influence of the main channel, pedogenic processes are in pace with sedimentation; in the more proximal localities, sedimen tation overshadows pedogenesis, thus, the A horizon is immature. Other studies tend to support this observation (Folks, 1954; Poetsch, 1956;

Simonson, 1960; deLeon, 1961; Dietz, 1966; Ledesma, 1969). Soil maturi

ty in the cumulative environment is an extremely variable factor; adjacent

landforms on the alluvial plain may have grossly different histories in

terms of their sedimentation record and the extent to which increment addition has taken place.

Soil formation In terms of the soil forming processes within cumu

lative environments, only a few are considered: A^ formation; pH and removal of soluble components; clay transformation, accumulation and

translocation; and oxide translocation (Simonson, 1960; Dietz, 1966; 48

Ledesma, 1969). Organic matter accumulation is generally considered to be

the initial response to pedogenesis, equilibrium being established rather

quickly.

The loss of soluble components from the profile is a natural response

to conditions of drainage and depositional landform. Poorly-drained,

low-level floodbasin areas are not highly leached; where partial leaching

does occur, the upper sola are leached, and concretions are developed low

er in the profile (Ledesma, 1969). In well drained areas where drainage

is unrestricted, the soluble components are completely lost. As expected,

there is a direct correlation between landscape position and clay accumula

tion. Soils formed on summit positions have developed deeper A horizons

than soils on low landscape positions for synchronous deposits according to

Ledesma (1969). When considering proximity to the stream course and time

since increment addition, most workers have observed higher and deeper

minimum and maximum peaks of clay accumulation.

Data from numerous sources (summarized in Simonson, 1960; deLeon,

1961), suggest that there is a direct relationship between iron and man

ganese oxides and natural drainage (as influenced by depositional morphol

ogy). Low-level soils of the floodbasin show lower free iron contents than

adjacent higher-level floodplain features. Within these higher-level

well-drained soils, the free iron distribution is commonly associated with

the zone of maximum clay distribution. Corliss (1958), however, observed

that in poorly drained soils there was no observed parallelism of clay

and iron oxides. deLeon (1961), using Fe-Mn ratio; Fe-clay ratio;

Mn-clay ratio, was able to differentiate drainage classes and relative

mobilities of various floodplain environments (Figure 16). Figure 16. Soil profile variation as a function of depositional form on alluvial floodplains. (From data by L.V. deLeon) 20 SOIL PROFILK VARIATION AS A FUNCTION OF DEPOSITIONAL FORM ON ALLUVIAL FLOODPLAINS 40

Interpretation by: Gary D. Johnson data from de Leon (Unpublished OL

V 20

PFb 60

PFb DFb % FHEE wnoobr#05 0110 pM 6 a

ri PFb-ms

Cloy PH •Mo Ft 51

Application Definite relationships become apparent when clay dis tribution and oxide data from alluvial soils are plotted relative to depo sit ional landforms in the cumulative system (Figure 16); 1) Clay distribu tion within alluvial soil profiles reflects depositional processes, prox imity to, and energy relationships of the depositional medium, with little pedogenic alteration. Pedogenic clay translocation is most evident in distal floodplain environments on high-level sites; 2) Free iron oxide distribution is generally a reflection of clay content. Even in young, immature sediments the oxide distribution follows the clay curve; 3) Man

ganese distribution reflects a greater degree of leaching within the pro

file. In the more poorly drained low-level sites, there is a direct re

sponse of manganese to pH, suggesting increased mobility with lower pH.

Thus certain properties, such as clay distribution and interrelation

ships between the mobile oxides can be used as criteria for the recognition

of not only ancient alluvial soils, but also their drainage class. Position

on the paleo-landscape is not difficult to differentiate from observation

al field data.

Floodplain deposits of the "Lower Alternations" In view of the

possibility of using pedological evidence, in addition to normal sedimen-

tological evidence, to establish an independent line of reasoning con

cerning the paleoecology of the Ramapithecus-yielding sediments (Tattersall,

1969a, b,; Leakey, 1969; and some earlier observations, Colbert, 1935c)

a preliminary analysis of the character of pédologie alteration of the

floodplain deposits of the "Lower Alternations", in the vicinity of Hari-

talyangar, was conducted. These sediments have yielded the dryopithecine

and hominid fauna mentioned previously and are considered to be Nagri in » 52 age, correlating with the type Nagri area in the Potwar plateau. West

Pakistan.

Floodplain sediments which appeared to have been modified by post depositional (pedogenic) processes were selected from 12 separate com posite fluvial cycles within both the "Lower" and "Upper Alternations".

Specific detail, however, was attended to the unusually fossiliferous cycles exposed near Haritalyangar (#37-38, and 42-44) which have yielded

Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus (Figure 17). Figure 18 shows outcrop of cycles 42-44 near Haritalyangar.

Analysis Determination of free oxides (Al, Fe, Mn) was accomplished by atomic absorption spectoscopy (Perkin-EImer, 1968) from extracts prepared according to Holmgren's (1967) sodium dithionite-citrate method (Huddelston, 1969). In this context, free oxides are defined sensu

Olson (1965) and Blume and Schwertmann (1969) to include the anhydrous and hydrous oxides occurring as discrete particles, grain coatings and "cement" which are affected by pedogenic processes, notably translocation. The data obtained are not for total elemental analysis; values indicate the dithionite-citrate extractable oxides only. Soluble (dithionite-citrate extractable) silica was similarly determined from the above extracts.

Total carbon was analysed by thermal-conductivity of evolved CO^ from high- temperature sample combustion. Analysis was instrumented on a LECO

(Laboratory Equipment Corp., St. Joseph, Mich.) automatic 70-second carbon analyser according to procedure outlined by Tabatabai and Bremner (1970).

Sample size was increased on an average of 25% above that used by Tabata bai and Bremner (0.2-0,3g) due to the low values encountered. Samples larger than 0.5g were judged too large due to incomplete combustion Figure 17. Topographie map of the "Lower Alternations" exposures in the vicinity of Haritalyangar, Bilaspur District, H.P., India. (Fluvial cycles #23-48 with the important primate-bearing floodplain deposits of cycles #37-38 and #42-43 occur in the area. Cycle #23 is exposed in the Makan Khad to the west; #47 is ex posed just below the Hari Mandar temple to the easé 54

/t.* J«' i

INDEX

tarjraj«'s\\

Bagywodha

Bupshalab

76-39'

u v\\ C Hari

i otilyaniar

n-^

explanation

Contour Interval 50 tect

& \ Da«ïar

Surveyed 19t»B-l969 by C.D. Johnson, C,r. VoncJr.i, 31 31* T. Bovm, A. Gaston Oriftin^I at scalc oC 1" - SOO*

Ci'CLES 4.2-^A

B H.ISC Caaps (1968-1969)

® Bench Murk Elevation (2559') CYCu:s 39-6: Quanici (Vertebrate fiiunfl bearing)

CYCLKS 37-3H Figure 18. Overview of the southwestern scarp of Hari Mandar Dhar, the cuesta scarp near Harital- yangar (300 meters to the right)« (Fluvial cycles #42-44 are exposed below the massive sandstone at left. View to the south)

57 during heating (above 1650°C).

Standard particle size determination of both coarse and fine fraction plus thin section analyses of selected horizons in each paleosol were made in order to characterize the fabric of the sediments.

Finally, porosity characteristics (effective porosity, bulk density

(bulk specific weight), rock specific weight, and pore size distribution) were deterained on paleosols from cycles #37-38 and #42-44 using a Ruska

Mercury Capillary Apparatus (mercury porosimiter) with an operational

pressuring capacity of 2000 psi. This gives an equivalent diameter min

imum pore size resolution of 0.060^ (60OA), a value including most capi-

larity in modem soils (Diamond, 1970).

Physical data Profile data on less than 2 p. clay seems to

suggest little evidence of translocation in each cycle illustrated (Figures

19 and 20). The occurrence of three possible argillic horizons in

profile #38 and four in profile #43 can be verified or denied on the basis

of field observation. Profile #38 lies in a proximal position to an ad

jacent channel; stratification suggests a definite floodbasin environment

near the toe-slope of a natural levee. As a result, clay distribution in

this profile appears to be more closely related to sedimentologic processes

than pedogenic. Although there is no great difference in bulk density

(bulk specific weight averaging 2.57 throughout the profile), effective

porosity seems to further corroborate the immature nature of the pedogene

sis in this profile.

Data on sequence #43 similarly reflects proximity to channel influence.

The paleosol was developed on distal levee sediments. The four possible

argillic horizons show little evidence of being more than sedimentologic 58

0.3 C 0,73 1.00 Al^*o- 2.0 5.0 4.0 F,^ % & 0060 0.079 O.lOO Mm % A. 0.10 0.19 0.20 Si.% ».

7.3YR

7.9Y*

Figure 19. Profile variation of pedogenic oxides, clay, and porosity in a paleosol sequence from fluvial cycle #38 in the "Lower Alter nations" near Haritalyangar 59

029 0.90 0.79 2.0 3.0 4.0 F#g % * 20% Cl«v contant «2 HMcmn) o- - 0.025 o.oeo 0.079 0.100 M#^% 6. - OOS 010 0.19 0.20 sidf 00 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0% Pofowty »—

îovr

7.5yr

10yr

75yr

lovr |! •i

Figure 20, Profile variation of pedogenic oxides, clay, and porosity in a paleosol sequence from fluvial cycle #43 in the "Lower Alter nations" near Haritalyangar 60 clay-rich layers. Bulk density (bulk specific weight) variation and porosity data supports this contention. Textural and fabric data from thin-sections indicate no translocated clay, showing clay skins and the oriented fabric which are diagnostic properties of argillic horizons in modem soils (USDA, 1960, p. 37). This does not negate the possibility of

in situ clay transformation in the profiles, but does further substantiate

the inferred immaturity of the two soils mentioned.

The problem of compaction and change in bulk specific weight due to

diagenesis was not studied. It was assumed, however, that for each pro

file, the variance of physical properties among different levels within

the profile was at a minimum, the entire profile being affected essentially

the same during compaction and lithification.

Pedogenic oxides Data on the dithionite-citrate extractable

oxides points up a disparity in the two profiles under consideration:

profile #38 shows an irregular, poorly developed sesquioxide profile

peaking at the 5-foot depth (0.99% free ^120^; 2.89% free F^gOg), de

creasing downward towards the base of the vertical accretion deposits, and

showing no general parallelism to the clay curve. There is, however, a

general parallelism to the less than 2 u clay + medium and fine silt curve.

Free manganese oxide distribution generally reflects a maximum pro

file occurrence at a level below both the free aluminum and free oxide

peaks (Figures 19 and 20). There is, however, no apparent relationship

between free manganese and clay content in these paleosols an observation

shared by other students at this laboratory on similar paleosols from the

Eocene of the western U. S. (Neasham, 1970; and personal communication),

and in modern soils of temperate flood plains (deLeon, 1961). Effective 61 porosity values of the lithified floodplain deposits and percent free man ganese oxides exhibit a positive correlation, which is a probable relict pedogenic property (Figure 21). Poorly drained (low porosity) soils ex hibit high mobility of several pedogenic oxides with the result of greater depletion of these oxides with decreased drainage. Figure 21 illustrates this response; with low porosity (aeration), there is low free Mn reten tion; with high porosity, there is high retention of free Mn.

deLeon (1961) points to several interesting relationships in modem soils which appear to be demonstrated in the two profiles in question. A ratio of maximum percent free tfa oxides to minimum percent free Mn oxides

(Max. % Mn/Min. % Mn) in some modem soils can be used to define drainage class. In the case of profile #38; this ratio is 4.8, poorly drained according to the same scheme. One restriction placed on this interpreta tion is that the soils must exhibit near neutral pH (undeterminable for fossil soils) and fairly high organic matter in the A^. Organic carbon was detectable (0.018-0.200% C) at several levels in profiles #38 and #42 which correspond to inferred upper solum positions in these two paleosols.

Diagenesis has driven off most volatile hydrocarbon compounds from these sediments, but the detectable carbon, plus observable carbonaceous string ers (plant rootlets), lend support to this conclusion. Fairly high ratios

(ranging from 47 to 81) of Fe to Mn (% free Fe/% free Mn) give further

evidence of differential mobility and depletion of Mn than Fe. Further,

the lack of parallelism between Fe and clay distribution mentioned earlier,

supports the concept of poorly drained soils.

Coloration Variegated coloration of ancient floodplain sedi

ments has been previously used as evidence of soil weathering. Several 62

10X

g _ Cycles 37 & 43

h •• .

_L 0.05 0.10 % Free Mn oxides

Figure 21. Plot of free Mn oxides (dithionite-citrate extractable) vs. effective porosity for pedogenically altered floodplain siltstones of the "Lower Alternations" 53 other studies have favored the polygenetic formation of variegated floodplain mudstone: 1) erosion, transport, and deposition of soil sola from highly weathered upland surfaces to the floodbasin: hence, the floodplain

paleosols have derived, sedimentologic properties (Van Houten, 1948, 1961,

1964); 2) ^ situ weathering of the floodplain material (Walker, 1967a, b).

Walker's argument rests on the fact that red sediments, specifically

soil-derived sediments, are not transported as red, but as brown, therefore,

making Van Houten*s derived coloration improbable. The writer is of the

opinion that this observation is categorically wrong, having personally

observed alluvial transport and lacustrine deposition of red, latosol-

derived sediment in the Omo River of Ethiopia and its delta at Lake Rudolf,

Kenya. This problem will not be dealt with here; suffice it to say that

both explanations are probable.

Figure 22 illustrates the relationship between the dithionite-citrate

extractable free sesquioxides and Munsell color hue. As noted, the redder

hues (7.5YR and lOYR) exhibit greater sesquoxide values. These values are

for non-mottled sediments and include none of the pissolitic iron con

cretions (pea-iron) or incipient plinthite horizons encountered in several

of the twelve paleosols. Coloration of those materials was of hue 5YR.

For field recognition of probable pedogenic horizons in the Middle Siwalik

"Lower Alternations" and "Upper Alternations", these data appear to be

useful. No analysis of these sediments was made to verify the possible

increase in (OH)-Fe proportion of free iron oxide (goethite) with increas

ing yellow color, and an increase in anhydrous forms (hematite) in the

strongly red hues.

Clay mineralogy Illite, montmorillonite, expandable mixed- 64

120 Samples 2.5Y • 7.5YR andlOYR

0.75

# • N 2.GY 1 « . e#.

7.SYRand10YR

0.25 L-- 2.5Y ,•/ •• • 0.0 L _L 0.1 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00%

Free Fe oxides

Figure 22. Plot of free A1 oxides (dithionite-citrate extractable) vs. free Fe oxides (dithionite-citrate extactable) relative to Munsell color hue. (From "Lower Alternations" and "Upper Alternations" near Haritalyangar) 65 layer, degraded (?) chlorite and minor amounts of kaolinite are present in these raudstones. Montmorillonite and expandable mixed-layer clays are dominant. No detectable difference among different variegated mudstones was observed in the samples analysed.

Evidence of biologic activity Although mottled coloration has generally been considered evidence of "bioturbation" of sediment following deposition, few observations have been made on modern alluvial soils to characterize this process. It must occur early in the development of a soil and continue as long as the soil remains an integral part of the landscape. Figure 23 illustrates a lateral sequence of fresh to bioturbated sediment occurring in one floodplain sequence from just below cycle

#38 in the "Lower Alternations". The micromorphological evidence may be interpreted as fabric disruption or homogenization of original sedimentary structures by biologic activity (organisms and plant rootlets). As can be seen in Figure 23, A-C, original slack-water vertical accretion siltstones

(23A) are homogenized (23B, C) such that only some relict texture is present. Earthworm borrows and plant rootlets are evident in part of the homogenized unit (23C & D). Many of the mudstones exhibit small carbona ceous tubules (plant rootlets) throughout their entire thickness. These are surrounded by a small tubular zone (0.25-1.00 cm dia) of reduced

(Munsell color 5B7/1) coloration.

Large tubular structures (up to 5 cm dia) have been noted, although rare, and occur within variegated mudstones containing the potamonid crab

Potamon emphvsethum Alcock, 1909 (identified by Dr. R. Bott, Natur-Museum und Forschung-Institut Senckenberg, Frankfurt am Main, Germany).

Recent sediment data on the initial changes occurring in newly- Figure 23. Bioturbation and associated features in floodplain paleosols of the "Lower Alternations". (Negative prints of thin-sections)

A. Undisturbed slack-water siltstones occurring in proximal posi tion on the floodplain. From cycle #18

B. Bioturbated slack-water siltstones occurring five meters later ally frœn 23A, Note relict texture is still preserved in top center

C. Completely bioturbated siltstone sequence from same horizon, but in more distal position on floodplain. New increment addition of clay occurs at top. Lumbricus (?) burrows at bottom

D. Bioturbated ripple-drift sediment on levee deposit. Small, round white objects with black centers are root channels

E. Homogenized floodplain siltstones with little relict texture preserved. Bioturbation is complete

68 deposited alluvium (Pons and Zonneveld, 1965) strongly suggests that the fabric of most paleosols occurring in the more fossiliferous horizons in the "Lower Alternations" and "Upper Alternations" are juvenile, since many of the structures preserved are the result of the earliest stages of

"soil ripening" (for definition, see Pons and Zonneveld, 1965).

According to Pons and Zonneveld (1965), the first event in homogenization or destruction of depositional fabric is brought about by burrowing organisms, notably fresh-water crabs and lumbricid worms. Although this occurs while some sediments are still water-logged following flood and/or poorly-drained, the effect is generally noted in that port on of the pro file lying above the normal saturated zone (Figure 24). The zone of bioturbation can be quite deep depending on proximity to the water table, for as Sanders (1963, p. 224) points out, during the dry season, some modern

Indian Ivunbricids migrate over 10 feet vertically in the soil profile.

Paleobotanical evidence Relatively few botanical remains have been studied from the "Siwalik Series" of the Punjab, most studies having been carried out to the southeast in Assam and the Northeast Fron tier Agency in equivalent strata, but with so-called Burmese affinities.

Fortunately, several recent investigations have shed some light on probable associations in the Siwaliks,.specifically the "Lower Alternations" floodplain mudstonss and their equivalents in adjacent thrust plates (Lakhanpal,

1967; Banerjee, 1968).

Although collections are small and from limited, scattered areas, all appear to have been collected from the more (drab yellowish hued, 2.5Y) floodplain mudstones. Carbonaceous plant impressions are not abundant in the red sediments. Most are found in the most distal, yet pedogenically 69

stpt - oet 19S3

MHW : mean high water community of Salix alba and Scro- VO K community of willow beds and tidal phularia nodosa. Cimféxforests remocâ with Circaea lutetiana and

Lumbricus aerated and very humose

Oendrobaena earthworms miHI aerated

Allobophora reduced

Enchytraeidae rust stains

high water table outside

groundwater cabi«

Figure 24. Relationship between high water level, groundwater table, soil condition and vertical distribution of some soil organisms. (From Pons and Zonneveld (1965)) 70 immature sediments of the floodplain. In these environments, bioturbation would macerate all larger foliage; only microflora would remain identi fiable.

Lakhanpal (1967, 1968) reports the following from the "Lower Alterna tions": Rhamnaceae Zizyphus sp. Berchemia sp. indet. dicotyledonous wood Poaceae ?Poacites sp. Moraceae Ficus sp.

Banerjee (1968), reporting on Siwalik microflora, found the following assemblage from the Middle Siwaliks:

Asteraceae indet. Poaceae indet. Pinaceae Pinus sp.

From the above small population little specific environmental data can be gleaned. Both upland (Pinus sp.. Ficus sp.) and floodplain (Ficus sp., and the rest) representatives are present. Well-drained and poorly-drained site flora are apparently represented, all being equivalent to sub-tropical extant species.

An idea which may merit more detailed analyses is the accumulation of amorphous silica phytoliths (cystolith; Esau, 1965) at the surface of buried soil horizons. Any increment addition of new parent material to the floodplain environment will effectively concentrate these siliceous

(opaline; Baker, 1960) silt-sized particles in horizons representing buried land surfaces.

The Poaceae (grasses) and fresh-water algae are not the only abundant plant form possessing secretory cells (lithocycst) producing fine-silt 71 sized (0.006-0.008 mm (70)) particles. Most species of Ficus exhibit cystolith-containing cells which may produce detrital particles as large as 0.0625 (40) in diameter (Esau, 1965; Ajello, 1941). It would appear that any reasonable period of organic litter accumulation of this type on a landscape could result in a considerable concentration of these organo- clastic particles to the point where cyclicity of overbank flooding may be determined from these buried surfaces.

The geochemical stability of these clasts in soil horizons has not been tested, but would be unstable and soluble above pH 10. The effects of diagenesis also have not been evaluated, but other studies show at least some conversion to chalcedony. The significant frequency of detrital chalcedony in the "Lower Alternations" may be related to just this. It is felt, however, that regardless of the degree to which diagenesis and chalcedonic conversion has taken place, the entire profile would be simi

larly affected with residual variations still apparent.

With these possibilities in mind, analysis of soluble silica (dithion-

ite-citrate extractable) was made from samples from each of the twelve

paleosols. The results of the analyses on profiles #38 and #43 are

illustrated in Figures 19 and 20. Percent soluble silica ranges from

0.020 to 0.255 in the samples tested. Only in a few instances do maximum

silica deflections correspond to inferred near-surface positions of

possible buried horizons. There is, however, a fair degree of parallelism

between increased silica content and sediments with a hue of 7.5YR. This

level of coloration corresponds closely to inferred upper profile position

in these buried soils. The general increase in silica, although not

limited to one specific layer, may reflect a response to the bioturbation or biologic reworking of the upper sola as mentioned above.

Weaver, et a'L, (1968), although not considering pytolithic silica, observed a relationship between soluble silica and the supply of Al, Fe, and Mg in the soil matrix solution. In the cases illustrated, silica was maintained in solution by acidity, reduction of free iron oxides and hydrolysis of mafic minerals in soil materials occurring in positions of slow drainage. Accordingly, this leads to the crystallization of expan sible layer silicate clays (montmorillonite) in these poorly drained sites

(Weaver et al., 1968). Although no quantitative evaluation of montmoril lonite occurrence in the "Lower Alternations" profiles has been carried out, the abundance of montmorillonite and other mixed-layer expansible clays may tend to support evidence for such clay transformation taking place, even in these immature soils. 73

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Neogene sedimentation in a portion of the Punjab Himalayas (the

Gumbhar-Sarkaghat fault block) is represented by 5000 meters of late

Cenozoic (Sarmatian-Villafranchian) fluvial molasse reflecting the complex denudation of adjacent thrust plates developed within the Himalayan orogen.

1) The earliest molasse phase, represented by the Nahan Sandstone, is chiefly a multistoried, multilateral fluvial complex composed primarily of channel lag and lateral accretion deposits. In the vicinity of Harital- yangar, H. P., thirteen composite fluvial cycles evidence a greater rela tive thickness for the lateral accretion sandbodies than for the associated floodbasin sediments, suggesting quite rapid aggradation by a loosely sinuous stream regime in a rapidly subsiding basin analogous to the modem

Indogangetic Plain. Mineralogically, these sediments are poorly sorted, fine-skewed, and predominantly phyllarenites with polymictic extraformational lag gravels. The mineralogical composition of framework grains reflects denudation of a stratigraphically normal metasedimentary terrane

(Main Central Thrust sheet) yielding high-rank detritus of an inferred almadine-amphibolite facies. Sedimentary detritus is also present, but decreases considerably upwards in the molasse sequence.

2) The "Lower Alternations" reflect the development of a distinct meander belt facies distribution as a result of increased sinuosity and decreased basin subsidence. Paleosol development is noted and prolific fossil vertebrate occurrence is noted in some vertical accretion deposits.

Mineralogically, the "Lower Alternations" are somewhat more mature, being predominantly poorly sorted, more strongly fine-skewed than the Nahan, and 74 quartzose phyllarenites. A. higher grade mineral suite (kyanite), in addition to the epidote and stavrolite of the Nahan, evidences continued unroofing of the metamorphosed Main Central Thrust sheet.

3) The "Upper Alternations" are sedimentologically similar to the

"Lower Alternations" except being somewhat more immature. Polymictic extraformational channel lag is again evident, the channel sands being less quartzose than below. Carbonates increase noticeably and a new metamorphic suite is introduced (chlorite-sericite) possibly related to initial unroofing of the reversely metamorphosed Chail Thrust Sheet.

Granitic and gneissic detritus and plutonic plagioclases having composi tions and twin-law relationships similar to the Outer Himalayan intrusions

(e.g. the Chor Massif) support this conclusion.

4) Pedogenic modification of most proximal and distal floodplain de posits of the "Lower Alternations" and "Upper Alternations" is present.

Although hydromorphic paleosols are most abundant and are associated with the most fossiliferous horizons some pedogenic alteration seems to suggest oxisol development. In all cases, pedogenic modification is masked by

the primary depositional character of the parent material.

Fossiliferous horizons appear to be generally proximal, poorly drained sites with pedogenically immature parent material. Older, well-drained

pedogenically mature horizons appear poorly fossiliferous. The inter relationships of carbon, silica (soluble), modification of sesquioxides by

certain drainage characteristics, and re-arrangement of soil structure is

useful in developing a model of the fossiliferous, fluventic (U.S.D.A.,

I960) soils in the "Lower Alternations". 75

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was supported by grants to Dr. Elwyn L. Simons, Depart ment of Vertebrate Paleontology, Yale University, by the National Science

Foundation and the Smithsonian Institution Foreign Currency Program. The writer extends appreciation to Dr. Carl F. Vondra, Department of Earth

Science, Iowa State University, who served in many capacities as field associate, supervisor, and critic. His assistance both in the field and in manuscript preparation were valuable to the completion of the project.

Acknowledgements go to the other committee members, Drs. K. M. Hussey,

John Lemish, Roger Q. Landers, and W, H. Scholtes, and to Frank F. Rieken, for their discussions during various phases of this project.

Special thanks go to John W. Neasham, now with Shell Development

Company, and Harlan L. McKim, and Gerald A. Miller of the Soil Science

Division, Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University, for many hours

of consultation, help, and advice during this study.

Appreciation is extended to the personnel of the vertebrate paleon

tology division of the Peabody Museum, Yale University; to the Depart

ments of Anthropology and Geology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

for their consultation in the field; and to the Government of India for

allowing this study to take place.

Lastly, sincere appreciation is due my wife, Sandra, for her under

standing during seven months of separation while field work was being car

ried out, for her many hours of manuscript typing, and for her patience. 76

SELECTED REFERENCES

Ajello, L. 1941. Cytology and cellular interrelations of cystolith for mation in Ficus elastica. Amer. Jour. Bot. 28:589-594,

Allen, J. R. L. 1965a. Fining upwards cycles in alluvial succession. Liverpool and Manchester Geol. Jour. 4:229-246.

Allen, J. R. L. 1965b. A review of the origin and characteristics of recent alluvial sediments. Sedimentology 5:89-191.

Auden, J. B. 1934. The geology of the Krol Belt. Geol. Surv. India Rec. 67, Part 4:357-454.

Babu, S. K. and P. V. Dehadrai. 1958. Petrological investigations of the rocks of Mohand near Dehra Dun. Curr, Science 27:168-170.

Baker, G. 1960. Hook-shaped opal phytoliths in the epidermal cells of oats. Austral. Jour. Bot. 8:69-74.

Banerjee, D. 1968. Siwalik microflora from Punjab (India). Rev. Paleo- bot. Palynology. 6:171-176.

Beerbower, J. R. 1964. Cyclothems and cyclic depositional mechanisms in alluvial plain sedimentation. Kans. Geol. Surv. Bull. 169:31-42.

Bernard, H. A. and R. J. LeBlanc. 1965. Resume of the Quaternary geology of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico Province. In H. E. Wright, Jr. and D. G. Frey, eds. The Quaternary of the United States. Pp. 137-185. Prin ceton Univ. Press, Princeton, N. J.

Bernard, H. A,. C, F. Major, Jr., B. S. Parrott, and R. J. LeBlanc, Sr. 1970. Recent sediments of southeast Texas. Univ. Texas (Austin) Bur. Econ. Geol. Guidebook 11:1-16, plus reprints.

Berthelson, A. 1951. A geological section through the Himalayas: a preliminary report. Dansk Geol. Foren., Meddel. 12:102-104.

Bhattacharya, N. and S. S. Misra. 1963. Petrology and sedimentation of the middle Siwalik clays at Dholkhand, Saharanpur District, U. P., India. Beitrage zur Mineralogie und Petrologie 9:139-147.

Bisaria, P. C. and M. N. Saxena. 1968. On the olivine bearing dolerites and gabbros of the Chor area. Panjab Univ. Centre Adv. Study Geol. Publ. 5:65-73.

Blume, H. P. and U. Schwertmann. 1969. Genetic evaluation of profile distribution of aluminum, iron, and manganese oxides. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 33:438-444. 77

Chaudhri, R. S. 1968. Stratigraphy of the lower Tertiary formations of Panjab Himalayas. Geol. Mag. 105:421-430.

Chaudhri, R. S. 1969a. Provenance of the Lower Tertiary sediments of north-western Himalayas. Indian Geol. Assoc. Bull. 2:51-56.

Chaudhri, R. S. 1969b. Sedimentology of the lower Tertiary rocks of the Punjab Himalayas. Panjab Univ. Res. Bull. (N. S.) 20:229-238.

Chaudhri, R. S, 1970. Position of Nahans in the Tertiary geology of the Himalayas (Abstract) Ind. Sci. Cong. Proc. 57:186-187.

Chaudhri, R. S. and V. J. Gupta. 1969. A contribution to the geology of Haritalyangar and adjoining region. Indian Geologists Assoc. Bull. 2:102- 104.

Cody, R. D. 1970. Anamalous boron content of two continental shales in eastern Colorado. Jour. Sed. Pet. 40:750-754.

Colbert, E. H. 1935a. Distributional and Phylogenetic studies on Indian fossil mannals I: American Museum collecting localities in northern India. Am. Mus. Novitates 796:1-20.

Colbert, E. H. 1935b. Distributional and phylogenetic studies on Indian fossil mannals II: The correlation of the Siwaliks of India as inferred by the migrations of Hipparion and Equus. Am. Mus. Novitates 797:1-15.

Colbert, E. H. 1935c. Siwalik mammals in the American Museum of Natural History. Am. Philos. Soc. Trans. (N. S.) 26:1-401.

Coleman, J. M. 1969. Brahmaputra River: Channel processes and sedimen tation. Sed. Geol. 3:129-239.

Congress Geologique International, Commission de Stratigraphie. 1957. Lexique Stratig. Internat., Asie 3, Fasc. 8a:1-328.

Corliss, J. F. 1958. Genesis of loess-derived soils in southwestern Iowa. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Library, Iowa State University of Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa.

Cummins, W. A. 1962. Greywacke in lower Siwaliks. Simla Hills. Nature 196:1085. deLeon, L. V, 1961. Distribution of extractable manganese in some allu vium derived soils. Unpublished M.S. thesis. Library, Iowa State Univer sity of Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa.

Dehadrai, P. V. 1958. Boundary between the lower and the middle Siwaliks in the Jawalamukhi (Punjab) area and the neighborhood. Geol. Min. and Met. Soc. India Quart, Jour. 30:211-214. 78

Diamond, S. 1970. Pore size distribution in clays. Clay and Clay Miner als 18:7-23.

Dietz, W, P. 1966. Side-valley cumulic soils in loess areas of Tama County, Iowa. Unpublished M.S. thesis. Library, Iowa State University of Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa.

Dobtovolsky, G. V. 1958. Classification of bottom land soils in the forest zone. Soviet Soil Sci. 8:897-904.

Esau, K. 1965. Plant anatomy. 2nd ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, New York.

Fisk, H. N. 1947. Fine-grained alluvial deposits and their effects on Mississippi River activity. Vicksburg, Miss. U. S. Army Corps Engineers, Miss. River Comm.

Folk, R. L. 1968. Petrology of sedimentary rocks. Hemphills, Austin, Texas.

Folk, R^ L. and W. C. Ward. 1957. Brazos River Bar: a study in the sig nificance of grain size parameters. Jour. Sed. Pet. 27:3-26.

Folks, H. C. 1954. Soil Profile development in sandy parent material of Iowa. Unpublished M.S. thesis. Library, Iowa State University of Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa.

Friedman, G. M. 1961. Distinction between dune, beach, and river sands from their textural characteristics. Jour. Sed. Pet. 31:514-529.

Ganju, P. N. and V. K. Srivastava. 1962, Occurrence of greywacke in lower Siwalik, Simla Hills. Nature 194:566-567=

Gansser, A. 1964a. The Alps and the Himalayas. Int. Geol. Cong., 22nd, India, Rept. 11:387-399.

Gansser, A. 1964b. Geology of the Himalayas. Interscience. New York, New York.

Gansser, A. 1966. The Indian Ocean and the Himalayas, a geological in terpretation. Eclog. Geol. Helv. 59:831-848.

Gill, W. D. 1951a. The stratigraphy of the Siwalik Series in the northern Potwar, Punjab, Pakistan. Geol. Soc. (London) Quart, Jour. Ser. 107, 4:375- 394.

Gill, W. D. 1951b. The tectonics of the Sub-Himaiayan fault zone in the northern Potwar region and ih the Kangra district of the Punjab. (London) Quart. Jour. Ser. 107, 4:395-421. 79

Glinka, K. D. 1927. Great soil groups of the world and their development. Edwards Bros. Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Gorai, M. 1951. Petrologic studies on plagioclase twins. Am. Minerolog. 36:884-901.

Gregory, W. K., M. Hellman and G, E. Lewis. 1935. Fossil anthropoids of the Yale-Cambridge India expedition of 1935. Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 495:1-27.

Gregory, W. K., M. Hellman and G. E. Lewis. 1936. Preliminary report on fossil anthropoid teeth from India collected by Yale-Cambridge India expedition of 1935. Amer. Jour. Phys. Anth. 21.

Holmgren, G. G. S. 1967. A rapid citrate-dithionite extractable iron procedure. Soil Sci. Amer. Proc. 31:210-211.

Hubert, J. F. 1967. Sedinientology of prealpine flysch sequences, Switzer land. Jour. Sed. Pet. 37:885-907.

Huddelston, J, H. 1969. local soil-landscape relationships in eastern Pottawattamie County, Iowa. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Library, Iowa State University of Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa.

Kellogg, C. E. 1941. The soils that support us. Macmillan Co., New York.

Krynine, P. D. 1937. Petrography and genesis of the Siwalik Series. Am. Jour. Sci. Ser. 5, 34:422-446.

Lakhanpal, R. J. 1967. Fossil Rhamaceae from the Lower Siwalik beds near Jawalamukhi, (Himachal Pradesh). Panjab Univ. Centre Adv. Study Geol. Publ, 3:23-26.

Lakhanpal, R. J. 1968. A new fossil Ficus from the Siwalik beds near Jawalamukhi, Himachal Pradesh. Panjab Univ. Centre Adv. Study Geol. Publ. 5:17-19.

Lattman, L. H. 1960. Cross section of a floodplain in a moist region of moderate relief. Jour. Sed. Pet. 30:275-282.

Leakey, L. S. B. 1969. Ecology of North Indian Ramapithecus. Nature 223:1075-1076.

Ledesma, L. L. 1969. Characteristics of soils developed in Missouri River alluvium in western Iowa. Unpublished M.S. thesis. Library, Iowa State University of Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa.

Leopold, L. B, and M. G. Wolman. 1957. River channel patterns: braided, meandering, and straight. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 282-8:39-85. 80

Leopold, L. B. and M. G. Wolman. 1960. River meanders. Geol. See. America Bull. 71:769-794.

Lewis, G. E. 1934. Preliminary notice of new man-like apes from India. Amer. Jour, Sci. 27:161-179.

Lewis, G, E, 1937a. Anew Siwalik correlation. Amer. Jour. Sci. 33:191- 204.

Lewis, G. E. 1937b. Taxonomic syllabus of Siwalik fossil anthropoids (India). Amer. Jour. Sci. 34:139-147.

McGowen, J. H. and L. E. Garner. 1970. Physiographic features and stra tification types of coarse-grained point bars: modern and ancient examples. Sedimentology 14:77-111.

Mathur, L. P. and P. Evans. 1964. Oil in India. Int. Geol. Cong. 22nd, New Delhi, Pamphlet.

Medlicott, H. B. 1864. On the geological structure and relations of the southern portion of the Himalayan ranges between the rivers Ganges and the Ravee. Geol. Surv. India Mem. 3(2):1-212.

Misra, R. C. and K. S. Valdiya. 1961. Petrology and sedimentation of the Siwaliks of the Tanakpur area. District Nainital, U. P. Indian Min. 2:7-35.

Moiola, R. J. and D. Weiser. 1968. Textural parameters; an evaluation. Jour. Sed. Pet. 38:45-53.

Neashan, J. W. 1970. Sedimentology of the Millwood Formation (Lower Eocene): an alluvial molasse faciès in northwestern Wyoming, U.S.A. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Library, Iowa State University of Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa.

Nikiforoff, C. C- 1949. Weathering and soil evolution. Soil Sci. 67:219- 230.

Olson, R. V, 1965. Iron. Agronomy 9:963-973.

Pascoe, E. H. 1963. A manual of the geology of India and Burma. 3rd. ed. Geol. Surv. India, Calcutta 3:1345-2130.

Pettijohn, F. J. 1957. Sedimentary rocks. 2nd ed. Harper and Row, New York, New York.

Perkin-Elmer Corp. 1968. Analytical methods for atomic absorption spectro photometry. Perkin-Elmer Corp., Norwalk, Connecticut.

Pi lb earn, D. R, and E. L. Simons. 1965. Some problems of hominid classi fication. Am. Sci. 53:237-259. 81

Pilgrim, G. E. 1910. Preliminary note on a revised classification of the Tertiary freshwater deposits of India. Geol. Surv. India Rec. 40:185-205.

Pilgrim, G. E. 1913. The correlation of the Siwaliks with mammal hori zons of Europe. Geol. Surv. India Rec. 43:264-326.

Pilgrim, G. E. 1915. New Siwalik primates and their bearing on the questions of evolution of man the the Anthropodea. India Geol, Surv. Rec. 45:1-74.

Pilgrim, G. E. 1917. Preliminary note on some recent mammal collections from the basal beds of Siwaliks, Geol. Surv. India Rec. 48:98-101.

Pilgrim, G. E. 1934. Correlation of the ossiferous sections in the Upper Cenozoic of India, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nov. 704:1-5.

Pilgrim, G. E. 1938. Are the equidae reliable for the correlation of the Siwaliks with the Cenozoic stages of North America? Geol. Surv. India Rec. 73:427-482.

Pilgrim, G. E. and W, D. West. 1928. The structure and correlation of the Simla rocks. Geol. Surv. India Mem. 53:1-140.

Plyusnin, I. I. 1960, Reclamative Soil Science. Foreign Lang. Publ. House. Moscow, U.S.S.R.

Poetsch, E. 1956. Soil profile variation in alluvium. Unpublished M.S. thesis. Library, Iowa State University of Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa.

Pons, L. J. and I. S, Zonneveld. 1965. Soil ripening and soil classifi cation. Int. Inst. Land Rec. and Imprcv, 13:1-128.

Prasad, K. N. 1962a. Fossil primates from the Siwalik beds near Harital- yangar, Himachal Pradesh, India. Geol. Soc. India Jour. 3:86-96.

Prasad, K. N. 1962b, Fossil primates from Haritalyangar, Himachal Pra desh, India, Indian Min. 16:73-74,

Prasad, K. N. 1963. The fossil camivora from the Haritalyangar area, Himachal Pradesh, India. Indian Min. 17:(1):98.

Prasad, K, N. 1964, Upper Miocene anthropoids from the Siwalik beds of Haritalyangar, Himachal Pradesh, India. Paleontology 7:124-134.

Raiverman, V. 1968, Petrology of the Tertiary sediments of Sarkaghat anticline in the Himalayan foot-hills of Himachal Pradesh. Panjab Univ. Centre Adv. Study Geol. Publ. 5:39-52.

Raju, A, T. R. 1967. Observations on the petrography of Tertiary clastic sediments of the Himalayan foothills of north India. India Oil Nat. Gas Comm. Bull. 4:5-16. 82

Raju, A. T. R. and P. V. Dehadrai. 1962a. Note on heavy mineral classi fication of Siwaliks from Jammu and Punjab (India). Curr, Sci. 31:378.

Raju, A. T. R. and P. V. Dehadrai. 1962b. Clastic deposition of Siwalik sediments (C. M. patterns). Curr. Sci. 31:494-495.

Raju, A. T. R, and P. V. Dehadrai. 1962c. C. M. patterns of Siwalik sediments. (Abstract) Indian Sci. Cong. 49th Proc. 3:210.

Raju, A. T. R. and P. V. Dehadrai. 1962d. Upper Siwalik sedimentation in parts of Punjab. Geol. Min, and Met. Soc. India Quart. Jour. 34:1-17.

Riecken, F. F. and E. Poetsch. 1960. Genesis and classification consid erations of some prairie-formed soil profiles from local alluvium in Adair County, Iowa. la. Acad. Sci. Proc. 67:268-276.

Sahni, M. R. and E. Khan. 1961. Recent finds of Shivalik vertebrates: 1-5. Panjab University Res. Bull. (N. S.) 12(3-4):253-268.

Sahni, M. R. and E. Kahn. 1964. Stratigraphy, structure, and correlation of the Upper Shivaliks east of Chandigarh. Pal. Soc. India Jour. 4:61-74.

Sahni, M. R. and L. P. Mathur. 1964. Stratigraphy of the Siwalik Group. Int. Geol. Cong. 22nd, India. Pamphlet.

Sanders, R. D. 1963. Invertebrate zoology, W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Penn.

Saxena, M. N., S. B. Bhatia and I. C. Pande. 1968. The lower Siwaliks and the graywacke problem. Panjab U-'iv. Res. Bull. (N. S.) 19(3&4):255- 259.

Sikka, D. B., M. N. Saxena, S. B. Bhatia, and S. P. Jain. 1961. Occur rence of graywacke in lower Siwaliks, Simla Hills. Nature 192:61.

Simons, E. L. 1964. On the mandible of Ramapithecus. Nat. Acad. Sci. Proc. 51:528-535.

Simons, E. L. and S. R. K. Chopra. 1969a. Gigantopithecus (Pongidae, Hominoidea) a new species from north India. Postilla 138:1-18.

Simons, E. L. and S. R. K. Chopra. 1969b. A preliminary announcement of a new Gigantopithecus species from India. Int. Cong. Primat. 2nd, Atlanta, Georgia, Proc. 2:135-142.

Simons, E. L. and P. C. Ettel. 1970. Gigantopithecus. Sci. Am. 222:76- 85.

Simons, E. L. and D. R. Pilbeam. 1965. Preliminary revision of the D^- opithecinae (Pongidae, Anthropoidea). Folia primat. 3:81-152. 83

Simons, E. L. D., D. Pilbeam, and S. J. Boyer. 1971. Appearance of Hipparion in the Tertiary of the Siwalik Hills of North India, Kashmir and West Pakistan. Nature 229:408-409.

Simons on, G. H. 1960. Genesis of alluviiam-derived soils in the Willow River valley, Iowa. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Library, Iowa State Univer sity of Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa.

Sinha, R. N. 1970. Heavy mineral investigations in the Siwaliks of Mohand, District Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India. Geol. Soc. India Jour. 11:163-177.

Sinha, R. N. and K, N. Khan. 1965. Heavy mineral investigations in Nahan Series near Nahan, Himachal Pradesh. Curr. Sci. 34:340-342.

Slemmons, D. B. 1962. Determination of volcanic and plutonic plagioclases using a three- or four-axis universal stage. Geol. Soc. America Special Paper 69.

Swaminath, J. 1961. Himalayan orogeny and sedimentary cycles. Ind. Acad. Sci. Proc. B. 53:111-124.

Tabatabai, M. A. and J. M. Bremner. 1970. Use of the Leco automatic 70- second carbon analyzer for total carbon analysis of soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 34:608-610.

Tattersall, I. 1969a. Ecology of North Indian Ramapithecus. Nature 221:451-452.

Tattersall, I. 1969b. More on the ecology of North Indian Ramapithecus. Nature 224:821-822.

Turner, F. J, 1951. Observations on twinning of plageoclase in metamorphic rocks. Am. Mineralogist 36:581-589,

Turner, F. J. and L. E. Weiss. 1963. Structural analysis of metamorphic tectonites. Mc-Graw-Hill. New York, New York.

U. S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Survey Staff. 1960. Soil Classifi cation, a comprehensive system. U, S. Dept. Agr.

VanHouton, F. B. 1948. Origin of red-banded early Cenozoic deposits in the Rocky Mountain region. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull. 32:2083-2126.

VanHouton, F. B. 1961. Climatic significance of red beds, in Descriptive paleoclimatology. Interscience, New York.

VanHouton, F. B. 1964. Origin of red beds - some unsolved problems in Problems in paleoclimatology. Interscience, London, England. 84

Vendra, C. F. and G. D. Johnson. 1968. Stratigraphy of the Siwalik deposits of the sub-Himalayan Gumber-Sakarghat fault block in Himachal Pradesh, India. (Abstract) Geol. See. Amer. Ann. Mtg. (1968, Mexico City) Prog, with Abstracts:308.

Wadia, D. N. 1931. The syntaxis of the Northwest Himalaya: Its rocks, tectonics and orogeny. Geol. Surv. India Rec. 65:189-220.

Wadia, D. N, 1932. The Tertiary geo sync line of N. W. Punjab and the history of the Quartemary earth-movements and drainage of the Gange tic trough. Geol., Min. and Met. Soc. India Quart. Jour. 4:69-96.

Wadia, D, N, 1948. The transition passage of Pliocene into the Pleisto cene in the North-Western Sub-Himalayas. Int. Geol. Cong. 18th, France, Proc. 11:43-48.

Walker, T. R. 1967a. Formation of red beds in modem and ancient deserts. Geol. Soc. American Bull. 78:353-368.

Walker, T. R. 1967b. Color of recent sediments in topical Mexico: a contribution to the origin of red beds. Geol. Soc. America Bull. 78:917- 920.

Weaver, R. M., J. K. Syers, and M. L. Jackson. 1968. Determination of silica in citrate-bicarbonate-dithionite extracts of soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 32:497-501.

West, W. D. 1939. The structure of the Shali "Window" near Simla. Geol, Surv. India Rec. 74:133-163.

Wolman, M. G. and L. B. Leopold. 1957. River flood plains: some obser vations on their formation» U. S= Geol» Surv= Prof, Paper 282-C;87-109-