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ISSUES OF GEOMORPHOLOGICAL SURFACES

CORRESPONDING TO MARINE OXYGEN ISOTOPE STAGE 3 IN

Sumiko KUBO*

Abstract The focus of this paper is to discuss what is currently understood, and what is unresolved, about the Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 of the Japanese archipelago, including future prospects from the field of geomorphology. The first step is to describe, the "Tachikawa Terrace" in the Kanto Plain, because it contains a geomorphological surface corresponding to MIS 3. Subsequently, I review the recently published series, "Regional Geomorphology of the Japanese Islands", which provides the surface topography and paleoenvironment of the MIS 3 geomorphological surfaces in other areas of Japan. Next, I show challenges involving related issues. Consequently, as the MIS 3 has a longer duration than previous and subsequent stages, the environment may vary considerably within it. Therefore it is essential to note what kinds of environmental factors are reflected in the landforms of the period. The topics include the influence of the in the development of mountain glaciers, conditions affecting the formation of inland river terraces, sea-level change, and coastal landforms. In addition, it is necessary to reconstruct the landforms and hydrological conditions during the MIS 3, to evaluate the location of archaeological sites and human behavior in the archipelago.

Key words: marine oxygen isotope stage 3, Tachikawa surface, glacial features, terrace surface, sea-level change

1. Introduction

This review paper is intended to survey what is understood and what is unresolved about the Marine Oxygen Isotope Stage 3 (abbreviated MIS 3) of the Japanese archipelago, including future prospects from the field of geomorphology. This review will cover the age of MIS 3, what and where surfaces formed during this age, as well as what environments they reflect, and some related issues on the environment of the human race (including early stages). The MIS 3, as shown in odd-numbered, was considered milder than its even-numbered neighbors (Emiliani 1955). However, the MIS 5e (Last Interglacial) and MIS 1 (the Holocene) are distinct interglacial climate periods whereas the MIS 3 is included in the Last Glacial Period; an "interstadial" level climate timing prior to the LGM (Last Glacial Maximum) (Oba 2003).

* Department of Geography, Waseda University.

1 - 1 - Climate change in the Last Glacial Period is expressed more precisely by Greenland ice cores (Dansgaard et al. 1993). Unlike for the Holocene and LGM, MIS 3 has been characterized as having repeated, short-period variations. In Europe, Neanderthals became extinct in this cold era, and modern men spread. In Europe the “Stage 3 Project" has been made the subject of interdisciplinary research (van Andel 2002), and climate models developed to reproduce the short-period climatic variation indicated in the Greenland cores, databases of pollen analysis and other data sets (Van Meerbeeck et al. 2011). On the other hand, for the issues on landforms of the time, except for glacial extension and retreat, or shoreline change, interests in Europe seems weaker than in Japan. The Stage 3 Project in Europe was completed in 2002, but the understanding of Stage 3 in the Japanese archipelago seems quite different. This difference was indicated in November 2000 after, the development of tephrochronology and an incident of fabricating Paleolithic sites. This paper will mainly discuss the landforms and present an overview of the situation in Japan. The Japan Association for Quaternary Research published "Quaternary Maps of Japan" in 1987. It contains sheets of "Landforms, Geology and Tectonics Map", that shows landforms with ages between 60 and 10 ka (thousand years ago) as “L'f” (alluvial fans and terraces of the Last Glacial Period). To give an example from the Kanto region, the “L'f” surface is indicated by a narrow distribution. This contains the so-called Tachikawa Terraces around the Musashino Upland in the Kanto Plain, Central Japan. The marine terraces of this time are not shown (no legend), instead the previous surfaces of 130–60 ka are shown together as the marine surface of "the last interglacial period" (MIS 5e–5a). At that time (1987), we could not distinguish the timing of MIS 3. After that, Machida and Arai (1992) published the "Atlas of Tephra in and around Japan", that provided a basis for the chronology of several widespread marker tephras. Moreover, Machida and Arai (2003) revised the book and showed the age of AT (Aira-Tn) tephra as 26–29 ka. This was extremely important for the chronology of MIS 3 in Japan (Fig. 1). It allowed the stage between the DKP (Daisen Kurayoshi Tephra) and AT, to be detected tephrochronologically. Between the years 2000 and 2006, the University of Tokyo Press published the series "Regional Geomorphology in Japan" (Kaizuka et al. 2000; Yonekura et al. 2001; Machida et al. 2001; Koaze et al. 2003; Ota et al. 2004; Koike et al. 2005; Machida et al. 2006). Volume One (Yonekura et al. 2001) showed detailed chronology figures (including the MIS 3) with the history of Japanese geomorphology. The other volumes also showed information on MIS 3 in each area. More recently, Ota et al. (2010) was published as the summarizing volume of "Regional Geomorphology in Japan" series, with some revision. The Japan Association for Quaternary Research (2009) released a digital book of Japanese Quaternary researches on the occasion of its 50th anniversary. I have researched the landforms formed during the Last Glacial Cycle in the Musashino and Sagamino Uplands of the Kanto Plain (Kubo 1997, 2007, 2008), so I will introduce the South Kanto for the type area. Then I will summarize information and challenges concerning the landforms of MIS 3, from the literatures above, as well as from some more recent publications.

2 - 2 - Fig. 1 Major widespread tephras in Japan during the Last Glacial Cycle. Modified from Machida and Arai (2003).

2. The "Tachikawa Terrace" in South Kanto

The terrace landforms and tephrochronological age of the Sagamino and Musashino Uplands in the Kanto Plain in Central Japan have been studied (Fig. 2). Research has also been done on representative Paleolithic sites of Tsukimino in Sagamino and Nogawa in the Southern Musashino Upland (Japan Association for Quaternary Research 1987). At these sites, the AT tephra was confirmed in the Kanto Loam (volcanic ash soil), and Paleolithic indications were found below the AT horizon. Therefore, these sites belong to MIS 3. In addition, the "Tachikawa-1" surface that emerged before the fall of the AT, has been recognized as being related to MIS 3 (Kubo 2007). The Tachikawa Terrace at Musashino is subdivided into Tc1, Tc2, and Tc3 surfaces (Yamazaki 1978). The Nogawa archaeological site in Chofu City is a type locality of the Tc1 surface, with a Kanto Loam layer more than 4 m thick, and where AT can be observed some 2.5 m from the ground surface (Kobayashi et al. 1971). On the other hand, at the Tc2 surface where Tachikawa City is located, the thickness of the Kanto Loam is only around 2 m (Yamazaki 1978). However, the boundaries of these two surfaces are unclear, with the result being that the continuity of the terrace buried downstream was not shown clearly. Kubo (2002) estimated the boundaries of these surfaces from the thickness of the Kanto Loam, then traced the Tc1 and Tc2 surfaces to further downstream and correlated the terraces buried under the Holocene alluvium. Accordingly, the Tc1 surface area occupied the larger part, and belongs to MIS 3, in contrast to the Tc2 and Tc3 surfaces, which are part of MIS 2. In the Arakawa and Tokyo lowlands, an extensive buried terrace is known, and has been correlated with the Tachikawa Terrace (Matsuda 1974; Kaizuka 1979). In a borehole core sample from eastern Tokyo, AT was confirmed in the Kanto Loam covering the gravel, which suggests wide distribution of the Tc1 surface (Kubo 1999). In the Northern Musashino Upland, areas that might be correlated to the Tc1 surface were also found (Kubo 2008).

3 - 3 - Fig. 2 Chronology of geomorphological surfaces in Kanto Plain during the last Glacial Cycle. Modified from Kaizuka et al. (2000).

Fluvial terrace surfaces in the Sagamino Upland contain the Sagamihara, Nakatsuhara, Tanahara, and Minahara Terrace Groups. They were formed during the Last Glacial Cycle. The parts of these surfaces related with the MIS 3 include parts of the Nakatsuhara and Tanahara Groups. These terraces were found to be widely distributed in the buried terrace in the lower reach. Kubo (1997) estimated these terraces to have been formed under the relatively stable conditions during the MIS 3. Afterwards, Sase et al. (2008) analyzed opal phytoliths in the Kanto Loam in the Sagamino Upland, indicating the distinction between warm and cool periods by dominant bamboo species. According to this, the Nakatsuhara surface was formed during a warm period in early MIS 3 (MIS 3.3: about 50 ka), and then a short period of warm and cold intervals repeated before the AT fell. The Tc1 surface is revealed to be included in MIS 3, however the timing of emergence of these terraces along the Tama, Ara, and the Sagami rivers, as well as what environmental conditions (such as sea level and its variation) were reflected by the wide, buried terraces downstream, are to be considered in the future.

3. Geomorphological Surfaces in the Japanese Archipelago

Here is provided an overview of issues on geomorphological surfaces corresponding to MIS 3 in the Japanese archipelago, with special focus on the series "Regional Geomorphology in Japan".

Hokkaido Island (Koaze et al. 2003) Tokachi Plain: Many of the Late Pleistocene terraces are developed on the Tokachi Plain, and have been studied by tephrochronology. Hirakawa (1974) classified the Kamiobihiro Surface Group (KoI–IV) as fans of the Last Glacial Period, and among these, the KoI surface emerged before the MIS 3 (Koaze et al. 2003). KoI surfaces are now distributed as wide terraces along the inland parts of the Tottabetsu and Rekifune Rivers, now covered with Shikotsu-1 tephra (Spfa-1). In addition, it has been pointed out that KoI gravels continued to deposit after a cutting down since

4 - 4 - the last interglacial period in coastal areas. Hidaka Range: Ono and Hirakawa (1975) showed that the Tottabetsu and Poroshiri Stades in the Hidaka Range represent glacial expansion during the Last Glacial Period. According to Iwasaki et al. (2000a, b), the stade of Poroshiri culminated during the MIS 3 after Spfa-1 fell, as valley glaciers developed (Fig. 3). In comparison, the glaciers of the Tottabetsu Stadial in MIS 2 were distributed over small areas. Ishikari Lowland and others: The First Shikotsu Pyroclastic flow (Spfl-1) filled the Ishikari Lowland from Sapporo to Tomakomai, about 40 to 45 ka (Machida and Arai 2003). The Palaeo- channel changed its drainage from the Sea of Japan to the Pacific Ocean (Koaze et al. 2003). In addition, as the source of pyroclastic flow deposits distributed near Hakodate Airport, a submarine depression off the coast of Hakodate with -50m depth was named the Zenigame-Menagawa caldera (Yamagata et al. 1989). At that time, the eruption was considered to have occurred subaerially.

Fig. 3 Glacial chronology of Japanese high mountains. Modified from Ota et al. (2010).

Northern Island Aomori Plain: Kubo et al. (2006) conducted a study of the recent deposits and buried topography of the Aomori Plain. As a result, the pyroclastic flow deposits of the Towada Volcano are widely distributed under the plain, and no distinct late glacial buried valley, as seen in other regions, was observed there. This showed the possibility of pyroclastic flow deposits of both Towada-Hachinohe (To-H; MIS 2) and Towada-Ofudo (To-Of; MIS 3). In the Aomori Plain, before it was reached by the To-H pyroclastic flow, it was considered that there was smooth topography formed earlier by the To-O pyroclastic flow.

5 - 5 - Sendai area: According to the chronology figure in Koike et al. (2005), the surface of Kamimachi Terrace in Sendai city, and Narugo-Yanagisawa tephra (Nr-Y) are shown to be MIS 3.

Central Honshu Island Here I explain geomorphological surfaces corresponding to the Tachikawa age other than Musashino and Sagamino in the Kanto area. Lake Kasumi-ga-ura: Kasumi-ga-ura was formed during the Holocene transgression as a relic of the "Inner Kinu Bay". There occurs Tsuchiura gravel under Lake Kasumi-ga-ura (Ikeda et al. 1977), indicating a former alluvial fan, formed by the Kinu River during MIS 3. The Kinu River channel then moved towards the present Kokai River, then the Tsuchiura gravel and its depositional surface were preserved. This is estimated to have made the basic outline of Lake Kasumi-ga-ura. Boso Peninsula: For the lower reaches of the River in the southwestern part of the Boso Peninsula, Kuwabara et al. (1999) reported a set of terraces formed near the mouth during MIS 3. Among them, the Yoshifu surface showed a 14C age of about 30,000 years BP. As the MIS 5e (Last Interglacial) marine surface is not found near the Isumi River mouth, the average uplift rate was provided by the northwestern part of the Boso Peninsula. The proposed resulting sea level around the time was -30 m; this is nearly 50 m higher than that of the mouth indicated by Kubo (1997). More data is needed about the sea level at that time. Glacial features in the central mountain ranges: Like the Hidaka Range in , it has been pointed out that glaciers advanced twice during the Last Glacial Period. It is commonly held that the expansion of the MISs 4 and 3 (the first half) seems to be larger than that of the LGM. The MIS 3 expansion is presented by the Akakurasawa Stadial in the Shirouma region (Kariya 2000). However, recently Kariya et al. (2011) detected moraine-like landforms formed by landslides. The behavior of rivers in Central Japan (Fig. 4): Rivers in the upper reaches such as in the Matsumoto and Ina valleys, experienced down cutting during the MIS 5e (interglacial), and proceeded to fill the valleys from the early part of MIS 4. Terraces formed in the MIS 3 have thin gravel (fill strath). In the MIS 2, development of alluvial terraces was not good. In contrast, down cutting proceeded simultaneously with deglaciation. During the MIS 3, deep valleys were not developed such as during the MISs 5e and 1, resulting in a lack of valley fills in MIS 2 (Machida et al. 2006). Nobi Plain: The Kagamihara, Atsuta, and Komaki terrace surfaces are distributed on the east side of the plain, and the Kagamihara and Atsuta surfaces were formed in the MIS 5e–5a. The Komaki and Ohzone surfaces in the Atsuta Upland were covered with Kisogawa mud flow deposits in 60–55 ka (early MIS 3), which are now buried in the southern part. The Toriimatsu surface indicate the late Last Glacial Period, corresponding to the First Gravel layer beneath the Nobi Plain (Machida et al. 2006). However, the distribution of buried valleys and terraces in the Nobi Plain is not as clear as for the southern Kanto Plain.

Western Japan In the Western Japan Region, the chronological figure by Ota et al. (2004) shows the lower terraces covered by AT tephra to be landforms related to MIS 3. In addition, foot slopes of the Bantan mountains, and those in the Tsuyama Basin, are shown within the MIS 3. Continuous deposits in Lake Biwa and Lake Suigetsu, and loess on the MIS 5e marine terraces on the Japan

6 - 6 - Fig. 4 Aggradations and degradations of selected rivers in Central Japan. Modified from Ota et al. (2010).

Sea side cover MIS 3, but no landforms are shown in these areas. Kyushu Island (Machida et al. 2001): In the Miyazaki Plain, the Shimizu, Okatomi and Ikatsuno terraces covered by Aira-Iwato tephra (A-Iw) and Kirishima-Iwaokoshi tephra (Kr-Iw); and the Oyodo Terrace covered by AT tephra (Nagaoka 1986), correspond to MIS 4 and MIS 3. The Oyodo Terrace is distributed in the northern part of the plain as an erosional terrace. It has a steeper longitudinal surface than that of the present riverbed, suggesting a lower sea level, and the distribution is fragmentary. Ryukyu Islands: The coral reef terraces of Kikai Island were assigned to MIS 9 or earlier, and to MIS 5e, 5c, 5a, 3, and 1 by U-series dating. In particular, the marine terraces at MIS 3, are noteworthy in comparison with those in Papua New Guinea. However, because there appears to be surface displacement by active faults between the MIS 5e and MIS 3 surfaces, the average uplift rate cannot be obtained; therefore, the estimate of sea level during MIS 3 is not clear (Machida et al. 2001; Sasaki et al. 2004).

4. Summarizing Issues

When we consider the landforms of the MIS 3, it clearly has a longer duration compared with previous and subsequent stages, and the climate may have varied considerably with this interval.

7 - 7 - The issues must be organized with the affected factors involved in the formation of their landforms: mountain glaciers, mountainous and inland river-terraces, and coastal areas influenced by sea-level changes.

Age The MIS 3 lasted about 30,000 years from about 60 to 30 ka. It is detected between the ages of the DKP and AT by means of widespread tephras in Central Japan (Machida et al. 2006; Ota et al. 2010). Though the MIS 1 (Holocene), MIS 2 (LGM) and MIS 4 are to be recognized as relatively short periods of distinct peaks and valleys in the climate change curve, MIS 3 is rather longer during the Last Glacial Period, and includes the Dansgaad-Oeschger (D-O) and Heinrich events, which are characterized by repeated changes of certain magnitude. The climate in MIS 3.3 (about 50 ka) and at the time of the AT tephra (about 29 ka) may have been quite different. In fact, how any landforms could be formed under conditions of repeated climate changeover relatively short periods, is not clear.

Glacial Features Glaciers expanded most during the MIS 3 within the Last Glacial Cycle at Hidaka Range in Hokkaido (Fig. 3). The age estimated from Spfa-1 tephra is about 45–43 ka. This activity seems to be correlated with the stage of this glacial expansion in the mountains of Central Japan. Because the expansion of glaciers is reflected in the amount of snowfall under cold conditions, it depends on the evaporative situation in the Sea of Japan, or the circumstances of the winter monsoon. During the LGM the Sea of Japan was almost closed because the narrowed Tsushima Strait blocked the East China Sea coastal water from the south (Ota et al. 2010). The glacial advance during the MIS 3 on the Japanese archipelago seems rather different from those in Europe and North America, with the maximum in LGM (Ota et al. 2010).

Fluvial Terraces The MIS 3 terraces occur as fill-top ones in the mountain areas (e.g. Tanahara Terrace in the Sagami drainage basin), and distributed higher than the present riverbed as alluvial fans in the inland area. In the lower reaches, the steep slope profile can be traced as buried terraces. There could be a difference in geomorphological features between the early part of MIS 3 (MIS 3.3; warm period, e.g. Nakatsuhara in the Sagami basin), and the later part (just before the fall of AT tephra). It has been noted that deep valleys were formed inland during the interglacials of MISs 1 and 5e, and the valleys were filled during the glacial period. To examine more detail, it is necessary to find any common features in the period of MIS 3. Valley filling and down cutting is unlikely in parallel with global climate change.

Marine terraces The MIS 3 marine terraces reported as those of the Isumi River mouth on the Boso Peninsula, and of the coral terraces of Kikai Island, are very limited. The uplift rates in both areas were as large as >1 m ky-1, resulting in raised terraces above the present sea level, even though they were formed during periods of relatively low sea level. However, at least two of those, sea level during the formation of terraces, and the terrace ages and average uplift rate, are required to discuss the paleo sea level. The implication from hydro isostacy is another question to be argued.

8 - 8 - Contributions to Archaeology Concerning human behavior, the major issues will be the land bridges between the Japanese Archipelago and Asian continent in relation to the paleo sea level, and issues such as landscape reconstruction and site location of the plains during MIS 3. Outside of the Soya Strait between the main islands of Hokkaido and Honshu, the land bridge between continent and archipelago did not exist (Yonekura et al. 2001). Reconstruction of the palaeoenvironmental biosphere and ecosystems is also essential, as well as landforms and hydrological conditions for clarifying human behavior during the MIS 3 (Japan Association for Quaternary Research 2009; Ono 2012).

Acknowledgements

This paper was originally prepared for the symposium titled "Dispersal of Homo sapiens to East Asia and the Japanese islands during OIS 3", held at Tokyo Metropolitan University in February 2009. I express my thanks to Professor Emeritus Akira Ono for providing me a chance to present a paper. I am also grateful to Professor Emeritus Hiroshi Machida for giving advices and encouragements. Professor Haruo Yamazaki has continuously supported and encouraged me since I prepared my dissertation at Tokyo Metropolitan University. I am deeply grateful to the above professors, and to faculty members in the Department of Geography.

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