Women in Politics and Chris Watson Natasha Mutebi Shadi Danechi Public Life Paul Bolton

Home , Florence Paton, Margaret Bondfield

BRIEFING PAPER Number 01250, 2 March 2021

By Elise Uberoi Women in politics and Chris Watson Natasha Mutebi Shadi Danechi public life Paul Bolton

Contents: 1. UK Parliament 2. UK Government 3. Other elected bodies in the UK 4. Parliamentary and political firsts for women (UK) 5. Women in politics: international context 6. Women in public life 7. Firsts for women in UK public life

www.parliament.uk/commons-library | intranet.parliament.uk/commons-library | [email protected] | @commonslibrary 2 Women in politics and public life

Contents

Summary 3 UK Parliament and Government 3 Devolved legislatures and local government 3 International comparisons 3 Public life 4 1. UK Parliament 5 1.1 Members of Parliament since 1918 5 1.2 Candidates in general elections 7 1.3 The 2019 General Election 8 Ethnic minority women in the House of Commons 9 Women’s activities in the 2019 Parliament 9 2. UK Government 10 3. Other elected bodies in the UK 12 3.1 Devolved legislatures and London Assembly 12 3.2 Local government 12 England 12 Scotland 13 Wales 13 Northern Ireland 13 4. Parliamentary and political firsts for women (UK) 15 5. Women in politics: international context 17 5.1 Presidents and prime ministers 17 5.2 Overseas parliaments 17 Speakers of national parliaments 17 Proportion of women in national parliaments 17 Entry of women into national parliaments 20 5.3 The European Parliament (European Union) 20 6. Women in public life 21 6.1 Women in public bodies 21 6.2 Women civil servants 21 6.3 Judges 23 6.4 Armed forces 24 6.5 National Health Service 25 6.6 Teaching 26 Schools 26 Higher education 27 6.7 Police 29 7. Firsts for women in UK public life 31

Cover image: Women Members of Parliament Stand Together © UK Parliament / Jessica Taylor (2016)

3 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

Summary

In both politics and public life in the UK, women have historically been underrepresented. In recent years, their proportion has increased, although in most cases men remain overrepresented, especially in more senior positions. This briefing presents statistics on a range of positions in UK politics and public life, held by women. Data on the demographic characteristics of different workforces tends to be limited, so it is not possible to include intersectional analysis (such as of disabled women). UK Parliament and Government There are 220 women MPs in the House of Commons. At 34%, this is an all-time high. The proportion of women grew slowly until a jump in the 1990s, as shown in the chart below. % Women MPs elected at general elections since 1979 40%

30%

20%

10%

0% 1979 1983 1987 1992 1997 2001 2005 2010 2015 2017 2019

Sources Rallings and Thrasher, British Electoral Facts 1832-2006, 2012. House of Commons Library Briefing Papers (10/36) General Election 2010; (7186) General Election 2015; (7979) General Election 2017; (8749) General Election 2019. Since 1918, 552 women have been elected to the House of Commons; 55% were first elected as Labour MPs and 31% as Conservatives. There are 223 female Peers - 28% of the Members of the House of Lords. Five ministers in the current Cabinet (23%) are women. The highest proportion of women in Cabinet was 36% between 2006 and 2007. Devolved legislatures and local government 47% of Members of the Welsh Parliament are women, as are 36% of the Scottish Parliament and 36% of the Northern Ireland Assembly. About 36% of local authority councillors in England are women. 26% of councillors in Northern Ireland are women. The proportion rose to 29% in Scotland after the 2017 elections and sits at 28% in Wales. 40% of members of the London Assembly are women. International comparisons In January 2021, there were 10 women serving as Head of State and 13 serving as Head of Government. At 34%, the UK is in 38th position for the proportion of women in the lower (or only) house of parliament. 4 Women in politics and public life

Rwanda has over 61%. Cuba also has a female majority in parliament. In the European Parliament, 41% of MEPs are women. Public life The proportion of women in public sector roles has increased in the past decades. Most recent data show that 44% of public appointments were women, as were 54% of civil servants, 32% of judges, 11% of the armed forces, 77% of NHS workers, 86% of nursery and primary school teachers and 31% of police officers. Across these organisations, women tend to be in more junior roles, although the proportion of senior roles held by women has steadily increased.

5 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

1. UK Parliament

As of February 2021, 220 Members of the House of Commons (MPs) are women. This is a record high, and 34% of all MPs. 220 were elected at the 2019 General Election, up from 208 at the 2017 General Election, and 191 in 2015.

Of the women MPs elected at the 2019 General Election, 104 were Labour, 87 Conservative, 7 Liberal Democrat and 16 SNP. 51% of Labour MPs elected in 2019 were women, compared with 24% of Conservative MPs, 64% of Liberal Democrat and 34% of SNP MPs.1

Women were admitted to the House of Lords following the Life Peerages Act 1958 – 40 years after they had been permitted to stand for the House of Commons. Baroness Barbara Wootton of Abinger was one of the first four Life Peers to be approved for admission to the House. Baroness of Swanborough was the first woman to actually take her seat in the House of Commons as a Life Peer in 1958. Baroness Strange of Knokin was the first woman to take her seat by virtue of being an hereditary Peer, in 1963.2 The proportion of women has varied with reforms over time. It had reached 20% by January 2009.3 As of February 2021, 223 (28%) of the 800 Members of the House of Lords are women.4 The chart below summarises women’s membership of both Chambers as of 22 February 2021.

Women in the UK Parliament, by party (Feb 2021)

Con Lab LD SNP Other Total

House of Commons 24% 52% 64% 32% 30% 34% House of Lords 26% 34% 37% - 23% 28%

Source: UK Parliament, Members of the House of Commons & Members of the House of Lords

1.1 Members of Parliament since 1918 552 women have been elected as Members of the House of Commons since first being permitted to stand in 1918. In that year Countess Constance Markievicz was elected to represent Dublin St Patricks, but as a member of Sinn Féin she did not take her seat. The next year Nancy Astor became the first woman to sit in the Commons after winning a by-election in Plymouth Sutton for the Conservatives.

1 House of Commons Briefing Paper (6652): Women Members of Parliament; Library Briefing Paper, General Election 2019: full results and analysis 2 House of Lords, Library Note, Women in the House of Lords 3 Inter-Parliamentary Union (accessed 28 February 2019). The IPU records snapshots of membership at particular points. 4 UK Parliament website, Members of the House of Lords. 6 Women in politics and public life

Gwyneth Dunwoody broke Barbara Castle’s record for longest continuous service as a female MP. Mrs Dunwoody was elected in 1974 and served for thirty-four years until her death in April 2008.5 Harriet Harman now holds the record for the woman MP with the longest continuous service, having served for almost 39 years since the October 1982 Peckham by-election. Of the 552 women MPs ever elected, 306 (55%) were first elected as Labour and 172 (31%) as Conservative MPs. A full breakdown appears in the table below.

Women MPs elected by Party, 1918-2021

Party Number % of total

Labour 306 55.4 Conservative 172 31.2 Liberal Democrats* 31 5.6 SNP 26 4.7 Sinn Féin 4 0.7 DUP 3 0.5 Ulster Unionists 3 0.5 SDLP 2 0.4 Alliance 1 0.2 Green 1 0.2 Independent 1 0.2 Independent Unity 1 0.2 Plaid Cymru 1 0.2 0.0 Total 552 ..

Note: (*) Includes those from predecessor parties.

Sources: House of Commons Briefing Paper (6652) Women Members of Parliament; UK Parliament website, Members of the House of Commons (accessed 21 February 2021). The chart below shows the number of women MPs elected at general elections since 1918, by party.

5 Since Dunwoody was also an MP between 1966 and 1970, she served for thirty-eight years in total. 7 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

Women MPs elected at general elections, by party 1918-2019 250

200 Con Lab 150 LD Other

100

0 1918 1924 1935 1951 1964 1974 (F) 1983 1997 2010 2019

Until 1997 women had never made up more than 10% of all MPs; until the late 1980s the proportion had always been below 5%. The proportion rose to 18% following the 1997 General Election when 120 women were elected. The current level – 34% – is the highest ever.

1.2 Candidates in general elections The number of women candidates has risen at almost every general election since 1966. The exceptions were 2001, when there were 36 fewer than in 1997, and in 2017, when 60 fewer women stood than in 2015. In the latter case, though, the proportion of female candidates rose from 26% to 29% as there were fewer candidates overall. In 2019, there were 1,123 female candidates which was the highest number and proportion (33.8% of all candidates) on record. The chart below shows the number of women candidates has increased since 1979. Women candidates at general elections 1,200

1,000 Con Lab

LD Oth 800

600

400

200

0 1979 1983 1987 1992 1997 2001 2005 2010 2015 2017 2019

Sources Rallings and Thrasher, British Electoral Facts 1832-2006, 2012.House of Commons Library Briefing Papers (10/36) General Election 2010; (7186) General Election 2015; (7979) General Election 2017; (8749) General Election 2019. The proportion of all candidates parties field who are women has also increased, as shown in the chart below. The Labour Party has fielded more female candidates, proportionally, than other parties since 1997, when it introduced all-women shortlists. 8 Women in politics and public life

Women as a % of all candidates at general elections By party

80% Con Lab LD All

60%

40%

20%

0% 1918 1924 1935 1951 1964 1974 1983 1997 2010 2019 (F) Source: House of Commons Library General Election research papers; Rallings and Thrasher, British Electoral Facts 1832-2012

Women were first able to stand for Parliament in 1918, when 17 did so. There was one female Conservative candidate, four Labour, four Liberals and eight candidates for other parties. Women did not make up more than 10% of candidates until 1979, when 11% of candidates were female. In 2005 the proportion of women reached 20% for the first time. Further analysis of women candidates, including of the difference between the number of women candidates and the proportion of elected women MPs, is available in Library Insight House of Commons trends: how many women candidates become MPs?.

1.3 The 2019 General Election In 2019, 1,121 women candidates stood across all parties – 34% of all 3,320 candidates. This figure represents both the highest proportion on record, as well as the largest total number of women candidates in a general election. Labour had 335 women candidates, the highest number of any party in any general election. For the first time ever for any party in a general election, the majority (53%) of Labour’s candidates were women, compared with 41% in 2017 and 34% in 2015. 194 Conservative candidates (31%) were women – a two percentage point increase on 2017 and the highest number in the party’s history. Similarly, 186 (30%) of Liberal Democrat candidates were women. 41% of Green Party candidates were women, as were 34% of Scottish National Party and 25% of Plaid Cymru candidates. Women made up 18% of UKIP candidates.6

6 Rallings and Thrasher, British Electoral Facts 1832-2006, 2012. House of Commons Briefing Papers (10/36) General Election 2010; (7186) General Election 2015; (7979) General Election 2017; (8749) General Election 2019. 9 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

Ethnic minority women in the House of Commons The chart on the right shows the number of ethnic minority MPs by Ethnic minority MPs by gender and party elected at the last General Election. gender and party Before 2010, Diane Abbott and Dawn Butler had been the only 37 Total female MPs from any ethnic minority background. The first women of 28 Asian origin were elected in 2010: they are Rushanara Ali, Labour MP 29 Lab for Bethnal Green and Bow, Priti Patel, Conservative MP for Witham, 12 7 and Valerie Vaz, Labour MP for Walsall South. 6 Con female 16 Following the 2019 General Election, there were 37 ethnic minority male 2 Lib Dem women in the House of Commons: 5.7% of all MPs, 16.8% of the 0 220 female MPs, and more than half (56.9%) of all ethnic minority MPs. 29 were Labour and 6 were Conservative. Women’s activities in the 2019 Parliament Once elected, women tend to participate in most parliamentary activities roughly equally to men. Women held 11 out of 45 committee chair positions (24.4%) in February 2021, and 4 out of 20 select committee chairs (20%) at the start of the Parliament; this is less than their proportion of MPs (34%).8 But they asked more Parliamentary Questions (153), on average, than male MPs (115).9 On average, male MPs spoke more words (23,547) than female MPs (20,866).10 This is partly explained by the fact that there are more men than women ministers, and ministers normally speak more than other MPs. More detailed analysis of the 2019 Parliament up to August 2020 is available in our Insight on activities by gender and party. Looking back further, our Insight on parliamentary questions in previous parliaments shows that there is no clear gender difference in the average number of parliamentary questions male and female MPs asked. In response to the pandemic, the House of Commons introduced new ways of working that enabled MPs to work from home. Our Insight on MPs’ use of virtual participation and proxy voting shows there is some evidence suggesting female MPs used these options more than male MPs (although this could be a party rather than a gender effect, because almost half of all female MPs are Labour).

7 Bdnews24, UK gets its first Bengali MP, The Times of India, Priti Patel is UK’s first Gujarati woman MP 8 For more information, see House of Commons Trends: women on select committees 9 This average is based on MPs who ask questions, rather than all MPs 10 This average is based on MPs who spoke at least once in the 2019 Parliament, rather than all MPs 10 Women in politics and public life

2. UK Government

In February 2021, five of the 22 full Cabinet posts were filled by women (23%). One of these is unpaid (currently held by Amanda Milling). In addition, there are four ministers who may attend Cabinet, one of whom is a woman (Suella Braverman). Altogether, six out of the 26 Ministers who may attend Cabinet are women (23%).11 There were 28 women who held a government position, out of the 93 MPs to do so (30%).12 That means 12.7% of female MPs held a government position, compared with 15.1% of male MPs. In March 2019, Theresa May’s Cabinet included five women (including the Prime Minister). In 2015, David Cameron appointed seven women to Cabinet; this was 30% (of 22 cabinet posts plus the Prime Minister). In 2010, David Cameron’s first Cabinet included four women. There were five women in Tony Blair’s 1997 Cabinet, which was also the first to include more than two female ministers at one time. The highest number of concurrent women cabinet ministers was eight (36%), from May 2006 to May 2007. The table below shows the 48 women who have ever been appointed to cabinet posts (as of February 2021). The first was Margaret Bondfield in 1929. She was also the first female minister outside the Cabinet.

11 GOV.UK, Ministers 12 Internal MNIS API, excluding the post of Second Church Estates Commissioner which is not a government post 11 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

Women Cabinet Ministers

Minister Years of service Minister Years of service Margaret Bondfield 1929-31 Hazel Blears 2006-09 Ellen Wilkinson 1945-47 Baroness Ashton of Upholland 2007-08 Florence Horsbrugh 1953-54 Yvette Cooper 2008-10 Barbara Castle 1964-70 & 1974-76 Baroness Royall of Blaisdon 2008-10 Judith Hart 1968-69 Caroline Spelman 2010-12 Margaret Thatcher 1970-74 & 1979-90 Cheryl Gillan 2010-12 Shirley Williams 1974-79 Baroness Warsi 2010-12 Baroness Young 1981-83 Theresa May 2010-19 Gillian Shephard 1992-97 Justine Greening 2011-18 Virginia Bottomley 1992-97 Maria Miller 2012-14 Ann Taylor 1997-98 Theresa Villiers 2012-16, 2019-20 Harriet Harman 1997-98 & 2007-10 Elizabeth Truss 2014-17, 2019- Mo Mowlam 1997-2001 Nicky Morgan 2014-16, 2019-20 Clare Short 1997-2003 Baroness Stowell of Beeston 2015-16 Margaret Beckett 1997-2007 Amber Rudd 2015-2018 & 2018-19 Baroness Jay of Paddington 1998-2001 Andrea Leadsom 2016-17, 2019-20 Helen Liddell 2001-03 Karen Bradley 2016-19 Estelle Morris 2001-02 Baroness Evans of Bowes Park 2016- Hilary Armstrong 2001-07 Priti Patel 2016-17, 2019- Patricia Hewitt 2001-07 Penny Mordaunt 2017-19 Tessa Jowell 2001-07 & 2009-10 Esther McVey 2018-18 Baroness Amos 2003-07 Thérèse Coffey 2019- Ruth Kelly 2004-08 Anne-Marie Trevelyan 2020-20 Jacqui Smith 2006-09 Amanda Milling 2020-

Note: Does not include those who attended Cabinet without holding a full cabinet post. Sources: House of Commons Library; Mortimore and Blick (Eds), Butler’s British political Facts, 2018 The following chart shows the number of women in full Cabinet positions at the beginning of each calendar year since 1960. There were three women who held Cabinet positions pre-1960. The highest number of women in the Cabinet on the first day of the year was 8 (2007 and 2017). 1 Jan 1991 and 1992 were the only years since 1964 without Cabinet Minister positions filled by women.

Women Cabinet Ministers as of 1 January 20

0 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021 Notes: Only includes full cabinet Ministers

Notes: Does not include those who attended Cabinet without holding a full cabinet post. Data at 1 Jan each year & current figure as at 25 Feb 2020. Sources: House of Commons Library, Members Names’ Information Service; Mortimore and Blick (Eds), Butler’s British political Facts, 2018 12 Women in politics and public life

3. Other elected bodies in the UK

Following elections in 2016, 8 out of 40 (20%) elected Police and Crime Commissioners in England were women.13 The next elections will take place in May 2021.

3.1 Devolved legislatures and London Assembly Since devolved legislatures were established from the late 1990s, women have generally made up 30 to 40% of members after each election. Notable variations are the Northern Ireland Assembly, where female membership has risen from 13% in 1998 to 32% in 2019, and the Welsh Parliament (formerly National Assembly for Wales), where at least 40% of Members have always been women. Indeed, after a by- election in 2006, 31 out of 60 Members – 52% – were women.14 The chart below shows the proportion of women elected to the devolved legislatures by party (as of February 2021). It also includes the proportion of women elected to the London Assembly.

Women in UK elected bodies by party

Con Lab LD PC/SNP Other Total Welsh Parliament 4 36% 14 48% 1 100% 6 60% 3 33% 28 47% Scottish Parliament 6 20% 11 48% 1 20% 27 44% 2 20% 47 36% Northern Ireland Assembly 32 36% 32 36% London Assembly 1 13% 6 50% 1 100% 2 50% 10 40%

Sources: Welsh Parliament, Assembly Members; Scottish Parliament, Current MSPs; London Assembly, Assembly Members; Northern Ireland Assembly, MLAs, statistics

3.2 Local government England The Local Government Association reported that in 2018, 36% of local authority councillors in England were women, as shown in the table below.15

13 House of Commons Briefing Paper (7595) Police and Crime Commissioner Elections: 2016. 14 House of Commons Briefing Papers: (7599): Scottish Parliament Elections: 2016; (7920) Northern Ireland Assembly Elections: 2017; (7594) National Assembly for Wales Elections: 2016. 15 LGA, National census of local authority councillors 2018, 27 March 2019 13 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

Councillors in England Gender make-up by party when last elected, 2018

Party % female % male Total Conservative 39% 54% 7,283 Labour 40% 27% 4,750 Liberal Democrat 14% 12% 1,975 Independent / residents' association 3% 3% 439 UKIP 1% 1% 145 Green 2% 1% 213 Other 1% 1% 204 Total 36% 64% 15,009 Source: Local Government Association, National census of local authority councillors 2018, 27 March 2019 Scotland 29% of councillors elected in 2017 were women, as shown in the following table. This was up from 24% in 2012.16

Councillors in Scotland Gender make-up by party, 2017

Party % female % male Total Scottish National Party 39% 61% 431 Conservative 18% 82% 276 Labour 28% 72% 262 Independent/Other 18% 82% 172 Liberal Democrat 34% 66% 67 Green 47% 53% 19 Total 29% 71% 1,227

Source: The Scottish Parliament, Local Government Elections 2017; further analysis by Hugh Bochel for the Electoral Commission (unpublished). Wales Following the 2018 council elections, women held 28% of seats in Wales, up from 26% in 2012. 17 Northern Ireland Following the May 2019 local elections, 26% of councillors in Northern Ireland were women, as set out in the table below.18

16 The Scottish Parliament, Local Government Elections 2017; further analysis by Hugh Bochel for the Electoral Commission (unpublished). 17 Data provided by the Welsh Local Government Association. 18 Data provided by the Northern Ireland Assembly. 14 Women in politics and public life

Councillors in Northern Ireland Gender make-up by party, 2019

Party % Male % Female Total Democratic Unionist Party 81% 19% 122 Sinn Féin 65% 35% 105 Ulster Unionist Party 81% 19% 75 Social Democratic and Labour Party 64% 36% 59 Alliance Party of Northern Ireland 60% 40% 53 Green Party 75% 25% 8 Traditional Unionist Voice 100% 0% 6 Independents/Other 88% 12% 34

Total 74% 26% 462

Source: Yvonne Galligan (Technological University Dublin), The Northern Ireland local elections May 2019 – a gender analysis, Slugger O’Toole blog, 21 May 2019

15 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

4. Parliamentary and political firsts for women (UK)

The timeline below sets out a number of significant firsts for women in UK politics.19 1907 Qualification of Women (County and Borough Councils) Act allowing women to be county and borough councillors – many stood in 1 Nov elections 1908 Elected mayor in England (Elizabeth Garrett Anderson) 1918 Women able to stand for Parliament and those over 30 who met minimum property qualifications given the right to vote 1918 MP elected (Countess Constance de Markievicz) 1919 Member of Parliament to take seat (Nancy Astor) 1924 Minister (Margaret Bondfield) 1928 Vote given to women on same terms as men 1929 Cabinet minister and privy counsellor (Margaret Bondfield) 1948 Chair of Committee of Whole House (Florence Paton) 1958 Life Peerages Act; first women life peers to take seats (Lady Reading and Baroness Wootton) 1963 First Hereditary Peer to take seat in House of Lords (Baroness Strange of Knokin) 1964 Parliamentary Whip (Commons) (Harriet Slater) 1965 Parliamentary Whip (Lords) (Baroness Phillips) 1967 Deputy Speaker (Lords) (Baroness Wootton) 1970 Deputy Speaker (Commons) (Betty Harvie Anderson) 1975 Leader of the Opposition (Margaret Thatcher) 1976 First openly lesbian MP (Maureen Colquhoun) 1979 Prime Minister (Margaret Thatcher) 1981 Leader of the House of Lords (Baroness Young) 1981 First woman to co-found a major political party (Shirley Williams) 1987 First black female MP (Diane Abbott) 1992 Speaker of the House of Commons (Betty Boothroyd) 1992 Minister with special responsibility for women’s issues (Gillian Shephard) 1997 Secretary of State for Northern Ireland (Mo Mowlam) 1997 Leader of the House of Commons (Ann Taylor) 1997 Full-time Minister for Women (Joan Ruddock) 1997 First female full-time wheelchair-user MP elected (Anne Begg) 1998 Chief Whip (Ann Taylor) 2001 Secretary of State for Scotland (Helen Liddell) 2006 Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (Margaret Beckett) 2006 House of Lords Lord Speaker (Baroness Hayman) 2007 Secretary of State for Home Affairs (Jacqui Smith)

19 Central Office of Information, Women in Britain, 1996; Centre for Advancement of Women in Politics; House of Commons Library analysis. 16 Women in politics and public life

2007 Attorney-General (Baroness Scotland) 2008 Chief Secretary to the Treasury (Yvette Cooper) 2009 EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs & Security Policy (Baroness Ashton) 2010 Secretary of State for Wales (Cheryl Gillan) 2010 First female MPs of Asian descent elected 2014 First Minister of Scotland (Nicola Sturgeon) 2016 Lord Chancellor (Liz Truss) 2017 Black Rod (Sarah Clarke) 2017 First female Sikh MP (Preet Gill) 2019 Clerk Assistant (Sarah Davies) 17 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

5. Women in politics: international context

5.1 Presidents and prime ministers In January 2021, there were 10 women serving as Head of State and 13 serving as Head of Government.20 As recently as 2005, there were only eight.21 The first non-hereditary female national leader was Sirimavo Bandaranaike, elected Prime Minister of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) in 1960. International progress was slow until the 1990s. By February 2019, 70 countries (just over a third of all) had had at least one female president or prime minister. A handful had had several. Sri Lanka was the first country to have a female president and prime minister at the same time (from 1994).22

5.2 Overseas parliaments Speakers of national parliaments In February 2021, the Inter-Parliamentary Union calculated that there were 278 Speakers for upper chambers, lower chambers and unicameral parliaments worldwide. Of these, 58 (21%) were women. In Belgium, Belize, Trinidad and Tobago, and the United States and Uruguay, both the upper and lower houses were presided by women.23 In 1927 Austria became the first country to elect a woman to the presidency of a parliamentary chamber; the next was Denmark in 1950. The UK became the 27th country to achieve this when Betty Boothroyd was elected Speaker of the House of Commons in 1992. Proportion of women in national parliaments The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) reported that the UK was ranked the 38th in terms of women holding positions in a country’s lower or only house (as of February 2021). Rwanda is first, with over 61%, while Cuba also has a majority of female members and exactly half the unicameral Parliament of the United Arab Emirates is made up of women. Three countries in the IPU ranking have no women in their lower or single house, while 25 have fewer than 10%.24 The following tables give the top 50 rankings of participation by women in the lower or only houses of parliaments, and then in upper houses.

20 UN Women, Facts and figures: leadership and political participation (accessed 22 February 2021) 21 Inter-Parliamentary Union, Women in politics: 2017, 15 March 2017. 22 House of Commons Library consolidated analysis. 23 Inter-Parliamentary Union New Parline, Compare data on Parliament: Sex of the Speaker (accessed 23 February 2021). 24 Inter-Parliamentary Union New Parline (accessed 24 February 2021). 18 Women in politics and public life

Women in National Parliaments Top 50 countries by membership of lower or unicameral house

Rank Country % Rank Country %

1 Rwanda 61.3 27 France 39.5 2 Cuba 53.4 28 Ecuador 39.4 3 United Arab Emirates 50.0 29 North Macedonia 39.2 4 Nicaragua 48.4 “ Serbia 39.2 5 New Zealand 48.3 31 Ethiopia 38.8 6 Mexico 48.2 32 Timor-Leste 38.5 7 Sweden 47.0 33 Burundi 38.2 8 Grenada 46.7 34 United Republic of Tanzania 36.7 9 Andorra 46.4 35 Guyana 35.7 10 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 46.2 “ Italy 35.7 11 Finland 46.0 37 Uganda 34.9 12 South Africa 45.8 38 Dominica 34.4 13 Costa Rica 45.6 39 Cameroon 33.9 14 Norway 44.4 “ United Kingdom 33.9 15 Namibia 44.2 41 El Salvador 33.3 16 Spain 44.0 “ Monaco 33.3 17 Senegal 43.0 “ Netherlands 33.3 18 Argentina 42.4 “ San Marino 33.3 “ Mozambique 42.4 45 Nepal 32.7 20 Belgium 42.0 “ Uzbekistan 32.7 “ Switzerland 42.0 47 Zimbabwe 31.9 22 Belarus 40.0 48 Luxembourg 31.7 “ Portugal 40.0 49 Germany 31.5 24 Austria 39.9 50 Australia 31.1 25 Denmark 39.7 “ Croatia 31.1 “ Iceland 39.7

Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union New Parline (accessed 24 February 2021). 19 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

Women in National Parliaments Top 50 countries by membership of upper house

Rank Country % Rank Country %

1 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 55.6 27 Ethiopia 32.0 2 Antigua and Barbuda 52.9 28 Kenya 31.8 3 Australia 51.3 29 Philippines 29.2 4 Canada 49.5 30 United Kingdom 27.9 5 Mexico 49.2 “ Afghanistan 27.9 6 Belgium 45.0 32 Saint Lucia 27.3 7 Zimbabwe 43.8 33 Switzerland 26.1 “ Bahamas 43.8 34 Cameroon 26.0 9 Barbados 42.9 35 Chile 25.6 10 Austria 42.6 36 Belarus 25.0 11 South Africa 41.5 “ United States of America 25.0 12 Burundi 41.0 38 Somalia 24.1 13 Spain 40.8 39 Poland 24.0 14 Trinidad and Tobago 40.6 40 Uzbekistan 23.0 15 Argentina 40.3 “ Japan 23.0 16 Ireland 40.0 42 Tajikistan 22.6 “ Eswatini 40.0 43 Bahrain 22.5 18 Netherlands 38.7 44 Lesotho 21.2 19 Rwanda 38.5 45 DRC 21.1 20 Jamaica 38.1 46 Colombia 21.0 21 Nepal 37.9 47 Bosnia and Herzegovina 20.0 22 Germany 36.2 48 Pakistan 19.2 23 Belize 35.7 “ Côte d'Ivoire 19.2 24 France 34.8 50 Kazakhstan 18.8 25 Italy 34.4 “ Congo 18.8 26 Uruguay 32.3

Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union New Parline (accessed 24 February 2021). Most countries have between 10 and 30% female representatives, as set out in the chart below.

Proportion of Women in lower or only House Number of countries by percentage of women's membership

0 0-9% 10-19% 20-29% 30-39% 40-49% 50-59% 60-69%

Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union New Parline (accessed 10 February 2021). 20 Women in politics and public life

Entry of women into national parliaments Nineteen women were elected in Finland in 1907, the first election after suffrage was extended to women in 1906. In doing so they became the first women ever to sit in a parliament. They made up 9.5% of the elected members, a level that the UK had still not reached in 1992. 25

First women in national parliaments First 50 by year of election or entry

Rank Country Year Rank Country Year 1 Finland 1907 26 Cuba 1940 2 Norway 1911 27 Philippines 1941 3 USA 1917 28 Dominican Rep. 1942 4 Denmark 1918 " Uruguay 1942 " Ireland 1918 30 Australia 1943 " Netherlands 1918 31 Albania 1945 " United Kingdom 1918 " Bulgaria 1945 8 Austria 1919 " France 1945 " Germany 1919 " Hungary 1945 " Luxembourg 1919 35 Italy 1946 " Poland 1919 " Japan 1946 12 Estonia 1920 " Panama 1946 " Lithuania 1920 " Romania 1946 14 Belgium 1921 39 Myanmar 1947 " Canada 1921 " Pakistan 1947 " Sweden 1921 " Sri Lanka 1947 17 Iceland 1922 " Thailand 1947 " Russian Fed. 1922 43 North Korea 1948 19 Latvia 1930 " South Korea 1948 20 Spain 1931 " Venezuela 1948 21 Brazil 1933 46 Israel 1949 " New Zealand 1933 47 Indonesia 1950 " South Africa 1933 48 Argentina 1951 24 Portugal 1934 " Chile 1951 25 Turkey 1939 50 Mongolia 1951

Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union New Parline (accessed 24 February 2021).

5.3 The European Parliament (European Union) Since 1979, the proportion of women MEPs (Members of the European Parliament) has increased from 16% to 41% in the 2019 election. As of the 2019 intake, female representation across Member States varied from 0% in Cyprus to 55% in Sweden.26

25 University of Helsinki, Centenary of women’s full political rights in Finland. 26 European Parliament, 2019 European election results, MEPs' gender balance 21 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

6. Women in public life

This section covers women working in the public sector. Information on women in employment more generally, including women in the boardroom, is included in Library Briefing Paper Women and the Economy.

6.1 Women in public bodies The Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919 permitted women to enter professions such as the law, veterinary medicine and the civil service. The Act also allowed women to enter any royal chartered society and ensured that no university could refuse entry to women. Information published on women appointed to the boards of public bodies sponsored by the Cabinet Office showed that 17% of appointees were women in 1983.27 The last Labour Government’s target was for an even balance of men and women on such boards.28 However, as the chart below shows, this was not achieved. The proportion of women holding positions on the boards of public bodies increased gradually to 38% in 2004, it fluctuated subsequently before reaching a high point of 39% in 2016. As at March 2019, 44% (1,543) of service public appointees were women, a small increase from 43% in both 2017 and 2018.29

Women appointed to public bodies 1989 - 2019, % 50

0 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 2019

Source: Cabinet office, Public appointments data report 2018/19, 22 July 2020; Cabinet Office, Public Bodies, various years

6.2 Women civil servants In 1914, the 53,904 women employed in the civil service represented 21% of the total. Following the First World War, the presence of women in the civil service increased dramatically; by 1919, 56% of the

27 Equal Opportunities Commission, Women and Men in Britain a statistical profile, 1985 28 Cabinet Office, Public Bodies 2002 29 Cabinet Office, Public Appointments Data Report 2018/19, 22 July 2020 22 Women in politics and public life

420,510 permanent staff were women.30 However, as men returned from military service the proportion fell; in 1928 and 1938 women accounted for 25% and 27% of total employees respectively.31 A contributing factor to this low figure was the exclusion of women from jobs which involved dealing with foreigners (the Foreign Office) and officers (the defence ministries), and particular jobs where they may have been exposed to animal breeding (agriculture) or sexual offences (law).32 Additionally, until 1946, the UK Civil Service operated a “marriage bar” which forced women to leave their posts when they got married. Although the 1919 Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act appeared to disallow such discrimination, this was not applied to the Civil Service: in 1921, an Order in Council limited posts to women who were either unmarried or widows. The Treasury justified this position by arguing, somewhat paradoxically, that a woman’s negative right to not be disqualified from holding these posts did not entail a positive entitlement to actually hold the posts.33 The chart below shows the proportion of full time, part time and senior civil service grade positions held by women between 1981 and 2020. Just over half (54%) of all civil service employees (headcount basis) were women in 2020. Women have tended to make up about 45% of full- time positions (46% in 2020). In 1981, an overwhelming proportion of part-time civil servants were women (95.6%). This has gradually decreased to 80% in 2020. The proportion of senior grade roles occupied by women increased to 46% in 2020. Since 2010, this has been measured by headcount so the figures before and after are not directly comparable.

30 Meta Zimmick, “Strategies and Stratagems for the Employment of Women in the British Civil Service, 1919- 1939”, The Historical Journal, 27:4, December 1984, p.912 31 Ibid., p.912 32 Rodney Lowe, The Official History of the British Civil Service: Reforming the Civil Service, Routledge, 2011, pp.75-76. 33 Ibid. 23 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

Proportion of civil service jobs held by women, by type 1981-2020, % 100

Part time 80

60 Full time

Senior grades (headcount) 20 Senior grades (FTE)

0 1981 1985 1989 1993 1997 2001 2005 2009 2013 2017

Source: GOV.UK, Civil service statistics, 2018-2020, ONS, Civil service statistics, 2006 – 2017; The National Archives, Civil service statistics, 1981-2005 In 1950, 8% of what was then called the “administrative class” – today’s Senior Civil Service plus principals and assistant principals – were women. In 1971, the Kemp-Jones Committee made recommendations that aimed to help women reach the higher echelons of the civil service. Although the number of women in senior roles did subsequently increase, progress was relatively slow until the 1990s and particularly the twenty-first century when the proportion of female senior civil servants increased markedly, reaching 33% in 2009 (full-time equivalent basis). The first female permanent secretary – Evelyn Sharp – was appointed in 1955. The number of grade 1 permanent secretaries had reached two in 1993.34 In February 2017, 10 (28%) of the 36 permanent secretaries across the civil service were women.35

6.3 Judges Although all judicial offices have been open to women since 1919, it was not until 1945 that a female judge – Sybil Campbell – was appointed in England. Table 3 shows the proportion of women in various tiers of courts. Overall, 32% of judges in England and Wales were women in April 2020.36 However, the proportion is considerably lower at the higher reaches of the judicial profession: the first female Lord of Appeal (Dame Brenda Hale) was not appointed until 2004, while only one woman led a judicial division between 2001 and 2005. Baroness Hale of Richmond was the first woman to become President of Supreme Court in October 2017.37 Lady Justice Black also joined the Supreme Court as Justice in October 2017. As of the 1st of March 2021,

34 Ibid., p21 35 Cabinet Office and Civil Service, Celebrating women in Whitehall: Her Majesty The Queen meets female permanent secretaries, 21 February 2017 36 Ministry of Justice, Diversity of the judiciary:2020 statistics, 17 September 2020 37 The Supreme Court, Lady Hale appointed next President of Supreme Court, alongside three new Justices, 21 July 2017 24 Women in politics and public life

one of the eleven justices of the Supreme Court, Lady Arden, was a woman.38

Female judges in England and Wales by post 2001-2020, %

2001 2006 2011 2016 2020

Justice of the Supreme Court1 0.0 8.3 9.1 8.3 n/a Heads of Division 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Lord Justices of Appeal 6.1 8.1 10.8 20.5 21.0

High Court Judges 8.1 10.3 15.7 20.8 28.0 Circuit Judges 7.9 11.3 15.9 25.6 33.0

District Judges 18.6 25.4 30.5 36.0 44.0

District Judges (Magistrates Court) 20.0 22.3 28.2 32.0 38.0 Recorders 12.3 14.2 16.5 20.0 22.0

Total2 14.1 18.0 22.3 27.5 32.0

Notes: 1. Until October 2009 Lords of Appeal; 2. Women as a proportion of all court judges Source: Judicial Diversity Statistics, various years (Judicial Office/Ministry of Justice)

6.4 Armed forces Until 2016, the Armed Forces were permitted to discriminate on gender grounds in its employment decisions. There was an exemption from the Equality Act 2010 for reasons of combat effectiveness and there were restrictions on women serving in close-combat roles. Women were excluded from Ground Close Combat (GCC) such as the Royal Marines General Service, the Household Cavalry and Royal Armoured Crops, the Infantry and Royal Air Force Regiment.39 After a 2016 review by the Ministry of Defence, then Prime Minister David Cameron lifted the ban on women serving in GCC roles. The Royal Armoured Crops (RAC) were the first to allow women to serve in certain roles from November 2016.40 The table below shows that as of April 2020, 10.9% of armed forces staff were women, the highest proportion of women being in the Royal Air Force with 14.8% representation.41 In July 2020, the Ministry of Defence announced some new measures to tackle discrimination in the armed forces. The independent service complaints Ombudsman show that women are more likely to complain about bullying, harassment, and discrimination. In 2019, 23% of complaints were made by women despite women representing around 11% of the armed forces.42

38 Biographies of the justices, The Supreme Court 39 Gov.uk, Women in Combat: Policy Paper, 1 November 2010 40 Gov.uk, Ban on women in ground close combat lifted, 8 July 2016 41 Ministry of Defence, UK armed forces biannual diversity statistics October 2020, 17 December 2020 42 BBC News, MoD announces measures to tackle 'unacceptable' discrimination, 11 July 2020 25 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

Women in the armed forces 2000-2020, 1 April, %

2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Army Officers 9.2 10.6 11.3 11.9 12.1 Other ranks 6.8 7.0 7.3 8.4 9.3 All 7.1 7.5 7.9 9.0 9.8

Naval Service Officers 6.8 8.5 9.7 10.2 11.6 Other ranks 8.2 9.4 9.6 9.1 9.4 All 8.0 9.2 9.6 9.3 9.8

RAF Officers 10.0 13.1 15.4 16.5 17.9 Other ranks 9.7 11.8 13.2 13.2 13.8 All 9.8 12.1 13.7 13.9 14.8

Overall Officers 8.9 10.9 12.2 12.7 13.6 Other ranks 7.8 8.7 9.0 9.6 10.3

All 8.0 9.0 9.6 10.1 10.9

Source: Defence Analytical Services and Advice, Ministry of Justice UK armed forces biannual diversity statistics 2020

6.5 National Health Service More than three quarters (77%) of the NHS workforce in NHS Trusts and Clinical Commissioning Groups were women in September 2020. As the chart below shows, in some roles, nearly all workers are women: over 99.5% of midwives were women each year between 2011 and 2020. Women also make up a majority of nurses and health visitors, while they are less likely to be hospital doctors, including consultants. The proportion of hospital doctors, consultants and ambulance staff who are women has steadily increased since 2011 (by 7%, 22% and 21% respectively). 26 Women in politics and public life

Women in the NHS, England Proportion of female staff, by type, at 30 September (headcount)

100%

80%

60%

40%

All hospital doctors Consultants 20% Nurses & health visitors Midwives Ambulance staff 0% 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Source: NHS workforce statistics, September 2020, Equality and diversity in NHS Trusts and CCGs Research by the University of Exeter shows that women are not equally represented in senior NHS roles. Women held 44.7% of executive and non-executive leadership roles across NHS trusts in 2020, which was up by nearly 5 percent since 2017.

6.6 Teaching Schools Women represent the majority of teachers overall in state-funded nursery and primary schools (86%) and secondary schools (64%) in England. The proportion of women teachers is higher at classroom grade compared to senior roles (deputy head and head teachers). The proportion of women teachers in state-funded nursery and primary schools is higher at all levels compared to secondary schools. Since 2011 the proportion of women classroom teachers, deputy head teachers and head teachers has generally followed a slightly upward trend. The exception is women nursery and primary classroom teachers which fell slightly from 89% in 2011 to 87% in 2020 (albeit from a high base). Women occupy proportionately fewer senior roles at both the early and secondary schooling levels. In 2020 in secondary schools, women made up 66% of classroom teachers but 48% of deputy head teachers and 40% of head teachers. In nursery and primary schools the gap was narrower, women made up 87% of classroom teachers but 81% of deputy head teachers and 74% of head teachers. 27 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

Nursery and primary Secondary school female school female teachers teachers % headcount, state-funded schools % headcount, state-funded schools

Classroom 80 Deputy head 80 Classroom Head 60

60 Deputy head

40 Head 40

20 20

0 0 2010-11 2013-14 2016-17 2019-20 2010-11 2013-14 2016-17 2019-20

Source: School workforce in England: 2019, DfE Higher education Women remain under-represented in higher education, although there has been a significant improvement since 1994-95 across all academic grades. Compared with 1994-95, the proportion of women was higher at all grades in 2007-08 (see the chart below) – and by a substantial margin in some cases: the proportion of female professors rose from 7% to 19%. Meanwhile, the biggest gain of nineteen percentage points was registered among senior lecturers and researchers, of whom 35.3% were women by 2007-08. Among the lower ranks, women continue to be less well represented at university level than at secondary and particularly primary and nursery levels. New definitions of staff were introduced in 2008-09 so only the data on professors can be compared. In 2015/16 women made up 28% of full- time professors, 42% of all academic full-time staff and 56% of part- time academics. 28 Women in politics and public life

Women full-time academic staff by grade UK nationals, %

Lecturer 40 Researcher Senior lecturer and researcher 30

Professor 20

0 1994-95 1998-99 2002-03 2006-07 2010-11 2014-15 2018-19

Source: Higher education staff data, 2019/20 and earlier HESA

Although the proportion of women in higher education increased since 1994/5, there is high variation between academic disciplines. The chart below shows that in 2019/20 just over 60% of academics in Education and medicine, dentistry and health were female, whereas women comprised only 19% of academics in engineering and technology.

Women as % of academic staff by subject All modes of employment 2019/20

Engineering & tech.

Architecture & planning

Science & maths

Admin. & business

Arts & design

Social studies

Humanities & languages

Agriculture & veterinary science

Education

Medicine, dentistry & health

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Source: Higher education staff data, 2019/20 and earlier HESA

29 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

6.7 Police Of the 129,110 police officers in England and Wales in March 2020, 40,319 (31%) were female. This figure excludes the British Transport Police and officers seconded out, but includes officers seconded in as well as those on maternity/paternity leave and career breaks. The table below gives figures for 2003-2020, showing that the proportion of female police officers has steadily increased from 19% to 31%.

Women police officers England & Wales, 31st March 2003-2020

Total Female Strength Number % of total 2003 132,509 25,139 19.0 2004 138,468 27,925 20.2 2005 141,059 29,940 21.2 2006 141,523 31,520 22.3 2007 151,892 33,117 21.8 2008 141,859 34,332 24.2 2009 143,770 36,121 25.1 2010 143,734 36,998 25.7 2011 139,110 36,532 26.3 2012 134,101 35,962 26.8 2013 129,956 35,471 27.3 2014 127,909 35,653 27.9 2015 126,818 35,738 28.2 2016 124,066 35,498 28.6 2017 123,142 35,844 29.1 2018 122,404 36,417 29.8 2019 123,171 37,428 30.4 2020 129,110 40,319 31.2

Note: excludes British Transport Police and officers seconded out, includes officers seconded in and those on maternity/paternity leave and career breaks Source: Police workforce statistics, England and Wales, 31 March, various years While 33% of constables in England and Wales were female in March 2020, the proportion of female officers in more senior ranks was lower. Only 27% of officers ranked chief inspector or higher were female, although this has increased from 14% in 2010. The first female Chief Constable in England and Wales was Pauline Clare, who was appointed to Lancashire police force in June 1995. In June 2020, there were three police forces run by women.43 Cressida Dick was appointed as the first female Met Police Commissioner in February 2017. The most recent statistics on police workforce in Scotland show that at the end of March 2018, 30% of police officers and 32% of special

43 BBC, Sussex becomes third police force run by women 30 Women in politics and public life

constables were female.44 News reports suggest figures were similar in 2020, and that fewer women held more senior positions.45 As of November 2020, female representation in Northern Ireland’s police service was 30%.46 In the 2016 elections for Police and Crime Commissioners, 8 women were elected (20%), while 29 (15%) of candidates were women.47 The next elections will be held in May 2021.

44 Scotland Police, Equality and Diversity Mainstreaming and Outcomes Progress report 2019, Appendix B 45 The Scotsman, ‘Figures show ‘alarming’ scale of gender and race disparity among Police Scotland officers’, 31 October 2020 46 Police Service of Northern Ireland, Workforce Composition Statistics 47 House of Commons Library, Police and Commissioner Elections 2016, 19 May 2016 31 Commons Library Briefing, 2 March 2021

7. Firsts for women in UK public life

The last 100 years have seen various firsts for women in public life:48,49,50,51 1913 Britain's first official female professor Caroline Spurgeon appointed Professor of English Literature at London University 1943 President of the Trades Union Congress (Anne Loughlin) 1945 Prison Governor (Charity Taylor) 1945 Stipendiary magistrate (Sybill Campbell) 1948 University Vice Chancellor (Prof Lillian Penson) 1949 King’s Counsel (Rose Heilbron and Helena Normanton) 1955 Civil Service Permanent Secretary (Dame Evelyn Sharp) 1965 High Court Judge (Dame Elizabeth Lane) 1973 First woman Head of Mission in the British Diplomatic Service (Eleanor Emery) 1973 Director of a national museum (the Science Museum) 1984 TUC General Secretary (Brenda Dean) 1987 Court of Appeal Judge (Dame Elizabeth Butler-Sloss) 1991 Head of MI5 (Stella Rimington) 1994 Church of England priest ordained (Angela Berners-Wilson) 1995 Chief constable (Pauline Clare) 2004 Lord of Appeal in Ordinary (Dame Brenda Hale) 2005 National Statistician & Registrar General for England & Wales (Karen Dunnell) 2009 EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs & Security Policy (Baroness Ashton) 2009 Poet Laureate (Carol Ann Duffy) 2011 Chief Medical Officer for England (Professor Dame Sally Davies) 2011 Royal Navy Warship Commander (Lieutenant Commander Sarah West) 2013 RAF Air Vice-Marshal (Elaine West) 2014 Dean of Norwich (Canon Jane Barbara Hedges) 2015 Church of England Bishop (The Right Reverend Libby Lane) 2017 Metropolitan Police Commissioner (Cressida Dick) 2017 President of Supreme Court (Baroness Hale of Richmond)

48 COI Women in Britain 2nd edition 1996 49 Centre for Advancement of Women in Politics, Queen's University of Belfast http://www.qub.ac.uk/cawp/index.html 50 Women In Diplomacy: The FCO, 1782-1999 http://www.fco.gov.uk/Files/kfile/86cc078ary-2fwomen-2fwomen,0.pdf 51 http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/womanshour/timeline/timeline.shtml

About the Library The House of Commons Library research service provides MPs and their staff with the impartial briefing and evidence base they need to do their work in scrutinising Government, proposing legislation, and supporting constituents. As well as providing MPs with a confidential service we publish open briefing papers, which are available on the Parliament website. Every effort is made to ensure that the information contained in these publicly available research briefings is correct at the time of publication. Readers should be aware however that briefings are not necessarily updated or otherwise amended to reflect subsequent changes. If you have any comments on our briefings please email [email protected]. Authors are available to discuss the content of this briefing only with Members and their staff. If you have any general questions about the work of the House of Commons you can email [email protected]. Disclaimer This information is provided to Members of Parliament in support of their parliamentary duties. It is a general briefing only and should not be relied on as a substitute for specific advice. The House of Commons or the author(s) shall not be liable for any errors or omissions, or for any loss or damage of any kind arising from its use, and may remove, vary or amend any information at any time without prior notice. The House of Commons accepts no responsibility for any references or links to, BRIEFING PAPER or the content of, information maintained by third parties. This information is Number 01250 provided subject to the conditions of the Open Parliament Licence. 2 March 2021