分 类 号 密 级 H31 U D C 编 号 10486

博 士 学 位 论 文

戏曲改编莎士比亚的策略研究

研 究 生 姓 名 ：熊 杰 平

指导教师姓名、职称 ：朱 宾 忠 教 授

学 科 、 专 业 名 称 ：英 语 语 言 文 学

研 究 方 向 ：英 美 文 学

二〇一八年五月

A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

Xiong Jieping

戏曲改编莎士比亚的策略研究

熊杰平

论文原创性声明

本人郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文，是本人在导师指导下，独立进行研究工

作所取得的研究成果。除文中已经标明引用的内容外，本论文不包含任何其他个

人或集体已发表或撰写的研究成果。对本文的研究做出贡献的个人和集体，均已

在文中以明确方式标明。本声明的法律结果由本人承担。

学位论文作者（签名）：

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论文创新点

莎士比亚是英美文学史上的经典作家，他的戏剧在世界舞台、银屏上被反复

改编。本人根据近百年来莎士比亚戏剧改编为中国传统戏曲的实践活动，研究了

改编过程中的语言、文化迁移，以及素体诗转换为唱念做打中的矛盾冲突，评价

了中外理论家的“机趣”、“中国化”、“挪用”、“文化他者”等改编策略，

提出了戏曲改编莎士比亚戏剧的加减法理论，根据改编与原作的偏离，回答了改

编后的作品是否还是莎士比亚的问题，并且通过实践与逻辑推理加以证明，还由

此引申出对改编作品中莎士比亚以及戏曲有机构成之研究。以往的研究较多的集

中在原著的翻译、中西戏剧的文化差异，本文则聚焦跨艺术样式的比较莎学研究，

无论是通过五线谱、汉语拼音来描绘改编作品，还是结合作者的改编实践活动来

论证加减法的改编策略，都有创新之处。

学位论文作者（签名）：

年 月 日

A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

摘要

莎士比亚改编了他人，也被他人所改编。莎士比亚的大部分戏剧都改编自历史、传 说、他人的剧作，以适应自己的戏剧范式。过去的一百余年，至少有十七部莎士比亚戏 剧被改编为中国戏曲，简称莎戏曲。有些中国理论家根据戏曲对莎剧的接受模式，把这 些作品归纳为中国化、西洋化或者英文原版式的改编，而西方理论家则根据改编后的作 品在语言文化上对原著的偏离程度，划分为改编、挪用、征用、变通与衍生等。改编存 在着不忠实于原著的风险，产生了著名的拜伦式诘问：改编后的作品还是莎士比亚吗？ 与翻译相比，跨文化剧场改编在语言文化传递后会更加偏离原文。如果采用西洋化 的改编方法，固然可以避免与原文文化相违和，但有可能违背在地戏曲的本体特征。在 跨文化剧场实践中，存在着文化他者，需要双方进行沟通与交换。 而在戏曲剧种内化的过程中，曲文（唱念）需要与为之服务的音乐沟通，音乐变通 不能伤害旋律节奏，曲文变通也要遵守诗词格律。戏曲虽然演绎类型人物，舞蹈（做打） 要服从刻画人物的需要，莎戏曲的文本产生跨行当演出，以尽量减少偏离。 莎戏曲要吸引观众，还必须充满机趣。运用机趣可以生动的改编莎士比亚丰富而细 腻的语言，使原文的趣味在文字文本与视觉文本上得到转换。然而，机趣的定义含混， 与戏剧冲突没有关联或者关联不大，因而与西方戏剧冲突理论发生矛盾冲突。机趣可能 使莎戏曲进一步偏离莎士比亚。 由于忠实于原著的理论在改编实践中不可行，因而提出加减法作为改编策略。对原 文做减法是要为戏曲做加法，给唱、念、做、打腾出空间，甚至增加人物、语言与视觉 文本，改变结构，符合目的语文化与戏曲的本体要求。加减法还有助于理解改编对原作 的偏离和对戏曲的偏离。改编对戏曲的加法做得越多就越靠近戏曲，越可能偏离莎剧； 对莎士比亚的减法做得越多，改编作品中的莎士比亚成分就越少，反之亦然。加减法通

常是同时发生的。所以，回答拜伦式的诘问——莎士比亚改编后是否还是莎士比亚戏剧 ——取决于改编策略与改编后的作品对原文的偏离程度。同时，莎戏曲在多大程度上是 戏曲也取决于改编作品偏离戏曲的程度。莎戏曲并非莎士比亚与戏曲的拼贴，而是汇集 了双方优点的有机融合。

关键词：莎士比亚、戏曲、改编策略、加减法、偏离

I Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University

II A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

ABSTRACT

Shakespeare adapts and is adapted. Most of his plays are adapted from historical chronicles, legendary accounts and someone else’s plays to suit his own theatrical paradigm. Over the last hundred years, at least seventeen of his plays have been adapted into traditional or indigenous Chinese theater, Shake-xiqu for short. Some Chinese theorists tend to classify them in three adaptation styles, namely, the Chinese, the Occidental, and the English-English, based on how traditional Chinese theater receives them. On the other hand, some Western theorists tend to classify them into adaptation, appropriation, expropriation, inspiration and spin-off, depending how much the adaptation deviates from Shakespeare linguistically and culturally. In view of the risky infidelity to the original, there is a famous Byronc question: Is the adaptation of Shakespeare still Shakespeare? In comparison with translation, transcultural theater may deviate the adaptation, to a larger extent, from the original in language and culture transfers. While the Occidental style may help to avoid incongruity in culture, the adaptation may run into conflict with the theatrical idioms of the genre. In a transcultural theater, the cultural other is there for both sides to negotiate and trade-off. In the intra-genre process, the libretto for singing and chanting has to negotiate with the music that serves it. Music may have to vary without distorting the pattern of melody and rhythm. The librettist’s licence may be confined to prosody. The choreography for dancing and acrobatics should help to portray the characters although traditional Chinese theater is peopled with codified role types, hence cross-role-type performance in Shake-xiqu to curb deviation. For Shake-xiqu to entertain the patron, there has to be jiqu or wit and fun, the application of which helps to adapt Shakespeare’s language nuances vividly into a verbal and visual text. However, jiqu is a loosely defined term. It may have little or nothing to do with the conflict in the play and therefore runs into conflict with the Western drama concept of conflict. It is possible for Shake-xiqu to further deviate from Shakespeare.

III Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University

As fidelity criticism does not work in the adaptation practice, the strategy of addition and subtraction is proposed. Subtraction applies to the source text which must be cut or trimmed to make room for singing, chanting, dancing and acrobatics, all of which are required by traditional Chinese theater. On the other hand, addition applies when a new role or new verbal and visual text appears, or even the structure of the play alters in order to satisfy the cultural or theatrical requirement of the target text. The strategy of addition and subtraction also helps to understand the deviation of Shake-xiqu from Shakespeare and traditional Chinese theater respectively. When the addition of xiqu elements occurs, the adaptation will stay close to traditional Chinese theater and may deviate from Shakespeare. The more the original is subtracted, the less Shakespeare there will be in the adaptation, and vice versa. Usually addition and subtraction will happen at the same time. Thus the Byronic question whether the adaptation is still Shakespeare is answered according to the deviation from the bard. Similarly, to what extent Shake-xiqu is traditional Chinese theater depends on how much the adaptation deviates from xiqu. It is not a collage of Shakespeare and xiqu but an integration of their merits.

Key Words: Shakespeare, traditional Chinese theater, adaptation strategy, addition and subtraction, deviation

IV A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

Contents

摘要------Ⅰ ABSTRACT ------Ⅲ

Introduction------1 0.1 Canon of the Adaptation------4 0.2 Three Phases of the Adaptation------7 0.3 Literature Review------13 0.4 Structure of the Dissertation------18

Chapter One Language and Culture Transfers: A Case Study of Sinicized Macbeths

------20 1.1 Language Transfer------22 1.2 Culture Transfer------34 1.2.1 Setting of the Time and Place------35 1.2.2 Characterization------37 1.3 Cultural Other------40

Chapter Two Conflict with Music and Characterization: A Case Study of Hanju

Taming of the Shrew------43 2.1 Conflict of the Prelude’s Libretto and Music------46 2.2 Inequality Between Dramatis Personae and Codified Role-Type Performers------50 2.3 Rewriting and Re-interpreting with Feedback Concerns------56

Chapter Three Jiqu or Wit and Fun in Shake-xiqu------61 3.1 Jiqu in Adapting Language Nuances------64 3.2 Jiqu in Choreographic Adaptation------68 3.3 Jiqu’s Conflict with Shakespeare------71

Chapter Four Addition and Subtraction: From Adaptation to Evaluation------75 4.1 Three Librettos of Lear’s Opening Speech------75 4.1.1 Sixian Opera Version------77 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University

4.1.2 Peking Opera Version------82 4.1.3 Hanju Opera Version------85 4.2 Characterization and Structure------88 4.3 Shake-xiqu’s Deviation and Its Evaluation------90 Conclusion------94 Bibliography------97 Videos------102 Internet Sources------103 Glossary------104 攻博期间发表的科研成果目录------114 鸣谢------115 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

Introduction

. . . How many ages hence Shall this our lofted scene be acted over In [States] unborn and accents yet unknown. (Julius Caesar Ⅲ, ⅰ, 111b-113)

Since Shakespeare Survey published a Chinese scholarship of Shakespeare for the first time in 1983,1 studies of the bard in the People’s Republic of China have yielded fruitful results. There are quite a few Chinese scholars who, reading no English, publish extensively in Chinese.2 These scholarships are accessible to the Chinese, leaving the West at the mercy of some native English speakers who understand Chinese and overseas Chinese students who write their dissertations at Western universities. Among them only a few are devoted to staging Shakespeare in China for they are penned by scholars, in a study, who are inactively involved in the stage.3 There are doubtless very few English scholarships for adapting Shakespeare into traditional or indigenous Chinese theater (xiqu, literally “theatrical tunes or melodies”), addressing the concern that when Shakespeare comes into traditional Chinese theater the changes both of them undergo. This does not match the status quo of the flourishing adaptation practice. Out of numerous genres of xiqu, why are some of them eager and able to embrace the bard while many others shy away? And when Shakespeare is globalized and localized, how big a chance is there for Shakespeare adaptations in traditional Chinese theater or Shake-xiqu4 to be glocalized?5

1 Lu Gu-sun. Hamlet Across Space and Time, Shakespeare Survey Volume 36: Shakespeare in the Twentieth Century, ed. Stanley Wells, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983: 53-56. Also anthologized in Shashibiya Yanjiu Shi Jiang (Ten Lectures on Shakespearean Studies) by Lu Gu-sun. Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2005: 136-148. 2 For example, Shashibiya Zai Zhongguo Wutai Shang (Shakespeare on the Chinese Stage), by Cao Shujun and Sun Fuliang, Harbin: Harbin Publishing House, 1989; Zhongguo Shaxue Jianshi (A Concise History of Shakespeare in China) by Meng Xianqiang, Changchun: Northeastern Normal University Press, 1994; Zhongguo Shashibiya Piping Shi (The History of Shakespearean Studies in China), by Li Weimin, Beijing: China Drama Press, 2006. 3 Li Ruru. Shashibiya: Staging Shakespeare in China. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2003. Ching-Hsi Perng collaborated with Chen Fang, who wrote the libretto, and adapted The Merchant of Venice, Measure for Measure and King Lear into Taiwan bangzi opera in 2009, 2012, and 2015 respectively. 4 A coinage from Shaxiqu Kuawenhua Gaibian De Wutou (Shake-xiqu: Essence of Transcultural Adaptation of Shakespeare), by Chen Fang, Taipei: National Taiwan Normal University Publishing Center, 2012. 5 The concept of glocalization comes from the Japanese word dochakuka, meaning global localization. It now refers to the “simultaneous occurrence of both universalizing and particularizing tendencies in contemporary social, political, and economic systems”, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glocalization, last accessed March 19, 2018.

1 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University

China proudly boasts 348 genres of xiqu,1 each named in a two-or-three-character coinage. The first one- or two-character word often indicates the geographical area that the genre is associated with or simply its music style. The last character of the coinage used to be xi (theater) or qu (melody or tune) but now ju (drama).2 Traditional Chinese theaters share a lot of theatrical conventions and codifications in common but differ from each other mainly in arias, which serve librettos. Such a musical spectrum evolves from the fact that Chinese is a family of tone languages and different vernaculars are spoken in different parts of the country. My province of Hubei in central China was said to house six genres in the capital city of Wuhan where a Mandarin dialect is spoken and nine genres in other areas3 where vernaculars may sound unintelligible to Mandarin speakers. The provincial figure has been proclaimed or modified to twenty-six in less than ten years. Traditionally agriculture-based, some genres are prospering with patrons of powerful officials and affluent merchants but more genres waning and dying. Besides the nationwide Peking opera, those that still enjoy their popularity are mostly associated with rural or backward areas where the only other entertainment is virtually television and mahjong, a tile-based board game dating back to the Qing dynasty (1616-1911). A xiqu performance is a more lavish showcase that can better engage the community. Most indigenous genres of xiqu seldom travel or hardly take root outside because the associated vernaculars confine them. Only a handful of lucky genres somehow break through or sprawl out to serve a diaspora or new community. Metropolitan-seated xiqu companies fight for survival on government funds. Under the influx of globalization, industrialization and urbanization, the attendance is getting thinner and thinner to traditional Chinese theaters run by state-owned or government-sponsored companies, all of which are obliged to set a good example of following the Party policy that literature and art should serve the people and serve socialism. Ageing faster and faster are theater patrons, most of whom pay nothing or

1 The figure remains heatedly debatable. While the Chinese Ministry of Culture announces that this is figure up to the date of August 31, 2015, a noticeable increase from the last census, there are said to be newly formed or resurrected genres by the local government. http://www.mcprc.gov.cn/whzx/whyw/201712/t20171226_830165.htm, last accessed March 19, 2018. For a different voice, read Women daodi you duoshao “juzhong”: Dui gongjushu zhong youguan shuju de fenxi (How many genres of xiqu we have anyway: A data analysis of reference books) by Hai Zhen, Journal of National Academy of Chinese Theater Arts, 2014 (5): 13-16. He dismisses the neat figure of 360 and pessimistically suggests around 70 stage-active genres. In reality there are only about 150 genres that are sung by two or more theater companies. 2 For example, kunqu refers to the genre associated with kun, short for Kunshan, coastal Jiangsu Province, and jingju is Peking opera as jing is short for Beijing, pinyin of Peking. 3 These figures are again debatable. I was based on Hubei Xiqu Gailuan (An Introduction to Traditional Theaters in Hubei), ed. Du Jianguo, Beijing: China Drama Press, 2007. For the new figure, visit the official website of the Chinese Ministry of Culture, listed in a previous note.

2 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater equivalently a few US dollars for admission, and fewer and fewer young audience members are attracted by traditional repertoire. For a quick remedy the theatricals turn to either modern plays1 or Shakespeare, or both. Since the year 1914 when Hamlet was presented in the style of chuanju (associated with Sichuan province and the neighboring regions),2 twenty-one Chinese operas have mounted seventeen Shakespearean plays in sixty different productions.3 Ten genres tried more than once. The most popular genre, jingju or Peking opera or national opera in Taiwan, has adapted thirteen plays. Yueju or Shaoxing opera (tunes originating in Shenxian, coastal Zhejiang Province, and flourishing in Shanghai) and Cantonese yueju have done nine respectively, claiming that high economic development seems to favor such syntheses or certain Shakespearean plays are more cooperative with some genres than others. Taiwan bangzi and its mainland mother/counterpart yuju have adapted four. Chuanju has adapted three. Also a third timer is the time-honored kunqu, the first among the three Chinese indigenous stage relics listed by the UNESCO, also the first one with a moderately commercial success in touring Britain and some neighboring continental cities. Twice-adapting indigenous theater styles include huju associated with Shanghai, chaoju popular in Guangdong and Southeast Asia, hanju based in the city of Wuhan and somewhat popular in Central and South China and newly-established jiju associated with northeastern Jilin Province. Eleven other genres attempted only once, including sixianxi associated with Northern China on King Lear, and nationwide popular huangmeixi, an opera originated in Huangmei, a county of Hubei, and mature in neighboring province Anhui, on Much Ado about Nothing. Geographically, the bard is more popular in Southern than Northern China, and more productions have been offered in the East than the West of China. Despite the equally-scaled popularity of jingju in Beijing and Tianjin, the troupes in the former have adapted three and the latter none. Meanwhile, based in developed and westernized Taiwan,

1 From my own contacts, practitioners would find it a double-edged sword for the hefty funds nourish them but kill the art with political wrappings. 2 Little is known about this very first adaptation. See Shashibiya Zai Zhongguo Wutai Shang (Shakespeare on the Chinese Stage), by Cao Shujun and Sun Fuliang, Harbin: Harbin Publishing House, 1989: 189, 214-215. Wu Hui zeroes in at 1914, under which year she may have read Cao and Sun listed the adaptation but they wrote again and again “early years of the Repblic of China”. See Wu Hui. Yingxiang Shashibiya: Wenxue Mingzhu De Dianying Gaibian (Shakespeare in Images: Film Adaptations of Great Literature). Beijing: Communication University of China Press, 2007: 36. 3 The bald account is technically impossible due to lack of recordings of some productions, and numerous adaptations of Shakespearean scenes as well as amateur or student productions in even bigger numbers.

3 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University jingju has so far done five. With Shanghai, Beijing, Guangdong, Jiangsu and Zhejiang taking the lead in mainland China’s modernization drive, Shakespeare has thus won favor in these regions, a cultural by-product of globalization and localization.

0.1 Canon of the Adaptation The canon of adapting Shakespeare into traditional Chinese theater is expansive on comedies and tragedies, few on romances and fewer on histories, which are staged by huaju, spoken or straight drama, a genre not introduced into Chinese theater until around 1907.1 Foreign histories have been long noted for their disfavor in China. Few Chinese universities would include Shakespeare’s history plays in their syllabus, or rather histories are often dismissed as too British to be salvaged for the modernization drive of China. Thus we may opine that traditional Chinese theaters know comedies and tragedies better and as a result Shakespeare’s romances and histories, once adapted, simply turn into comedies and tragedies respectively. The popularity of the bard on the Chinese opera stage is shown below, play by play. Needless to say there is a much wider spectrum from amateur to professional productions, and for the sake of availability and feasibility most studies would bypass or ignore such productions as jingju Othello in English (a scene in 1982), not performed scripts like Hebei bangzi Youyu Wangzi (Melancholy Prince, first published in 2001, and then penned into kunqu published in 2010) from Hamlet, and Shui Jia You Nv (Whose Daughter This Is published in 2002) from The Taming of the Shrew, and also student productions inaccessible to the general public such as jingju The Merry Wives of Windsor (2009), Romeo and Juliet (2010), and A Usurper in Troubled Times (Luanshi Xiaoxiong 2011) from Richard the Third.2 1) Romeo and Juliet: Shanghai yueju Love’s Regret (Qing Tian Hen 1942), Shanghai huju Tough Guy and Tender Babe (Tie Han Jiao Wa 1944), Beijing jingju The Tempering of

1 Based on the performing activities by the Chunliu Drama Club, this date is debatable. See Ershi Shiji Zhongguo Xijushi (A History of Chinese Theater in the 20th Century), by Fu Jin. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2017. Also see Zhongguo Huaju Chengli Shi Yanjiu (A Study on the Formation of Chinese Spoken Drama), by Hiroshi Seto, tr. Chen Linghong. Xiamen: Xiamen University Press, 2015. Despite the dispute, Chinese spoken drama began to frequently mount Shakespeare in the following decade. Meng Xianqiang traces it between 1913-1915. (Brooks et al 134) And rivalling traditional Chinese theater reluctantly followed suit. 2 For the scanty reviews of the above productions in Chinese, read Hong Zhonghuang. Shui Jia You Nv deshi tan (Whose Daughter This Is: The good bad and ugly). Grand Stage, 2004 (2) and He Chang. Meigui kai zai chunfeng li: Shashibiya xiju Wensha De Fengliu Niangmen de xiquhua gaibian (A Rose Blooms in the Spring Breeze: Adapting Shakespeare’s Merry Wives of Winsor into Traditional Chinese Theater). Sichuan Theater, 2012 (4) respectively. For some more, read Cao Shujun.

4 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

Love (Zhu Qing Ji 1948), Shanghai yueju Eternal Love (Tian Chang Di Jiu 1985), Henan yuju Romeo and Juliet (Luo Mi’ou Yu Zhu Liye 1987), errenzhuan (associated with Northeastern China) Romeo and Juliet (Luo Mi’ou Yu Zhu Liye 1987), Yunnan huadengxi Zhuomei and Aluo (Zhuomei Yu Aluo 1996, revived 2011), Taiwan Hok-loh gezaixi Flower on the Other Bank (Bi’an Hua 2001),1 and jiju and Hunan Kunqu Romeo and Juliet (Luo Mi’ou Yu Zhu Liye both 2016). There are ten productions up till now. 2) Macbeth: Shanghai kunqu Blood-Stained Hands (Xie Shou Ji 1986,2 revived 2008), Hubei jingju Tyrant in Troubled Times (Luanshi Wang 19863), Taiwan jingju The Kingdom of Desire (Yuwang Cheng Guo 1986), wuju (associated with Jinhua, a city in Zhejiang Province) A Blood-Stained Sword (Xie Jian 1987), chuanju Lady Macbeth (Makebai Furen 1999), Hong Kong Cantonese yueju The Hero’s Betrayal (Yingxiong Panguo 2001), Shaoxing yueju General Ma Long (Ma Long Jiangjun 2001), huiju (associated with Anhui Province) Scared Souls (Jinghun Ji 2013) and Shanghai kunqu Husbands’ Lady (Fu De Ren 2015). All together there have been nine productions so far. 3) The Merchant of Venice: Shanghai jingju Settling the Debt with Flesh (Jiezhai Huan Rou 1922), Cantonese yueju One Pound of Flesh (Yi Bang Rou 1933, revived? 1952), The Merchant of Venice (Weinisi Shangren 1953-4), and Blessed and Affected Daughter (Tian Zhi Jiaonv 1983), xiangju (associated with Central Chinese Hunan Province) Settling the Human Flesh Case Smartly (Qiao Duan Renrou An 1987), luju (associated with Anhui Province) Odd Debt and Romance (Qi Zhai Qingyuan 1989), Cantonese yueju A Wealthy Daughter (Haomen Qianjin 2007), and Taiwan bangzi or yuju Bond (Yue/Shu 2009). Eight productions in total. 4) King Lear: Shanghai yueju The Heart of a Filial Daughter (Xiaonv Xin 1946), Hebei sixianxi King Lear (Li’er Wang 1994), Shanghai jingju King Qi’s Dream (Qi Wang Meng 1995), Taiwan jingju Lear Is Here (Li’er Zai Ci 2001), Cantonese yueju King Li Guang

1 Read the first half of “Thou Orphans’ Father Art”: Shakespeare in Taiwanese and Yue Operas by Bi-qi Beatrice Lei. (Brooks et al 199-232) 2 Wu Hui put it in 1985. As an inside cover note made by the artistic director to the managing director dated December 1, 1985, the rehearsal would take months and the play probably had its debut early in 1986. It entered for the First Chinese Shakespeare Festival at Shanghai Children’s Arts Theater on April 10, 1986 (Cao and Sun 222-223) but The Chronicles of Shanghai Kunqu put it in April 1987 (121). 3 Again Wu put it in 1985. According to Changjiang Ribao (Changjiang Daily), the play had its debut in Wuhan on November 12, 1986. The newspaper interviewed the director Hu Dao and reported the event the next day. Dates of the following productions are specified as accurately as possible by correlating different sources.

5 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University

(2002), Hubei hanju King Lear (Li’er Wang 2014), and Taiwan bangzi or yuju Questioning Heaven (Tian Wen 2015). They are seven productions in all. 5) Hamlet: Sichuan chuanju Killing the Elder Brother and Snatching His Wife (Sha Xiong Duo Sao 1914), Shanghai huju Usurping the State and Stealing the Queen (Qie Guo Dao Sao 1941), Taiwan jingju The Prince’s Revenge (Wangzi Fuchou Ji 1990), Shanghai yueju The Prince’s Revenge (Wangzi Fuchou Ji 1994), Shanghai jingju The Tragedy of Prince Zi Dan (Wangzi Fuchou Ji 2005). Five productions so far. 6) The Taming of the Shrew: Cantonese yueju Unruly Princess (Diaoman Gongzhu 1933) and its modified Unruly Princess and Her Simple-Minded Husband (Diaoman Gongzhu Yu Han Fuma 1984), Taiwan jingju Katherina and Petruchio (Yanzhihu Yu Shizigou 2002), and Hubei hanju Taming of the Shrew (Xun Han Ji 2014). Four productions so far. 7) The Merry Wives of Windsor: Cantonese chaoju The Merry Wives of Windsor (Wensha De Fengliu Niangmen, 1980s-1990s?), Cantonese dongjiangxi The Merry Wives of Windsor (Wensha De Fengliu Niangmen 1987), and jiju The Merry Wives of Windsor (Wensha De Fengliu Niangmen 2014). Three productions so far. 8) Othello: Shanghai yueju Princess and Prince (Gongzhu Yu Junzhu, early 1950s), and Beijing jingju Othello (Aosailuo 1983, 1985). Two productions. 9) The Winter’s Tale: Cantonese chaoju Resurrected Queen (Zaishi Huanghou 1986), and Zhejiang yueju The Winter’s Tale (Dongtian De Gushi 1986). Two productions. 10) Twelfth Night: Shanghai yueju Twelfth Night (Di Shi’er Ye 1986) and Cantonese yueju A Heaven-Made Match (Tian Zuo Zhi He 1995, revived 2016). Two productions. 11) Measure for Measure: Shaoxing yueju A Case in a Case (An Zhong An Chuanqi 2001), and Taiwan bangzi or yuju Measure, Measure (Liang/Du 2012). Two productions. 12) Much Ado about Nothing: Anhui huangmeixi Much Ado about Nothing (Wu Shi Sheng Fei 1986). 13) The Two Gentlemen of Verona: Guizhou chuanju The Two Gentlemen of Verona (Weiluona Er Shenshi 1985). 14) A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Beijing jingju A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Zhongxia Ye Zhi Meng 2004, revived 2012). 15) The Tempest: Taiwan jingju The Tempest (Baofengyu 2004).

6 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

16) Antony and Cleopatra: Taiwan jingju The Queen and Her Clowns (Yanhou He Ta De Xiaochoumen 2012). 17) Richard the Third: Hubei chuju A Horse Wrangler’s Story (Yu Ma Ji 2017-2018).1

0.2 Three Phases of the Adaptation The history of the above-mentioned Shakespeare adaptations into traditional Chinese theater can also be conveniently viewed into three phases, namely, from the early 20th century to the early 1950s, then the renaissance decade from the early 1980s to the mid-1990s, and finally the early 21st century. This periodization may somewhat overlap with Cao Shujun2 but run into conflict with A Concise History of Shakespeare in China. In the latter case, Phase One yielded almost no Shakespearean productions in Chinese theaters, and the bard’s sinicization in the theater for the next two phase poses a hard issue for researchers because of the lack of materials, especially few video, audial or even written records.3 1) The Silent Period (1914-1954) Of all the Chinese opera adaptations of Shakespeare, at least ten plays were staged in the first half of the last century, roughly before the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. About these offerings not much remains known or could be retrieved, hence named the Silent Period. Similar to the early huaju repertoire in China whereby actors acted extempore on the synopsis of the play without a script or rehearsal, early opera appropriations were inspired by Shakespeare’s name and plot into a hasty job.4 When possible, the Lambs’ Tales from Shakespeare (tr. Lin Shu) was based for the promptbooks. If Lin is said to have translated something about Shakespeare rather than of Shakespeare, then we may safely say that Shake-xiqu productions in this period are mostly an adaptation about the bard rather than of the bard. After all, the first translation of the complete Shakespeare did not get published

1 Not every listing is retrievable. While most early productions may have perished without trace, other productions may have the script owned by the troupe, so very few found publishers. And the video recordings are even rare unless they were aired on television or made into VCDs and DVDs for sale. 2 Politically influenced Cao divides it into Experimental Period (1912-1976), Mature Period (October 1976 to September 1994) and Deep-going Period (1995 till now). See Tong Shidai De Shashibiya: Yujing, Huwen, Duozhong Shiyu (Shakespeare Our Contemporary: Contexts, Intertexts & Perspectives), ed. Zhang Chong. Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2005: 344-359. 3 Meng Xianqiang divides the history of Shakespeare in China into six phases, namely, Beginning Period (1856-1920), Probing Period (1921-1936), Struggling Period (1936-1948), Prospering Period (1949-1965), Rising Period (1978-1988) and Transitional Period (1989-). See Zhongguo Shaxue Jianshi (A Concise History of Shakespeare in China) by Meng Xianqiang, Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1994. 4 For a case in point, see Chapter Two.

7 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University until 1957 in Taiwan or 1978 in the mainland. Still the play was traditional Chinese theater with names or plots to shadow forth the bard. For example, the Chinese Merchant skipped the Jewish queston and highlighted the romantic and the legal bond. And all the offerings made before 1949 were given a new title, and characters new Chinese names, both a new tradition for many adaptations of the following period. It usherd in an important period for traditional Chinese theater to receive Western theater for the first time. Meanwhile huaju came into emergence as the indigenous xiqu color gradually faded away from spoken drama productions. In both cases, Shakespeare served as an eye opener for the Chinese to see the outside world. It also foreshadowed a flourishing time to Sinicize Shakespeare. Then came the Russian decades of the representational style, or Stanislavski system, of theater. Western theater flourished for a time, but in this period only The Merchant of Venice was staged in Cantonese yueju from 1952 to 1954, which may have come as the after-sound of the last decade. The Russian influenced one generation of the Chinese dramaturges and their impact can be felt in the next period when Shanghai jueju staged Twelfth Night. The 1950s witnessed the government-endorsed xigai, or opera reform, a favorite word on household lips, which turned out to be a de-tradition campaign of re-educating the actors, re-adapting the repertoire, and re-establishing the troupes. The chaotic opera stage was made disastrously barren by a tumultuous decade of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) except for a handful of model operas I grew up with. The bard was completely silenced in China, and darkness fell on the stage of foreign drama as well. 2) The Renaissance Period (1983-1995) Twenty-four Shake-xiqu offerings are recorded in a decade or more, from 1983 when Beijing jingju adapted Othello to 1995 when Shanghai jingju adapted King Lear, with a flurry of eight productions around 1986. This is the period praised by Philip Brockbank as “the post-Mao flowering of Shakespearean theatre”. The initial efforts came from the experimental jingju Othello starring Mao Yongan, also a lead actor in a model opera titled The Azalea Mountain (Dujuan Shan).1 And the two Shakespeare festivals in 1986 and 1994 respectively occasioned by a short-lived renaissance of drama after the fall of the Gang of Four fanned up

1 For more, read Faye Chunfang Fei, William Huizhu Sun. Othello and Beijing Opera: Two Cases of Appropriation in Different Directions, ed. Zhang Chong 290-315; and Alexander C.Y. Huang. “Ocular Proof”: A Black Chinese General in Beijing: 176-187.

8 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater the enthusiasm of appropriators, who were helped by some surviving senior Shakespearean scholars who had been trained in English or in the West.1 Still Shakespeare was considered a source for loose adaptations but the Chinese text less distant from the bard than ever. For opera to adapt spoken drama, it is likely and necessary to streamline the play, cut or combine minor roles and even subplots so as to leave room for arias, duets, choruses and other theatrical conventions. In Shanghai jingju King Lear (retitled King Qi’s Dream), the Gloucester family is reduced to his illegitimate son Edmund, who becomes the new king but is wrangled to death by the dying and imprisoned Lear at the finale, without a mention that the antagonist is a bastard. With subtraction from the original being the order of the day, one can hardly imagine that there are always significant additions to the original as if the pent up creative energy of the appropriators were released. Underlying these additions is the cultural assimilation between Shakespearean and Chinese theatrical idioms. For instance, the show starts with the celebration of King Qi’s 80th birthday, on which the manifestation of love is mixed, for bidding, with a proposal for each of his daughters to govern the purposely divided kingdom. Sure enough, his third daughter Snow (Xueying for Cordelia) is played up with a heroic foresight to dissuade her father’s rash decision, sided by Kent who remains silent until the king disowns her.2 Not all alterations can be legitimately condemned. In the 1994 Shanghai yueju version of Hamlet (retitled The Prince’s Revenge), the eavesdropping of Polonius in Gertrude’s chamber is prolonged, a typical feature of Chinese opera narration that does not pay attention to real time progression. The groan betrays his own hiding place near the end of the scene when Hamlet asks his mother not to bed with his uncle anymore and pledges to kill the usurper. Polonius’s belated death, together with the immediate arrival of Claudius, is dovetailed to help intensify the conflict, an understanding of the practitioners and their reading themselves into Shakespeare.

1 For reviews, see Philip Brockbank, Shakespeare Renaissance in China. Shakespeare Quarterly, 1988 (Summer); Li Ruru. Shakespeare on the Chinese Stage in the 1990s. Shakespeare Quarterly, 1999 (Autumn); Zha Peide, Tian Jia. Shakespeare in Traditional Chinese Operas. Shakespeare Quarterly, 1988 (Summer); and Stanley, Audrey. The 1994 Shanghai International Shakespeare Festival. Shakespeare Quarterly, 1996 (Spring). 2 For more discussions, see Chapter Four, based on my essay titled Addition and Subtraction in Operatic Adaptation of Shakespeare: A Case Study of Lear’s Opening Lines, which appeared in Theatre Arts, 2014 (2).

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Nor can one justifiably assert that any metamorphosis of Shakespeare is an intentional insult to the bard, or to the theatergoers. In 2006, the American musical Lion King, an English spin-off from Hamlet, had a 100-day run in Shanghai, in which the encaged Zazu has to entertain the usurper by singing. One of his songs is subbed by the then Chinese pop song Laoshu ai dami (Mice love rice). A few bars of it almost brought down the house. Theatergoers, actors and the production team behind them contribute themselves to the commercial success of the performance, so as to elicit tears, laughter and applause from the audience, which is also a serious concern. In addition to singing and music, traditional Chinese theater features choreographic and acrobatic skills, and jiqu or wit and fun to entertain the patrons. This may lead to a further deviation of the adaptation from Shakespeare. When Shakespeare meets Chinese operas on stage, conflict of domestication and foreignization (borrowing two translation terms) always looms large. In Shanghai yueju Hamlet, the grave diggers are eliminated to sacrifice the comic effect but the mourning aria on the river bank displays the opera’s beautiful conventionalization of metaphors and melodies in overtures. With gains and losses, the side effect is to have the motif of love and revenge amplified and other motifs downplayed, thus the title changed. In the nunnery scene Chinese Polonius does not hide himself with the royal couple, the opera script purifies the foul source text, also a feature of many indigenous operas, and Hamlet’s yueju aria has the coloring of Shaoxing daban opera, supposedly helping to stage his feigned madness. Different styles crisscross here. The cross-cultural drama production of Shakespeare has to tackle with many obstacles; even the seemingly simplest way to Sinicize the bard will not be an easy job. A Shakespeare play features round and deep characters with a big and male-dominated cast, but Chinese operas, with a small but typified cast, often stereotype them. As the earliest Shake-xiqu of this productive decade, the 1983 jingju Othello had to codify a typical Shakespearean role but not so typified role type in Chinese opera—Iago. The way out seemed to amalgamate the codification of chou (clown) and laoshen (old male) character types. And the title hero amalgamated more. The rearrangement gave the actors a hard time because opera actors are traditionally trained from childhood in the canon of one stock codification only. Even if the characters happen to favor the cast, the actor oftentimes has to combine different stock

10 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater stereotypes of singing and acting to show the character’s unique personality, as is the case of Malvolio in Twelfth Night (1985) and afore-mentioned title hero Hamlet, both in Shanghai yueju as well as Shylock in Taiwan bangzi Bond (2009). In fact, cross-role-type performing is exactly how Chinese opera masters survive the challenge and manage to set up their new set patterns (conventionalization), schools and virtuosities. 3) The Diversity Period (1996 to present) Since 1996, Chinese theaters have further ebbed down but the economy has kept flowing up. The Shakespeare Association of China was disbanded in 2003,1 and there are no more national or large-scale Shakespeare Festivals. Still twenty-five Shakespeare offerings have been made in various opera styles to display a more diversified spectrum than ever. Huadengxi opera localized the love tragedy of Romeo and Juliet in the genre’s associated remote province of Yunnan in 1996. Then small-scale theaters flourished with Lady Macbeth (1999), Lear Is Here (2001) and Hamlet (2005). The most recent adaptations to my knowledge are jiju Romeo and Juliet (2016) in the Western style, and Hubei chuju A Horse Wrangler’s Story (2017-2018), the genre’s first attempt to mount Shakespeare in a domesticated style and also the first Chinese opera version of Richard the Third. This period also hailed two verse publications of complete Shakespeare,2 supposedly designed for stage. So far, the translations have received mixed reviews. Some bilingual critics are uncomfortable for the renditions seem to have lost the original’s poetic flavor and funny overtone.3 Nor does it seem to help the traditional Chinese stage much for the adaptors mainly follow their own idioms. To rewrite libretto for the opera stage, a prose translation serves a good enough source. In other words, the diversity of the bard in traditional Chinese theater is brought about by the diversity of theater genres rather than by the diversity of translations. The 2001 Macbeth, retitled General Ma Long, stuck to the tradition of Shaoxing yueju by using a small female cast with doublings of the Witches switched to Doctor, Porter, Seyton and some other walking roles. To do a small-scale theater, the chuanju monodrama Lady

1 It was resurrected, in April 2013, under the umbrella of the Chinese Society of Foreign Literature Studies, but much less active and influential than in the last century. 2 Xin Shashibiya Quanji (New Complete Shakespeare), ed. Fang Ping, Shijiazhuang: Hebei Education Press, 2000 and Shashibiya Quanji: Ying Han Shuangyu Ben (William Shakespeare: Bilingual Complete Works), eds. Jonathan Bate, Eric Rasmussen & Gu Zhengkun, Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2016. 3 Shaju de fanyi: Cong sanwenti dao shiti yiben (On the Translation of Shakespeare: From Prose to Verse) by Lan Renzhe. Chinese Translators Journal, 2003 (3), and Hamuleite zai Zhongguo de bainian yijie shuping (Chinese Translations of Hamlet over the Past Hundred Years) by Jin Jing & Zhu Jianping. Chinese Translators Journal, 2016 (5).

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Macbeth starring Tian Mansha was staged in 1999, and Shanghai kunqu Husbands’ Lady (2015) was cast into one Lady as well as three Macbeths whose actors doubled witches, soldiers and eunuchs! Less attention is paid to the original text when adaptations spin off. But indigenous Chinese operas refuse to change with the times, or change slowly if they have to, fearing that modernization would mean the loss of tradition, e.g. modernized costumes would mean the choreographic disappearance of a handkerchief dance, fan dance, and shuixiu dance (literally water-sleeve, an extended silk piece conventionally attached to the end of the regular sleeve). Most deplorable in General Ma Long was perhaps the absence of the hallucination and knocking scenes, which kunqu and wuju adapted respectively. The cross-dressed title general featured the star-actress’s virtuosity of a wooden sword dance at the banquet scene and heavier doubling roles of the Witches, one of whom walked in aizi bu (antic-dwarf-like gait), a traditional technique first borrowed into kunqu Blood-stained Hands and then copied by some other Macbeths. The kunqu version has received favorable reviews at home and abroad.1 The femininity of the Shaoxing yueju production seemed weakened to make way for masculinity in the 2013 adaptation titled Scared Souls starring a shen (male) but almost the same script of the yueju was borrowed by huiju, the genre of which, together with Hubei hanju, is proclaimed to be a forerunner of Peking opera. It is unexceptionally unique for two different genres to adapt the same play with the same libretto, but in this case the director and librettist are the identical practitioners and also related father-and-son. Of course alterations have been made to tailor the libretto for the aria of either genre. In the eyes of the Shakespeare student and opera audience alike, the appreciation of the appropriation is the encounter with the cultural other. For one who does not speak the other’s language, his understanding of the text in the new context may well be supplied by intertextuality more than visualization, or by visualization more than vocalization. For example, few English-speaking spectators of Chinese opera Shakespeare would sit uncomfortably through the foreign verbal text, with which they are familiar in its original counterpart, no matter what the actors utter. In this transcultural activity, either side has his

1 Shanghai Kunju Zhi (The Chronicles of Shanghai Kunqu). Shanghai: Shanghai Culture Press, 1998. Zha Peide, Tian Jia. Shakespeare in Traditional Chinese Operas. Shakespeare Quarterly, 1988 (Summer).

12 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater own bird to kill—either for the Chinese to rejuvenate the tradition or for the Westerners to impress power configuration. Still, it is a fascinating process, always something old will lose and something new will gain. With better trained and more open-minded theatricals who are able to handle less easily transferable matters across cultural lines, future adaptations with a fine polish will massage both sides better. Remember China is a populous country with diversified stage performances. When we put aside for the moment the three radio plays of Macbeth, As You Like It and A Midsummer Night’s Dream (all aired in the 1994 Shanghai festival), but put together the 1994 Western-styled opera Troilus and Cressida, the ballets of Romeo and Juliet (Shanghai 1984 and Beijing 1990), a puppet show of Twelfth Night or Twin Brother and Sister (Luansheng Xiongmei Shanghai 1986), and all the opera productions with more huaju versions, none of the above has attracted enough theatergoers to outnumber the cinemagoers of the 2006 buster The Banquet (faked Hamlet), the first and one of the two Chinese Shakespeare adaptations on the voiced screen, the other The Himalayan Prince (an inspiration from Hamlet). The comic idol Ge You starring King Li (Claudius) generates rounds of laughter from the movie house no matter what he utters. And the visual sensuality of Gertrude in the chain affairs (as a step-mother in love with the prince/son) permeates the screen. The play is crucified. But the bard gains popularity and diversity.

0.3 Literature Review Shakespeare adapts. Most of his plays are either adapted from historical chronicles, legendary accounts or somebody else’s plays. This is not our concern. Nor is it our concern that even since the 17th century his plays have been adapted at home to suit, supposedly, the stage, or rather, to cater for the changing taste of the English audience with times. Here is a play’s ending changed, script cut or rewritten, or plot altered, heavily so from the Restoration to the end of the eighteenth century.1

1 For the canon of the English adaptation, see Fischlin, Daniel, Mark Fortier, eds. Adaptations of Shakespeare: A Critical Anthology of Plays from the Seventeenth Century to the Present. London: Routledge, 2008. And for a fine scholarship of such adaptations, see Kilbourne, Frederick Wilkinson. Alterations and Adaptations of Shakespeare. Boston: The Poet Lore Company, 1906.

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Shakespeare is adapted. Our understanding of the adaptation of Shakespeare into traditional Chinese theater is, first of all, a language transfer. But Shakespeare staged with translated subtitles into another language or with another tongue synchronically put into the mouth of his characters is not our concern either. Secondly, our adaptation is also a culture transfer. This assumes the move from globalization to localization in indigenous theater. In the 1830s and 1850s Shakespeare repeatedly knocked on the Chinese gate, introduced by open-minded Chinese nationals and then by Western missionaries, almost in vain. In the early 20th century he began to prosper on the Chinese stage, first in English by touring troupes and by Chinese students of English, and then in Chinese by Chinese actors of spoken drama and traditional Chinese theater. None of these productions except the very last category fall into our concern. This does not mean that other offerings in China do not encounter any culture transfer for most of the bard’s audience here, an essential element of drama, is linguistically and culturally different from his own. In other words, the localization of Shakespeare in China may take two forms, in spoken drama which tries to follow the original text in English or in Chinese, and more bravely in indigenous or traditional Chinese theater which sticks to the theatrical conventions and codifications, and cultural traditions of their own. Only the latter form is our concern. For the convenience of discussion, we also exclude a hybrid production like Shaoxing yuejue Kou Liulan Yu Du Liniang (Coriolanus and Du Liniang 2016) starring Mao Weitao, as Coriolanus and Du’s lover/husband, who traveled abroad with it. Du is the diva of The Peony Pavilion. Like that in biology, adaptation of this kind, we understand, is a dynamic evolutionary or even revolutionary process that fits the English bard to the traditional side of the Chinese environment. Henceforth, I shall define the adaptation of Shakespeare into traditional Chinese theater, or Shake-xiqu for short, as a language and culture rewrite of Shakespeare into Chinese theatrical codifications, conventions and traditions. Three reasons listed by Dennis Kennedy and Yong Li Lan for adapting Shakespeare in Asia include nationalist appropriation, colonial instigation and intercultural revision. (7-11) Adaptations may generally involve changes, translations, alterations, appropriations, salvaging, parodies etc. of the original, out of reinterpretation, recreation and intertextuality. All of these may be realized in English and Chinese texts alike but new changes take place

14 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater when the bard is chained to an entirely different context. The adaptation of Shakespeare into traditional Chinese theater rewrites the original English text into the culture and language of the target text, and also into the operatic idioms of the target text. Since Shakespeare had his initial encounter with Chinese opera, Shakespearian scholars and opera theorists have made their observations and contributions. Among them Cao Shujun and Li Weimin have published extensively in Chinese, the former exclusively on stage especially on the two Shakespeare Festivals, and latter a modern or post-modern perspective into Shake-xiqu, inter alia. Besides, there are numerous monographs narrating the history of adapting Shakespeare in China, some of them bearing the identical title Shakespeare in China, such as the ones penned by Zhang Xiao Yang (1986), the Shakespeare Association of China (1987), Murray Levith (2004), and Sun Yanna (2010), and more bearing similar book titles. One of the initial fruits is their discerning three approaches of sinicization1, according to the ways that traditional Chinese theater receives them. 1) Adaptation in a traditional Chinese style, which is the order of the day, a style that has been used to adapt most of the Shakespearean plays. It is to replace the original’s time, venue, characters, custom etc. with the indigenous ones. Certain genres may find themselves close to certain plays of Shakespeare, for example, Peking opera good for royal plays, Shaoxing yueju for love stories, etc. 2) Adaptation in an Occidental style, which is styled experimental to keep as much flavor of the original as possible. There are a few productions including jingju Othello (1983), Shanghai yueju Twelfth Night (1986), Henan yuju Romeo and Juliet (1987), jiju The Merry Wives of Windsor (2014) and Romeo and Juliet (2016), and hanju King Lear (2014). There seems to be a perennial problem of incongruity with the theatrical idioms and dislocation with the indigenous audience, who are afraid that the opera genre might be huaju-stylized or corrupted in the Western way. 3) An English-to-English adaptation in the form of Chinese opera. This is to rewrite English in English instead of Chinese and force the English words into the Chinese music.

1 See Cao Shujun and also Tong Shidai De Shashibiya: Yujing, Huwen, Duozhong Shiyu (Shakespeare Our Contemporary: Contexts, Intertexts and Perspectives). ed. Zhang Chong. Shanghai: Fudan University Press, 2005: 344-359; Zhongguoban yu Zhongguohua: qiantan Zhongguo xiqu gaibian waiguo mingzhu de liangzhong moshi (Chinese Edition and Sinicization: Two Approaches to Xiqu Adaptation of Foreign Literature Classics) by Gong Xiaoxiong, Play Monthly, 2008 (10): 73-74.

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Such a kind of production, the example of which is rare except one scene from Othello by jingju actress/painted face Qi Xiaoyun, is supposedly favored by the English speaking audience but loathed by the local theatergoer for the incommensurability with Chinese arias, which are language-specific and must abide by the vocal idiom of the theater. This theory of adaptation based on the Chinese reception has generated voices of opposition in the academics as well. Chen Fang dismisses the English-to-English style as mediocre with only one scene thus adapted, and a few adaptations in the Occidental style as embarrassingly incommensurable with the opera. (17-19) One may decry the theory for they are all Chinese-styled and the last one robs the adaptation of theatrical conventions coded into the target context. If Italian opera is sung in Chinese, how much aria is gone? While dismissing terms of “Chinese operatic flavor” and “Shakespearean flavor” as too uncertain and inexplicit, and two categories of “Sinicized Shakespeare” and “Westernized Shakespeare” as too problematic, Li Xiaolin is ready to embrace West-centered terminology of “Western perspective” and “non-Western perspective” and modifies the three styles above into “the imitated” (emphasizing the foreignness of the adaptation), “the re-interpreted” for Sinicized adaptations, and “the re-constructed” (emphasizing deconstruction in the adaptation)1 to echo John Gillies’s globalized, localized and post-modern respectively. There is some progress in hers but the problem remains. Whereas there is a theoretical inadequacy or oblivion in China, Western theorems emerge. In A Theory of Adaptation, Linda Hutcheon advocates treating an adaptation as an adaptation. As she sympathetically puts it, “an adaptation is a derivation that is not derivative, a work that is second without being secondary,” (9) or inferior. In an adaptation, deviation is an inevitable departure from the adapted but not necessarily a violation. She also writes: To interpret an adaptation as an adaptation is, in a sense, to treat it as what Roland Barthes called, not a “work,” but a “text,” a plural “stereophony of echoes, citations, references.” (6) With Shakespeare as the norm, the theory is still a Western-centered one. That adaptation has its own life and value independent on the original drives fidelity criticism out of the market. The source text is used as raw material for (re-)interpretation and

1 See Li Xiaolin. Bianxing De Shashibiya: Dangdai Zhongguo Xiquban Shaju Yanjiu.(Metamorphosed Shakespeare: A Study of Chinese Operatic Versions of Shakespeare in Contemporary China) [Unpublished PhD dissertation]. Beijing Normal University, 2010.

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(re-)creation but not literal translation. And as a process of creation, she argues, adaptation can be called appropriation and salvaging, depending on the perspective. (8) And this appropriation, if transcultural, can happen both ways, either acculturation of elements from a minority/low culture by a dominant/high culture or assimilation of elements from a dominant culture into a minority culture. Quoting Gérard Genette who described the act of writing a text hypertextually, in another genre, with other texts in mind, Julie Sanders tries to distinguish adaptation, “a relationship with an informing sourcetext or original,” (26) from appropriation, “a decisive journey away from the informing source into a wholly new cultural product and domain.” (ibid.) Obviously most Shake-xiqu productions are accordingly both adaptation and appropriation. While the target text further distances away from the source text, expropriation, inspiration and spin-off emerge according to these theories. All these universalities sound absolutely true but it is feasibly hard to apply them to practice in China. As Hutcheon admits that “‘to adapt’ is to adjust, to alter, to make suitable”, (7) Shakespeare has to face an entirely different culture, numerous subcultures, and hundreds of theatrical idioms to metamorphose into Shake-xiqu. In comparison with fruitful film adaptation studies of Shakespeare, or insightful studies from text to screen, adapting Shakespeare into traditional Chinese theater is still a less lucky realm despite the fact that there is a fine list of contributors.1 Although there are fine interpretations for the Western theater-goers to understand a different theater genre, none have been able to guide or help the practitioners in the process, for their failure to address the issues of principles, strategies and methods governing a particular genre or in general, to say nothing of the fact that traditional Chinese theater varies from genre to genre. Or as Garry Wills put it in his Verdi’s Shakespeare, “[m]ost of the many operas made from Shakespeare’s plays are failures. Loose adaptations have been more successful.” (2) When the zero-in fidelity criticism is out of place

1 Shashibiya: Staging Shakespeare in China, by Li Ruru, Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2003; Shakespeare in China, by Murray Levith, London: Continuum, 2004; Chinese Shakespeares: Two Centuries of Cultural Exchange, by Alexander C. Y. Huang, New York: Columbia University Press, 2009; Shakespeare in Culture, eds. Bi-qi Beatrice Lei and Ching-Hsi Perng, Taipei: National Taiwan University Press, 2012.

17 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University with appropriation, expropriation, inspiration and spin-off rampant, then one might echo Lord Byron and ask, is it still Shakespeare?1 To some extent it is not. And to some extent it is. To what extent it is not or it is depends on how much or little the adaptation deviates Shakespeare while it is still a traditional Chinese theater piece. This is our major concern.

0.4 Structure of the Dissertation Having briefly evaluated some fine scholarships above I venture to present my own. Based on numerous predecessors and ultimately the above-mentioned adaptation canon, I will devote myself to the Renaissance and Diversity periods, emphasizing the last period, as scanty information about the Silent period is available and there have been quite a few fine studies for the second period that I can base on. Chapter One will be devoted to two concerns with the example of Macbeth, one of the two most frequently adapted pieces in the canon, namely, language and culture transfers, and discuss, besides their negative and positive interferences and the cultural other, how they influence the libretto and choreographic text. The next chapter will address the concern that when Shakespeare’s text is rewritten into librettos, what kind of conflict it may arise on setting it to the music of aria, idioms of choreography, and casting dramatis personae into codified players. Shakespeare’s round and deep characters with a big and male-dominated cast will conflict with flat and stereotyped characters with a small but typified cast, namely hangdang in Chinese operas. Further concerns of rewrite and reinterpretation will be played up by a feedback from the audience and experts. Hanju Taming of the Shrew serves as an example in this chapter.

1 This question is derived from Lord Byron’s comment on Gioacchino Rossini’s Otello. Byron’s letters and journals recorded, in part, by Leslie A. Marchand read as follows, “They have been crucifying Othello into an opera . . . Music good but lugubrious – but as for the words!” (qtd. Levith 68) With the question resonates Byron’s British power supremacy. Levith’s long list of producions in question also includes Otto Nicolai’s The Merry Wives of Windsor, Verdi’s Macbeth, Otello, and Falstaff, the musicals Kiss Me Kate, and West Side Story, Tom Stoppard’s absurdist play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, the films Throne of Blood, Ran, My Own Private Idaho, and Ten Things I Hate About You, Prokofiev’s and Tschaikovsky’s Romoe and Juliet ballets. (ibid.) It is echoed in China known as Shawei yu xiwei zhi zheng (Shakespearean flavor vs. Chinese operatic flavor). It is heatedly debated that in some productions traditional Chinese theater seems to have devoured Shakespeare and vice versa in other productions. See Shanghai Xiju (Shanghai Theater Monthly) 1986 (3) and 1987 (4), also Cao and Sun 186-213.

18 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

Admittedly Shakespeare is a master of the English language with heavy double cross, irony, word play, equivoque, cross-reference of the texts. All these would increase the difficulty of adapting him into Chinese opera that speaks a different jargon, like the traditional concept of jiqu or wit and fun, without which Shake-xiqu would hardly be entertainable. This is our concern addressed in Chapter Three. Since traditional criticism has its limitations or may run into conflict with Western criticism, Chapter Four will move on to King Lear to illustrate my adaptation strategy of addition and subtraction distilled from the three Chinese versions of Lear’s opening speech, structures of various Shake-xiqu productions and role characterization. The strategy then applies to evaluating the deviation of the adaptation from Shakespeare and indigenous theater.

Coda Having briefed all the Shakespearean adaptations into traditional Chinese theater and relevant theories concerning such sinicization, I have my ultimate concern that is to try to answer the Byronic question whether adaptation of Shakespeare into traditional Chinese theater is still Shakespeare. And I will further my discussion of all the governing factors mentioned above aiming to understand the deviation of the adaptation from Shakespearean context in Chinese operatic context, and further the deviation from xiqu. And an adaptation strategy will be distilled from practice and in return it will help practitioners in their practice. Various methodologies may follow in the future studies after this so that the adaptation of Shakespeare into traditional Chinese theater or Shake-xiqu will continue to shake the Chinese scene and eventually shake the world stage.

19 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University

Chapter One Language and Culture Transfers: A Case Study of Sinicized Macbeths

When a new language is learned, the learner’s mother tongue works with his internalization of the target language, consciously or unconsciously. According to the contrastive analysis made by Robert Lado and his Linguistic Across Cultures published in 1957, the learner attempts to transfer the features of his mother tongue to the second language. When the structures of the two languages are close or similar, positive transfer or facilitation occurs; when the structures of the two are different, negative transfer or interference happens to him. (Hu Zhuanglin et al 333) Similarly, when a transcultural play is staged, the theatricals and audience alike may feel their mother tongue and culture working with the production and reception. When there are linguistic and cultural similarities between the source and the target texts in structure, positive transfer facilitates their process so that the adaptation is likely to be judged a success. When there are differences between the two, negative transfer or interference tends to bring the adaptation into a disastrous production and reception. Before we move on to discuss the theatrical idioms in adapting Shakespeare into traditional Chinese theater, we shall discuss language and culture transfers in this chapter. As listed in the Introduction, Macbeth has been one of the most frequently Sinicized Shakespearean titles up till now, second to Romeo and Juliet. The plays may have been favored at random but there are obvious reasons to smooth over the adaptation. Romeo and Juliet enjoys the intertextuality of a similar Chinese love story titled Liang Shabo Yu Zhu Yingtai (The Butterfly Lovers). For Macbeth, its short-length script and tightly-knit single plot, both mesh well with the idioms of traditional Chinese theater, and a usurper as the title hero is somewhat close to a traditional piece titled Fa Zi Dou (A Punitive Expedition Against General Zi Du). They both feature a banquet scene where the ghost of the murdered appears only to frighten the host/murderer for real or just his imagination. Supernatural elements, like a ghost causing the hero’s death or witches deceiving the hero’s will, permeate both plays. Of course there are challenges. First, Macbeth is a dark tragedy but traditional Chinese theater features a

20 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater brightly-lit stage. Secondly, traditional Chinese repertoire has no such psychological piece in stock. Thirdly, there would be thorny concerns, for example, when adapting the Weird Sisters and sleepwalking scene, which are totally foreign to the Chinese stage. Last but not least, Macbeth is considered one of Shakespeare’s four great tragedies and kunqu is proclaimed one of the Masterpieces of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by the UNESCO in 2001. As a result of nationalist appropriation, such an adaptation, if successful, could serve as a showcase to boost the national pride of the Chinese. For a technical reason that all Macbeths were made in the Renaissance and Diversity periods while three productions of Romeo and Juliet were made in the 1940’s now unavailable to the public, we choose Macbeth for our case study. Shanghai Kunju Opera Troupe ushers in the first Macbeth among the nine adaptations and has been a moderately commercial success,1 rare of Shake-xiqu, since the early 1980s. Premiering early in 1986 and stunning the First Chinese Shakespeare Festival that April, Xie Shou Ji (Blood-Stained Hands) toured the UK and part of Europe immediately after the Edinburg and Belfast Festivals in 1987, which must have stimulated dramaturges of other genres to follow the crowd as traditional Chinese theaters traditionally adapt or yizhi (transplant) each other. Thus when adapting Macbeth, the huiju version transplants the Shaoxing yueju version, the only known transplantation within the Shake-xiqu canon so far. When Huang Zuolin, artistic director of the kunqu version, boasted of being able to detect much in common between Shakespearean drama and traditional Chinese theater, he perhaps meant the latter’s unique expressions to enrich the world stage,2 or perhaps once again an effort to frame Western learning into traditional Chinese core values, an act of cultural appropriation. He is thoroughly echoed by Zha and Tian in such details: [T]here exist many similarities between Shakespeare’s plays and traditional Chinese operas as far as their concepts of theatre are concerned. Both are based upon the concept of “supposition” rather than upon that of “verisimilitude.” They do not attempt to create an illusion of reality but rather admit that they try to affect the audience with fictitious roles and events. This theatrical concept leads to great freedom in handling stage space and time . . . In the use of sets and props, both Shakespeare’s plays and Chinese operas tend to be allusive—simple stage properties and sets can signify many “real” occasions

1 It gave 24 performances, together with 36 other short-scene performances and four performances of The Peony Pavilion, netted a profit of 23,517 British pounds. See Shanghai Kunju Zhi (The Chronicles of Shanghai Kunqu). Shanghai: Shanghai Culture Press, 1998: 278. 2 Qtd. Macbeth: New Critical Essays, ed. Nick Moschovakis. New York and London: Routledge, 2008: 280.

21 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University

Conclusion

Culture travels. So does transcultural theater. Nearly two hundred years ago, Shakespeare arrived in China by name. For the last one hundred years he has managed to flourish with his plays, globalized and localized, on English and Chinese stages. So far we have mostly focused on and examined the latter half, that is, adaptation of Shakespeare into traditional Chinese theater or Shake-xiqu with examples from kunqu, huiju, jingju, yueju, huangmeixi, yuju and hanju theatrical tunes. In a technical comparison, there are many similarities between Shakespeare and xiqu but more discrepancies in the aspects of language, culture, and theatrical idioms. Therefore, the source text in English has to undergo a journey of metamorphoses to become the target text in Chinese. First it is a language transfer but unlike translation, the target text will have to be a much more distorted version, to survive a culture transfer whatever the adaptation style is, which inevitably happens when meeting the culture other. Secondly the text has to conform to the idioms of indigenous theater. The traditional concept of jiqu is applied to the adaptation of Shakespeare’s nuances into vocally and visually operatic performance. It is clear that Shakespeare’s blank verse will be travelling into literary librettos, lyrical arias, histrionic dancing and kinetic movements to a satisfactory level if jiqu is added to such a total theater. Once domesticated, Shake-xiqu will have to Sinicize the names, find a suitable time and venue for the story, and accommendate the characters for the new environment, etc. that is to say, relocate the bard in an entirely different culture and theatrical genre. On the other hand, if keeping to the original culture of the source text, Shake-xiqu still has to meet with the requirement of indigenous theater. An aria from kunqu Macbeth shows that once adapted, the melody will help to express some of the blank verse and intensify the plot. A huiju scene shows that Chinese Lady Macbeth sleepwalks aesthetically while her English counterpart may sleepwalk mimetically. As a total theater, Shake-xiqu has its libretto served by aria and choreography but they may run into mutual conflicts, exemplified by hanju Taming of the Shrew. Negotiable alterations may have to be made on both sides. Further, indigenous theater features codified

94 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater role types which may run into conflict with Shakespeare’s round characters. And cross-hangdang performance has proved to be the way out. Finally, the strategy of addition and subtraction is proposed to the adaptation. Subtraction applies to the source text which must be cut or trimmed to make room for singing, chanting, dancing and acrobatics, all of which are required by traditional Chinese theater. On the other hand, addition applies when a new role or new verbal and non-verbal texts appear, or even the structure of the play alters in order to satisfy the cultural or theatrical requirement of the target text. Three versions of Lear’s opening speech are compared for different styles of theater may have different paradigms. And examples of more plays are used to further discussions in the aspects of characterization and structure in terms of addition and subtraction. The strategy of addition and subtraction also helps to understand the deviation of Shake-xiqu from both Shakespeare and traditional Chinese theater. Shakespeare has lived in China for nearly two centuries, with at least seventeen of his plays Sinicized into xiqu so far. Sixty different productions may enable us to answer the Byronic question posed in the Introduction. When Shakespeare resurrects in traditional Chinese theater, is the adaptation still Shakespeare? In the perspective of addition and subtraction the answer to the question lies as follows: When the addition of xiqu elements occurs to Shakespeare, the adaptation will deviate from Shakespeare and stay close to traditional Chinese theater. And when the subtraction of Shakespeare occurs to the adaptation, Shake-xiqu will further deviate. The more subtracted, the less Shakespeare it will be. Usually addition and subtraction will happen at the same time. The more elements of the Chinese, the fewer elements of the English there are in theory. So the other side of the question is: When the adaptation is still Shakespeare, is it xiqu yet? Hence the adaptation is not just a one-side story of putting two different kinds of clay together, rather molding it into a new figurine. It is important for the figurine to stay healthy and fare well. After all, Shake-xiqu is one of Shakespeare’s afterlives or one of his numerous offspring instead of a younger clone. Wedded to Chinese, he has mixed-blood babies, carrying the genes of the English playwright and the Chinese adaptors. In Julius Caesar (1599), Shakespeare anticipated his afterlife elsewhere, and he may not have overlooked the tones and accents of this country in the Far East, for besides china for the

95 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University exotic and high quality porcelain,1 he wrote down Cataian2 or Cathayan, for the untrustworthiness or perhaps for the deviation from him.

1 “. . . they are not china dishes, but very good dishes.” Riverside, Measure for Measure II, i, 94. 2 “My lady’s a Cataian, we are politicians. . .” Riverside, Twelfth Night II, iii, 75. “I will not believe such a Cataian . . .” Riverside, The Merry Wives of Windsor II, i, 144.

96 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

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103 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University

Glossary

aizi bu 矮子步 Anhui 安徽（省） An Zhong An Chuanqi 《案中案传奇》 Aosailuo 《奥赛罗》 ba 八 Bai Lidi 白立狄 Ba Lilan 巴丽兰 Ba Liya 巴丽雅 ban 板 bangzi 梆子 banqiang 板腔 Baofengyu 《暴风雨》 Ba Puren 巴普仁 Ba Wuji 巴無忌 Bi’an Hua 《彼岸花》 Bian Zhilin 卞之琳 Bozi 拨子 bu 不 bu xiao 不孝 Cai Shanshan 蔡珊珊 cang tou shi 藏头诗 Canjun 参军（戏） Cao Shujun 曹树钧 cha ke da hun 插科打诨 Changchun 长春（市） Changjiang Ribao 《长江日报》 Changsha 长沙（市） Changsheng Dian 《长生殿》 chaoju 潮剧 Chen Fang 陈芳 Chen Fei 陈飞 Chenhu 沉湖（镇） Chen Jianyi 陈建一 Chen Linghong 陈凌虹 Chen Qiuyue 陈秋月 chou 丑 chouqian 抽签 Chuang Tzu 庄子

1 For names that are popular in mainland China, pinyin and simplified Chinese characters are used, and for names that are popular in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau or elsewhere, the Wade-Giles system and traditional Chinese characters may be used.

104 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater chuanju 川剧 chuanqi 传奇 chuju 楚剧 Chunliu 春柳（社） Chunying 春婴 ci （诗）词 cuobu 磋步 daban 大班（戏） dan 旦 daoban 导板 daojiangshi 倒僵尸 daozi 倒字 de 地 de 的 de 得 Diaoman Gongzhu 《刁蛮公主》 Diaoman Gongzhu Yu Han Fuma 《刁蛮公主与憨驸马》 Di Shi’er Ye 《第十二夜》 dongjiangxi 东江戏 Dongtian De Gushi 《冬天的故事》 Dong Weisong 董维松 Dongyang 东阳（市） Du Bairui 杜百瑞 Du Jianguo 杜建国 Dujuan Shan 《杜鹃山》 dun 顿 dupi 肚皮 erhu 二胡 Erhuang 二黄 Erliu 二流 erliu 二六 errenzhuan 二人转 Fang Ping 方平 Fang Yuefang 方月仿 Fei Chunfang 费春放 fu 夫 Fu De Ren 《夫的人》 Fu Jin 傅谨 Fu Quanxiang 傅全香 Fuxing 福星（村） Fu Xiru 傅希如 Ge You 葛优 gezaixi 歌仔戏 Gong Xiaoxiong 龚孝雄

105 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University

Gongzhu Yu Junzhu 《公主与郡主》 gu 鼓 Guangdong 广东（省） Guangxi 广西（自治区） Guizhou 贵州（省） Guoyu 國语 Gu Zhengkun 辜正坤 Hai Zhen 海震 Hanchuan 汉川（市） hangdang 行当 Hangzhou 杭州（市） hanju 汉剧 Haomen Qianjin 《豪门千金》 Harbin 哈尔滨（市） He Chang 何畅 Hebei 河北（省） Hefei 合肥（市） Hok-loh 河洛 Hong Zhonghuang 洪忠煌 huadan 花旦 huadengxi 花灯戏 huai-lai 怀来 huaju 话剧 huaju jia chang 话剧加唱 huang 皇（帝） Huang Chengyuan 黄承元（诗芸） huangmeixi 黄梅戏 Huang Zuolin 黄佐临 huashan 花衫 Hubei 湖北（省） Hu Dao 胡导 huiju 徽剧 huilong 回龙 huju 沪剧 Hunan 湖南（省） Hu Yongjun 胡拥军 Hu Yue 胡悦 Hu Zhuanglin 胡壮麟 Jianchang 检场 Jianghan 江汉 Jiangling 江陵（县） Jiang Qing 江青 Jiangsu 江苏（省） Jiang Xingyu 蒋星煜

106 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

Jia Xilin 加西林 Jiezhai Huan Rou 《借债还肉》 jiju 吉剧 Jilin 吉林（省） Jinan 济南（市） jing 净 jinghu 京胡 Jinghun Ji 《惊魂记》 jingju 京剧 Jinhua 金华（市） Jin Jing 金静 Jin Jinliang 金锦良 jinluandian 金銮殿 Jin Peirong 金培荣 jiqu 机趣 Jixianbin 《集贤宾》 Ji Zhenhua 计镇华 ju 剧 jue 角 Kaifeng 开封（市） kaikoutiao 开口跳 Kaohsiung 高雄（市） kehun 科浑 Kou Liulan Yu Du Liniang 《寇流兰与杜丽娘》 Kunju 昆剧 Kunqu 昆曲 Kunshan 昆山（市） Kuomintang 国民党 Lan hua mei 《懒画眉》 Lan Renzhe 蓝仁哲 laosheng 老生 Laoshu ai dami 《老鼠爱大米》 Law, Kar Ying 羅家英 Lei, Bi-qi 雷碧琦 Li 厉（帝） Liang/Du 《量/度》 Liang Shanbo Yu Zhu Yingtai 《梁山伯与祝英台》 Liang Shiqiu 梁实秋 Liao Zhai Zhi Yi 《聊斋志异》 Li Bicui 李碧翠 Li’er Wang 《李尔王》 Li’er Zai Ci 《李尔在此》 Li Guang 李广 Li Hongli 李红立

107 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University

Li Jianwu 李健吾 Li Jiayao 李家耀 Li Jinzhao 李金钊 lingzi 翎子 Lin Shu 林纾 Li Pan 李盼 Li Ruru 李如茹 Liu Jin 柳金 Liu Mingtai 刘鸣泰 liupai 流派 Liu Qing 柳青 Liu Xun 刘埙 Li Weimin 李伟民 Li Xiaolin 李小林 Li Xinyi 李欣怡 Li Xue 李雪 Li Yanmei 李艳梅 Li Yu 李渔 Li-yuan 梨園 longquan 龙泉（剑） longtao 龙套 Lou Ashu 娄阿鼠 Luansheng Xiongmei 《孪生兄妹》 Luanshi Wang 《乱世王》 Luanshi Xiaoxiong 《乱世枭雄》 Lu Gu-sun 陆谷孙 luju 庐剧 Luo Mi’ou Yu Zhu Liye 《罗密欧与朱丽叶》 Lu Qiao 鲁乔 Lu Senxiu 路森修 Lu Xiao’er 鲁小二 mahjong 麻将 Ma Jiefu 《马介甫》 Makebai Furen 《马克白夫人》 Ma Lan 马兰 Ma Long Jiangjun 《马龙将军》 Mao Weitao 茅威涛 Mao Yongan 马永安 Ma Shizeng 马师曾 Mei Baojiu 梅葆玖 Mei Lanfang 梅兰芳 Meng Xianqiang 孟宪强 mianpi 面皮 Mianyang 沔阳（县）

108 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

Ming 明（朝） Minguo Ribao 《民国日报》 Minming 民鸣（社） mo 末 Mo Qing 沫青 mubiao 幕表（戏） Mudan Ting 《牡丹亭》 Murong Tian 慕容天 Nanjing 南京（市） Nanlv Gong 南吕宫（调） Nanning 南宁（市） nv 女 Ong Keng Sen 王景生 Perng, Ching-Hsi 彭鏡禧 ping 平（声） pinyin 拼音 pipa 琵琶 Pi Quju 披屈菊 Putonghua 普通话 qi 七 Qi 齐（国） Qi 歧（国） Qian Mingyuan 钱鸣远 Qiao Duan Renrou An 《巧断人肉案》 Qie Guo Dao Sao 《窃国盗嫂》 Qie Guo Zei 《窃国贼》 Qi Jiang 齐姜 Qi Lingjiao 齐灵姣 Qing 清（朝） Qing Tian Hen 《情天恨》 qingyi 青衣 Qin Si 秦似 Qi Senhua 齐森华 qitang 起堂 Qiu Ke’an 裘克安 Qi Wang Meng 《歧王梦》 Qi Xiaoyun 齐啸云 Qi Yang 歧羊 Qi Zhai Qingyuan 《奇债情缘》 qu 曲 qu 去（声） qupai 曲牌 ren-chen 人辰 ru 入（声）

109 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University

Ruan Dongying 阮东英 runqiang 润腔 sanban 散板 saotou 扫头 Shaanxi 陕西（省） shan 衫（角） shang 上（声） Shang Changrong 尚长荣 Shaoxing 绍兴（市） Shashibiya 莎士比亚 Sha Xiong Duo Sao 《杀兄夺嫂》 sheng 生 Shengxian 嵊县 Shi Fan 史璠 Shijiazhuang 石家庄（市） Shouchun 寿春 shua bazi 耍把子 shua suanpan 耍算盘 shuban 数板 Shui Jia You Nv 《谁家有女》 shuixiu 水袖 Shun Pao 《申报》 Sichuan 四川（省） Siping 四平（市） sixianxi 丝弦戏 Song 宋（朝） suibu 碎步 Sun Dayu 孙大雨 Sun Fuliang 孙福良 Sun Huizhu 孙惠柱 Sun Qiang 孙强 Sun Xiaomei 孙小妹 Sun Yanna 孙艳娜 ta 他 ta 她 tabu 踏步 Taipei 台北（市） Taiping 太平 Tang 唐（朝） Tang Xianzu 汤显祖 taobu 掏步 Taohua Shan 《桃花扇》 Tian Chang Di Jiu 《天长地久》 Tian Jia 田佳

110 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

Tianjin 天津（市） Tian Mansha 田曼莎 Tian Wen 《天问》 Tian Zhi Jiaonv 《天之娇女》 Tian Zuo Zhi He 《天作之合》 tie 贴 Tie Han Jiao Wa 《铁汉娇娃》 wai 外 wang （国）王 Wang Deming 《王德明》 Wang Guowei 王国维 Wang Hailing 王海玲 Wang Jianhao 王建浩 Wang Li 王荔 Wang Yiling 王颐玲 Wang Yonghua 王庸华 Wang Yushu 汪育殊 Wangzi Fuchou Ji 《王子复仇记》 Wei Haimin 魏海敏 Weiluona Er Shenshi 《维洛那二绅士》 Weinisi Shangren 《威尼斯商人》 Wensha De Fengliu Niangmen 《温莎的风流娘们》 Wu Fenghua 吴凤花 Wuhan 武汉（市） Wu Hsing-Kuo 吳興國 Wu Hui 吴辉 wuju 婺剧 Wu Shi Sheng Fei 《无事生非》 Wu Shuang 吴双 Wu Wozun 吴我尊 xi 戏 Xiamen 厦门（市） xiande 贤德 Xiang 湘 Xiangchun 湘春 xiangju 湘剧 xiansuo 弦索 Xiantao 仙桃（市） xianzi 弦子 xiao 小 Xiaonv Xin 《孝女心》 Xiaoping 小萍 xiaosheng 小生 xiaoshun 孝顺

111 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University xiaoxin 孝心 Xiaying 夏婴 Xie Jian 《血剑》 Xie Shou Ji 《血手记》 xieyi 写意 xigai 戏改 xiju 戏剧 xin 心 Xingyun 行雲 Xinmin 新民（社） Xiong Jieping 熊杰平 Xipi 西皮 xiqu 戏曲 Xi Zhigan 习志淦 Xueying 雪婴 Xun Han Ji 《驯悍记》 Xu Qinna 徐勤纳 Yan 燕（国） Yanhou He Ta De Xiaochoumen 《艳后和她的小丑们》 Yanzhihu Yu Shizigou 《胭脂虎与狮子狗》 yaoban 摇板 yaodan 窑旦 yi 一 Yi Bang Rou 《一磅肉》 Yi Chao 易超 Yingxiong Panguo 《英雄叛国》 yizhi 移植 Yong Li Lan 杨丽兰 Youyu Wangzi 《忧郁王子》 Yuan 元（朝） Yuan Shikai 袁世凯 Yu Bin 余彬 yueju 越剧 yueju 粤剧 Yuelao 月老 Yu Huiyong 于会泳 yuju 豫剧 Yu Ma Ji 《驭马记》 yunbu 云步 Yunnan 云南（省） Yu Qiuyu 余秋雨 Yu/Shu 《约/束》 Yuwang Cheng Guo 《欲望城国》 Yuxi 玉溪（市）

112 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

Zaishi Huanghou 《再世皇后》 zaju 杂剧 ze 仄（声） Zhang Chong 张冲 Zhang Guoying 张国英 Zhang Jingxian 张静娴 Zhang Xiao Yang 张晓阳 Zhao Ji 赵骥 Zhao Qiumian 赵秋棉 Zhao Shanlin 赵山林 Zhao Zhigang 赵志刚 Zha Peide 查培德 Zhejiang 浙江（省） Zheng 郑（国） Zheng Zhengqiu 郑正秋 Zhongguo Shashibiya Yanjiuhui 中国莎士比亚研究会 Zhongguo Xiju 《中国戏剧》 Zhongxia Ye Zhi Meng 《仲夏夜之梦》 Zhongyuan Yinyun 《中原音韵》 Zhou Deqing 周德清 Zhuang Chuang 庄闯 Zhu Jianping 朱健平 Zhuomei Yu Aluo 《卓梅与阿罗》 Zhu Qing Ji 《铸情记》 Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪 Zi Dan 子丹 Zi Dou 子都 zifu 字腹 zitou 字头 ziwei 字尾 Zou Yuanjiang 邹元江 zuozi 坐子

113 Doctorial Dissertation of Wuhan University

攻博期间发表的科研成果目录

一、论文 熊杰平. 戏曲改编莎剧中的加减法—从李尔的开场白说开去. 《戏 剧艺术》. 2014（2），97-104.

---. 融合传统，重释经典——汉剧《驯悍记》的创作体验与反响 （日语）. [日本]《演剧学论集》. 2017（1），22-35.

二、译著 熊杰平. 《莎士比亚全集·驯悍记》，辜正坤主编. 北京：外语教 学与研究出版社，2016 年。

---. 徽剧《惊魂记》（字幕汉译英 ）. 安徽省徽京剧院，2013 年。

三、舞台实践（合作） 武汉大学《理查三世》（片段）入围第十届中国大学莎士比亚戏剧 比赛决赛，获最有创意演出奖，2014 年。

汉剧《驯悍记》。武汉汉剧院，2013 年。

汉剧《李尔王》。武汉汉剧院，2014 年。

楚剧《驭马记》。武汉市新洲区楚剧团，2017-2018 年。

114 A Study on the Strategies of Adapting Shakespeare into Traditional Chinese Theater

鸣谢

张冲 复旦大学（校外特聘导师）

曹树钧 上海戏剧学院 李伟民 四川外国语大学 罗家英 香港演员 彭镜禧 台湾大学 徐勤纳 浙江婺剧团

武汉汉剧院 湖北省戏曲艺术剧院汉剧团 安徽省徽京剧院 武汉市新洲区楚剧团

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