Intolerance, Religious Violence, and Political Legitimacy in Late Antiquity,” Journal of American Academy of Religion 79, No

Home , Arewa, Constitution of Nigeria, Miss World riots, Muhammad Rumfa

Notes

Preface 1 . H. A. Drake, “Intolerance, Religious Violence, and Political Legitimacy in Late Antiquity,” Journal of American Academy of Religion 79, no. 1 (2011): 197. 2 . Ibid. 3 . Ibid. 4 . For details on postcolonial theory, read the works of Bart Moore- Gilbert, Postcolonial Theory: Contexts, Practices, Politics (London and New York: Verso, 1997). 5 . For an exhaustive discussion on postcolonial criticism, see Gregory Castle (ed), Postcolonial Discourses: An Anthology (Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 2001). 6 . Moore-Gilbert, Postcolonial Theory , 11ff.

One Precolonial Sokoto Caliphate and Kanem-Borno Empire and the Advent of Islam 1 . See Toyin Falola, Key Events in African History—A Reference Guide (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002), 85–86. 2 . Ibid., 93 and J. D. Fage,—A History of Africa (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978), 187–212. 3 . For more details about the ethnicities and languages in Kanem- Bornu, see C.C. Ifemesia, “States of the Central Sudan,” in A Thousand Years of West African History—A Handbook for Teachers and Students , ed. J. F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie (Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press, 1967), 72–74. 4 . For more details see Ifemesia, “Bornu under the Shehus” in A Thousand Years of West African History—A Handbook for Teachers and Students , eds., J.F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie (Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press, 1967), 284–293. 5 . See Ifemesia, “States of the Central Sudan,” 74. 6 . “Bornu.” Encyclop æ dia Britannica. Encyclop æ dia Britannica Online Academic Edition . Encyclop æ dia Britannica Inc., 2012, accessed June 19, 2012, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/74323 /Bornu. 196 NOTES

7 . According to historical evidence, a king of Kanem-Bornu, Mai Umme Jilmi (1085–1097), died on his way to Mecca for a pilgrimage and his successor made three pilgrimage trips to Mecca. See Ifemesia “States of the Central Sudan,” 74f, for more details. 8 . See Ifemesia, “Bornu Under the Shehus,” 286. 9 . See ibid., Ibid., 284–293. 10 . Ibid., 286. For further information on the correspondence between the dan Fodio camp and al-Kanemi’s on this issue, see Roland Cohen and Louis Brenner, “Bornu in the Nineteenth Century,” in History of West Africa , vol. 2, eds. J.F.A. Ajayi and Michael Crowder (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973), 96ff. For a complete version of this correspondence, cf. Thomas Hodgkin, Nigerian Perspectives, an Historical Anthology (London, Ibadan, Accra: Oxford University Press, 1960), 198–205. 11 . Ibid., 288. 12 . Ibid., 289. 13 . Ibid., 288. 14 . Ibid. 15 . Ibid. 16 . Ibid., 92. 17 . Ibid., 91–92. It is significant to note that this system differs con- siderably from that applied by the jihadists of the Sokoto caliphate, who insisted on appointing emirs of Fulani ancestry in major political regions of the caliphate, as explained later. 18 . See Ifemesia, “Bornu Under the Shehus,” 92. 19 . Ibid. 20 . For more information about the legendary origin of the “Seven Hausa States” see Ifemesia, “States of Central Sudan,” 90–92. 21 . The use of Banza Bakwai to identify these seven states is a conde- scending reference to the fact that these states are not originally Hausa or not authentically Hausa, but have been adopted into the household of the Hausa people or rather that they are Hausa by affiliation. 22 . See Ifemesia, “States of Central Sudan,” 93. 23 . J.O. Hunwick, “Islam in West Africa,” in A Thousand Years of West African History—A Handbook for Teachers and Students , eds. J.F. Ade Ajayi and Ian Espie (Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press, 1967), 124f and Lissi Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa: The Cases of Northern Nigeria and Tanzania Compared (London and New York: British Academic Press, 1993), 6. 24 . cf. Thomas Hodgkin, Nigerian Perspectives, an Historical Anthology (London, Ibadan, Accra: Oxford University Press, 1960), 75. 25 . Ibid., 92ff and Robert W. July, A History of the African People , 5th ed. (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1998), 72ff. 26 . July, A History of the African People , 77f. 27 . See Ifemesia, “States of Central Sudan,” 94. 28 . Ibid. NOTES 197

29 . July, A History of the African People , 77. 30 . For details on the administrative structure and judicial principles of the pro-Islamic Hausa states, see Ifemesia, “States of Central Sudan,” 107ff. 31 . Ibid., 110. 32 . Hunwick, “Islam in West Africa,” 125. 33 . Ibid. 34 . Peter B. Clarke, West Africa and Islam: A study of religious development from the 8th to the 20th century (London: Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., 1982), 60–66 and Michael Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria (Revised and Enlarged Edition) (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1966), 91ff. 35 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa, 6 and J.D. Fage, A History of Africa (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978), 193ff. 36 . Ibid. 37 . Ibid. 38 . Ibid. 39 . Ibid., 6. 40 . Fage, The History of Human Society , 201. 41 . Ibid., 196. Also cf. Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 7. 42 . See Cohen and Brenner, “Bornu in the Nineteenth Century,” 100. 43 . Fage, The History of Human Society , 202f. 44 . E. D. Morel, Nigeria—Its People and Its Problems (London, Great Britain: Frank Cass, 1968), 99f; Sidney John Hogben and A. H. M. Kirk-Greene, The Emirates of Northern Nigeria, a Preliminary Survey of Their Historical Traditions (London: Oxford University Press, 1966), 116–123. 45 . See R. A. Adeleye, Power and Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria 1804–1906: The Sokoto Caliphate and Its Enemies (New York, NY: Humanities Press, 1971), 31–33. Also see Murray Last, The Sokoto Caliphate (New York, NY: Humanities Press, 1967), 63f. 46 . See Lamin Sanneh, Piety and Power: Muslims and Christians in West Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1996), 2. 47 . Victor Chukwulozie reports that of the 14 jihad flag bearers, only one was a Hausa chief. Therefore, Fulani leaders were overtly favored with most of the political appointments of the newly created political order. See Chukwulozie, Muslim-Christian Dialogue in Nigeria (Ibadan, Nigeria: Daystar Press, 1986), 28f. 48 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa, 8. 49 . Uthman Dan Fodio, “The Origins of the Fulani Jihad,” in Nigerian Perspectives, An Historical Anthology , ed., Thomas Hodgkin (London, Ibadan, Accra: Oxford University Press, 1960), 192. 50 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria, 97f. 51 . See Yusufu Turaki, The British Colonial Legacy In Northern Nigeria: A Social Ethical Analysis of the Colonial and Post-Colonial Society 198 NOTES

and Politics in Nigeria (Jos, Nigeria: Challenge Press, 1993), 39f. N. I. Okonjo, British Administration in Nigeria, 1900–1950: A Nigerian View (New York: NOK, 1974), 2f. Turaki further explains that enslaving and utilizing the services of non-Muslims as slaves was a major desirable obligation toward the support of the caliphate. 52 . Murray, The Sokoto Caliphate , 90–102. 53 . Mahmoud Hamman reflects the argument substantially held by many non-Hausa–Fulani ethnicities that “they were deliberately left un-Islamized by the emirates in order to be used as a justifiable reservoir for slavery.” See Hamman, “Inter-Ethnic Relations and Inter-Ethnic Conflicts,” in Islam in Africa , eds., Nur Alkali et al. (Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd., 1993), 458. 54 . Murray, The Sokoto Caliphate , 106. Also see Adeleye. Power and Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria, 19–22. 55 . Ivor Wilks, “The Juula and the Expansion of Islam into the Forest,” in The History of Islam in Africa , eds., Nehemiah Levtzion and Randall L. Pouwels (Athens, OH; Oxford, UK; and Cape Town, South Africa: Ohio University Press; James Curry Ltd.; & David Philip Publishers Ltd., 2000), 95. 56 . Adeleye. Power and Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria 1804–1906, 1971. 57 . Ibid., 32ff. 58 . Ibid., 4. 59 . Ibid., 32ff. 60 . During the trans-Saharan slave trade, Hausa states frequently raided the towns and cities of the minority ethnicities for slaves. Similar activities continued as the Fulani-controlled leadership under Sokoto Caliphate depended economically largely on slave market and slave ownership and most of the slaves came from the ethnic minorities. See Crowder, Short History of Nigeria , 218f and Andrew E. Barnes, “‘ The Great Prohibition’: The Expansion of Christianity in Colonial Northern Nigeria,” History Compass 8/6 (2010), 441. Therefore, people of these minority ethnicities were historical looked down upon by the Hausa-Fulani oligarchy. Moreover, Islam in its earlier stages in the Hausa states was a religion of the merchants and aristocrats in the society, because these were those initially evangelized by their business partners and aristocratic contacts from Mali, eastern and northern frontiers of the region. See Adeleye. Power and Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria 1804–1906, 7ff. 61 . These were the original warriors and propagators of the jihad. 62 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa, 8–9. 63 . Ifemesia, “States of the Central Sudan,” 93. 64 . It is documented that dan Fodio and his successors highly valued and used the support of Arab scholars from north Africa and given the cherished communication and contacts with Mecca and Medina by dan Fodio and other Muslim scholars in western Sudan, it is very NOTES 199

likely that the activities of Abd al-Wahhab in Saudi Arabia must have attracted dan Fodio and his spiritual followers. Therefore, the trademarks of his jihad no doubt reflected the ethos of Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia. For more on this argument, see Murray Last, The Sokoto Caliphate (New York: Humanities Press, Inc., 1967), 90ff; Mohammed Ayoob and Hassan Kosebalan, Religion and Politics in Saudi Arabia: Wahhabism and the State (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2009); and Hiskett, Mervyn, The Sword of Truth: The Life and Times of the Shehu Usman Dan Fodio (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 62f. 65 . The Salafis advocate a puritanical Islam in imitation of the first three generations of Muslims who are revered as the quintessential Muslims. See Global Security.org, “Salafi Islam” in Military . Retrieved on October 10, 2011. http://www.globalsecurity.org /military/intro/islam-salafi.htm. 66 . Through commerce and travels for pilgrimage, Muslims in western Sudan, part of which is today’s northern Nigeria, had ongoing contacts and relationships with Islamic scholars in Mecca, Medina, as well as other parts of Middle East. See Adeleye, Power and Diplomacy , 11. 67 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria, 93. 68 . Ibid., 96. 69 . Abdulai Iddrisu, Contesting Islam: “Homegrown Wahhabism,” Education and Muslim Identity in Northern Ghana, 1920–2005 (PhD diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2009), 6. 70 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria , 95–106.

Two Colonial Northern Nigeria and the Politics of Muslim-Christian Relations 1 . Andrew E. Barnes, “ ‘The Great Prohibition’: The Expansion of Christianity in Colonial Northern Nigeria,” History Compass 8, no. 6 (2010): 441. 2 . Ibid. What Barnes means by “denationalized” Africans is a reference to Christianized Africans from southern Nigeria, who have chosen to abandon their African traditional way of life to adopt Western lifestyle due to the influence of Christianity. 3 . Jan Harm Boer, Missionary Messengers of Liberation in a Colonial Context: A Case Study of the Sudan United Mission (Amsterdam, Netherlands: Rodopi N.V., 1979), 205ff. 4 . Barnes elaborates these points further. See Barnes, ‘ The Great Prohibition,’ 443. Also see E. A. Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria, 1842–1914: A Political and Social Analysis (London: Longmans, 1966), 117–152. 5 . For a more comprehensive analysis of the exploration of these two German explorers in the Muri Mountains, see J ö rg Adelberger, 200 NOTES

“Eduard Vogel and Eduard Robert Flegel: The Experiences of Two Nineteenth-Century German Explorers in Africa,” History in Africa 27 (2000):1–29. 6 . Mukhtar Umar Bunza provides some summarized information about the activities of these early European travellers and explorers. See Bunza, Christian Missions Among Muslims: Sokoto Province, Nigeria 1935–1990 (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc., 2007), 13–16. 7 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria, 210–230. 8 . Ibid., 21ff. 9 . Ibid., 217. 10 . In his annual report for the period January 1, 1900 to March 31, 1901, Lugard accounts for his hoisting the Union Jack flag at Lokoja on January, 1, 1900. See Colonial Reports – Annual, No. 346, Northern Nigeria, 1900–1901 . Government Publications Relating to Nigeria 1862–1960, Group Two: Protectorate Northern Nigeria, Annual Reports, 1900–1913, 1. 11 . Ibid., 219. 12 . This was considered harsh and unacceptable by many of the Fulani leaders, as this deprived them a major source of income and labor. There is the case of the Magaji of Keffi who killed Captain Moloney, the local British resident, with his bare hands because the latter instructed him to stop his trade on slaves. See Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria , 223. 13 . This is not discountenancing the challenges posed by some emirates such as Kontagora, Ilorin, Yola, and Nupe at the earlier stages of the conquest of northern Nigeria. See Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria , 219ff. 14 . This translation is a reproduction from Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria , 224 but originally from Colonial Reports – Annual, Northern Nigeria, 1902 . Government Publications Relating to Nigeria 1862–1960, Group Two: Protectorate Northern Nigeria, Annual Reports, 1900–1913, 159. 15 . Sultan Abdurrahaman who had written a defiant letter to Lugard had died the year before. 16 . The original text is from Colonial Reports – Annual, Appendix III . Government Publications Relating to Nigeria 1862–1960, Group Two: Protectorate Northern Nigeria, Annual Reports, 1900–1913, 164. 17 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria , 220. 18. Ibid., 235. 19 . It needs to be underscored that although the emirs and the sultan were no longer the ultimate authorities in the former Fulani Empire, the application of the Indirect Rule by administrations after Lugard intervened less frequently in the administration of the Hausa–Fulani oligarchy, thus still giving them wide ranging authorities to approve NOTES 201

or decline the activities of Christian missionaries and the fate of the minority ethnicities under their domain. And as was the case, the colonial administration was very much in favor of entrusting leadership of geopolitical areas of minority ethnicity in the care of the established leadership structure and control of the Hausa–Fulani oligarchy. 20 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria , 169. 21 . Ibid., 231. 22 . Ibid., 228. 23 . E. A. Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria, 1842– 1914: A Political and Social Analysis (London: Longmans, 1966), 117ff. 24 . Ibid., 120–123. 25 . According to the information retrieved by one SMA chronicler, Edward O’Connor, the SMA missionaries arrived in Lokoja on November 6, 1884 but abandoned the mission in 1891 because “Lokoja was not a happy place for the mission with deaths (Filippo Fiorentini and Andrew Dornan), sickness and lack of progress.” See O’Connor, From the Niger to the Sahara: The Story of the Archdiocese of Kaduna (Ibadan, Nigeria: Intec Printers Limited, 2009), 11–12. 26 . Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria , 172ff. 27 . Ibid., 137f. The merchants resented the missionaries not only for their call for military expedition on the north but also for the missionaries’ opposition to the liquor trade, leading to very high duty tax on liquor. 28 . Because northerners did not embrace Western culture and education, they were lacking in knowledge and skills required to develop and maintain emerging civilization brought about by colonial pres- ence. For more information about this category of Christians in the north see E.P.T. Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1979), 137–144. 29 . Mukhtar U.Bunza confirms this phenomenon and the fact that churches supported by these converts for the most part coex- isted very peacefully with their Muslim relatives and neighbors. See Christian Missions Among Muslims: Sokoto Province, Nigeria 1935–1990 (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc., 2007). 30 . John B. Grimley and Gordon E. Robinson, Church Growth in Central and Southern Nigeria (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1966), 43. 31 . CMS experienced several obstacles and objections to setting up mission in Kano first from the emir and subsequently from the local colonial authorities, regional colonial administration, and the Colonial Office in London. See Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria , 37–40 and 56–58. 32 . See Barnes, ‘ The Great Prohibition,’ 445ff. Mukhtar U. Bunza extensively comments on and narrates the spread of Christianity 202 NOTES

among the Maguzawas and other former Muslims through scheme of missionaries to provide charity or welfare assistance, education, and health services in Sokoto province between 1935 and 1990. A phenomenon that certainly became consistent with Christian missionary activities among Muslims in northern Nigeria from 1930s. See Bunza, Christian Missions Among Muslims: Sokoto Province, Nigeria 1935–1990 (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc., 2007). It is therefore noteworthy to add that the British government in 1930 relaxed its restriction of missionary evangelization in the north due to the pressure coming from Christian missionaries. The new policy or rather a modification of the old policy desired that while allow- ing missionaries to engage in mission activities in the north such missionary activities must receive the approval of the emir or the highest Native Authority of the place. 33 . Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria , 141. 34 . Ibid., 140. It needs to be clearly pointed out that Christian missionaries focus on education was solely to facilitate the conversion of natives and the spread of Christianity; hence they were adamantly opposed to higher education as they considered it redundant. Ayandele clearly elucidates this point in his account, “Father Zappa, the Prefect of the Mission [Society of African Mission in Mid- Western Nigeria], became inveterately opposed to schools on the grounds that the true purpose of all education, from the Christian viewpoint, was to develop the moral and spiritual fibers of the converts. In his judgment Christian missions would be committing a ‘crime against the souls’ of the converts and pupils who employed their acquired knowledge for social services primarily”, ibid., 288. 35 . Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria , 240ff. 36 . Ibid., 240. Mukhtar Umar Bunza in his Christian Missions Among Muslims: Sokoto Province, Nigeria 1935–1990 (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc., 2007), 41–46, corroborates this information. He specifically stated that majority of the Muslim population in northern Nigeria avoided all forms of Western education, whether government or missionary sponsored, as it was seen as a bait toward Christian proselytization. 37 . Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria , 148f. 38 . Ibid., 149. 39 . Ibid., 149f and Boer, Missionary Messengers of Liberation in a Colonial Context: A Case Study of the Sudan United Mission (Amsterdam, Netherlands: Rodopi N.V., 1979), 72–73. 40 . This is as quoted by Jan Harm Boer, Missionary Messengers of Liberation in a Colonial Context , 18 and 58. 41 . Ibid., 60. That fundamental philosophy explains for the variation in application of the Indirect Rule system from the north to the south as well as the missionary differentiation in relationship with Christian missionaries between the north and south. For more NOTES 203

details on these, see Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria (1966); Crowder, A Short History of Nigeria (1966); Barnes, “The Great Prohibition,” (2010); Margery Perham, Lugard: The Years of Authority 1898–1945 (London and Glasgow, Great Britain: Collins Clear-Type Press, 1960); and John B. Grimley and Gordon E. Robinson, Church Growth in Central and Southern Nigeria (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1966). 42 . Quoted by Boer, Missionary Messengers of Liberation in a Colonial Context , 60. 43 . Crowder, A Short Story of Nigeria , 233. 44 . Harry A. Gailey, Lugard and the Abeokuta Uprising – The Demise of Egba Independence (London, England; Totowa, New Jersey: Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 1982), 44. 45 . Gailey, Lugard and the Abeokuta Uprising , 44. John M. Carland provides a detail of the contributions coming from southern Nigeria and the British Treasury to subsidize the financial needs of northern Nigeria from 1899 to 1913. He argues that contrary to what the British thought of northern Nigeria and the royal privileges it enjoyed from London, the territory was one of the most indigent “tropical estate” in the British Empire. See Carland, The Colonial Office and Nigeria, 1898–1914 (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1985), 118–14. Carland actually alleges that financial impro- priety was going on in northern Nigeria as the Treasury, contrary to prevailing regulation, was not in complete control of expenses of the Colonial Office in northern Nigeria. 46 . E. D. Morel suggested that the four provinces should comprise a Northern Province, consisting of Kontagora, Sokoto, Katsina, Kano, Zaria Emirate, and Bornu; a Central Province corresponding roughly with the Middle Belt state advocated by the then Action Group Party and consisting of Bauchi, Plateau, Adamawa, and parts of Niger and Benue provinces; a Western Province consisting of the present Western Region, Mid-West State, Ilorin and Borgu; and an Eastern Province that would take in Benue Province as far as the Benue River, together with the present Eastern Region. See Harry A. Gailey, Lugard and the Abeokuta Uprising – The Demise of Egba Independence (London; Totowa, NJ: Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 1982), 48f. 47 . Hatch, Nigeria: A History (London: Martin Secker & Warburg Limited, 1971), 156–157. 48 . Gailey, Lugard and the Abeokuta Uprising , 43. 49 . Ibid., 49. 50 . Ibid., 48–49. 51 . Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria, 241. 52 . Ibid. This development gave birth to Ethiopianism, a term used to describe African nationalism that developed through the church. 204 NOTES

Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria , 177ff dis- cusses this subject extensively. 53 . Ibid., 175ff; 241–280 and Elizabeth Isichei, A History of Nigeria (London, Lagos, and New York: Longman Inc., 1983), 401ff. 54 . Ayandele reports that all those elected into the legislative council through this period were Christians, including religious ministers. Cf. Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria , 342. 55 . Boer, Missionary Messengers of Liberation in a Colonial Context , 106. 56 . Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria , 176. 57 . Ibid., 285. 58 . Isichei, A History of Nigeria , 401ff. 59 . Many authors traditionally refer to these people as pagan and their abode as pagan territories. The seminal work of Boer provides detailed information and facts about schools and hospitals run by the Karl Kumm founded Sudan United Mission (S.U.M) in Bauchi- Jos Plateau, Wase, Muri, Wukari, and Ibi territories. These are huge settlements of traditionalists who had hitherto resisted the introduction of Islam in their territories. See Boer, Missionary Messengers of Liberation in a Colonial Context: A Case Study of the Sudan United Mission (Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Rodopi N.V., 1979). Grimley and Robinson also provides very detailed accounts of the beginning and spread of Christianity in a large part of present-day northeast and Middle Belt areas of Nigeria during the colonial era. See Church Growth in Central and Southern Nigeria (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1966). 60 . Ibid., 196. 61 . In reference to this development, Barnes writes: “By the 1930s the Great Prohibition ceased to have much value as a tool for control- ling the evangelization of traditionalist peoples, primarily because by then an ever-increasing percentage of the itinerating was being done by African evangelists from local ethnic communities.” See Andrew E. Barnes, “ ‘ The Great Prohibition’: The Expansion of Christianity in Colonial Northern Nigeria,” History Compass 8, no. 6 (2010): 444. 62 . The origin, activities, and development of these local churches and their nondenominational features are substantially covered in the works of Edgar H. Smith, Nigerian Harvest (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1972); Niels Kastfelt, Religion and Politics in Nigeria: A Study in Middle Belt Christianity (New York and London: British Academic Press, 1994); and Grimley and Robinson, Church Growth in Central and Southern Nigeria (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1966). 63 . Smith, Nigerian Harvest , 98–99. 64 . Kastfelt, Religion and Politics in Nigeria , 19ff. 65 . Ibid., 19. NOTES 205

66 . Ibid. 67 . Kastfelt, Religion and Politics in Nigeria , 20–21. 68 . Kastfelt, Religion and Politics in Nigeria , 22. 69 . Ibid., 23. 70 . For a full content of the oath of office taken by Sultan Attahiru II, see Bunza, Christian Missions Among Muslims , 23. 71 . Muhammad S. Umar, Islam and Colonialism: Intellectual Responses of Muslims of Northern Nigeria to British Colonial Rule (Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers, 2006), 8. 72 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 18. 73 . These two authors in particular have held in their different works that the British colonial administration significantly undermined the Muslim leadership of northern Nigeria as well as enhanced the spread of Christianity among Muslim communities. For details about their line of argument and thoughts, see Mukhtar Umar Bunza, Christian missions among Muslims: Sokoto Province, Nigeria 1935–1990 (Trenton, NJ: Africa World; London: Turnaround [distributor], 2007) and Muhammad S. Umar, Islam and Colonialism: Intellectual Responses of Muslims of Northern Nigeria to British Colonial Rule (Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers, 2006). 74 . Encyclopedia of African History , s.v. “Nigeria: Colonial Period: Christianity and Islam,” accessed July 9, 2012, http://www.credoreference.com/entry/routafricanhistory/nigeria _ colonial _ perio d _ christianity_ and_ islam . 75 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 19. 76 . Umar, Islam and Colonialism , 7f. 77. Umar, “Islam in Nigeria: Its Conceptm Manifestations and Role in Nation-Building,” in Nigeria since Independence: The First 25 Years, Vol. IX – Religion , eds. Atanda, J. A., Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1989), 76. 78 . This is the subtext of Trimingham’s argument in his historical analysis of the spread of Islam in Africa. See Trimingham, The Influence of Islam Upon Africa (New York and Washington: Frederick A. Praeger Publishers, 1968). 79 . The Muslim organizations that sprang up in different parts of western Nigeria with the intent of providing Western education for Muslim students include: Ahmadiyya Movement (Lagos 1916), Ansar- Ud-Deen Society (Lagos 1923), Nawair-Ud-Deen Society (Abeokuta 1939). For more information, see Balogun, S. A. “Islam in Nigeria: Its Historical Development” in Nigeria since Independence: The First 25 Years, Vol. IX – Religion , eds. Atanda, J. A., Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1989), 56 and Umar, “Islam in Nigeria:,” 76. It is important to point out that the minimal success of the Ahmadiyya Movement 206 NOTES

in northern Nigeria was largely due to the resistance it met from legalistic Muslims who were uncomfortable with the claim of the founder of the movement, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, to be a new prophet or Messiah. See J. Spencer Trimingham, The Influence of Islam Upon Africa (New York and Washington: Frederick A. Praeger Publishers, 1968), 80f. 80 . Umar, “Islam in Nigeria:” 76. 81 . Catholic and Anglican priests wore specific regalia and use certain items for their rites not locally available. For instance, the wafers and wine for Holy Communion among Catholics were products that were strictly imported from Europe. The vestments used by the priests for mass were also imported and the official language at mass until after the Second Vatican Council (1963–1965) was Latin. 82 . Bunza, Christian Missions among Muslim , 63. 83 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 20.

Three Northern Nigeria from Independence (1960) to 1979 1 . In reference to the unethical and political robbery committed by the British against the so-called democratic principle they pre- tended to have brought to modern African states, in the case of Nigeria, Chinua Achebe writes, “It is now widely known that Sir James Robertson played an important role in overseeing the elections (or lack thereof) at independence, throwing his weight behind Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, who had been tapped to become Nigeria’s first prime minister.” See Achebe, There Was A Country: A Personal History of Biafra (New York: The Penguin Press, 2012), 50. One of the key players of the British colonial authority in Nigeria in the preindependence and independence period, Harold Smith, in 2005, made public what had been rumored and suspected by many Nigerians, namely that the British authorities deliberated manipulated the census of 1953 and rigged the preindependence election of 1959 in favor of northern Nigeria. In his own words, “Through a cynical display of horse dealing, the 1959 Federal election became a mockery, because the outcome—Northern domination of Nigeria after independence—was assured before a single vote was cast.” The justification for this chicanery was “because of Britain’s self-interest.” And as reported in New African magazine, “Nigeria, one of the richest and most populous colonies in the British Empire, should be left in the safe hands of ‘friends of Britain’ after independence. As such, the North had to win the independence elections by any means necessary.” All the quotes above after the one from Achebe are from the interview granted by Harold Smith to New African magazine. See Harold Smith, “How Britain Undermined Democracy in Africa,” New Africa 440 (May 2005): 8–13. NOTES 207

2 . See Muhammad Sani Umar, Islam and Colonialism: Intellectual Responses of Muslims of Northern Nigeria to British Colonial Rule (Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers, 2006), 29–30 3 . See Umar, Islam and Colonialism, 29–40. The British secured fat- was from Saudi Arabia against possible mahdi elements in Nigeria and other British colonial territories with Muslim population. In addition, they used Islamic ideas and arguments to justify and defend the British causes in the colonies. 4 . Many scholars allude to this fact including E. P. T. Crampton, Lissi Rasmussen, E. A. Ayandele, Michael Crowder, and Jan H. Boer. See E. P. T. Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1979), 71. 5 . Raymond Hickey consistently makes this point in his book. He argued that the failure of the Anglican mission in Borno and Gongola is due to the failure to invest energy in evangelizing the indigenes of these places who lived predominantly in the rural areas. See Hickey, Christianity in Borno State and Northern Gongola (Bodija-Ibadan, Nigeria: Claverianum Press, 1985). 6 . See S. A. Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria: Its Historical Development,” in Nigeria since Independence: The First 25 Years, Vol. IX – Religion, eds., Atanda, J. A., Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1989), 54. It should be noted that while Christians made concerted efforts to evangelize the north and convert non-Muslims as well as even former Muslims, the Muslims under the leadership of Sir Ahmadu Bello equally made concerted efforts to convert, especially the Igbos of Eastern Nigeria, into Islam. That mission earned some dividends, especially among the Igbos of Nsukka area. See Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria,” p. 57ff. 7 . See E. P. T. Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1979), 82. Kukah also affirms the outstanding sociopolitical commitment of individual Christians from the north in their bid to strategically advance the cause of non-Hausa-Fulani ethnicities and Christians in northern Nigeria. See Kukah, Religion Politics and Power , 49ff. 8 . See Edward O’Connor, From the Niger to the Sahara: The Story of the Archdiocese of Kaduna (Ibadan, Nigeria: Intec Printers Limited, 2009), 115. 9 . Ibid., 115. 10 . See Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria , 89. 11 . For details on the political achievements and activities of U.M.B.C. See Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria , 86ff. 12 . Ibid., 219. 13. The geographical area covered under the substantive diocese of Makurdi used to be called Prefecture of Oturkpo and by 1959 was raised as diocese of Oturkpo. The name was changed to Makurdi 208 NOTES

diocese the following year. However, by 1995, Oturkpo regained the title of a diocesan seat under the official name Oturkpo diocese carved out of the diocese of Makurdi. 14 . See Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria , 167–173. 15 . Ibid., 166f. 16 . See Raymond Hickey, A History of the Catholic Church in Northern Nigeria (Jos, Nigeria: Augustinian Publications Nigeria, 1981), 41. 17 . Ibid., 41. 18 . Ibid. 19 . See Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria,” 54. 20 . See Mukhtar Umar Bunza, Christian Missions Among Muslims: Sokoto Province, Nigeria 1935–1990 (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc., 2007), 137. 21 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 55. 22 . See Muhammad Sani Umar, “Islam in Nigeria: Its Concept, Manifestations and Role in Nation-Building” in Nigeria Since Independence – The First 25 Years, Vol. IX (Religion) , eds., J. A. Atanda, Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1989), 80. 23 . See Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria , 215f. 24 . Ibid., 89, quoted from Dean S. Gilliland, “African Traditional Religion in Transition: The Influence of Islam on African Traditional Religion in Northern Nigeria” (PhD diss., Hartford, CT, 1971), 269. 25 . See Umar, “Islam in Nigeria,” 81. 26 . For more detailed account of the origin and growth of the JNI see Loimeier, Roman, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 135–148. 27 . This is the plural for the Arabic word tariqa (brotherhood). 28 . See Umar, “Islam in Nigeria,” 81. Loimeier explains how Bello tried to endear himself to the two revival groups by visiting and carousing the international headquarters of both organizations. See Loimeier, Roman, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 113. 29 . See Loimeier, Roman, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 114. 30 . Ibid. 31 . See Elaigwu, The Shadow of Religion on Nigerian Federalism : 1960–1993, 7–8 32 . Kukah strongly commends the northern leaders for holding off the pressure from the south. See Kukah, Religion Politics and Power , 57. 33 . See “Official Census Results: Nigeria has 140 million people.” Nigerian Village Square (http://nigeriavillagesquare.com/newsflash NOTES 209

/official-census-resultsnigeria-has-140-million-people.html , December 29, 2006). Retrieved February 3, 2013. 34 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 92–93. 35 . Ibid., 93; Peter B. Clarke, Islam in modern Nigeria – a study of a Muslim community in a post-independence state, 1960–1983 (Mainz: Gr ünewald publishers, 1984), 131f; and Victor Chukwulozie, Muslim-Christian dialogue in Nigeria (Ibadan, Nigeria: Daystar Press, 1986). 36 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 93. 37 . Matthew Hassan Kukah reads other motives for the formation of the group. He, however, traces its origin to a meeting held by individual northern Christians in 1948 at a place on the outskirts of the city of Jos. For more information on the formation and goals of NCA, see Kukah, Religion Politics and Power , 49–57. However, in general, it was understood that that NCA was established as a manifest response to the presumed Islamization of the north agenda led by the sardauna of Sokoto. See Abdullahi M. Ashafa, “British Colonial Rule and the Transformation of Inter-Group Relations,” in Northern Nigeria: A Century of Transformation, 1903–2003 , eds., A. M. Yakubu, I. M. Jumare, and A. G. Saeed (Kaduna: Arewa House, Ahmadu Bello University, 2005), 442ff. 38 . Raymond Hickey, Christianity in Borno State and Northern Gongola (Bodija, Ibadan: Claverianum Press, 1985), 94 and Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria , 93. 39 . See Kukah, Religion Politics and Power , 54. 40 . See Peter Schineller, ed., Pastoral Letters and Communiqu é s of The Catholic Bishops Conference of Nigeria, 1960–2002: The Voice of the Voiceless (Ibadan: Daily Graphics Nigeria Limited, 2002), 44. 41 . Kukah, Religion, Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria (Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books, 1993), 56. 42 . Ibid., 59; Clarke, Islam in Modern Nigeria, 44f; and John N. Paden. Religion and Political Culture in Kano (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), 73–204. 43 . See Umar, “Islam in Nigeria,” 82. 44 . During the civil war years, the activities of this group were restricted to the northern states, but expanded to the south after the war. In 1973, JNI merged with the Western State Joint Muslim Organization (WESJOMO) to form the Nigerian Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs. See Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 59; Saheed Ahmad Rufai, “The Interplay of Power and Religion in Nigeria from Colonization to Democratization,” World Journal of Islamic History and Civilization 3 (2011): 173–174. The major objectives of the organization include: “To cater for the inter- ests of Islam throughout the Federation, to serve as a channel of contact with the governments of Nigeria on Islamic affairs, where necessary, and to serve as the only channel of contact on Islamic 210 NOTES

matters.” See Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 57 and Daily Times , August 17, 1973. In 1963, the Kaduna Council of Mallams was formed with the objective of bringing together the different religious leaders in northern Nigeria. Both the JNI and the association of mallams were headed by the sultan of Sokoto. 45 . S.A. Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria: Its Historical Development,” in Nigeria since Independence: The First 25 Years, Vol. IX – Religion , eds., Atanda, J. A., Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1989), 59. 46 . The mission of Sir Bello and his allies also received a lot of financial support from many Islamic countries, including Saudi Arabia, Libya, the United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, and Sudan. Ricardo Laremont and Hrach Gregorian confirmed the efforts of this mission by adding that the support from these countries significantly enhanced the building of mosques and Qur’anic schools in different parts of Nigeria, especially in the north. See Laremont and Gregorian, “Political Islam in West Africa and the Sahel,” Military Review 86, no. 1 (2006): 27–36, at 29 and Muhammad S. Umar, “Islam in Nigeria,” 80–84. 47 . Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria,” 60. 48 . For more information on the activities of Jama’atu Nasir Islam (JNI) see Matthew Hassan Kukah, Religion, Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria (Ibadan, Owerri, Kaduna, Lagos: Spectrum Books Limited, 1993), 43–48. Also see Balogun,”Islam in Nigeria,” 61. 49 . Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria,” 62. 50 . Sultan of Sokoto was considered the traditional leader of the group. However, Nasiru Kabara of Kano assumed more active leadership of the group in the later part of the twentieth century. See Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria,” 63 and John N. Paden, Faith and Politics in Nigeria (Washington, D.C: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2008), 28–29. 51 . Idris was one of the close disciples of Sheikh Gumi. See Ousmane Kane, Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria: A Study of the Society for the Removal of Innovation and Reinstatement of Tradition (Leiden and Boston: Kominklijke Brill NV, 2003). 85f 52 . Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria,” 62. 53 . For more information about the dynamics between the Tijaniyya, Qadiriyya, and Izala, see Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997) and “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” in Political Islam in West Africa: State-Society Relations Transformed , ed., William F.S. Miles (Boulder, Colorado and London: Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc., 2007), 43–72. 54 . Balogun, “Islam in Nigeria,” 62–63 and Paden, Faith and Politics in Nigeria , 29–30. NOTES 211

55 . See Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria , 90ff and Hickey, Christianity in Borno State, 73. 56 . As a little child during the war years, I remember hearing some of those war songs. 57 . See Schineller, The Voice of the Voiceless , 53. 58 . Ibid. 59 . See Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 61. 60 . See Hickey, Christianity in Borno State and Northern Gongola (Bodija, Ibadan: Claverianum Press, 1984 (85)?), 73 and O’Connor, From the Niger to the Sahara: The Story of the Archdiocese of Kaduna (Ibadan, Nigeria: Intec Printers Limited, 2009), 158–159. 61 . See Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 112. 62 . See Kukah, Religion Politics and Power, 55. 63 . Ibid., 48. 64 . For more information on the events and discussions leading to the formation of CAN, see Kukah, Religion Politics and Power , 49ff. 65 . See Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change , 123. 66 . Ibid. 67 . Ibid., 124. 68 . A. M. Mainasara testifies to the existence of this practice. See A. M. Mainasara, The Five Majors: Why They Struck (Zaria, Nigeria: Hudahuda Publishing Company, 1982), 10ff. I can actually testify to this practice, because I personally know one or two military personnel (whose parents are from the south) but who got into the military by claiming northern ethnic origin. 69 . See Chinedu Uba, “The Operation of Shari’a Courts Since 1903” in Northern Nigeria: A Century of Transformation, 1903–2003 , eds., Mahmood Yakubu, Ibrahim Muhammad Jumare, and Asma’u Garba Saeed (Kaduna, Nigeria: Baraka Press and Publishers Ltd., 2005), 179. 70 . Ibid., 183 quoting from Kumo, “Shari’a under Colonialism – Northern Nigeria” in Islam in Africa , eds., Nur Alkali et al., (Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd., 1993), 2. 71 . See Uba, “The Operation of Shari’a Courts Since 1903,” 182. 72 . Umar, Islam and Colonialism (Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill, 2006), 40–55. 73 . Uba, “The Operation of Shari’a Courts Since 1903,” 183ff. 74 . Ibid., 184. 75 . Ibid. 76 . For more details on the report of this panel, see Philip Ostien, ed., Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria 1999–2006: A Sourcebook, Vol. 1 Historical Background (Ibadan, Nigeria: Spect r um Books Limited, 2007), 49–56. 212 NOTES

77 . For more on this see Umar, “Islam in Nigeria” 76f. He was quoting from Statement by the Government of the Northen Region of Nigeria on the Re-organization of the Legal and Judicial Systems of the Northern Region (Kaduna: Government Printer, 1958), 2. 78 . See Umar, “Islam in Nigeria” 82. 79 . Ibid. 80 . See Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 62 81 . See Uba, “The Operation of Shari’a Courts,” 192–193 and Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 62–63. 82 . Quoted by Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 64 from Sabiya 1977:6. 83 . Quoted by Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 65 from Sabiya 1977:2. 84 . Ibid., 66. 85 . Ibid., 67. 86 . In February 1976, the new military government led by General Murtala Mohammed created seven additional states making the total number of states in the country 19. 87 . See Uba, “The Operation of Shari’a Courts,” 192. 88 . Ibid., 192. 89 . Ibid., 192f. 90 . For more on the conflict between these two brotherhoods, see Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 71–83. 91 . See Schineller, The Voice of the Voiceless , 44. 92. May be a closer look with specific focus on that will unearth such incidents, but it is an incontrovertible truth that intra-Christian conflicts where they exist have not raised any major security problem as has the numerous incidents of intra-Muslim conflicts in northern Nigeria. 93 . The use of Islamic revivalists and Islamists sometimes overlap. Or rather, there is growing understanding of the words to be either synonymous or one transiting into the other, namely Islamic revivalists end up becoming Islamists. From philosophical or literary studies perspective, the two are often distinguishable. However, in empirical reality the two often overlap, hence an Islamic revivalist often becomes known as an Islamist. In this study, the two words will be considered as overlapping in application and meaning. For further elucidation on this, consult Charles Kurzman and Ijlal Naqvi’s three categories of Islamists: leaders, activists, and supporters. Kurzman and Naqvi, “Who are the Islamists?,” in Rethinking Islamic Studies: From Orientalism to Cosmopolitanism , eds., Carl W. Ernst and Richard C. Martin, (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2010), 133–158. 94 . See Atanda, “Conclusion – Paradoxes and Problems of Religion and Secularism in Nigeria: Suggestions for Solution,” in Nigeria Since NOTES 213

Independence: The First Twenty-Five Years , eds., J. A. Atanda, Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books, Nigeria, Limited, 1989), 187f. 95 . Ibid., 187. 96 . Ibid. 97 . Matthews A. Ojo also references to this problem evident in Islamic fundamentalists demand for a “convergence to the center” in pursuit of Islamic orthodoxy and how such absolutism is unattainable in a democratic pluralistic society. See Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam and the Contest for Public Space in Northern Nigeria,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations , 18, no.2 (2007): 176 and 184. 98 . See Umar, “Islam in Nigeria: Its Concept, Manifestations and Role in Nation-Building,” in Nigeria Since Independence: The First Twenty- Five Years , eds., J. A. Atanda, Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books, Nigeria, Limited, 1989), 88–89. 99 . Some scholars choose to use renewal rather than revival to identify or express the same ideology and practice of revolutionary reform among Muslims. Levtzion and Voll choose to use renewal and revival interchangeably. See Nehemiah Levtzion and John O. Voll, eds., Eighteenth Century Renewal and Reform in Islam (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1987). 100 . Also see Kurzman and Naqvi’s three categories of Islamists. Kurzman and Naqvi, “Who are the Islamists?” 134. Azhar Ibrahim argues that taxonomy in Islam in contemporary society is as complex as is the case with other major world religions such as Christianity and Judaism. He groups Muslims into five schools of thought and highlights the existence of gray areas even within identical groups. He also provides some historical analysis on the development of Islamic reformists. See Ibrahim, “Contemporary Islamic Thought: A Critical Perspective” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations , 23, no. 3 (July 2012): 279–294. 101 . Ousmane Kane thoroughly highlights this phenomenon in his seminal work on Yan Izala in postcolonial Nigeria. See Ousmane Kane, Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria: A Study of the Society for the Removal of Innovation and Reinstatement of Tradition (Leiden and Boston: Brill Publication, 2003), 149–177. 102 . See Nehemiah Levtzion and John O. Voll, eds., Eighteenth Century Renewal and Reform in Islam (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 5f. 103 . Bruce Lawrence strongly concurs with this history. Thus affirming the connection between European colonization of Muslim- dominated countries and the rise of Islamic revivalism and the Islamist movement. See Bruce B. Lawrence, Defenders of God: The Fundamentalist Revolt against the Modern Age (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1995). Lawrence’s primary 214 NOTES

argument in the book is that Islamic fundamentalism or Islamist movement is both a reaction to modernity introduced by the West and an interaction with it. Therefore, while it attempts to resist modernity on the one hand it uses modernity at the same time on the other hand. 104 . See Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, Mawdudi & the Making of Islamic Revivalism (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 4. 105 . See Nehemiah Levtzion and John O. Voll, eds., Eighteenth Century Renewal and Reform in Islam (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 3. 106 . See Masud, “Islamic Modernism,” in Islam and Modernity – Key Issues and Debates , eds., Muhammad Khalid Masud, Armando Salvatore, and Martin van Bruinesssen (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), 240ff. 107 . See Nasr, Mawdudi & the Making of Islamic Revivalism , 3. 108 . Ibid., 4. 109 . It is important to again highlight that the European worldview that was introduced to these Muslim societies was based strongly on the philosophy of the Enlightenment Age, whose poster child is secularism. 110 . Levtzion and Voll, Eighteenth Century Renewal and Reform in Islam , 8. 111 . Ibid., 8f. 112 . Philip Ostien, ed., Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria 1999–2006: A Source book – Volume III Sanitizing Society (Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited, 2007), 3ff. In the other volumes of this collection, it is amply demonstrated that northern Nigerian Muslim leaders and agitations for Shari’a will like to see a Wahhabi brand of puritanist Islam practiced in their states. 113 . See Levtzion and Voll, Eighteenth Century Renewal and Reform in Islam , 8. 114 . For more enlightening information about the anti-Sufi position of the Wahhabiyya movement, the influence of Ibn Taymiyyah who denounced Ibn al-Arabi as an infidel Muslim, and the evolution of “neo-Sufi” turuq with strong activists construct, see Levtzion and Voll, Eighteenth Century Renewal and Reform in Islam , 9ff. 115 . See Umar, “Islam in Nigeria,” 83. According to Umar, “The reason for such a positive development relates to the Muslims’ mistrust of Western education because of its apparent Christian character. This mistrust was further strengthened by the close association of Western education missionary activities. Furthermore, Western education was openly secular when it was not Christian. It will be seen later that this secular character of Western education became one of the issues in the agitation of the Islamic revivalist trends” (p. 83). Also Umar goes on to say, “At the level of intellectual renaissance, young Muslims begin to identify the problems confronting Nigeria NOTES 215

as that of moral decadence and spiritual bankruptcy, both of which emerged out of religious levity. Nigerian educational system, whose dormant contradictions suddenly exploded in the ‘Ali must go’ crisis is identified as the corrupting agent. And its corrupting influence is perceived to be due to two factors that are apparently contradictory, i.e., Its Christian-oriented and its secular. This trend has been gath- ering momentum in the Nigerian universities, especially, but no means exclusively, in the Northern parts of the country. This trend has persistently insisted that Nigeria’s problems are essentially that of moral decadence arising out of irreligiosity. Also identified as contributing is the secular character of the Nigerian state and polity. Consequently, all the solutions proffered by this trend revolve around the call for a return to a puritan brand of Islam.” (Umar, “Islam in Nigeria,” 88–89). 116 . The Hausa commoners who supported the early campaign became the worst losers after the chips were down, because, they were played out in the distribution of power and booties from the wars. 117 . See Turaki, The British Colonial Legacy In Northern Nigeria (Jos: The Challenge Press, 1993), 40f. 118 . See Kukah, Religion, Politics and Power , 48–57. 119 . For more information on the origin of Christian fundamentalism, see Bruce Lawrence, Defenders of God , 160–170 and George M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth-Century Evangelicalism, 1870–1925 (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1982). 120 . See Lawrence, Defenders of God , 1. 121 . See Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 3. 122 . The Millenarian component has been significantly downplayed since early twentieth century, see Lawrence, Defenders of God , 167f and Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 51f. 123 . See Lawrence, Defenders of God , 161 and Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 103ff and 109–118. 124 . See Dijk, Christian Fundamentalism in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Case of Pentecostalism (Copenhagen: Center of African Studies, University of Copenhagen, February 2000), 2 and 4. For a brief history of the origin of Christian fundamentalism in Nigeria, especially in higher institutions, see Dokun Oyesola, O. P., Fundamentalism and the Catholic Faith in Nigerian Higher Institutions (Iperu-Remo, Nigeria: The A mbassador Publications, 1994), 1– 4. A lthough Ogbu Kalu in his book African Pentecostalism: An Introduction , substantially argues that the Pentecostalism existing in African communities has very strong African cultural and spiritual roots, he still acknowledges the significant influence the American Pentecostal movement has made on the African Pentecostalism. See Ogbu, 216 NOTES

African Pentecostalism: An Introduction (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008). 125 . See Matthews A. Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam and the Contest for Public Space in Northern Nigeria,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relation , 18, no. 2 (2007): 179f; Dijk, Christian Fundamentalism in Sub-Saharan Africa, 4ff; and Oyesola, O.P., Fundamentalism and the Catholic Faith in Nigerian , 1. Ojo suggests that the beginning of the National Youth Service Coup (NYSC) program by the Gowon administration provided the regional mobility of Christian fundamentalism led by young college graduates who moved from the south to the north, as required by the program. 126 . Rasmussen, Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa , 94.

Four Muslim-Christian Conflicts in Northern Nigeria from 1979 to 2012 1 . There were, however, two other minority parties that originated from the north; People’s Redemption Party (PRP) led by Mallam Aminu Kano and Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP) led by Alhaji Waziri Ibrahim from the northeast. These two leaders were of Hausa and Kanuri ethnicities respectively, but with less political clout as the NPN, which was seen as the reincarnation of the saudauna of Sokoto and Tafawa Balewa led NPC. Therefore, NPN had a wider northern embrace and significant national grip as it succeeded in wining some states in the southwest and southeast regions of the country. 2 . The armed Islamists attacked the Grand Mosque (the holiest mosque in the Islamic world) with the intent of taking it over. They took some pilgrims who were in Mecca for the annual pilgrimage hostage. In the two-week long battle for the mosque, hundreds of pilgrims, security men, and some insurgents were killed, before the insurgency was crushed. 3 . Gumi, after failing, due to the death of Ahmadu Bello in 1966, to redefine Islam in northern Nigeria by establishing the Usmaniyya (a project, initiated by Bello, to diminish the influence of the two existing tariqas —Tijaniyya and Qadiriyya) saw the beginning of the Izala movement as another opportunity to accomplish his goal. One of his major reasons for actively working to phase out or minimize the influence of the two tariqas was to eliminate the influence of culture on Islam in northern Nigeria. He pursued this goal because of his obsession to establish a so-called global form of Islam or Islamic reform, which is the euphemism for comprehen- sively imposing a Wahhabi Islamic model on northern Nigerians. See Abdulkader Tayob, “Sub-Saharan African Islam,” in Global Religions , ed., Mark Juergensmeyer (New York and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006), 429 and Roman Loimeier, “Islamic NOTES 217

Reform and Political Change: The Example of Abubakar Gumi and the Yan Izala Movement in Northern Nigeria,” in African Islam and Islam in Africa , eds., Eva Evers Rosander and David Westerlund (London: Hurst and Company, 1997), 286–307. 4 . See Omar Farouk Ibrahim, “Religion and Politics: A View from the North,” in Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida , eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony Kirk- Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1997), 436. It became imperative for Muslims to put aside their hostility toward each other and unite against the growing political influence of Christians. See Abdulkader Tayob, “Sub-Saharan African Islam,” in Global Religions , ed., by Mark Juergensmeyer (New York and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006), 429. 5 . See Anthony Oyewole and John Lucas, Historical Dictionary of Nigeria , 2nd. edn. (Lanham, Maryland, and London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2000), 277. For a summary listing of the numerous conflicts between the Izala movement and other Muslims in the north, see Omar Farouk Ibrahim, “Religion and Politics: A View from the North,” in Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida , eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony Kirk-Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1997), 430–431. 6 . See Ibrahim, “Religion and Politics,” 437. 7 . See Roman Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” in Political Islam in West Africa: State-Society Relations Transformed , ed., William F. S. Miles (Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc., 2007), 57ff. 8 . The group in Katsina is said to have masterminded the conflict of radical Muslims against the state military government under the leadership of Colonel Yohana Madaki (a Christian who had threatened to execute those who challenged his authority, which this group dared). See Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 56ff. Also for a more documented information about the origin and activities of the Yakubu Yahaya-led group, see Toyin Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular Ideologie s (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1998), 194–203. 9 . See Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 56. 10 . Ibid., 57. 11 . Ibid., 58. 12 . Hisba Committee is popularly called “Shari’a police,” because it is charged with the responsibility of ensuring effective implementation of the Shari’a penal law in the state. See See Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 59. 218 NOTES

13 . See Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 62. 14 . One of Ulrich Berner’s major arguments in presenting Christianity as either global or world religion is its tendency to be exclusive and desire to exterminate (even by violence) any other forms of religion that operates in its domain. See Berner, “Early Christianity as a Global – Religion,” in New Religions and Globalization – Empirical, Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives , eds., Armin W. Geertz and Margit Warburg (Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 2008), 145–164. 15 . See Aniagolu, The Making of the 1989 Constitution of Nigeria (Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited, 1993), 254–255. 16 . Matthews A. Ojo shows how militant Christianity became imperative in northern Nigeria. See Matthews A. Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam and the Contest for Public Space in Northern Nigeria,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 18, no.2 (2007): 175–188 17 . See Catholic Secretariat, Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria – The Stand of Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast Enterprises, n.d.), 5. 18 . Ibid., 5–6. The incidents, which CBCN was referring to, recorded lots of casualties on both Christians and Muslims in the affected cities of Kaduna state. For more information about the 1987 riots that began in Kafanchan, Kaduna state, see Matthews A. Ojo “Pentecostal Movements, Islam and the Contest for Public Space in Northern Nigeria,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 18, no.2 (2007): 182. 19 . Human Rights Watch publications provide extensive information from victims, journalists, and NGOs involved in helping people affected by the different violent incidents about the havoc and destructions associated with Christian youths in many parts of northern Nigeria, including the famous Yelwa massacre of about 700 Muslims by armed Christians in May 2004. For two of such reports, see Carina Tertsakian, “Nigeria – Jos: A City Torn Apart” New York: Human Rights Watch 13, no. 9(A) (December 2001) and Tertsakian “Revenge in the Name of Religion: The Cycle of Violence in Plateau and Kano States” New York: Human Rights Watch 17, no. 8 (A) (May 2005). 20 . Based on all the reports consulted for this study, the violent activities of Christian youths against Muslims are officially said to be unor- ganized spontaneous defense responses to the incidents of violent attacks initiated by their Muslim neighbors. Therefore, there is no known militia that has taken responsibility for any of the sometimes organized attacks by the Christian youths. See Carina Tertsakian, “Revenge in the Name of Religion: The Cycle of Violence in Plateau and Kano States” New York: Human Rights Watch 17, no. 8 (A) (May 2005): 6. NOTES 219

21 . See Anthony Oyewole and John Lucas, Historical Dictionary of Nigeria, 2nd. edn. (Lanham, Maryland, and London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2000), 128–129. 22 . Quoted from the work of Toyin Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular Ideologies (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1998), 165. 23 . Ousmane Kane attributes the rise of Muslim-Christian conflict, among other agents, to “the growth of Pentecostal and charismatic movements” and “the campaigns of the Christian Association of Nigeria.” See Kane, Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria: A Study of the Society for the Removal of Innovation and Reinstatement of Tradition (Leiden and Boston: Kominklijke Brill NV, 2003), 178. 24 . See Rijk A. van Dijk, Christian Fundamentalism in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Case of Pentecostalism (Copenhagen: Center of African Studies, University of Copenhagen, February 2000), 11–12. 25 . This is a common phraseology used to differentiate what they consider “born-again” Christians and nominal Christians. 26 . See Dijk, Christian Fundamentalism in Sub-Saharan Africa , 12. 27 . Ojo’s use of the word “Pentecostalizing” is reference to the desire of Pentecostal Christians’ emphasis on all Christians conducting themselves in worship and life as the Pentecostals do, which is a reference to their extreme conservative approach to life and exces- sive theatricals in worship. See Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam and the Contest for Public Space in Northern Nigeria,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 18, no.2 (2007): 180. 28 . See Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam and the Contest for Public Space in Northern Nigeria,” 181. 29 . Ibid. However, Ousmane Kane and Roman Loimeier suggest that the success of Christian politicians in the local government elections of 1987 had a lot to do with the existing discord between tariqa and Izala Muslims in the north. See Roman Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,”61. See also Ousmane Kane, Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2003), 180. 30 . See Ojo, “Pentecostal Movements, Islam and the Contest for Public Space in Northern Nigeria,” 182. 31 . See J. A. Atanda, “Conclusion – Paradoxes and Problems of Religion and Secularism in Nigeria: suggestions for Solution,” in Nigeria the Fist Twenty-Five Years: Religion , eds., J. A. Atanda, Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar, 184 (Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books, Ltd., 1989). 32 . See Matthew Hassan Kukah, Democracy and Civil Society in Nigeria (Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books Limited, 2000), 103f. 33 . Islamists are fundamentally against secularization because for Islamists the primary tenets of secularism are ipso facto opposed to Islam, which a priori sees itself as a total way of life, hence has no 220 NOTES

room for the operation of secularism. Islamists “wish to organize the whole society by the Islamic Shari’ah.” See William E. Shepard, Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism: A Translation and Critical Analysis of Social Justice in Islam (Leiden, New York, and Kö ln: E.J. Brill, 1996), xiif. 34 . One of the progressive Muslims identifiable with this school is Lamido Sanusi. See Philip Ostien, Jamila M. Nasir and Franz Kogelmann, eds., Comparative Perspectives on Shari’ah in Nigeria (Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited, 2005), xxxi. 35 . Danny McCain, “Which Road Leads Beyond the Shari’ah Controversy? A Christian Perspective on Shari’ah in Nigeria,” in Comparative Perspectives on Shari’ah in Nigeria , eds., Philip Ostien, Jamila M. Nasir and Franz Kogelmann (Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited, 2005), 14. 36 . Jadesola O. Akande, The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1979, with annotations (London: Sweet and Maxwell Limited, 1982), page six of “General Introduction.” However, to define a modern African state constitution like Nigeria’s to be autochthonous is a failure to appreciate the irrepressible impact of the West and the direct influence of Neo-colonialism as well as the subaltern features as marks of Nigerians’ loyalty to imperial influences through culture, politics, religion, and economy. Therefore, in a strict sense, insofar as Nigerians are heavily influenced by neo- colonial mentalities and are responding to the impulses designed by other foreign elements and factors, it is oxymoron to speak of Nigerian constitution being autochthonous, when its contents definitively reflect and embellish Western legal philosophy and Western viewpoints. 37 . The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (Apapa-Lagos: Daily Times Publication, 1979), 14. 38 . Catholic Secretariat, Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria – The Stand of Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast Enterprises, n.d.), 9. 39 . Ibid., 9. 40 . Ibid., 14. 41 . Olakunle Odumosu, “Social Implications of the 1999 Constitution,” in Issues in the Review of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria , eds., Olu Ajakaiye and Solomon Akhere Benjamin (Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER), 1999), 99. Odumosu proposes an amendment of this section of the constitution. 42 . Ibid., 100. 43 . Ibid. 44 . Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999. Chapter IV , Fundamental Rights , section 38, subsection 1, accessed August 30, 2012, http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederal RepublicOfNigeria.htm. NOTES 221

45 . According to Rotimi T. Suberu, “Alhaji Shehu Shagari displayed considerable broad-mindedness in religious matters as president.” However, toward the end of his presidency, the Shagari administration was heavily criticized for establishing an office of Islamic affairs in the office of the presidency and for appointing presidential assistants for Christian and Muslim affairs. See Suberu, “Religion and Politics: A View from the South,” in Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida , eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony Kirk-Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1997), 403f. 46 . This election was reported by most independent observers and based on the general opinion of most Nigerians to be the most free and fair election ever conducted in Nigeria since the independence. 47 . See Suberu, “Religion and Politics:,” 402. 48 . Anthony N. Aniagolu, The Making of the 1989 Constitution of Nigeria (Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited, 1993), 254. 49 . Rafiu A. Akindele, “The Constituent Assembly and the 1989 Constitution” in Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida , eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony Kirk-Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1997), 114. 50 . W. Ibekwe Ofonagoro, Abiola Ojo, and Adele Jinadu, eds., The Great Debate: Nigerian Viewpoints on the Draft Constitution (Apapa-Lagos: Daily Times Publication, 1989). 51 . Aniagolu, The Making of the 1989 Constitution of Nigeria , 93. 52 . E. E Ochokwu, “Religions and Law” in Daily Times Newspaper, April 19, 1977 quoted by The Great Debate: Nigerian Viewpoints on the Draft Constitution , eds., W. Ibekwe Ofonagoro, Abiola Ojo, and Adele Jinadu (Apapa-Lagos: Daily Times Publication, 1989), 372, 53 . Omar Farouk Ibrahim, “Religion and Politics: A View from the North,” in Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida , eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony Kirk-Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1997), 428. 54 . Suberu, “Religion and Politics:,” 403. 55 . Ibid. 56 . Ibid. Omar F. Ibrahim confirms that the controversy generated by the OIC membership was huge and divisive. See Ibrahim, “Religion and Politics: A View from the North,” 430. 57 . Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2001), 16f and 133f. 58 . Some of the conditions for securing loan from IDB (which is a sub- sidiary of OIC) are for beneficiary country to have in place certain Islamic-guided principles, which require a Muslim in certain positions of power and for the promotion of particularly Islamic programs and activities. 222 NOTES

59 . Catholic Secretariat, “Statement By the Catholic Bishops Conference of Nigeria,” in Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria: The Stand of Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast Enterprises, n.d), 6. 60 . Ibid., 2. 61 . It is worthy to note that as of March 2012, the IDB finally and for- mally signed a major business deal with the federal government of Nigeria to finance major projects in the country. At the ceremony, the agreement was endorsed between the financial institution and the federal government, the president of the IDB group rejected the idea that the IDB is a religious institution. For more details, see Emeka Anuforo, “Islamic Development Bank Berths in Nigeria,” The Guardian – Nigeria (Friday, March 16, 2012), accessed September 12, 2012, http://odili.net/news/source/2012/mar/16/12.html. 62 . Ousmane Kane, Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria: A Study of the Society for the Removal of Innovation and Reinstatement of Tradition (Leiden and Boston: Kominklijke Brill NV, 2003), 187. Also see Advisory Council of Religious Affairs Act, PLAC – The Complete Laws of Nigeria, accessed March 14, 2013, http://www .placng.org/lawsofnigeria/node/13 . 63 . Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict , 134. 64 . Ibid. 65 . Alhaji Maitama Sule, popularly known as Dan Masin Kano, in many of his public addresses during the political campaigns in support of a Hausa–Fulani presidential candidate frequently argued that since the Yorubas (one of the three major ethnic groups in Nigeria; the other two being Igbo and Hausa) are renowned technocrats and have essentially captured plum positions in civil service and the Igbos are not to be equaled by any ethnic group in Nigeria with regard to private entrepreneurship, it was quite judicious and reasonable that those two ethnic groups willfully surrender political control to the Hausas. 66 . Philip Ostien, ed., Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria 1999–2006: A Sourcebook, Vol. I: Historical Background (Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books Limited, 2007), viii. 67 . The application or implementation of the Shari’a was however different from one state to another. 68 . Numerous publications have recorded, condemned, or analyzed the conflicts that ensued with the adoption of full Shari’a legal system in various northern Nigerian states. See Frieder Ludwig, “Christian- Muslim Relations in Northern Nigeria since the Introduction of Shari’ah in 1999,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 76, no. 3 (September 2008): 602–637; Toure Kazah Toure, Ethno- Religious Conflicts in Kaduna State (Kaduna: Publication of Human R ights Monitor, 2003); Catholic Secretariat, “Statement By the Catholic Bishops Conference of Nigeria,” in Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria: The Stand of Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast NOTES 223

Enterprises, n.d.), 5–7; and Ostien, ed., Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria 1999–2006, xi. 69 . Professor Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im is the Charles Howard Candler Professor of Law at Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia. A Sudanese-born Muslim who taught at the University of Khartoum. 70 . An-Na’im, “The Future of Shari’ah and the Debate in Northern Nigeria,” in Comparative Perspectives on Shari’ah in Nigeria , eds., Philip Ostien, Jamila M. Nasir and Franz Kogelmann (Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books Limited, 2005), 328. 71 . From “White Paper on the Report of the Committee on the Implementation of Sharia Law in Kebbi State,” Chapter 2 , 184. Quoted from the text of Philip Ostien, “Sanitizing Society,” in Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria 1999–2006: A Sourcebook, Vol. III: Sanitizing Society , ed., Philip Ostien (Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books Limited, 2007), 3–4. 72 . Ostien, Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria – Sanitizing Society , 11. 73 . Frederick Lugard, “Colonial Annual Reports, No. 346 – Northern Nigeria 1900–1901,” Government Publications Relating to Nigeria 1862–1960 (Microfilm), 10–11. 74 . Frederick Lugard, “Colonial Annual Reports, No. 346 – Northern Nigeria 1902,” Government Publications Relating to Nigeria 1862–1960 (Microfilm), 78. 75 . An-Na’im, “The Future of Shari’ah,” 331. 76 . These will be those of the second school of thought earlier refer- enced who are in favor of the interpretation of the relationship of religion and state that is akin to what many Christians will subscribe to; the progressive or moderate Muslims. 77 . An-Na’im, “The Future of Shari’ah,” 336. 78 . Ibid., 333–338. 79 . Ibid., 338. 80 . Ibid., 329. 81 . Ibid., 329–330. 82 . Ostien, ed., Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria 1999–2006 , xi. 83 . In an earlier publication, I listed a number of the major violent incidents and occurrences of destructions and killings in the name of religion, between Muslims and Christians. See Marinus Iwuchukwu, “Revisiting the Perennial Religious Conflicts in Northern Nigeria, 1990–2010: Broadening the Focus of Muslim-Christian Dialogue,” in Can Muslims and Christians Resolve Their Religious And Social Conflicts? Cases From Africa and the United States , eds., Marinus Iwuchukwu and Brian Stiltner (Lewiston, New York: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2013), 3–37. 84 . For approximate records of lives lost and property destroyed in some of these conflicts consult the following: Toyin Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular Ideologie s 224 NOTES

(Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1998); Carina Tertsakian, “Nigeria – Jos: A City Torn Apart,” New York: Human Rights Watch 13, no. 9(A) (December 2001); Karen Stauss, “Testing Democracy: Political Violence in Nigeria,” New York: Human Rights Watch 15, no. 9(A) (April 2003); Carina Tertsakian, “Revenge in the Name of Religion: The Cycle of Violence in Plateau and Kano States,” New York: Human Rights Watch 17, no. 8 (A) (May 2005); Frieder Ludwig, “Christian-Muslim Relations in Northern Nigeria since the Introduction of Shari’ah in 1999” Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 76, no. 3 (September 2008): 602–637; Toure Kazah Toure, Ethno-Religious Conflicts in Kaduna State (Kaduna: Publication of Human Rights Monitor, 2003); Omar Farouk Ibrahim, “Religion and Politics: A View from the North,” in Transition Without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida , eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony Kirk- Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1997), 427–447; Carina Tertsakian, “The ‘Miss World Riots’: Continued Impunity for Killings in Kaduna” New York: Human Rights Watch 15, no. 13 (A) (July 2003); Carina Tertsakian , “‘ Political Sharia’? Human Rights and Islamic Law in Northern Nigeria,” New York: Human Rights Watch 16, no. 9 (A) (September 2004); Cletus Tanimu Gotan, “Nigeria’s Religious Conflicts: A Call for a Dialogue of Life” in Religion, Violence, And Conflict Resolution in Nigeria , ed., Cyril Obanure (Makurdi, Abuja, Ibadan: Aboki Publishers, 2008), 97–100; and Marinus Iwuchukwu, “Revisiting the Perennial Religious Conflicts in Northern Nigeria, 1990–2010: Broadening the Focus of Muslim- Christian Dialogue,” in Can Muslims and Christians Resolve Their Religious And Social Conflicts? Cases From Africa and the United States , eds., Marinus Iwuchukwu and Brian Stiltner (Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2013), 12–28. 85 . Carina Tertsakian, Nigeria – Jos: A City Torn Apart , 2 and 11f. 86 . Carina Tertsakian, The “Miss World Riots,” 4ff. 87 . For a detailed record of the incidents of conflicts arising from the Zango Kataf, the casualties, trials, or mistrials, as well as the different layers of the conflicts and its resolution, see Troure, Ethno- Religious Conflicts , 160. 88 . Catholic Secretariat, Christian/Muslim Relationship, 5. 89 . Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 62.

Five The Jos Crises and Boko Haram Terrorism: Case Reviews of Muslim-Christian Conflicts in Postcolonial Northern Nigeria 1 . For a summarized analysis of these riots, see Ousmane Kane, Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria (Leiden and London: Brill, 2003), 196–198 and 201–204. NOTES 225

2 . For a comprehensive history of Jos, Plateau State as documented by the indigenes of the area, see Plateau Indigenous Development Association Network (PIDAN), The History, Ownership, Establish- ment of Jos and Misconceptions about the Recurrent Jos Conflicts (Jos, Nigeria: Dan-Sil Press, 2010). 3 . Umar Habila Dadem Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities: Pa Divination Among the Ngas, Mupun and Mwaghavul in Nigeria (Frankfurt: Peter Lang Press, 1995), 27f. 4 . Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities , 28. 5 . PIDAN provides historical data of the series of attacks from the jihadists that were successfully rebuffed by the combined forces of the Afizere, Anaguta, Berom, Buji, and Amo ethnicities. See PIDAN, The History, Ownership, Establishment of Jos, 4–5. 6 . Ibid., 6f, 7 . Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities , 28 and Wambutda, A Study of Conversion Among the Angas of Plateau State of Nigeria with Emphasis on Christianity (Frankfurt: Peter Lang Press, 1991), 34. 8 . Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities, 28. Considering that the jihad, which tended to enforce Islam and Islamic values on conquered people, was only a phenomenon that began in eighteenth century, the account of Wambutda may be more accurate. Wambutda suggests that the conquering influence of the Kanuri kingdom of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries must have called for the resettling of the Angas (Ngas) and other Jos Plateau peoples further south to the present hills of Bauchi and later to the Plateau area. See Wambutda, A Study of Conversion Among the Angas of Plateau Stat , 34–35. 9 . Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities , 28–29. The Hausa–Fulani people in Jos self-identify as Jasawa people. This name is a product of political construct to symmetrically identify their ethnicity with the found- ing of Jos, as a city. Hence the Hausa–Fulani of Jos North Local Government Area or the Jasawa people (as they prefer to be identified) claim to be original indigenes of Jos. See a news report about a recent claim of their indigene-ship, Chesa Chesa, “We’re Jos indigenes, Hausa-Fulani Tell Jonathan,” Nairaland Forum (August 10, 2012), accessed September 17, 2012, http://www.nairaland .com/1015428/re-jos-indigenes-hausa-fulani-tell#11764002 . These Hausa settlers might have also settled in the Jos area on the basis of the Amana (trust) negotiation between the indigenes and the Hausa leadership. For more on this Amana relation see PIDAN, The History, Ownership, Establishment of Jos, 3–4. 10 . Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities , 29. 11 . Ibid., 34. 12 . Wambutda, A Study of Conversion Among the Angas of Plateau State, 52–53. Wambutda also argues that the sale of land to a new landowner is possible, but leasing or land lending is more common. 226 NOTES

Danfulani concurs to the prevalence of leasing or land lending. See Danfulani, Pebbles and Deities , 34. 13 . Rasmussen, Religion and Property in Northern Nigeria (Copenhagen, Denmark: Academic Press, 1990), 48. 14 . Ibid. 15 . The dates above are reflective of information from PIDAN publication. The publication provides copies of evidences of the official correspondence regarding the 1913 proposal for the creation of Jos and the 1920 ordinance officially establishing the city of Jos by the then governor of Northern Province, Hugh Clifford. See PIDAN, The History, Ownership, Establishment of Jos, 9–11. 16 . PIDAN, The History, Ownership, Establishment of Jos, 21. 17 . Lissi Rasmussen, Religion and Property in Northern Nigeria , 48–49. 18 . Much of the data and facts about the conflict in Jos in this section is culled from my earlier publication covering in part the topic of violence in Jos and its environs. For those details, see Marinus Iwuchukwu, “Revisiting the Perennial Religious Conflicts in Northern Nigeria 1990–2010: Broadening the Dialogic Topics toward Effective Muslim-Christian Dialogue,” in Can Christians and Muslims learn to live together: Cases from the United States and Africa , eds., Marinus Iwuchukwu and Brian Stiltner (New York and London: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2013), 29ff. I also significantly reference facts and information from the 42-page special report by Philip Ostien, “Jonah Jang and the Jasawa: Ethno-Relgious Conflict in Jos, Nigeria,” Sharia Debates in Africa website, accessed on October 16, 2010, http://www.sharia-in-africa.net/media/pub lications/ethno-religious-conflict-in-Jos-Nigeria/Ostien_Jos.pdf. 19 . As appropriately observed by Lissi Rasmussen, because the Hausas and Fulanis who settled in Jos are predominantly Muslim, it was normative for Jos natives who had converted to Islam to adopt Hausa as their new language or preferred language of communication. This further complicates the demographics, as it turns out that not all who are identified as Hausa may actually be Hausa, but for the most part such people are Muslims. See Rasmussen, Religion and Property in Northern Nigeria (Copenhagen, Denmark: Academic Press, 1990), 241f. 20 . Carina Tertsakian “Revenge in the Name of Religion: The Cycle of Violence in Plateau and Kano States” New York: Human Rights Watch 17, no. 8 (A) (May 2005): 7. PIDAN alleges that other factors that fomented the crises include the formation of the Jasawa Development Association, creation of Jos North Local Government Area, manipulation of religion, and media propaganda. See PIDAN, The History, Ownership, Establishment of Jos, 98–114. 21 . Carina Tertsakian, “Revenge in the Name of Religion: The Cycle of Violence in Plateau and Kano States,” New York: Human Rights Watch 17, no. 8 (A) (May 2005), 7. NOTES 227

22 . Shedrack Gaya Best, “Background and Introduction,” in Causes and Effects of Conflicts in the Southern Zone of Plateau State , Nigeria , ed., Shedrack G. Best (Ibadan, Nigeria: John Archers Publishers Ltd., 2008), 10f and Shedrack G. Best, Conflict and Peace Building in Plateau State, Nigeria (Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books Ltd., 2007), 54–56. 23 . Boer, Nigeria’s Decades of Blood – 1980–2002 , 92–93. 24 . Philip Ostien, “Jonah Jang and the Jasawa: Ethno-Relgious Conflict in Jos, Nigeria,” 14. 25 . BBC News , “Nigeria Ethnic Violence ‘Leaves Hundreds Dead’,” Monday, March 8, 2010, accessed October 16, 2010, http://news.bbc .co.uk/2/hi/8555018.stm ,. These facts and information are corrobo- rated by the accounts of United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) (Annual Report 2010), 81–82. 26 . This Christian who resided in Jos, Plateau State, during some of the conflicts was a student at a university in Germany when I was in the same institution doing my research toward this study. 27 . “Death toll of bomb blast reaches 80 in Nigeria’s Jos.” Xinhua News Agency , accessed February 25, 2011, http://news.xinhuanet.com /english2010/world/2010–12/28/c_13666730.htm . 28 . Roman Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” in Political Islam in West Africa: State-Society Relations Transformed , ed., William F.S. Miles (Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc., 2007), 50. 29 . Carina Tertsakian, Revenge in the Name of Religion , 8. 30 . Ibid. 31 . Olayinka Oyegbile, argues in his book Home Away From Home , that the Ogbomosho people (a group of people in the Yoruba federation) arrived in Jos, the mining city, in the later part of the nineteenth century, even before the advent of the colonial authorities. There are yet historical records that show that some Urhobo people from south–south Nigeria got involved in the mining business as early as 1840s. These historical information stand to disprove the argument of some Hausas who hold that their ancestors resided in Jos even before the arrival of the presumed indigenes of the land. See Oyegbile, Home Away from Home (Lagos: Target Response Associates, 2012) and a book review by Temitope Adeogun, “Between Ogbomosho People and Jos,” Tell Magazine , Wednesday, July 25, 2012, accessed September 15, 2012, http://tellng.com /tellmobile/newspage.php?id=1641. 32 . Rotimi T. Suberu argues that it has informally been in practice long before, but found its official voice toward being a federal law in 1975 from a public address by the then head of state, Brigadier Murtala Muhammad. See Rotimi T. Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria (Washington, D.C: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2001), 111–112. 228 NOTES

33 . Federal Constitution of Nigeria, 1979, Section 272. 34 . Ibid., Section 14 (3). For detailed discussion on the federal character, see Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria , 111–140. 35 . Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria , 116. 36 . One of the logistics involved in the application of federal character for some federal government appointments that may not have enough openings to have even representations from every state or local government is zoning. Oftentimes, such positions or appoint- ment for northern Nigerian zones go to candidates recommended by members of the northern elites (consisting of the emirs and others within the oligarchic structure of power in the zone). 37 . Daniel Bach, “Indigeneity, Ethnicity, and Federalism,” in Transition without end: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society under Babangida , eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony Kirk-Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1997), 335. Bach argues that given the overdependence on federal government revenue allo- cation, states and local governments, Nigerian politicians are con- stantly agitating for the creation of more local governments and states. These states and local governments are agitated for often not based on their resource viability or ability to be self-supporting, but because they wish to directly benefit from federal government allo- cations, which they will be entitled to once created. Hence opening up opportunities for privileged members of such communities to have access to accruing benefits from federal character application. 38 . Section 135 (3) of the 1979 constitution (retained even in the 1999 constitution) simply instructs that “the President shall appoint at least one Minister from each State, who shall be an indigene of such state.” See Bach, “Indigeneity, Ethnicity, and Federalism,” 337ff for more analysis on this subject. Earlier, the Native Authority Law of 1954 in its attempt to regionalize the Nigerian Civil Service came up with the term “non-indigenes” and defines it as “any Native who is not a member of the native community living in the area of its authority.” See The Native Authority Law , 1954, Appendices, Part III, 47 (1). People who fell into the category of “non-indigenes” were simply referred to as strangers. 39 . Bach, “Indigeneity, Ethnicity, and Federalism,” 337. 40 . Quoted by Daniel Bach. See Bach, “Indigeneity, Ethnicity, and Federalism,” 337. Expatiating on the implication of this definition of indigene, Bach is spot on to say: “In other words, any acqui- sition of indigenous status through marriage or residence is pre- cluded. Nigerian citizens have no right to indigeneity outside the state ascribed to them on the sole basis of their genetic antecedents. A Nigerian who marries a fellow citizen from another state has no indigenous status there, although their children can claim indigenous status in any of their parents’ communities of origin even if they have never lived there.” NOTES 229

41 . Carina Tertsakian, “Jos: A City Torn Apart,” New York: Human Rights Watch 13, no. 9 (A) (December 2001): 22. 42 . Tertsakian, Jos: A City Torn Apart, 23. 43 . A. N. Aniagolu, The Making of the 1989 Constitution of Nigeria (Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books Limited, 1993), 255. 44 . Ibid., 255–256. 45 . Rotimi T. Suberu, Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria (Washington, D.C: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2001), 111. 46 . In a signed statement by one Mallam Sanni Umaru, a presumed de facto leader of the group, the Boko Haram sect articulated its beliefs and goals. The full text as made available to the media can be accessed in the following weblink: http://www.vanguardngr.com /2009/08/boko-haram-ressurects-declares-total-jihad/ . In its report on the activities of Boko Haram in July 2009, the USCIRF reports that between 900 and 2,000 people were killed in Bauchi, Borno, Kano, and Yobe states following the confrontations between the radical Islamic sect and government security forces. See USCIRF, Annual Report 2010, 83. 47 . While the manuscript of this book was going through its final stages of submission to the publisher, there were reports of this group already strategizing to bring its mayhem further to the south of the country, having successfully unleashed its attacks already in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The group made good its threat with reported bombing of the police headquarters and UN headquarters at Abuja in June and August 2011, respectively. By successfully executing some of their serious threats, the group sends a crucial message about its capability and earns itself the official status as a terrorist organization of national and international relevance. 48 . The Salafis advocate a puritanical Islam in imitation of the first three generations of Muslims who are revered as the quintessential Muslims. 49 . Xan Rice, “Changing Face of Boko Haram,” Vanguard (May 24, 2012), accessed September 15, 2012, http://www.vanguardngr.com /2012/05/changing-face-of-boko-haram/ . Ibn Taymiyyah lived through the Mongols invasion and take over of Baghdad in 1258, which brought an end to the cherished Abbasid dynasty and the classical age of Islam it was reputed for. That event jolted the psyche of Muslims with traumatic residue, not only because of the savagery and destruction the infidels (polytheists) inflicted on an Islamic empire but also the despondency of knowing that God would permit such unholy act from unholy people against God-fearing Muslims. Therefore, Ibn Taymiyyah resolved that an appropriate sociopolitical response was to promote the institution of an ideal Islamic society. One that will be based on the principles of the first Islamic state at Medina. This transition, he argued, requires 230 NOTES

“a literalist interpretation of the Qur’an and Sunna and the obser- vation of Islam based on the period of the Prophet in Medinah.” See Ron Geaves, Islam Today (London and New York: Continuum International Publishing, 2010), 92f. 50 . Geaves, Islam Today , 93. 51 . This mosque and affiliated structures belonging to Boko Haram were destroyed in 2009 following the group’s major conflict with government security operatives. Consequently, the group has gone underground, operating from unspecified locations making it dif- ficult for the security operatives to physically identify them with any particular physical structure or city. 52 . In view of the fact that this group was new and unknown to many at the time, it was popularly called “Nigerian Taliban,” due to its Taliban-like activities of attacking police posts and government establishments. See S ü ddeutsche Zeitung , September 25–26, 2004; informationszentrum dritte welt , August/September, 2004; and Roman Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” in Political Islam in West Africa: State-Society Relations Transformed , ed., William F.S. Miles (Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc., 2007), 59. 53 . Gwamna Dogara Je’adayibe and Amango Kudu A., “Sliding Towards Armageddon: Revisiting Ethno-Religious Crises in Nigeria,” accessed on September 15, 2012, http://www.tcnn.org/index_files /rb52.gwamna.html . 54 . Sunday Nwankwo, “Unholy Week”, The Week , August 10, 2009, p. 19. 55 . Olayinka Oyegbiye, “Shielding Patrons of Boko Haram,” Tell , August 17, 2009, p. 68. 56 . The government did not disclose any official record of the number of lives lost. However, it is speculated that hundreds of people were killed as a result of the government security attack on the group. 57 . According to the BBC report, at the time, it was speculated that between 300 and 600 people were killed. The Red Cross reported that they provided shelter to about 3,500 people who fled the conflict spots. See BBC News – Africa , “Nigeria sect head dies in custody,” Friday, July 31, 2009, accessed on October 18, 2010, http:// news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8177451.stm. 58 . Vanguard – Online Edition, Headlines , “Boko Haram resurrects, declares total Jihad,” August 14, 2009, accessed on October 18, 2010, http://www.vanguardngr.com/2009/08/boko-haram-ressurects -declares-total-jihad/ . 59 . Olayinka Oyegbile, et al., Tell magazine, July 26, 2009, p. 28. 60 . News reports of guerrilla-type activities of this group resulting in the deaths of their targeted individuals and innocent citizens emerge regularly. One such reports is: Madu Onuorah, et al., “Gunmen Kill Borno Commissioner, Attack Prisons’ ex-Boss,” The Guardian NOTES 231

(Wednesday, September 19, 2012), accessed September 19, 2012, http://www.ngrguardiannews.com/index.php?option=com_con tent&view=article&id=99163:gunmen-kill-borno-commissioner -attack-prisons-ex-boss&catid=1:national&Itemid=559 . 61 . BBC News Africa , “Nigeria Police Station Destroyed in ‘Boko Haram Attack’,” October 12, 2010, accessed on October 18, 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11523131 . Also see Xan Rice, “Changing Face of Boko Haram,” Vanguard (May 24, 2012). accessed September 15, 2012, http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012 /05/changing-face-of-boko-haram/. 62 . A recent newspaper report estimates that about 500 Muslims have been killed by Boko Haram since their operation in northern Nigeria began. See Rice, “Changing Face of Boko Haram,” http:// www.vanguardngr.com/2012/05/changing-face-of-boko-haram/. 63 . See Tajudeen Suleiman, “The City Boko Haram Captured,” Tell Magazine: Nigeria’s Independent Weekly , September 10, 2012, accessed on September 15, 2012, http://www.tellng.com/index.php? option=com_k2&view=item&id=1818:the-city-boko-haram -captured . 64 . Xan Rice, “Changing Face of Boko Haram.” Vanguard , May 24, 2012, accessed September 15, 2012, http://www.vanguardngr.com /2012/05/changing-face-of-boko-haram/s . 65 . For a detailed report on the information provided by Salkida in an interview by another journalist, see Rice, “Changing Face of Boko Haram,” http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/05/changing-face -of-boko-haram/ . 66 . Ibid. 67 . Ibid. 68 . Rice, “Changing Face of Boko Haram,” http://www.vanguardngr .com/2012/05/changing-face-of-boko-haram/ . 69 . Carina Tertsakian, Revenge in the Name of Religion , 7. 70 . Oyegbile, Home Away from Home (Lagos: Target Response Associates, 2012). 71 . The discrimination non-indigenes are facing in northern Nigeria and the entire country is dangerously looking like the systematic and legitimate exclusion of Jews and gypsies in the social and political order in Europe. No one wants a repeat of the experiences of Jews and gypsies in many European countries. This is the time to arrest the situation from drifting into such ugly form of segregation and tribal hatemongering that may evolve from the continued pursuit of the federal character and indigene policies as prevalent today. 72 . Bach, “Indigeneity, Ethnicity, and Federalism,” 339. 73 . Recently, there are news reports of legal prosecution of some of the suspected Boko Haram agents who are in police custody. For more on this legal development, see Reuters , “Nigeria Arraigns Seven On 232 NOTES

Terrorism Charges in Violent North,” http://www.reuters.com /article/2013/02/21/nigeria-crime-idUSL6N0BL9I720130221 , February 21, 2013. 74 . It was encouraging to hear from a BBC reporter, Abdullahi Kara, from the city of Kaduna on September 25, 2012 (morning news program) that military forces in the northeast stormed locations used by Boko Haram. As a result of such proactive moves, government security is reported to have arrested about 150 Boko Haram members, who will allegedly be facing due legal processes. The reporter also alluded to the concern of the people that government security forces are being “high handed” in their approach through extra judicial killings, harassment of residents, and arrest of innocent citizens. For more information related to this development see BBC News – Africa, “Nigeria Boko Haram Crackdown Kills 35,” September 24, 2012, accessed September 25, 2012, http://www .bbc.co.uk/go/em/fr/-/news/world-africa-19703828.

Six International Influences and Impacts on Muslim-Christian Relations in Postcolonial Northern Nigeria 1 . Yusufu Bala Usman, The Manipulation of Religion in Nigeria 1977–1987 (Zaria: Gaskiya Corporation Limited, 1987), 13f. 2 . “Appendix 3: Classification of Protestant Denominations,” Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life/US. Religious Landscape Survey, 167. (167–73), accessed on September 20, 2012, http:// religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study -appendix3.pdf . 3 . “Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religions,” Nostra Aetate , # 5, accessed September 20, 2012, http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council /documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html . 4 . Nostra Aetate , # 5. 5 . The World Council of Churches, “Declaration on Religious Liberty.” Adopted at the First Assembly of the World Council of Churches in Amsterdam in August 1948, accessed on September 20, 2012, http://www.religlaw.org/content/religlaw/documents/wccdecre liglib1948.htm. 6 . “Christian Witness in a Multi-Religious World,” Recommendations for Conduct drafted at the end of January 25–28, 2011 meeting at Bangkok, Thailand, accessed on September 20, 2012, http:// www.oikoumene.org/fileadmin/files/wcc-main/2011pdfs /ChristianWitness_recommendations.pdf. 7 . See “Christian Witness in a Multi-Religious World,” Principles #7. 8 . “Christian Witness in a Multi-Religious World,” A basis for Christian witness, #7. NOTES 233

9 . It is important to note that some of the Evangelical Churches already mentioned have the same fundamental faith assumption as the Pentecostal Churches. They also believe in the Bible as the unchangeable word of God more properly termed the inerrancy of scripture. They accept literarily whatever they find in the Bible as unchangeable truth and order their lives based on their belief in the Bible. 10 . Deji Ayegboyin and S. Ademola Ishola, African Indigenous Churches: An Historical Perspective (Lagos, Nigeria: Greater Heights Publications, 1999), 24. 11 . Ayegboyin and Ishola, African Indigenous Churches , 19. 12 . It however needs to be pointed out that some of the African Independent Churches today have branches in Europe, America, and other parts of the world where their members may have migrated. These foreign branches no doubt provide some funding and financial assistance to their mother churches in Nigeria, but the financial support they provide is relatively low compared to what churches from the other three categories receive from overseas donors and funding agencies. 13 . Adoyi Onoja, “The Pentecostal Churches: The Politics of Spiritual Deregulation Since the 1980s,” in Religion in Politics: Secularism and National Integration in Modern Nigeria , ed., Julius O. Adekunle (Toronto and New Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc., 2009), 272. 14 . The Qadiriyya Sufi brotherhood was founded in Baghdad by Sheikh Abd al-Qadir al-Jaylani in the twelfth century. It spread to north Africa, becoming firmly established in Morocco by the fifteenth century (c. 1450). It is from north Africa that it spread south of the Sahara, to Agades, and eventually to the Fulani Muslims in the Hausaland in what is today’s northern Nigeria. However, Qadiriyya is said to have reached Borno earlier directly from north Africa. The distinctive thing about the Qadiriyya teaching is the focus on the mystical aspects of Islamic teaching, a normative feature of Sufism. Qadiriyya followers, like other Sufis, revere their saints and make pilgrimages to their graves, a practice sustained by both the Qadiriyya and the Tijaniyya in northern Nigeria. This practice is however frowned upon by conservative Sunni Muslims, especially those who subscribe to the Wahhabi tradition. Also consistent with the Qadiriyya, especially as it flourished in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries’ northern Nigeria were the two doctrines of Prophet Muhammad as the “Perfect man” (al-Ins ãn al-Kã min) and that of Usuman dan Fodio as the saving wali , namely, the intermediary between “the Believer and God and who would intercede for those who accept him on the Last Day” (p. 248). For more about the Qadiriyya tariqa see Mervyn Hiskett, The Development of Islam in West Africa (London and New York: Longman Group Limited, 1984), 244–251. 234 NOTES

15 . The founder of the Tijaniyya tariq a is Sheikh Ahmad al-Tijani, a devout Sufi mystic from Algeria (b. 1737). The tariqa was established in about 1780 (See Mervyn Hiskett, The Sword of Truth: The Life and Times of the Shehu Usman Dan Fodio (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 62). Sheikh Tijani is held by his followers as the “Seal of the Awliy ã ,” a claim that pitches them already against the Qadiriyya. Even though Caliph Mohammed Bello, the son of Dan Fodio, had some sympathy for the Tijaniyya, the rest of the Sokoto ulama did not find their claim to be credible, because it undermines their core belief in the efficacy of the wali of Sheikh Qadir and that of Dan Fodio. Therefore, the question of who is the greater wali was at the heart of their dispute and subsequent fierce antagonism. For more information about the Tijaniyya tariqa , see Hiskett, The Development of Islam in West Africa , 251–256. 16 . Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” in Political Islam in West Africa: State-Society Relations Transformed , ed., William F.S. Miles (Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc., 2007), 44. 17 . Ibid., 44–45. 18 . Ibid., 46ff. 19 . Muhammad Sani Umar, Islam and Colonialism: Intellectual Responses of Muslims of Northern Nigeria to British Colonial Rule (Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers, 2006), 29f. 20 . Muhammad Sani Umar, “Islam in Nigeria: Its Concept, Manifestations and Role in Nation-Building” in Nigeria Since Independence – The First 25 Years, Vol. IX (Religion) , eds., J. A. Atanda, Garba Ashiwaju, and Yaya Abubakar (Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1989), 80. 21 . Alexander Thurston corroborates this development in his work. See Thurston, Interactions Between Northern Nigeria and the Arab World in the Twentieth Century (master’s thesis, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., April 22, 2009), 1f and 23–36, accessed September 19, 2012, http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/bitstream/handle/10822/552835/thurstonAlexander .pdf?sequence=1 . 22 . E. P. T.Crampton, Christianity in Northern Nigeria (London, Geoffrey Chapman Book, 1976), 215f. 23 . In “Political Islam in West Africa and the Sahel,” Ricardo Laremont and Hrach Gregorian confirmed the efforts of this mission by adding that the support from these countries significantly enhanced the building of mosques and koranic schools in different parts of Nigeria, especially in the north. See Ricardo Laremont and Hrach Gregorian, “Political Islam in West Africa and the Sahel,” Military Review 86, no. 1 (January–February 2006): 29. Also see Andre Simmons, Arab Foreign Aid (London and Toronto: Associated University Press, 1981); Anthony Sylvester, Arabs and Africans: Co-operation NOTES 235

for Development (London: The Bodley Head, 1981); Robert Anton Mertz and Pamela MacDonald Mertz, Arab Aid to Sub-Saharan Africa (Munich, Germany: Kaiser, Grunewald [Distributed by Westview Press], 1983). 24 . In Roman Loimeier’s discussion about the activities of Muslim activists, he writes about radical Islamic organizations such as Muslim Students Society (MSS), the Umma movement, the Ikhwan , Islamic Movement, and the Dawa group denouncing the Izala for receiving funding from corrupt Saudis. See Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 55. 25 . Mervyn Hiskett, The Course of Islam in Africa (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994), 129–130. 26 . See Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 291. 27 . Loimeier, “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 48. Qaddafi had a poor relationship with the Saudi regime for a while and the latter in 1981 had denounced the former as “a heretic and infidel.” Qaddafi on his part had called for the liberation of the Kaba from the Saudis. 28 . Muhammad Sani Umar, “Changing Islamic Identity in Nigeria From the 1960s to the 1980s: From Sufism to anti-Sufism,” in Muslim Identity and Social Change in Sub-Saharan Africa , ed., Louis Brenner (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993), 162. 29 . Thurston, Interactions Between Northern Nigeria and the Arab World , 29ff and Umar, “From Sufism to anti-Sufism in Nigeria,” 162f. 30 . Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria , 137 and Thurston, Interactions Between Northern Nigeria and the Arab World , 35. 31 . The radical Islamic group, Izala, was so heavily funded by the Saudis that other radical Islamic groups resented them as morally decadent for failing to distance themselves from corrupt Saudi officials. See “Nigeria: The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 55. 32 . Ibid., 58. 33 . All those donations will amount in today’s monetary value to bil- lions of Naira (current Nigerian currency). All these funds came through the combined networking efforts of Ahmadu Bello and Abubakar Gumi. See Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria, 135–136. 34 . Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria , 289. 35 . Ibid., 290–291. 36 . Ibid., 290 37 . Ibid., 289. 236 NOTES

38 . Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secular Ideologies (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1998), 157. 39 . “Boko Haram is Foreign-driven, Says Army,” Naijavote , accessed September 20, 2012, http://www.naijavote.com/view/2334 . 40 . Loimeier, “The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 55–57. 41 . Loimeier, “The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 56. 42 . Ibid., 56–57. 43 . Ibid., 57. 44 . Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria , 289. 45 . Loimeier, “The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 66. 46 . Ibid., 49. 47 . In two different publications on this pattern of receiving funds from mutual antagonists, Loimeier holds either position. In his first publication I came across on this subject, he was of the opinion that Libya and Iran were working hard to secure favorable relationship with northern Nigerian Muslims, being well aware that the Saudis were actively wooing the same people with lots of money to fund different projects. Therefore, for these foreign donors, northern Nigerian Muslims were toss up for grabs and they tried to undo each other. See Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria , 287–291. In yet another publication where he referred to the same pattern, Loimeier provided examples of northern Nigerian reformists switching foreign donors and basically going with who has more money to offer. See Loimeier, “The Quest for a Viable Religious Option,” 58f. 48 . Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria , 287. 49 . Usman, The Manipulation of Religion in Nigeria 1977–1987 (Zaria: Gaskiya Corporation Limited, 1987). 50 . Adoyi Onoja, “The Pentecostal Churches: The Politics of Spiritual Deregulation Since the 1980s,” in Religion in Politics: Secularism and National Integration in Modern Nigeria , ed., Julius O. Adekunle (Toronto and New Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc., 2009), 263–273 and many other published works have tied the emergence or boom in Pentecostalism to economic decline among other social and political factors, including the work of Olujide Gbadegesin, “New Religious Movements and the Politics of Nation Building,” in Religion in Politics: Secularism and National Integration in Modern Nigeria , ed., Julius O. Adekunle (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, Inc., 2009), 279. 51. Maier, This House has Fallen, Nigeria in Crisis (London: Penguin Publishers, 2000), 252. 52 . Sulaiman, “Islam in Nigeria,” New Nigerian , March 27, 1988. Quoted in Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria , 367. The words in brackets are mine. NOTES 237

Seven Prevalence of Exclusivist Theology in Postcolonial Northern Nigeria and Its Challenges to Effective Muslim-Christian Dialogue 1 . Hildmann, “Faith and Reason—Requirements for an Interreligious Dialogue Between Christians and Muslims,” in Studies & Comments 12—Religious Pluralism: Modern Concepts for Interfaith Dialogue , ed., Richard Asbeck (Munich: Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung e.V., 2010), 9. 2 . Ibid., 9. 3 . Assmann, Of God and Gods: Egypt, Israel, and the Rise of Monotheism (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2008), 107. 4 . Ibid., 110. Assmann argues that violence in the name of God or religious violence “occurs only in monotheistic religions.” And he goes on to argue that Judaism provided only a rudimentary form of this kind of violence. Therefore, that Christianity and Islam have advanced and intensified religiously motivated violence across the globe. See Assmann, Of God and Gods, 144. 5 . Ibid., 109f. 6 . Ibid., 109. 7 . Hume, The Natural History of Religion (originally published in 1757). Now in public domain (Alex Catalogue), Chapter 9 and Assmann, Of God and Gods, 109. 8 . Assmann, Of God and Gods, 112. 9 . Ibid., 118–123. 10 . Ibid., 113. 11 . Ibid., 114. 12 . Othmar Keel, “Monotheismus—ein gö ttlicher Makel? Ü ber eine allzu bequeme Anklage.” Neue Z ü rcher Zeitung (October 30–31, 2004), 68; Othmar, Kanan—Israel—Christentum: Pl ä doyer f ü r eine “vertikale” Ö kumene (Mü nster: Institutum Judaicum Delitzschianum, 2002) and Assmann, Of God and Gods, 114. 13 . Assmann, Of God and Gods, 114. 14 . Assmann, however, argues that the negative and intolerant language and conduct toward different religions was mostly toward those Israelites who had adopted or were attracted to the religions of their neighbors. Therefore, references to Canaanite religion were actually to such practices within the cities of Israel among Israelites. This argument is consistent with the view he has held, namely, that violence and intolerance of biblical monotheism is much more in reference to the internal problem among the Israelites than against external religions or non-Israelite nations. See Assmann, Of God and Gods, 111–118. 15 . Ibid., 119f. 16 . Ibid., 122. 17 . Ibid., 122. 18 . Assmann argues this point further saying, “The Hebrew term for martyrdom is qiddush ha-shem (hallowing the name), which 238 NOTES

corresponds to the very first request in the Christian Lord’s Prayer: ‘Hallowed be thy name.’ The ideal form of dying for God or for the Law is to die with a scriptural quotation on one’s lips” See Assmann, Of God and Gods, 122. 19 . Ibid., 126. 20 . Ibid., 110. 21 . Ibid., 145. Assmann adduces five forms of violence, distinguishing between ritual violence and religious violence. The latter is the most evident in most societies today, as ritual violence has ceased to exist in the world of the Abrahamic religions of today. There, however, exists, in a limited degree, some sort of ritual sacrifice in Islam with the symbolic sacrifice of a ram during the feast of Ed-el Fitr. See Assmann, Of God and Gods, 142–145. 22 . Marinus Iwuchukwu , Media Ecology and Religious Pluralism , and Papal Encyclicals Online , “The Syllabus of Errors Condemned by Pius IX” (1864), accessed September 27, 2012, http://www.papalen cyclicals.net/Pius09/p9syll.htm 23 . “The Syllabus of Errors Condemned by Pius IX,” #15–18. 24 . Ibid., #77. 25 . Gavin D’Costa, Theology and Religious Pluralism (Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell, 1986), 8. 26 . D’Costa, Theology and Religious Pluralism , 9. 27 . While affirming the exclusivist position of Kraemer, Alan Race also hints that the most extreme form of exclusivist theory is held by Karl Barth in his Church Dogmatics, vol. 1/2. For more on Barth’s exclusivist views as understood by Race, see Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism: Patterns in the Christian Theology of Religions (London: SCM Press, 1983), 11ff. 28 . This is a reflection of the reputed diversity and broad scope of the Qur’an. 29 . Gade, The Qur’an: An Introduction (Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications, 2010), 29. 30 . Ibid., 33. 31 . This diversity or rather complexity of opinion or schools in Islam is confirmed by Azhar Ibrahim’s listing of five schools of thought in Islam, some of which are advocates of exclusivist view. See Ibrahim, “Contemporary Islamic Thought: A Critical Perspective,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 23, no. 3 (July 2012): 279–294. 32 . Moussalli, The Islamic Quest for Democracy, Pluralism, and Human Rights (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2001), 88. 33 . Ibrahim, “Contemporary Islamic Thought,” 280. 34 . Irfan A. Omar, ed., A Muslim View of Christianity: Essays on Dialogue by Mahmoud Ayoub (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2007), 190–199. Ayoub provides a summary analysis of the exclusivist supersessionism taught and defended by these renowned scholars NOTES 239

and Muslims leaders across the Islamic world on the basis of the two Quranic texts; 2:62 and 5:69. 2:62. 35 . This is a quote of Sayyid Qutb’s work by Mahmoud Ayoub. See Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity , 191. 36 . Said Hawwa, Asas al-tafsir , 11 vols (Cairo: Dar al-Salam, 1405/1985), 1:153. Also quoted by Ayoub, See Omar, ed., A Muslim View of Christianity , 196. 37 . Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity , 196. 38 . This is quoted from the text of Ousmane Kane, Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria , 125. 39 . Theologically and historically, Wahhabis have a very thin skin of tolerance for Sufi Muslims and have not hidden their disregard for Sufis whom they often identify as Kufr (unbelievers) and accuse them of practicing shirk . See “Wahhabiyya,” The Encyclopaedia of Islam (New Edition), vol. 11, eds., P. J. Bearman, T. H. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs (Leiden: Koninklijke Brill Publishers, 2002), 39–47. 40 . The name of the organization suggests it is ab initio a rival organization principally established in opposition to prevalent Sufi activities among northern Nigerian Muslims. 41 . See a translation of the constitution of the organization from Hausa to English, #2a in Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 351–366. 42 . Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change , 366. 43 . As already explained in earlier chapters, most Hausa–Fulani and Kanuri people in northern Nigeria self-identify as Muslims while most non-Hausa–Fulani or Kanuri people in northern Nigeria self- identify as Christians. 44 . The prophetic movement is credited for standardizing what theologians classify as theoretical monotheism (Is. 40:21–28; 43:10f; 44:8; 45:5f, 14, 21f; 46:9, etc.). For more on this, see Karl Rahner, ed., Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi (London: Burns & Oates, 1975), 979–981. 45 . Assmann, Of God and Gods, 126. 46. Secretariat for Non-Christians, “The Church and Other Religions: Reflections and Orientations on Dialogue and Mission,” The Pope Speaks: The Church Documents Quarterly 29, no. 1 (1984): 253. 47 . Secretariat for Non-Christians, “Dialogue and Mission,” 260. 48 . Marinus Iwuchukwu, “Engaging the Media as Effective Tools for Inter-Religious Dialogue in Multi-Religious Societies: A Catholic Evaluation” Journal of Interreligious Dialogue, no. 3 (March 12, 2010): 66, accessed September 29, 2012, http://irdialogue.org/journal /issue03/engaging-the-media-as-effective-tools-for-inter-religious -dialogue-in-multi-religious-societies-a-catholic-evaluation-by -marinus-iwuchukwu/. 240 NOTES

49 . Benedict XVI, “Meeting with Representatives of Other Religions,” Washington, D.C., Thursday, 17, April 2008, Apostolic Journey to the United States of America and Visit to the United Nations Organizations Headquarters, accessed September 29, 2012, http:// www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/speeches/2008/april /documents/hf_ben-xvi_spe_20080417_other-religions_en .html. 50 . Secretariat for Non-Christians, “The Church and other Religions: Reflections and Orientations on Dialogue and Mission.” The Pope Speaks: The Church Documents Quarterly 29, no. 3 (1984): 253. 51 . DP is a document jointly published by the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue (PCID) and Congregation for the Evange- lization of People in 1991. This document is a testament to the significance attached to the perceived responsibility for effective interreligious dialogue with all world religions by the Catholic Church. 52 . These four forms of dialogue are extensively considered in the document “Dialogue and Proclamation” (DP). See the English version of DP in William Burrows, ed., Redemption and Dialogue: Reading Redemptoris Missio and Dialogue and Proclamation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1993), 93–118. 53 . Ibid., 104. 54 . Ibid. 55 . Ibid. 56 . Ibid. 57 . Fitzgerald and Borelli explain each of the forms of dialogue with illustrations of how each are pragmatically realistic. See Fitzgerald and Borelli, Interfaith Dialogue , 28–34. 58 . Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity , 67–68. 59 . Michael Fitzgerald and John Borelli, while adopting the four forms of dialogue proposed by the Vatican document Dialogue and Mission , make it clear that this typology is not exhaustive; therefore, they are open to tweaking and expansion. See Fitzgerald and Borelli, Interfaith Dialogue: A Catholic View (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2006), 28. 60 . Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity, 68. 61 . Ibid. 62 . Ibid. 63 . Ibid. 64 . D’Costa, Theology and Religious Pluralism , 8f. 65 . Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity , 69. 66 . Fitzgerald and Borelli, Interfaith Dialogue , 90–91. 67 . William R. Burrows, Redemption and Dialogue: Reading Redemptoris Missio and Dialogue and Proclamation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1993), 106. 68 . Assmann, Of God and Gods, 123. NOTES 241

Eight The Necessity for Inclusive Religious Pluralism: New Trajectories in Muslim-Christian Dialogue in Northern Nigeria 1 . Jacques Dupuis, Christianity and the Religions: From Confrontation to Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2001), Marinus Iwuchukwu, Media Ecology and Religious Pluralism (Koln, Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing, 2010), and Gerald O’Collins, Salvation For All God’s Other People (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008). 2 . Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991), 483. 3 . Paul L. Heck, Common Ground: Islam, Christianity and Religious Pluralism (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2009), 2. Emphasis in bold letters of the word “far” is mine. 4 . Alan Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism: Patterns in the Christian Theology of Religions (London: SCM Press, 1983) and Gavin D’Costa, Theology and Religious Pluralism (Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986). 5 . Some of the renowned religious pluralists include: John Hick, Hans Kung, Paul F. Knitter, Peter Phan, Leonard Swidler, Raimon Panikkar, Diana Eck, Aloysius Piers, Farid Esack, Fetullah Gulen, and Mahmoud Ayoub. These scholars have often varied in their interpretation and understanding of religious pluralism. When he said “there are many varieties of pluralism,” Muhammad Legenhausen was simply affirming the truism of the different understanding and interpretation of religious pluralisms. See Legenhausen, “A Muslim’s Non-Reductive Religious Pluralism,” in Islam and Global Dialogue: Religious Pluralism and the Pursuit of Peace (Abingdon, Oxon, Great Britain: Ashgate Publishing Group, 2005), 51 and 53–56. 6 . Diana Eck, “Is Our God Listening? Exclusivism, Inclusivism, and Pluralism,” in Islam and Global Dialogue: Religious Pluralism and the Pursuit of Peace , ed., Roger Boase (England; Burlington Vermont: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2005), 41. 7 . Eck, “Is Our God Listening? Exclusivism, Inclusivism, and Pluralism,” 41–47. 8 . John Borelli, “Religious Pluralism in the USA today: A Catholic Perspective,” in Interfaith Dialogue: A Catholic View , eds., Michael L. Fitzgerald and John Borelli (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2006), 46–47. 9 . John B. Cobb, and Ward M. McAfee, eds., The Dialogue Comes of Age: Christina Encounters with Other Traditions (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Press, 2010), 21. 10 . Cobb and McAfee, The Dialogue Comes of Age, 22–24. 11 . Ibid., 24. 12 . Paul F. Knitter, “Between the Rock and a Hard Place: Pluralistic Theology Faces the Ecclesial and Academic Communities,” Journal of Theology , Summer 1997, 80. 242 NOTES

13 . Alan Race appropriately tags the process and exercise of dialogue to be constituent of “equal rights” and “epistemological modesty.” This paradigm requires a “giving and taking” from all faith traditions involved in dialogue. For more on this, see Race, Interfaith Encounter: The Twin Tracks of Theology and Dialogue (London: SCM Press, 2001), 109f. 14 . Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism (London: SCM Press, 1983), 38. 15 . Except in the cases especially of northern Nigeria and the Sudan in sub-Saharan African, Islam in most parts of the region was quite accommodating of religious differences, insofar as such traditional religions did not obstruct the practice and development of Islam. 16 . Moussalli, Islamic Quest for Democracy, Pluralism, and Human Rights (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2003), 86. 17 . See also Q. 5:44–46; 5:69; and 29:46. 18 . Erdal Toprakyaran “The Changeability of Islamic Principles using the Example of Pluralism,” in Studies & Comments 12—Religious Pluralism: Modern Concepts for Interfaith Dialogue , ed., Richard Asbeck (Munich: Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung e.V., 2010), 19. 19 . See Toprakyaran “The Changeability of Islamic Principle,” 19–24. 20 . Toprakyaran “The Changeability of Islamic Principles,” 23. 21 . M. A. Abdu-Raheem, “Islamic Concept of Tolerance and the Task before the Nigerian Muslim,” in Religion and Peace in Multi-Faith Nigeria , ed., Jacob K. Olupona (Ile-Ife, Nigeria: Obafemi Awolowo University Press, 1992), 74. 22 . Farid Esack, Qur’an, Liberation & Pluralism: An Islamic Perspective of Interreligious Solidarity against Oppression (Oxford: One World Publications, 1998), 175. 23 . Esack, Qur’an, Liberation & Pluralism , 175. 24 . Mohammed is known to have extended the principle of ahl al-dhimma to the Magi in Bahrain and the rightly guided caliphs, in keeping with the prophetic tradition, applied the principle of jiyza tax to religious minorities. See Ahmad S. Moussalli, The Islamic Quest for Democracy, Pluralism, and Human Rights (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2003), 131f. 25 . Esack, Qur’an, Liberation & Pluralism , 159. Other Qur’anic references to religious pluralism include: 2:136; 2:285; and 3:84. 26 . Esack, Qur’an, Liberation & Pluralism , 161. 27 . These fathers of the faith were almost arrogantly promoting the superiority and exclusivity of Christianity as the only true religion that they had no energy or critical objectivity left to appreciate the divine origin and authenticity of the other religions of the world. 28 . In his book Salvation for All God’s Other Peoples , Gerald O’Collins demonstrates with evidences from the Old and New Testaments both the universality of God’s salvation and the salvific imperatives NOTES 243

of other faith traditions. See O’Collins, Salvation for All God’s Other Peoples (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008). 29 . Aleida Assmann, “The Curse and Blessing of Babel; or, Looking Back on Universalisms,” in The Translatability of Cultures: Figuration of the Space Between , eds., Sanford Budick and Wolfgang Iser (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), 86. 30 . Cobb and McAfee, The Dialogue Comes of Age, 14–15. 31 . This is a translation of the New Revised Standard Version . The translation of previous quotes from John chapter 4 is from The New Jerusalem Bible . 32 . Assmann, “The Curse and Blessing of Babel,” 86. 33 . Jacques Dupuis, Christianity and the Religions: From Confrontation to Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2001), 254. 34 . Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism , 39ff. That idea fits into the anonymous-Christian concept of Karl Rahner. Race goes on to argue that the Evangelist Luke has a particularly inclusivist approach and outlook. 35 . Jacques Dupuis, Christianity and the Religions: From Confrontation to Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2001). 36 . Ibid., 52–54 and 87–97. 37 . Ibid., 88. 38 . Dupuis crystallizes his theology of inclusive pluralism in Christianity and the Religions: From Confrontation to Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2001). 39 . William R. Burrows, Jacques Dupuis Faces the Inquisition (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2012), 20. 40 . Dupuis, Christianity ad the Religions , 95. 41 . K. P. Aleaz, “Pluralism Calls for Pluralistic Inclusivism: An Indian Christian Experience,” in The Myth of Religious Superiority: A Multifaith Exploration , ed., Paul F. Knitter (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2005), 171. 42 . Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue, Dialogue and Proclamation (DP) , no. 15 or Gaudium et Spes, no. 22. 43 . DP, no. 35. 44 . Aleida Assmann, “The Curse and Blessing of Babel; or, Looking Back on Universalisms,” in eds., The Translatability of Cultures: Figuration of the Space Between , Sanford Budick and Wolfgang Iser (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), 93ff. 45 . Historically, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa was more tolerant of the normative religious pluralism in African societies. Lamin Sanneh affirms this fact as he writes, “In most places . . . Muslims embraced local versions of pluralism and tolerance rather than committing themselves and others to inflexible compliance with the religious code.” See Lamin Sanneh, Piety and Power: Muslims and Christians in West Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1996), 2. 244 NOTES

46 . Martien E. Brinkman, Non-Western Jesus: Jesus as Bodhisattva, Avatara, Guru, Prophet, Ancestor, or Healer? (London: Equinox Publishing Ltd, 2009), 210ff. Brinkman, while affirming the “functionalist approach” to religion of African Traditional Religions, goes on to argue that even though African Traditional Religions significantly emphasize an immanent God, they do not deny the transcendence of God. He makes the case that African Traditional Religions hold both views in harmony as composite understanding of God and life. Therefore, African Traditional Religions do not deny the existence of life after life, but requires a balance of focus on both the life now and the life here after. Uzukwu confirms this fundamental philosophy and religious view of life. See Elochukwu E. Uzukwu, “Missiology Today . . .,” 151–152. 47 . Elochukwu E. Uzukwu, “Missiology Today: The African Situation,” in Religion and African Culture: Inculturation—A Nigerian Perspective , ed., Elochukwu E. Uzukwu (Enugu, Nigeria: SNAAP Press, 1988), 146. 48 . Uzukwu underscores the preeminent values of hospitality obtainable in different African cultural social milieu. See Uzukwu, “Missiology Today . . .,” 158ff. 49 . Ibid., 158. 50 . This discussion is indeed not limited to African theologians or to those who have missionary interest in Africa. It has become a global or a rather non-Western world’s theological interest. This is arising from the fact that the burden of a Euro-centric Christianity has weighed unbearably on many non-Western cultures and peoples, that there is a robust and constructive search and desire to incarnate Christianity in the different non-Western cultures it has made home today. For more on this discussion, see Peter Phan, In Our Own Tongues: Perspectives from Asia on Mission and Inculturation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2003) and Peter Phan and Diana Hayes, eds., Many Faces One Church: Cultural Diversity and American Catholic Experience (Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005). 51 . Gregory Olikenyi, African Hospitality: A Model for the Communica- tion of the Gospel in the African Cultural Context (Enugu, Nigeria: Snaap Press, 2001), 49–53. Also Uzukwu provides a brief review of the pendulum-like swing in the use of concepts such as implantation of the Church and adaptation of Christianity in the African milieu. See Uzukwu, “Missiology Today . . . ,” 152ff. 52 . Olikenyi, African Hospitality , 50. Interestingly, Olikenyi prefers to interpret the concept of incarnation within the context of inculturation. Therefore, in his perception, incarnation cannot stand alone as a theological framework, but has to be subsumed into inculturation as the standard model. My position is to embrace incarnation as the most respectful, organic, and theologically sound model for mission and evangelization, not only in African but across the globe. NOTES 245

53 . Uzukwu, “Missiology Today . . .,” 154. 54 . Platvoet, “The Religions of Africa in their Historical Order,” in The Study of Religions in Africa Past, Present and Prospects , eds., Jan Platvoet, James Cox, and Jacob Olupona (Cambridge, UK: Roots and Branches, 1996), 52. Many other scholars also make the argument that the African inclusive pluralistic worldview is the reason many world religions have found themselves comfort- able in their adopted homes in Africa—a phenomenon that has led to some scholars such as Jan G. Platvoet to describe the religious landscape in Africa as “Africa’s rainbow of religions.” See Platvoet, “The Religions of Africa in Their Historical Order,” 46–102. Or for other scholars such as Jacob Olupona conceding to the authenticity of nomenclatures such as “African Independent Churches,” “African Pentecostal,” and “African Islam” in his article “Thinking Globally about African Religion.” See Olupona, “Thinking Globally about African Religion,” in Global Religions , ed., Mark Juergensmeyer (Oxford, UK and New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 527–535. Using the illustration of Ifa divination among his native Yoruba religious culture and theology, Olupona underscores the inclusive pluralistic paradigm obtainable in African religious worldview. See Olupona, “Religious Pluralism in Africa: Insights from Ifa Divination Poetry,” in Ethics that Matters: African, Caribbean, and African American Sources , eds., Marcia Y. Riggs and James Samuel Logan (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2012), 51–58. 55 . Platvoet, “The Religions of Africa in their Historical Order,” 52f. Laurenti Magesa argues however that the essence and fundamental beliefs among Africans is identical, albeit with different rituals and practices. He is therefore of the opinion that the religion of Africans should be considered in the same vein as Christianity or Islam, both of which encompass a certain level of diversity in the same religion. See Magesa, African Religion: The Moral Traditions of Abundant Life (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1997), 15–18. 56 . Newell S. Booth, “An Approach to African Religion,” in African Religions: A Symposium, ed., Newell S. Booth (New York: NOK Publishers, 1977), 3. 57 . The content of the appropriate communiqué is sampled as an appendix. See Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 343. 58 . Roman Loimeier, Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 345. 59 . William E. Shepard, Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism: A Translation and Critical Analysis of Social Justice in Islam (Leiden, New York, and Koln: E.J. Brill, 1996), 1. 60 . Affirming this truism, L. R. Holme writes, “It will seem that the Church perished because it was the Church, not of the native 246 NOTES

population, but of the alien conquerors. If it took root it was not amongst the indigenous peoples of N.-W. Africa, but amongst the foreign immigrants and Roman officials.” See Holme, The Extinction of the Christian Churches in North Africa (New York: Burt Franklin, 1969), 3f. 61 . The Church that existed in most parts of North Africa in the early Church strongly echoed either the Latin or the Greek liturgy and the theological stance. See Martien E. Brinkman, Non-Western Jesus: Jesus as Bodhisattva, Avatara, Guru, Prophet, Ancestor, or Healer? (London: Equinox Publishing Ltd, 2009), 204ff. Elochukwu Uzukwu appropriately characterized the missionary evangelization of Africans and establishment of Christianity in Africa as “the transplanting of a prefabricated alien theology, liturgy, moral, etc.” See Uzukwu, “Missiology Today: . . . .,” 153. 62 . Eck, “Is Our God Listening? Exclusivism, Inclusivism, and Pluralism,” in Islam and Global Dialogue: Religious Pluralism and the Pursuit of Peace, ed., Roger Boase (England; Burlington Vermont: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2005), 21–49.

Nine Building New Bridges of Relationships in Postcolonial Northern Nigeria and the Evolution of a New Northern Nigeria 1 . Going by Ayoub’s categorization, these two as earlier stated are merged into one, namely, dialogue of life. 2 . Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity , 68. 3 . World Council of Churches, “Christian Witness in a Multi-Religious World: Recommendations for Conduct.” June 28, 2011, accessed January 2, 2013, http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/docu ments/wcc-programmes/interreligious-dialogue-and-cooperation /christian-identity-in-pluralistic-societies/christian-witness-in-a -multi-religious-world.html . 4 . Henri Teissier, “Christians and Moslems in Africa: Challenges and Chances for a Genuine Relationship,” in The African Synod: Documents, Reflections, Perspectives , ed., Maura Browne (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1996), 157. 5 . This author was privileged to have a one-on-one informal meeting with Mr. Wiess during his visit to Duquesne University in 2009. He shared with me the remarkable progress Catholic Relief Services has made in Algeria in collaboration with community leaders, the government, and Muslim organizations in a dominantly Muslim country. According to him, the Catholic Relief Services has earned the respect of the people and Muslim organizations, hence their openness to collaborate with the organization toward many common good projects and services in the Algerian society. 6 . For more information about the activities of this organization, visit its website. Inter-faith Activities & Partnership for Peace (IFAPP), NOTES 247

its home page is: http://interfaithnigeria.org/index.php . Its headquarters is in the nation’s capital, Abuja. Although it is a national organization, it promotes regional activities toward peaceful coexis- tence between people of different religious affiliations. 7 . While Rev. Wuye lost one arm resulting from injuries he suf- fered during one of the violent conflicts, Imam Ashafa has lost very close friends and relatives who were killed during some of the conflicts. An award-winning documentary film has originated from their project of collaboration and dialogic activities. See “The Imam & the Pastor” in Building Trust Across the World’s Divide , accessed November 19, 2012, http://www.iofc .org/imam-pastor. The success of Muslim-Christian Interfaith Mediation Center comes from the inspiring testimony of two religious leaders from two conflicting religions, coming together to set up an organization, which, by overseeing Muslims and Christians working together under the same umbrella, have pro- moted a process toward effective and enduring dialogue between the same Christians and Muslims of a city that has witnessed some of the horrendous incidents of Muslim-Christian violent conflicts in northern Nigeria. 8 . Asghar Ali Engineer. “The Concept of Compassion in Islam,” The Milli Gazette , accessed June 1, 2011, http://www.milligazette.com /Archives/15122001/1512200144.htm. 9 . Ibid. 10 . Norlain bint Muhammad Dindang, “Ways and Virtues of Giving Sadaqah ,” accessed June 1, 2011, http://www.wefound.org/sadaqah -byNorlain.htm. 11 . The idea of sabon gari is a euphemism for “city of infidels.” This is because, as a norm, the sabon garis are the places you can have bars, hotels, brothels, gambling, and churches and other Christian symbols. Therefore, literally Muslims consider sabon garis as the suburbs of sin and home of infidels. 12 . Cletus Tanimu Gotan, “Nigeria’s Religious Conflicts: A Call for a Dialogue of Life” in Religion, Violence, And Conflict Resolution in Nigeria , ed., Cyril Obanure (Makurdi, Abuja, Ibadan: Aboki Publishers, 2008), 102. 13 . Ibid. 14 . Focolare Communications Office, “Focolare Pays Tribute to Imam Warith Deen Mohammed,” Focolare Movement , accessed March 5, 2013, http://www.focolare.us/es/regions/197-press-release/110 -focolare-pays-tribute-to-imam-warith-deen-mohammed . 15 . William Neu shares his experience of the exuberance and friendly disposition of Deen Mohammed and his commitment to promote ongoing dialogue of life between Muslims and Christians. See Neu, “W.D. Mohammed and Chiara Lubich: What Friendship Can Do,” Paulist Fathers—Giving The Word A Voice, accessed March 5, 2013, 248 NOTES

http://www.paulist.org/ecumenism/wd-mohammed-and-chiara -lubich-what-friendship-can-do , 2013. 16 . World Council of Churches, “Declaration on Religious Liberty.” Adopted at the First Assembly of the World Council of Churches in Amsterdam in August 1948, accessed December 7, 2012, http:// www.religlaw.org/content/religlaw/documents/wccdecreliglib 1948.htm . 17 . World Council of Churches, “Christian Witness in a Multi-Religious World: Recommendations for Conduct.” June 28, 2011, accessed January 2, 2013, http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/docu ments/wcc-programmes/interreligious-dialogue-and-cooperation /christian-identity-in-pluralistic-societies/christian-witness-in-a -multi-religious-world.html . 18 . Irfan A. Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity: Essays on Dialogue by Mahmoud Ayoub (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2007), 29. 19 . Ibid., 29. 20 . Omar, A Muslim View of Christianity, 29. 21 . Ahmad S. Moussalli, The Islamic Quest for Democracy, Pluralism, and Human Rights (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2003), 130. 22 . Ahmad S. Moussalli highlights the fact that an average Sufi Muslim unites “himself with all religions, and recognized God in every belief system.” See Moussalli, The Islamic Quest for Democracy , 91. A long- standing advocate for better Muslim-Christian relations in northern Nigeria, Bishop Matthew H. Kukah, is quoted to have highlighted examples of Muslims in northern Nigeria who have made demon- strable and honest overtures of peace to Christian communities. See Sheila Musaji, “Sectarian Violence in Nigeria is Spinning Out of Control,” The American Muslim , 2, accessed October 30, 2012. http://theamericanmuslim.org/tam.php/features/print/sectarian -violence-in-nigeria. 23 . In a signed news release by Rev. Fr. George Ehusani and Malam Nurudeen Lemu. the organization strongly condemned the act as the handiwork of criminals who should be apprehended and pros- ecuted as prescribed by the law of the country. See News Agency of Nigeria (Abuja), “Kaduna church bombing fundamentally criminal—clerics,” October 31, 2012. See also Bertram Nwannekanma, Saxone Akhaine, Joke Falaju, and John Okeke, “Inter-Faith Group Flays Terror Attack on Church,” The Guardian, Nigeria , 5, Thursday, November 1, 2012, accessed November 2, 2012, http:// www.ngrguardiannews.com/index.php?option=com_content &view=article&id=103491:inter-faith-group-flays-terror-attack -on-church-&catid=1:national&Itemid=559 ). 24 . Catholic Secretariat, Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria—The Stand of Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast Enterprises, n.d.), 12. NOTES 249

Conclusion 1 . Philipp W. Hildmann, “Faith and Reason—Requirements for an Interreligious Dialogue between Christians and Muslims,” in Studies & Comments 12—Religious Pluralism: Modern Concepts for Interfaith Dialogue , ed., Richard Asbeck (Munich: Hanns-Seidel- Stiftung e.V., 2010), 10. 2 . Catholic Secretariat, Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria—The Stand of Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast Enterprises, n.d.), 15. 3 . Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im, “The Future of Shari’ah and the Debate in Northern Nigeria,” in Comparative Perspectives on Shari’ah in Nigeria , eds., Philip Ostien, Jamila M. Nasir, and Franz Kogelmann (Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum Books, 2005), 339. 4 . Ibid., 341. 5 . Jacob K. Olupona, “The Dynamics of Religion and Interfaith Dialogue in Nigeria,” in Religion and Peace in Multi-Faith Nigeria , ed., Jacob K. Olupona (Ile-Ife, Nigeria: Obafemi Awolowo University Press, 1992), 3. 6 . Achebe, There Was A Country, 78. Chinua Achebe’s critic however is primarily his remonstration against the injustice perpetuated by the federal character policy against the Igbo ethnic group. He sums up his grievance in these words, “In most other nations the success of an ethnic group as industrious as the Igbo would stimulate healthy competition and a renaissance of learning and achievement . . . The denial of merit is a form of social injustice that can hurt not only the individuals directly concerned but ultimately the entire society. The motive for the original denial may be the tribal discrimination, but it may also come from sexism, from political, religious, or some other partisan consideration, or from corruption and bribery.” See Achebe, There Was A Country , 78. 7 . Daniel Bach, “Indigeneity, Ethnicity, and Federalism,” in Transition without end: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society under Babangida, eds., Larry Diamond, Anthony Kirk-Greene, and Oyeleye Oyediran, 333–350 (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1990), 339. 8 . Olakunle Odumosu, “Social Implications of the 1999 Constitution,” in Issues in the Review of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria , eds., Olu Ajakaiye and Solomon Akhere Benjamin (Ibadan: Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER), 1999), 100. 9 . Catholic Secretariat, Christian/Muslim Relations in Nigeria—The Stand of Catholic Bishops (Lagos: Toklast Enterprises, n.d.), 10.

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Index

Aba, x activists, 178, 191, 212, 214, 235 Abacha, 75, 84, 108 Adamawa, 13, 33, 42, 203 see also Sani Abacha adherents, 42, 45, 63, 65, 71, 78, 87, Abdulkadir, see emir of Zaria 104, 125, 135–7, 159, 160, 168, Abdullahi, 8–9, 12 170, 178, 185 see also emir of Gwandu Advisory Council on Religious Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im, 92, Affairs, 89, 222 95–6, 189, 223, 249 AECAWA, see Association of the Abdurrahaman, see sultan of Sokoto Episcopal Conference of Abdulsalam Mohammed, 55 Anglophone West Africa Abiola, see Moshood Abiola Afghanistan, 112–13 Abrahamic religions, 158, 238 Afizere, 102, 104, 106, 225 ABU, 76, 97 Africa, 7, 20, 26–7, 65, 70, 168–71, see also Ahmadu Bello University 178, 205, 226, 243, 244, 245, Abu Rannar, 59 246 see also Justice Abu Rannar Panel African, 7, 9, 10, 15, 21–3, 26, Abubakar El Nafaty, 47 28–30, 32, 34–6, 40–1, 82, Abubakar Garba, 17 96, 102, 104, 120, 124–5, 158, see also Shehu of Bornu 166–71, 178, 182, 188–9, 193, Abubakar Gumi, see Sheikh Mahmud 195–7, 199, 202–6, 208, 215– Abubakar Gumi 17, 219–20, 233, 242–6 Abubakar Shekau, 113 African inclusivity, 168, 171, 245 see also Boko Haram African Mail, 28 Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, 49, 50, 53, Africanization, 7 59–60, 206, 216 Africans, 7, 15, 26, 30, 104, 168–70, see also Balewa and Prime Minister 199, 234, 245–6, 262 Abubakar Shekau, 113 Agades, 8–9, 12, 233 see also Boko Haram Aguiyi Ironsi, 49, 50, 52 Abuja, 87, 111, 113, 114, 124, 229, see also Ironsi 247 Ahmad S. Moussalli, 144, 158, 184, academy, 165 238, 242, 248 Achebe, 191–2, 206, 249 Ahmad Salkida, 114–15, 231 ACR A, see Advisory Council on Ahmadiyya Movement, 36, 54, 205 Religious Affairs Ahmadu Bello University, 48, 71, 75, activism, see social activism 76, 133 266 INDEX

Ahmadu Bello (Sir), 13, 39, 43–50, Anglican, 24, 43, 51, 206–7 66, 85, 127–9, 131, 207, 210, Anglicans, 32, 36–7, 71, 120–1 216, 235 Anglophone, 83, 186, 189 see also Sardauna of Sokoto animists, 87 Ahl al- Kitab, 158 annex, 3 Ahmed Chanchangi, 134 annexation, 2 Ahmed Sani Yerima (Governor), 91, 92 annexed, 10 see also Yerima annulment, 85 Akbar the Great, 160 Ansar Ud-Deen Society, 36 Akilu, see emir of Kano Ansarul Islam Society, 35 Al-Kanemi, 2–4, 8, 196 Anthony Aniagolu (Chief Justice), 78, al-Maghali, 6, 127 86–7, 110, 218, 221, 229 see also Muhammad al-Maghali anthropological, 166, 169–70 Al-Masjid al-Haram, 74 anti-Christian, 51, 52 Al-Qaeda, 113 antidialogic, 151 Aladura, 120, 125 antipraxis, 112 Alan Race, 157, 164, 238, 241, antiprogressive, 111 242, 243 apartheid, 111 Aleida Assmann, 161, 163, 166, 243 apocalyptic, 142 Algeria, 127, 178–9, 234, 246 apolitical, 67 Algerian, 246 apostasy, 96 Ali Akilu, 47 Apostolic, 125, 240 Ali Ghaji, 2 application, ix, 11, 25, 58, 59, 60, 61, “Ali must go”, 215 88, 95, 96, 107, 110, 111, 115, Aliyu, 18 117, 173, 175, 176, 183–4, 185, alkali, 6, 35 189, 190, 191, 200, 202, 212, Allah, 145, 146, 147, 148, 158, 222, 228 159, 181 appreciated, x, xi, 157, 166, 172 Aloysius Piers, 241 approach, x, 16, 21, 63, 67, 95, 126, aman, 96 127, 128, 143, 161, 164, 167, amana, 225 168, 171, 179, 187, 219, 232, America, 120–2, 124, 233, 240 243, 245 American, 21, 32, 41, 69–70, 182, aqïda, 144 195, 215, 222, 224, 244–5, Arab, 68, 119, 155, 171, 198, 210 248, 254, 258–60 Arabic, 36–7, 66, 111, 131, 176, 208 Aminu d-Din Abubakar, 76, 131–2 Arabs, 1, 160, 234 Aminu Kano, 62, 216 Archdiocese of Kaduna, 201, 207, Amir al-Mumini, 9, 48 211, 259 Anaguta, 102, 104, 106, 225 archeological, 102 ancestors, 66, 109, 227 Areopagites, 164 ancestral, 102–3, 108–10, 116–17, Arewa, 209, 252, 258 174 argument, x, xi, 15, 52, 90, 91, 95, ancestry, 10, 36, 111, 125, 196 110, 135, 136, 162, 188, 198, Andalucia, 184 199, 205, 207, 214, 218, 227, Andrew F. Barnes, 15, 198–9, 201, 237, 245 203, 204 aristocracy, 10, 13, 33 Andrew Dornan, 201 aristocratic, 10, 198 Angas, 11, 225 aristocrats, 10, 25, 34, 198 INDEX 267

Armageddon, 230, 256 Bajju, 193 arms, 53, 86 Balewa, 49–50, 53, 59–60, 98, 100, army, 2, 11, 33, 52, 55, 78, 94, 101, 206, 216 113, 236 see also Abubakar Tafawa Balewa arson, 98 and Prime Minister arsonists, 98 banza Bakwai, 5, 13, 167, 196 artists, 191 Baptism, 123 Asia, 65, 244, 260 Baptist, 21, 32, 70, 80, 120, 122 Asians, 104 Baptists, 120–1 Askia Muhammad Turé, 126 Baraden Sokoto, 47 assassination, 48–50, 60 Bart Moore-Gilbert, x, 195, 258 assembly, 62, 83, 87, 121, 186, 189 Bashir Tofa (Alhaji), 85 Association of the Episcopal Bauchi, 11, 34, 75, 94, 97–8, 102–3, Conference of Anglophone West 111–13, 133, 203–4, 225, 229, Africa, 83, 186, 189 252 Association, 225–6, 261 Bautshi (Bauchi), 94 association, 54, 60, 82, 142, 183, Bawo, 4 193, 210, 214 Bayajida, 4 Association of the Removal of Bayero University Kano, v, xvii, 76, Innovation, 47 97, 114, 129, 132–3 assumptions, x, xii, xiii, xiv, 146, 151 see also BUK see also theological assumptions BBC report/news, 227, 230, 231, 232 Assyrian, 140 Bebeji, 18 atheistic, 136 Bedde tribes, 3 atheists, 148 Belgian, 20 Athenians, 164 Belgium, 64 Athens, 164, 198 belief, 8, 51, 71, 84, 96, 121, 146–7, attacks, xi, 68, 74, 77, 78, 81, 91, 98, 152, 160, 233, 234, 248 102, 105, 106, 113–14, 148, beliefs, 7, 10, 12, 46, 75, 87, 96, 178, 218, 225, 229 123–4, 146, 150, 160, 170–1, attributes, ix, 65, 219 178, 180, 185, 229, 245 Atyap, 99 believer, 180, 233 Augustine of Hippo, 16 believers, 9, 152, 159, 170 autochthonous constitution, 82, 220 Bello, see Muhammad Bello, or autocracy, 30 Ahmadu Bello autonomous, 60, 123 Benedict XVI (Pope), 149, 240 Awka, 99 Benin, 20–1 Awolowo, 242, 249, 259 Benue, 53–4, 61, 203 Ayatollah Khomeini, 65, 74, 76 Berbers, 1 see also Khomeini Berlin Conference, 17, 20 Berner Ulrich, 218 Babangida, see Ibrahim Babangida Berom, 102–4, 106, 193, 225 Babel, 161, 163, 243 Biafra, 50, 206 background, x, 92, 211, 222, 227 Biafran, 51–2 backseat, 49, 59, 60 bias, 50, 85, 144, 185 Baghdad, 4, 128, 229, 233 biases, 60 Baha’i, 95 Bible, 22, 69, 70, 123, 158, 233, 243 Bahrain, 160, 242 biblical, 69, 140–3, 148, 153, 237 268 INDEX

Bibliography, 252–64 brotherhood, 13, 66, 67–68, 125, bida, 68 127, 208, 233 Bida, 24 brotherhoods, 36, 47–9, 67, 75, bigotry, 9, 39, 62, 64, 69–70, 72, 127–8, 212 118, 138, 152 Bruce, Lawrence, 69, 213, 215 bigots, 171 Buddhism, 160, 161, 181 binary, 141, 174 Buddhist, 178, 193 Bini, 30 building, xiii, 3, 66, 67, 80, 98, 122, Biram, 5 124, 129, 131, 173, 179, 183, Birom, 103 210, 227, 234, 236, 247 Bishop Tugwell, 22 BUK, 97, 132 Bishops, 46, 83, 88, 192, 209, 218, bureaucracy, 62 220, 222, 248–9, 253, 261 bureaucratic, 55 bishops, 83, 99, 169, 189 bureaucrats, 33, 55 bitter, 40, 50, 117 business, 1–2, 16, 20, 22, 57, 65, bitterness, 47, 147, 170 98–9, 113, 130, 137, 182, 191, black, 21 198, 222, 227 Boko Haram, xiii, 68, 76, 77, 101–2, businesses, 22, 65, 98 105, 107, 109, 111–15, 118, 130, 133, 186, 229, 230, 231, 232, 236 cabinet, 85, 89 Abubakar Shekau, 113 Calabar, 20 Buji Foi, 113, 225 Caliph, 234 Ibn Taymiyyah, 112, 114, 214, 229 caliph, 59 Ibn Taymiyyah Mosque, 112, 114 Caliphas, 13 Kabiru Atiku, 113 caliphate, xiii, 1, 2–5, 8–13, 16–20, Mohammed Yusuf (Ustaz), 112–15 22, 33, 48, 53, 58–59, 63, 66, Sanni Umaru, 113, 229 90, 93–5, 103, 128, 167, 174, Bolaji Akinyemi, 89 196, 197, 198, 199 suicide bomber, 113, 114, 141–2 caliphs, 242 bombing, 133, 186, 229, 248, 259 Cameroon, 9, 115, 130 Bonnke riots, 79, 98, 124 Cameroonian, 129 see also Rheinhard Bonnke Cameroons, 85 Borno, 1–2, 9, 34, 47, 51, 58, 102, Cameroun, 4 111–13, 195, 207, 209, 211, camp, 45, 112–13, 196 229–30, 233 campaign, 8, 10, 43, 46, 71, 89, 91, Bornu, 1–5, 8, 16–17, 20, 22, 103, 113, 123, 215 174, 195–7, 203 campaigns, 44, 66, 68, 129, 219, 222 Brethren, 24, 122 camping, 126 bribery, 249 camps, 38, 45, 63, 80, 104, 135, 141, bridges, 170, 173, 191 171, 174 Britain, 17, 20, 26, 29, 64, 197, 203, campus, 71, 75, 97, 114 206, 241, 257, 262 campuses, 71, 97 British, 2, 4, 9, 15–23, 25–6, 28–30, CAN, 46–7, 54, 79–81, 84, 91, 211 33–5, 39–40, 48, 58–9, 73, 93, see also Christian Association of 104, 128, 196–7, 200, 202–7, Nigeria 209, 215, 234 Canon Robinson, 22 British Colonial Administration, capital, 3, 9, 27, 55, 59, 138, 168, 15–16, 19, 22–4, 40, 205 171, 247 INDEX 269

Capitalism, 258 Chiara Lubich, 182, 247–8 Captain Moloney, 200 see also Lubich caritas, 180, 185 chiefs, 4, 18, 26, 42, 94 categories, 23, 45, 59, 119, 123, 125, Chinedu Uba, 58–9, 211, 212 174, 191, 212, 213, 233 Chinua Achebe, 206, 249 categorization, 120, 151, 176, 246 Chris Okotie, 81 category, ix, 120, 122, 124, 201, 228 Christ, 42, 69, 77, 80, 122–3, 126, Catholic Bishops Conference of 135, 143–4, 157–8, 162, 164–6, Nigeria, 46, 88, 192, 209, 222 169, 180 see also CBCN Christian, x, xi, xiii, xv, 9, 15–16, Catholic, 22, 36–7, 41–3, 51, 63, 21–7, 30–3, 35–43, 45–6, 78–9, 81, 83, 120–1, 142–3, 49–54, 56–7, 60–3, 65, 165–6, 178, 182–3, 186, 189, 69–74, 77–82, 84–6, 88–9, 206, 208, 215–16, 218, 220, 91, 96–102, 105–6, 118–25, 224, 239–41, 244, 246, 248–9 129–31, 136, 138–45, 147–9, Catholic Secretariat, 79, 218, 222 151, 155, 157–8, 161, 163–7, Catholicism, 46 169–72, 174–5, 177–80, 182–3, Catholics, 10, 32, 36–7, 43, 45–6, 185–8, 192–3, 197, 199, 201–2, 71, 78–9, 84, 119–21, 126, 143, 209, 211–21, 223–4, 226–7, 165, 188, 206 232, 237–8, 241, 243, 246–8 Catholic Relief Services, 178–9, 246 Christian Association of Nigeria, 39, see also CRS 46–7, 54, 79, 219 CBCN, 46, 51–2, 63, 78, 82–3, 99, see also CAN 192, 218 Christian Reformed Church, 32 C.C. Ifemesia, 2, 3, 5, 12, 195, 196, see also CRC 197, 198 Christianity, xi, xiii, 15–16, 21–3, CDC, 60 26–7, 31–2, 36–7, 40–3, 45, see also Constitution Drafting 65, 69–71, 77–81, 100, 112, Committee 119–20, 122–3, 126, 135, census, 42, 45, 206, 208, 209, 259 138–9, 142, 146, 155, 158, Central Sahara, 103 161, 164–5, 167–71, 178, 184, centuries, 6, 8, 13, 27, 37, 67, 69–70, 187–9, 198–9, 201–2, 204–5, 78, 102–3, 126, 184, 225, 233 207, 209, 211, 213, 218, 225, century, 2–3, 5–7, 9, 13, 16, 39, 237–42, 244–6, 248 64–7, 76, 90, 93–4, 110–11, Christianized, 199 121, 123–4, 140, 143, 160, 165, Christians, ix, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, 173–4, 179, 193, 196, 197, 200, 12, 16, 21–3, 25, 31, 33, 37, 209, 210, 211, 211, 212, 213, 39–42, 45–7, 50–2, 54, 56–7, 215, 225, 227, 233, 234 60–4, 67–72, 74–5, 77–85, ceremonies, 80, 182–3 87–92, 97–100, 104–6, 113–15, Chad, 1–2, 4, 113, 115, 130 119–26, 130, 135–6, 138–9, challenges, xiii, 134, 155, 200, 246 142–3, 147–53, 155, 157–61, Chamba, 11, 193 164–9, 171–82, 184–91, 193, charismatic, 80–1, 119, 123–5, 219 197, 201, 204, 207, 209, 217–19, charitable, 126, 180–1 223–4, 226, 237, 239–40, 243, charity, 6, 169, 180–1, 202 246–7, 249 Charles L. Temple, 25, 28 Christmas, 106, 182 Cherubim and Seraphim, 120, 125 Christology, 165 270 INDEX

Church, 21, 30, 32, 37, 42, 51–2, COCIN, 43, 122 61, 63, 81, 120–5, 143, 161, collaborate, 17, 84, 86, 124, 150, 165–6, 179, 183, 204, 208, 232, 178, 184–5, 190, 246 238–40, 244–6, 248 collaboration, 30–31, 38, 40, 73, church, 32, 43, 52, 70, 82, 98, 120, 85, 130, 132, 173, 177–8, 124–5, 163, 186, 203, 248 246, 247 Church Fathers, 161 collaborations, 85, 177–8 Churches, 30, 32, 42–3, 46, 119–26, collaborative, 150, 179, 181, 185 161, 164, 177, 183, 188, 232–3, collaborators, 45, 130 236, 245–6, 248 college, 21, 71, 97, 134, 216 churches, 3, 30, 32–3, 36–7, 41, 43, collegial, 166 51–2, 68, 70–1, 80, 114, 119–26, colonial, x, 2, 4, 13, 15–21, 22–31, 137, 144, 164, 201, 204, 233, 29, 33–7, 39–41, 59–60, 65, 81, 247 90, 102–3, 128, 174, 181, 187, Church Missionary Society, 21 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 204–7, see also CMS 209, 215, 223, 227, 234 Chyrstostom, 161 colonialism, xi, 19, 26, 59, 168, 205, citizen, 84, 95, 107–9, 117, 189, 228 207, 211, 220, 234 citizenry, 57 colonialists, 65, 93, 170 citizens, x, xii, 7, 57, 63, 68, 80, colonies, 23, 206–7 83–4, 91–2, 105, 113, 116–18, Colonization, 26, 65, 213, 209 150, 175, 178, 181, 183, 190, colonized, 65 192, 228, 230, 232 Colony, 20 citizenship, 12, 95, 109, 115–16, 192 commerce, 1, 25, 199 civic, 82 commercial, 29, 182 Civil, 30, 50, 217, 219, 221, 224, Commission, 108, 227 228, 249 commissioner, 16, 113, 231, 260 civil, 21, 23–5, 30, 39, 43–4, 47, 49–52, commitment, 2, 15, 45, 111, 131, 55, 59–60, 62, 64, 74, 88, 96, 105, 146, 152, 156, 166, 177, 207, 107, 109, 115–16, 125, 157, 164, 247 174, 189–90, 209, 222 Committee, 44, 60–2, 76, 89, 170–1, civil service, 23, 24, 25, 30, 105, 107, 217, 223 115, 116, 125, 222, 228 committee, 61, 88–9, 92 civil war, 107, 190, 209 common, 9, 13, 33, 40, 46–7, 49, 56, civilian, 49, 62, 73, 87, 90–1 64, 69, 79, 83, 92, 95, 117, 135, Civilization, 209, 261 149–50, 152–3, 157, 159, 167, civilization, 6, 15, 26, 69, 201 171, 174–9, 181, 183, 185, 189, civilized, 26 219, 225, 246 cleric, 2 commoners, 10–11, 19, 107, 118, 215 clerical, 29 communal, 101, 103 Clerics, 259 communally, 103 clerics, 8, 248 Communication, 33, 259 Cletus T. Gotan, 182, 224, 247 communication, 36, 67, 126, 198, climate, 16, 41, 60 226 CMS, 21, 23–4, 36, 201 Communications, 247, 255 see also Church Missionary Society Communion, 206 Cobb, 162, 241, 243 communiqué, 82, 83, 99, 170, 186, see also John Cobb 189, 245 INDEX 271 communities, xvi, 1, 13, 35, 38, 174, 179, 182, 187–8, 191, 198, 43, 53, 66, 71, 82, 97–8, 101, 212, 216, 217, 222–7, 247 103, 115–16, 122, 132, 134, confrontation, 87, 105, 157 149, 160–1, 171, 178, 185–6, confrontations, 75, 229 204–5, 215, 228, 241, 248 Congregation, 166, 240 community, 26, 35, 40, 65–6, 84, congregations, 37, 43 108–9, 157, 160, 175, 177, 183, Congress, 31, 36, 41–2, 49, 68, 85, 185, 191, 209, 228, 246 127 companies, 33 conquest, 18, 29, 103, 200 companion, 140 conscience, 83, 166, 189 Company, 17, 20, 201, 203, 211, 217, conservative, 12, 81–3, 132, 135, 241, 246, 254–5, 257–8 145, 219, 233 company, 20, 145 consolidate, 179 Compass, 198–9, 204, 252 Consolidating, 52 compass, 57, 94 consolidation, 2, 102 compassion, 168–9, 180–1, 185 constituencies, 64, 191 competition, 74, 106, 115, 128, 139, constituency, 152 188, 249 Constituent Assembly, 61–2, 74, 78, compliance, 9, 184, 243 84, 86–7, 89, 91, 97, 110, 221, compromise, 57, 62, 82, 86, 157 232, 248 compromised, 10, 56 constitution, 60–1, 60, 79, 82–4, compulsion, 183 86–7, 96, 107–9, 115–16, 129, concept, 53, 70, 140, 142, 148, 155, 146, 183, 192, 218, 220–1, 161, 165, 169, 243–4 228–9, 239 concepts, 175, 180, 244 Constitution Drafting Committee, 60 condemnation, 70–1, 148 see also CDC condemnations, 88 constitutional, 62, 78, 81, 84, 107, condemned, 28, 51, 75, 143, 160, 117, 183 186, 222, 248 constitutions, 91, 158 confederated, 28 constructive, ix, 149, 155–6, 164, confederation, 9 173, 244 Conference, 20, 46, 78–9, 88, 192, contemporary, 58, 112, 173, 189, 213 209, 222 contest, 132 conference, 17, 48, 149 contested, 42, 80–1 Conferences, 83, 186, 189 context, 13, 35–6, 78, 115, 126, 140, confession, 2, 121 157, 159, 169, 180, 244 confessional, 32, 46 continent, 94, 193 conflict, xii, 2, 36–7, 49, 52, 62–3, contingent, 16, 59, 88, 95, 101, 151, 90–1, 97, 99–100, 105–6, 110, 180–1, 188, 192 127, 129, 159, 170, 187, 192, contradictions, 152, 215 212, 217, 219, 221–2, 224, 226, contradictory, 31, 37, 135, 215 230, 247 contrast, 29, 163 conflicting, 20, 52, 88, 105, 179 contributions, x, xiii, 48, 76, 119–20, conflicts, x, xi, xii, xiii, 9, 20, 37, 39, 126, 129–30, 182, 203 46, 48–9, 52, 57, 63, 69, 71–5, control, 3, 6, 15–16, 20, 28, 30, 35, 77, 79, 84, 91, 97–101, 105, 40, 47, 54, 58, 62, 64, 70, 102, 110, 113, 115, 119, 127, 130–2, 105, 115, 120, 127, 130, 140, 141–2, 147, 157–8, 167, 170–1, 201, 203, 222 272 INDEX controversial, 44, 58, 86, 132, 142 creation, 9, 46, 53, 68, 86, 122, 183, controversies, 53 226, 228 controversy, 87–8, 97, 221 creator, 167, 174 Convention, 70, 85, 120, 122 creed, 121 conversion, 11, 21, 35, 39, 43–4, 46, Cretans, 163 63, 103, 123, 129, 144, 180, crime, 57, 61, 112, 175, 190, 202, 185, 202, 225 232, 259 convert, 21, 32, 43, 71, 207 crimes, 93, 118, 164 converted, 12, 23, 32, 184, 226 criminal, 61, 68, 99, 115, 118, 248, converting, 1, 7, 11, 22 259 converts, 1, 23, 32, 37, 41, 43, 70, criminals, ix, xii, 118, 248 201–2 crises, 69, 97–8, 101–2, 106, 115, convictions, 128, 185, 188 117, 131, 191, 224, 226, 230 cooperation, 21, 34, 177, 246, 248 crisis, 215 coordinated, 46, 48 critical, ix, 28, 38, 59, 70–1, 77, Copernican, 164 92, 100, 109, 117, 136, 139, Cornelius, 163, 166 151–2, 155, 162, 166, 170, corrupt, 68, 171, 191, 235 242 corrupting, 112, 215 criticism, x, xvi, 65, 70, 88, 195 corruption, 67–8, 93–4, 111, 249 criticized, 74, 84, 89, 111, 221 cosmopolitan, 104, 151, 171 critics, 34 Council, 31, 44, 46, 54, 79, 85, 87, 89, cronies, 10, 65, 90 121–2, 142–3, 149–50, 164–6, cross, 4, 125, 144 169, 177, 183, 206, 209–10, 222, CRS, 178–9 232, 240, 243, 246, 248 see also Catholic Relief Services council, 6, 47, 121, 204, 232, 261 crusade, 124 countries, xi, 4–5, 23, 28, 40, crusaderism, 77 43–4, 65–6, 77, 88, 92, 95, crusades, 78, 124, 126 111, 127–30, 132, 135, 178, cuius region, eius religio, 10 189, 210, 213, 231, 234 cultural, x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 5, 11, country, 3–5, 18, 27–8, 30, 33, 17, 28, 30, 33, 36–7, 39, 66–7, 38–41, 43–7, 49–50, 54–8, 73–4, 77, 79, 93, 100–101, 103, 61–3, 71–4, 76–7, 79–81, 105, 110–11, 117, 133, 147, 156, 84–5, 87–91, 93, 96, 98–9, 158, 167–9, 171, 173–4, 177, 102–4, 106–12, 115–18, 126, 188, 215, 244 129, 133, 137–8, 147, 175, 179, culturally, 12, 92 183, 185–6, 190, 192–3, 212, cultural pluralism, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 215, 216, 221, 222, 229, 231, 169 246, 248 culture, 16, 30, 36–7, 65, 68, 80, coup, 49–50, 52, 55, 60, 73, 88, 132 102–4, 122, 125, 150–1, coup d’état, 50 167–9, 174, 177, 193, 201, coups, 87 216, 220, 245 court, 3, 8, 52–3, 60–2, 78, 86–7, cultures, x, xvi, 36, 39, 102, 165, 167, 97, 106 193, 244 courts, 40, 53, 59–61, 86–7, 211, 212 custody, 113, 230–1 covenant, 140, 158 customs, 11, 19, 27 CRC, 32 Cyprian of Carthage, 143 see also Christian Reformed Church Cyril, 224, 247, 255 INDEX 273

Dahiru Bauchi (Sheikh), 75, 133 descendants, 9, 66 dan Fodio, 1, 3–10, 12–13, 18–19, destabilization, 39, 168 33–4, 43–4, 48, 58–9, 63–4, destruction, 72, 97–8, 105–6, 187, 66–8, 90, 94, 103, 127, 167, 190, 229 196, 197, 198, 199, 233, 234 destructions, 77, 218, 223 see also Shehu Usuman dan Fodio, dethroned, 11, 49 Usuman dan Fodio and Uthman deuteronomic, 140–1 dan Fodio development, 2, 4–7, 9, 20, 29–33, Dan Masin Kano, 222 35–6, 41, 44–5, 49–51, 53–5, see also Maitama Sule 59–60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 71, 73–4, Dan Suleiman, 117 77, 80, 84, 88, 89, 91, 100, 102, dancing girls, 6 107, 116, 121–2, 126, 129–31, Danish Sudan United Mission, 32 134, 141, 147, 150, 161, 164, see also DSUM 169, 173, 175, 181–2, 184, 190–1, Daniel N. Wambutda, 103, 225, 263 197, 203, 204, 205, 207, 213, Danny McCain, 82, 220 214, 222, 225, 226, 231, 232, Daura, 2–5 234, 242 David Hume, 140, 237 developments, 27, 31, 33, 38, 47, 50, Dawa group, 76, 132, 235 65, 81, 88, 100, 115–16, 118, debates, 9, 39, 47, 86–8 132, 187 decadence, 93–4, 215 devotees, 58 Declaration of Religious Liberty, 121 devotions, 82 declaration, 2, 18, 166 devout, 234 de facto, 81, 93, 113, 149, 156, 161, dhimmah, 96 166, 229 dhimmi, 11 deities, 148 dialogic, 150, 157, 179, 187–8, 190, deity, 147–8 247 de jure, 81, 155, 156, 160, 161, 163, dialogical, 173 164, 166 dialogue, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, 45–6, 139, delegates, 62 149–52, 155, 157, 162, 172–3, delegations, 43–4 175–9, 181–91, 209, 223, 224, Delta, 20, 21 226, 237, 239, 240, 242, 246, delta regions, 17 247, 248, 249 democracy, 71, 83, 114, 206, 224, dialogues, 177, 185–6, 189, 191 238, 242, 248 Dialogue and Proclamation, 150, democratic, 60, 85, 90, 112, 206, 213 166, 240, 243 demographic, x, 45, 56, 74, 188 Diana Eck, 156, 241 demographics, 117, 123, 125, 226 dictator, 85 demons, 80 dictatorial, 133 demonstrate, 22, 42–4, 61, 67, 81, dictators, 84 101, 127, 134, 141, 178, 182, dictatorship, 49 186 Dignitatis Humanis, 165 denationalized, 15, 199 dignity, 19, 33, 52, 70, 121–2, 149, denomination, 63, 123 151, 174, 183, 189 denominations, 37, 42, 46, 68, Dilimi, 98 79–80, 98, 100, 125, 167 diplomacy, 17 depopulated, 94 diplomatic, 132 deprivation, 67–8, 101 disenfranchised, 68 274 INDEX disharmony, 187, 193 Duquesne, 179, 246 disillusionment, 71, 88 Dutch, 32, 144 disincentive, 192 dynasty, 4, 9, 94, 229 disingenuously, 40 disintegration, 187, 190 E. A. Ayandele, 21, 25, 30, 31, 199, disparity, 97, 107 201, 202, 203, 204, 207 dispensation, 19, 33, 60, 103, 145 east, 2–3, 32, 94, 102, 193, 199 disposition, 25, 29, 85, 151, 157, East Africa, 32 247 Eastern, 20, 43, 129, 184, 203, 207 dissatisfaction, 92 eastern, 1, 4, 9, 17, 20, 43, 48–50, dissatisfied, 45, 60, 124, 161 52, 129, 184, 198, 203, 207 dissent, 7 Ebitu Ukiwe, 89 distribution, 62, 100, 215 Eboo Patel, 178 distributive justice, 192 ecclesial, 32, 121, 124, 241 disturbance, 99 ECCN, 122 diversity, 81, 95, 100, 104, 144, 156, see also Evangelical Church of 158, 170, 193, 238, 244, 245 Christ in Nigeria divination, 225, 245 ecology, 238, 241, 256 divine, 146, 156, 161–2, 166, 184, economic, x, xi, 10–11, 19–21, 25–8, 193, 242 40, 47, 53–4, 56, 58, 64, 67–9, division, 16, 44, 60, 87, 102, 176, 187 71, 73–4, 79, 97, 101, 105–6, divisions, 47 115–17, 134–5, 137–8, 147, 172, divisive, 86, 221 175–7, 187, 190, 220, 236, 249 DM, 149–50, 176 economics, 75, 126 see also Dialogue and Mission economy, 57, 62, 67, 138, 168, 220 doctrinaire, 162 ECWA, 32, 42–3, 122 doctrinal, 70, 141, 148–9 see also Evangelical Church of doctrine, 27, 46, 120, 144, 167 West Africa doctrines, 70, 123, 125, 233 edict, 53, 60, 160 domestic, 44, 178 edicts, 52 dominance, 9, 17, 22, 30, 34, 52, 63, E. D. Morel, 28, 197, 203 65, 69, 73, 89 see also Morel dominant, 2, 36–7, 41, 48, 69, 85, Edo, 104 105, 110, 120, 127, 155, 167, Eduard Vogel, 16, 200 176, 183 Eduard R. Flegel, 16, 200 domination, 34, 79, 103, 110, 115, educated, 23–4, 30, 32–3, 36, 65, 75, 135, 206 104, 135–6, 170 donations, 122, 134, 136–8, 235 education, 8, 13, 23–7, 31–3, 35–6, donor, 130 38, 42, 48, 54, 65, 67, 77, 86, 97, donors, 76, 121, 126, 129, 135, 138, 107, 109, 112, 114, 121, 126, 131, 233, 236 173, 175–6, 178, 191, 199, 201, Dosumo, 20 202, 205, 214 DP, 150–1, 166, 176, 240, 243 educational, 205, 207–8, 210, 213, see also Dialogue and Proclamation 219, 234, 252, 262–3 drugs, 80, 177 Edward O’Connor, 41, 51, 197, 201, DSUM, 32 207 see also Danish Sudan United Edward Wilmot Blyden, 21 Mission eeman, 181 INDEX 275 efficacy, 128, 166, 234 empirical, x, xi, xii, xiii, 81, 93, 101, Efik, 193 109, 144, 155, 168, 178, 180, egalitarian, 90 189, 192, 212 egalitarianism, 166 employed, 127, 169, 202 Egba, 203 employees, 35 egocentricism, 56 employment, 33, 106, 109, 178 Egypt, 12–13, 40, 43, 65–6, 68, 129, employments, 111 145, 153, 171, 237, 252 empowering, 117 Egyptian, 12–13 emulate, 162, 179 Egyptologist, 139 emulated, 91 EKAN, 43 encounter, 126, 144, 152, 163–4 EKAS, 32 encounters, 113, 241 see also Ekkesiyar Kristi A Sudan encroachment, 44–5 Ekkesiyar Kristi A Sudan, 32 enculturation, 169 see also EKAS encyclical, 143, 183 Ekklesiyar, 32, 122 Encyclicals, 238, 260 Ekklesiyar Yan’uwa a Nigeria, 122 enemies, 51, 171, 197 see also EYN enemy, 49, 132 Ekklesiyoyin, 122 energized, 108 election, 39, 62, 80, 89–90, 206, 221 energy, 27, 175–6, 207, 242 elections, 81, 85, 90, 105, 206, 219 enforce, 95–6, 225 elements, 35–6, 45, 49, 80, 93, 123, enforced, 35, 94, 61, 96 128, 133, 152, 186, 207, 220 enforcement, 61, 96 Elijah Muhammad, 182 enforcing, 189 elites, 1, 5, 11, 33, 36, 41–2, 47, 52, engage, 29, 65, 77, 88, 100, 129, 55, 107, 127, 228 157–8, 181, 183, 192, 202 Elochukwu Uzukwu, 168, 244, 246 engaged, 20, 32, 49, 57, 79, 132, 149, emancipation, 25, 30, 63, 68, 72 151, 156 emergence, ix, 7, 33, 62, 64, 74, 80, engagement, 156 236 engagements, 65 emigration, 13 England, 203, 241, 246 Emir, 16, 17–19, 22, 23, 25, 42, 58, English, 20, 33, 122, 239, 240 60, 103, 128, 201, 202 Enlightenment, 64, 214 emir of Gwandu, Abdullahi, 58 enlightenment, 44 emir of Kano, Akilu, 22 enrichment, 149, 151, 172 emir of Kano, Aliyu, 18 enrichments, 138 emir of Zaria, Abdulkadir, 128 enslaving, 3, 18, 198 emirate, 11, 58, 76, 81, 95, 102, 203 Enterprise, 252 emirates, 9, 17, 29, 94, 103, 197, 198, Enterprises, 218, 220, 222–3, 248–9, 200 253 emirs, 17–19, 24–5, 30, 35, 47, enthronement, 69, 176 52–3, 59, 60, 112, 134, 196, entitlement, 111 200, 228 entrepreneurship, 222 empire, 1–2, 5, 8–9, 16–17, 18, 22, Enugu, 244, 259, 263 29, 33, 58, 64, 103, 136, 140, Episcopal, 83, 186, 189 142, 138, 160, 167, 174, 195, Episcopalians, 36 200, 203, 206, 229 epistemic, 166 empires, 64, 126 epistemology, ix, 12, 151, 176 276 INDEX eponymous, 5 European, xi, 16, 23–4, 27, 30–3, equality, 90, 96, 149, 157, 160, 174 36–7, 41, 64–5, 119, 122, 125, era, x, xiii, 2, 16, 20, 33–5, 37, 168, 200, 213–14, 231 39–41, 47, 58, 103, 118, 127, Europeans, 26, 104 148, 174, 187, 192, 204 evaluation, 28, 69, 151–2, 156, 162, Erdal Toprakyaran, 159, 242 164, 166, 239 Eritrea, 171 Evangelical, 32, 36–7, 41, 80, 119, errors, 143, 238 122, 144, 177, 183, 233 eschatological, 147 Evangelical Church of Christ in establish, 21, 24, 28, 32, 66, 124–5, Nigeria, 122 127, 177–9, 185, 216 see also ECCN established, 3, 5, 13, 15, 17, 20–1, Evangelical Church of West Africa, 24–5, 31, 33, 35, 44, 48–9, 55, 32, 122 65–6, 75, 77, 79, 81, 103–4, see also ECWA 120, 123, 127, 131–2, 137, 146, evangelicalism, 69, 215 160, 177, 179, 192, 201, 209, Evangelicals, 32, 36–7, 123, 125–6, 233, 234, 239 143 establishment, 2, 4, 23–4, 31, 41–2, evangelism, 100 47, 53, 55, 79, 82, 87, 115, evangelist, 124, 180, 243 132–3, 168, 188, 225, 226, evangelists, 80, 135, 204 246 evangelization, 1, 21, 24, 37–8, 41, establishments, 53, 60, 230 53, 122, 126, 166, 169, 202, eternal, 143 204, 240, 244, 246 eternity, 180 evangelize, 23, 52, 70, 151, 207 ethical, 91, 96, 192, 197 evangelized, 21, 23, 198 Ethics, 245 evangelizer, 144 Ethiopia, 171 evangelizing, 21, 80, 207 Ethiopianism, 31, 203 event, 50, 78, 140, 161, 163, 165, ethnic, xi, xiv, 7–9, 11, 17, 19, 186, 229 25–6, 32–3, 35–6, 39–40, events, 2, 16, 27, 46, 62, 81, 87, 118, 45, 50–1, 79, 90, 100–103, 124, 177, 182–3, 191, 195, 211 105–7, 110–11, 115, 117–18, evil, 57, 79, 112, 136, 158 147, 171, 177, 187, 190 –2, evils, 164 198, 204, 211, 221, 222, evolution, 69, 114, 120, 173, 214, 246 227, 228, 229, 249 evolve, 31, 187, 231 ethnicities, xiii, xiv, 10–11, 19, 25–6, evolved, 4, 66, 81, 99, 173 32, 35, 40–2, 52–3, 63, 68–9, evolving, 59, 148, 155 74, 79, 90, 94, 101–2, 104–7, exclusive, 68–9, 71, 100, 125, 138–41, 110, 116, 118, 147, 167, 177, 151, 164, 166–7, 171, 174, 218 188, 191, 193, 195, 198, 201, exclusively, 5, 125, 215 207, 216, 225 exclusiveness, 10 ethnicity, 2, 5, 9, 50, 52, 193, 201, exclusivism, 63, 69, 139, 144–8, 149, 225, 228, 231, 249 151, 165, 170, 188, 241, 246 ethos, 156, 199 exclusivist, xiii, 72, 135, 139, 141–8, euphemism, 111, 216, 247 151, 171, 237, 238 Euro-centric, 26, 244 exclusivistic, 70, 161 Europe, 26, 65, 77–8, 120–2, 124, exclusivists, 80, 141, 144, 147, 151–2 189, 206, 231, 233 exclusivity, 140, 142, 147–8, 242 INDEX 277 executive, 6, 53, 80, 86, 179 extreme, 8, 25, 61, 75, 82, 84, 94, executives, 91 130, 142, 151–2, 190, 219, 238 exegesis, 140, 161 extremism, 187 exegetical, 162 EYN, 122 exempt, 138 see also Ekklesiyar Yan’uwa a exempted, 31 Nigeria existence, 17, 54, 77–8, 81, 112, 127, 156, 171, 193, 211, 213, failed, 3, 20, 22, 24, 28, 92, 113, 244 118, 175–6, 191 existing, 15, 19, 22, 42, 46, 52, 59, failure, 29, 37, 58, 107, 133, 146, 63, 65, 67, 71, 75, 84, 86, 88, 166, 207, 220 91, 93, 95, 139, 147, 156, 177, faith, 1–2, 8, 13, 32, 46–7, 56, 71, 78, 215–16, 219 82, 112, 121, 123–4, 126, 129, Exodus, 140 136–7, 141–2, 145–6, 149–52, exodus, 50 155, 157, 160, 164, 166, 170, expansion, 2–3, 41, 64, 120, 198, 172, 175–6, 178, 179, 181–2, 199, 204, 240 184–6, 193, 215, 216, 233, 237, expansionism, 1 242, 243, 246, 248, 249 expansionist, 19 faiths, 119, 121, 144, 149, 155, 157 expediency, 19, 29, 85 families, 136–7 expedient, 23, 28, 143 family, 44, 59, 99, 109, 131, 176–7, expedition, 17, 22, 201 193 expeditions, 21 fanatic, 141 experience, x, xii, 13, 16, 19, 21–2, fanaticism, ix, 72, 139 110, 116–17, 150, 165, 189–90, Farid Esack, 160–1, 241, 242 243, 244, 247 fashion, 5, 19, 76, 190 experienced, ix, 17, 37–8, 42–3, 64, fasting, 2, 3 72, 77, 97, 99, 131, 137, 201 Father, 143, 162, 163, 202 experiences, 33, 75, 168, 181, 184, father, 8, 44, 148, 184, 240 200, 231 Father Zappa, 202 exploitation, 95, 116, 137 fatwa, 11, 128, 207 exploiting, 56 favor, 22, 39, 49, 52–3, 55, 83–5, 95, exploration, 199, 243 144–5, 160, 162, 168, 191, 201, explore, 119, 152, 172–3, 186, 191 206, 223 explored, 192 favored, 15, 41, 87, 89, 151, 197 explorers, 16, 22, 199, 200 favorites, 3, 164, 166 exploring, 102 FCC, 108 explosion, 39, 43 see also Federal Character explosive, 176 Commission explosives, 113 FCS, 71 extensive, x, 8, 40, 48, 99, 130, 176, see also Fellowship of Christian 178, 190, 192, 201, 204, 218, Students 240 fear, 19, 50, 90, 114, 145, 159, 161, extensiveness, 166 185 extortion, 94 fears, 87–8, 164 extortionate, 95 feature, 6, 31, 77, 135, 233 extrajudicial, 98 features, 36, 100, 102, 121, 123, 147, extra ecclesiam nulla salus, 143 174, 204, 220, 248 278 INDEX federal, ix, xii, 44, 46, 47, 50, 53–6, followership, 8 60–2, 82–9, 91, 95, 102, 105–11, foreign, 20, 65, 76, 89, 119–21, 113, 115–18, 174, 191–2, 206, 126–30, 132, 134–5, 141, 220, 222, 227, 228, 229, 231, 249 158, 168, 170, 220, 233, Federal Capital Territory, 102, 113, 234, 236, 246 229 foreigners, 109, 133 Federal Character Commission, 108 forgiveness, 77, 168 see also FCC fornication, 59, 93 Federalism, 208, 228, 231, 249, 252 foundation, x, xiii, 7, 121, 144, 146 Federal Shari’a Court of Appeal, 60, foundational, xv, 10, 155, 158 61, 86 foundations, 20, 69, 86 federation, 51, 55, 60, 62, 82, 86, founded, 30, 47–8, 114, 119, 100, 107, 111, 190, 209, 227 123–4, 127, 178–9, 186, Fellowship, 42, 71, 124 204, 233 Fellowship of Christian Students, 71 founder, 75, 112, 115, 127–8, 182, see also FCS 206, 234 ferocious, 101 founders, 5, 41, 112, 124 Fetullah Gulen, 241 France, 64 feudal, 13, 29, 91 fraternity, 189 feudalistic, 90–1 Frederick Lugard (Sir), 15, 17, 27–8, feuding, 3, 129, 132, 170, 173 94, 197, 205–6, 223 Fez, 127 see also Lord Lugard and Lugard fidelity, 178 free, 3, 18, 26, 52, 61, 96, 141, 143, field, 80, 170 160, 181, 188, 221 fields, 191 freedom, 61, 84, 90, 122, 143, 151, fight, 18, 44, 55, 128, 159 164–5, 173–4, 183–5, 189–90, fighting, 3, 51, 159 227 Filippo Fiorentini, 201 freedoms, 42 finance, 125, 137, 222 Freeman, 20 financed, 124 French, 4, 17, 20, 58 financial, 19, 21, 24, 28, 48, 57, 66, 88, friend, 114, 177 119–22, 124–5, 128–31, 133–4, friendly, 182, 247 136–8, 203, 210, 222, 233 friends, xv, xvi, 1, 48, 99, 140, 176, financing, 125, 131–2 182, 206, 247 Fire, 124, 147 friendship, 27, 177, 182–3, 185, 189, first-century, 183 247, 248 fiscal, 176 frontiers, 67, 198 Fitr, 238 frustration, 190, 192 Fitzgerald, 151, 240, 241 FSCA, 86 see also Michael Fitzegerald see also Federal Shari’a Court of flag bearers, 197 Appeal Focolare Movement, 182, 247, 255 fugitives, 94 focus, ix, x, xiii, 1, 159, 162, 168, Fulani, 2–5, 7–12, 15–19, 22, 26, 29, 176, 179, 180, 181, 202, 212, 33, 35–7, 42, 52–3, 63, 68–70, 223, 224, 233, 244 72–4, 79, 89–90, 94, 101–6, followers, 7–8, 12–13, 27, 40, 69, 78, 116, 118, 167, 188, 191, 196–8, 126, 136–7, 159–60, 162–4, 200–201, 207, 222, 225, 233, 199, 233, 234 239, 253–4 INDEX 279

Fulanis, 10, 22, 90, 104–6, 110, 117, genuinely, 28, 29, 64, 179 226 geographical, 3, 5, 16, 73, 101–3, fulfillment, 162–3 109, 111, 207 functional, 53, 151 geometric, 166 functionalist approach, 168, 244 geopolitical, ix, x, xii, 17, 27–8, 102, functionality, 89 190, 201 fund, 53, 131, 134, 236 George Goldie, 20 fundamental, 57–8, 64, 87–8, 91–2, George V (King), 33 95, 100, 123, 144, 146, 156, George Ehusani (Rev. Fr.), 248 169, 180, 184–5, 187, 192, 202, Gerald O’Collins, 241, 242 220, 233, 244, 245 German, 4, 20, 124, 199, 200 fundamentalism, 63, 64, 66–72, 74, Germany, 10, 64, 227, 235, 241 77, 126, 128–9, 131, 137–8, Ghana, 13, 126, 199 187, 214, 215, 216 Gimi, 26 fundamentalist, 49, 66, 70–1, 75, global, 64, 111, 113, 173, 179, 189, 80–3, 97, 123, 130–1, 135, 199, 216, 218, 241, 244, 246 137–8, 141, 144, 171, 213 Globalization, 218, 252 fundamentalists, 69–71, 74–5, 77–9, globally, 69, 132, 141, 245 97, 135, 141, 143, 147, 213 globe, 143, 145, 158, 164, 170, 183, fundamentally, 26, 87, 95, 134–5, 237, 244 158, 174, 219, 248 GNPP, 216 funded, 31, 122, 129, 131–2, 235 see also Great Nigerian People’s funding, 24, 54, 57, 66–7, 76, 108, Party 121, 122, 124–6, 129, 131, Gobir, 3, 5–9, 17 134–5, 233, 235 God, 3, 18, 33–4, 51, 70, 121–2, funds, 56–7, 83, 123, 126, 138, 235, 124, 136, 139, 141–8, 150–2, 236 155–6, 158–66, 168, 172, funeral, 80 178–80, 183–4, 189, 193, funerals, 183 213, 215, 229, 233, 237–44, Funtua, 43, 97 246, 248 furnishes, 152, 162 god, 111, 139–41, 144, 148 Futa Toro, 8 god-fatherism, 111 future, 29, 33, 118, 136, 179, 190–1, God-fearing, 229 223, 249 Gods, 18, 237–40 gods, 139, 142 garrison, 17 Gongola, 51, 61, 207, 209, 211, 255 Gashua, 43 gospel, 123, 244 Gaudium et Spes, 165, 166, 243 government, 8, 16, 19, 25, 28–9, 31, gehena, 147 44, 46–7, 49, 52–8, 60, 61, 62, generation, 33, 58, 109, 124 68, 73, 75–6, 79–80, 82, 83–9, generational, 108 91–2, 98, 105–8, 112–13, 115, generations, 64, 104, 110, 199, 229 118, 131, 133, 138, 184, 190, generosity, 130 192, 200, 202, 212, 217, 219, generous, 48, 120, 128, 131 222, 225, 226, 228, 229, 230, generously, 132, 181 232, 246 Genesis, 123, 161, 163, 183 governments, ix, 39, 52, 53, 56, 84, genetic, 100, 228 96, 107–8, 113, 116, 118, 129, genuine, 29–30, 168, 177, 182, 193 134, 176, 209, 228 280 INDEX governor, 18, 20, 25, 28, 33–4, 55, Habe, 17, 22 59, 80, 91, 112, 114, 117, 226 Haddiyar Ekklesiyar Kristi a Nigeria, governor general, 28, 33, 59 122 governors, 26, 91 see also HEKAN Gowon, 49–50, 52–6, 60, 216 Hadith, 7, 181 see also Yakubu Gowon (General) hajj, 53 grace, 19, 45 half-Christians, 21 Grand Khadi, 44, 47, 61, 74 Hans Kung, 241 Grand Khadis, 61 Haram, 68, 74, 76–7, 101–2, 111–15, Grand Mosque, 216 118, 130, 133, 186, 224, 229, grassroots, 186 230, 231, 232, 236 Great Debate, 87, 221 harems, 94 Great Nigerian People’s Party, 216 see harmony, 83, 93, 152, 163, 175, 177, also GNPP 187, 191, 244 Greeks, 167 Harry A. Gailey, 28–9, 203 Gregorian, 210, 234, 257 Harvest, 204, 262 grievances, ix, 115 Hasketh, 25 groundbreaking, 121, 165 Hassan, 55, 199, 209–10, 219, 257 group, 5, 8, 12–13, 21, 23, 26, 49, 51, Hatch (John), 29, 203, 255 54–5, 69–71, 74–7, 81, 84, 90, see also John Hatch 95, 97, 110–15, 128–9, 131–5, hate, 137, 141, 159, 174, 185 141, 144, 149, 160, 178–9, 183, hatemongering, 231 195, 200, 203, 209, 210, 217, hatred, 78, 100, 106, 188 222, 227, 229, 230, 233, 235, Hausa, 1–13, 17, 19, 22–3, 26, 32–3, 241, 248, 249 35–7, 41–2, 52–3, 63, 68–70, groups, ix, 1, 7, 12, 26, 46–7, 49, 57, 72–5, 79, 89–90, 99, 101–6, 63, 64, 79, 81–2, 87, 99, 102–3, 110, 115–18, 122, 126, 167, 106–7, 109, 115, 117, 125, 128, 188, 191, 193, 196, 197, 198, 133–4, 137–8, 150, 159, 174, 200, 201, 207, 215, 216, 222, 177, 179, 185, 188, 191, 208, 225, 226, 239 213, 222, 235 Hausa Association, 22 Gudu, 13 Hausa Bakwai, 4–5, 13, 167 guerrilla, 102, 112, 113, 230 Hausa-Fulani, 30, 42, 79, 106–7 guidelines, 107 Hausa-Fulanis, 101 Gulf, 134, 135 Hausaland, 5, 7–8, 10, 25, 58, 233, gullibility, 136, 137 252 gullible, 135 Hausas, 2, 10, 17, 26, 99, 104, 106, Gumi, 44, 47, 49, 53, 74–5, 127, 110, 167, 222, 226–7 131, 133, 210, 217, 235 havoc, 75, 129, 218 see also Sheikh Mahmud headquarters, 49, 112–14, 131, 208, Abubakar Gumi 229, 240, 247 gun, 113 heal, 91, 188 gunmen, 114, 230, 231 Healer, 244, 246, 253 guns, 113, 114, 176 healing, 123, 137, 174, 187 Guru, 244, 246, 253 health, 38, 57, 67, 121, 126, 188, 202 Gwandu, 9, 16–18, 58 healthcare, 31, 135 Gwari, 5, 11 healthy, 40, 170, 172, 173, 176, 181, gypsies, 231 249 INDEX 281 heathenism, 2–3 historiography, 5 heaven, 136, 143, 158, 168, 179–80 history, 2, 5, 7, 11, 16, 19, 27, 34, 41, Hebrew, 158, 164, 237 58, 64–5, 69, 74, 102–3, 127, hegemony, 4, 5, 16, 40, 44–5, 52, 139–40, 147–8, 187–8, 190, 73, 127 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, Heinrich Barth, 16, 94, 144, 238 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, HEKAN, 122 208, 209, 213, 215, 225, 226, see also Haddiyar Ekklesiyar Kristi 237, 251–2, 254–7, 259, 261–3 a Nigeria holy, 54, 56, 66, 123, 163, 166, 178, hell, 80, 147 206, 240 Hellenization, 167 Homegrown, 13, 199 henotheism, 148 homeland, 102 Hendrik Kraemer, 144, 238 homelands, 67, 110, 118 Henri Teissier (archbishop), 178, 246 homes, x, 93, 98–9, 110, 113–14, Henry Stanhope Freeman, 20 116, 174, 186, 188, 245 Herbert Macaulay, 30 homogeneity, 93 hereditary, 46 homogenize, 167 heresies, 13 Hong Kong, 27, 28 heresy, 146 honor, 84, 121, 123, 158, 165, 171, heretic, 235 178 heretical, 54 hope, 143 heritage, 30, 37, 93, 153, 167, 171 hopeless, 30 heritages, 93, 150 hospitable, 168 hermeneutically, 166 hospitality, 149, 168–9, 244 hermeneutics, 164–5 hostage, 216 heroism, 4 hostile, 29, 71, 141 heterodoxy, 75 hostilities, 98, 187 heterogeneity, 169 hostility, 3, 37, 46, 63, 100, 159, 179, hiccups, 2 188, 217 hierarchy, 55 Hugh Clapperton, 16, 226 high commissioner, 16, 17, 18, 25 human, x, xvi, 70, 75, 79, 90, hijra, 13 97–8, 105, 106, 115, 120–2, Hindu, 166, 178, 193 126, 135, 143, 149–52, 156, Hinduism, 160–1 158, 160, 163–5, 167–70, hinterlands, 20 173–4, 176, 180, 183–4, Hisba, 76, 217 189–90, 193, 197, 218, 222, Hiskett, 199, 233, 234, 235 224, 226, 229, 238, 242, 248 historic, 58 humanism, 166 historical, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, 2, 12, 28, humanity, 149, 153, 159, 164, 166 40, 69–70, 78, 93–5, 97, 100, humankind, 148, 152–3, 160, 165 115, 140, 159, 162, 166, 170, humans, 161, 193 184, 187, 190, 192, 196, 197, Hume, 140, 237 198, 205, 207, 210, 211, 213, Hutsi, 78 217, 219, 222, 233, 225, 227, hypothetical, x, xii 245 historically, 1, 5–6, 9, 42, 57–8, 78, Ibadan, x, 46, 71 85, 102, 123, 158, 161, 184, Ibibio, 30 239, 243 Ibibios, 106 282 INDEX

Ibn al-Arabi, 67, 214 Igbo, 43, 50–1, 104, 116, 193, 222, Ibn Taymiyyah, 112, 114, 214, 229 249 see also Boko Haram Igboland, 21 Ibo, 30, 51 Igbos, 43, 49–51, 74, 106–7, 207, Iboland, 21 222 Ibrahim al-Zakzaky, 75–6, 129, Ignatius Kaigama (archbishop), 182 133–4 ignorance, 78, 151, 152, 171 Ibrahim Ansa, 26 Ikara, 99 Ibrahim Babangida (General), 84–5, Ikhwan, 76, 129 87–9, 134, 217, 221, 224, 228, ilhad, 146 249 Ilorin, 5, 9, 13, 17, 20–1, 24, 35, 42, Ibrahim Dasuki (Alhaji), 47, 53 46, 200, 203 Ibrahim Nagwammatse, 17 image, 19, 122, 128, 132, 135, 179, Ibrahim Niass, 47, 128 183 Ibrahim Salih, 134 imam, 8, 11, 179, 182, 247, 255 Idah, 42 imams, 135, 137–8 IDB, 88, 221, 222 IMAN, 48 see also Islamic Development Bank see also Islamic Missionary Iddrisu, 13, 199 Association of Nigeria ideal, 15, 28, 93, 142, 229, 238 immoral, 56 identify, 66, 79, 94, 104, 120, 138, impact, 6, 25, 29, 31, 46, 51, 63, 196, 213, 214, 225, 230, 239 67, 69, 74, 109, 120, 138, identities, 163, 190 173, 175, 199, 201, 202, identity, 10, 12, 13, 36, 40, 43, 203, 204, 220 65, 88–9, 103, 110–11, 151, impacts, 35, 39, 48, 50, 74, 118, 119, 162–3, 167, 180, 199, 235, 127, 136, 175, 191, 232 246, 248 imperial, 11, 19, 58, 70, 220 ideological, ix, x, 19, 66, 120, 130, imperialism, 101 174, 177 imperialist, 30 ideologically, 92, 134 implantation, 244 ideologies, 65–6, 119, 131, 135, 166, implementation, 26, 59, 90–6, 108, 219, 236 112, 117, 173, 184, 211, 214, ideologue, 171 217, 222, 223 ideology, 55, 111–12, 114, 134, 156, implemented, 93, 108, 173, 175, 177, 166, 174, 213 185 Idiagbon, 84 improvised explosive device, 176 idiosyncrasies, 70 see also IED idolatry, 11, 160, 170 impoverished, 138 Idoma, 11, 13 impunity, 185, 224 Idomas, 106 impure, 2, 68 Idris Alooma, 2, 58 inalienable right, 165 IED, 176 inauguration, 18, 61 see also improvised explosive device incarnate, 244 Ifa, 245 incarnation, 169, 171, 244 IFAPP, 179, 186, 246 incidents, 11, 16, 63, 75, 77–9, 86, see also Inter-faith Activities & 98–9, 105–6, 141–2, 181, 185, Partnership for Peace 212, 218, 223, 224, 247 Igala, 11, 13 inclusion, 79, 101 INDEX 283

Inclusive, 156, 158, 161, 167, 171, 174 individual, 35, 41–2, 53, 105, 111, inclusive, ix, xiii, xv, 143, 148, 152, 122–3, 126, 144, 174, 184, 190, 156, 158, 160, 161, 162–9, 193, 207, 209 171–2, 174, 188–9, 192, 243, individualism, 168 245 individuals, 45, 53, 92, 98–9, 111, Inclusive Religious Pluralism, ix, xiii, 116–17, 119, 125, 131–3, 149, xv, 155, 158–61, 163–5, 167, 178–9, 188, 193, 230, 249 169, 173–4, 183–4, 189, 191, inequalities, 109 241 inequality, 30, 97 inclusiveness, 163 inequity, 87, 91, 94 inclusivism, 144, 157, 165, 241, 243, inerrancy, 69, 233 246 inferior, 149, 193 inclusivist, 161–2, 164, 243 infidel, 214, 235 inclusivity, 156, 158, 160–1, 165 infidelity, 3 inculturation, 169, 244 infidels, 170–1, 229, 247 incumbent, 18, 148, 193 influence, xvi, 2, 5, 12–13, 16, 47, independence, 12, 16, 30, 33, 36–7, 66, 76, 83, 123, 127–8, 130, 39–41, 46–47, 49, 55, 58, 60, 134, 138, 150, 176, 199, 205, 68, 71, 74, 81, 99, 102, 104, 206, 208, 214, 215, 216, 217, 110, 115, 125, 129, 187, 190, 220, 225 203, 205–8, 209, 210, 213, influences, 12, 27, 35, 77, 119, 126, 221, 234 127, 130–2, 220, 232 independent, 7, 30, 32, 38, 50, 53, information, 16, 33–4, 42, 58, 102, 70, 80, 94–5, 119, 120, 124–6, 187, 196, 200–202, 204–5, 122, 188, 221, 231, 233, 245 209–11, 214–15, 217–18, 226–7, India, 19, 64–5 231–2, 234, 246 Indian, 243 injunction, 77, 126, 140, 146, 183–4 Indiana, 235, 263 injunctions, 56, 123, 144 Indianapolis, 235, 263 injustice, 9, 94, 116–17, 160, 175, indifference, 189 249 indigene, xi, 104–6, 108–11, 115–17, innocent, 68, 78, 98, 105, 113, 230, 174, 192, 225, 228, 231 232 indigene certificate, 104–5, 108, 110 innovation, 11, 47, 49, 146, 210, 213, indigene rights, 110, 117 219, 222, 257 indigeneity, 109, 228, 231, 249 Innovations, 74 indigenes, 80, 101, 104–6, 109–11, Inquisition, 78, 243, 253 116–17, 191, 207, 225, 227–8, insecurity, 90, 95, 118 231, 253 inspiration, 67, 75, 112, 134, 144–5 indigenization, 107, 191–2 inspired, 12, 193 indigenizing, 32 interest, x, xv, 6, 7, 10, 12, 20, 21, 22, indigenous, 15–16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 51, 24, 26, 31, 40, 44, 49, 52, 55, 59, 99, 105, 108–9, 111, 119, 122, 56, 58, 66, 75, 81, 86, 88, 96, 125, 169, 225, 228, 233, 246 119, 130, 135, 140, 170, 170, Indirect Rule, 15, 19, 21, 25–6, 34, 188, 193, 209, 244 39–40, 41, 103, 200, 202 Institute, 45, 210, 220, 221, 227, indispensability, 35, 80 229, 249, 259 indispensable, 92, 130, 150, 152, 157, institution, 162, 180, 203, 222, 175, 179–80, 185–6, 188–9 227, 229 284 INDEX institutions, 5–6, 24–5, 29, 33, 37–8, intra-Christian, 141, 142, 185, 193, 48, 54, 61, 63, 67, 71, 86, 92, 212 97, 107, 109, 111–12, 118, 122, Iran, 65, 74, 76, 95, 130, 133–5, 145, 125, 170, 191, 215 236 instruments, 16, 22, 31, 40, 184 Iranian, 68, 74–6, 133–4 insurance, 96, 99 Iranians, 130, 133–4 insurgency, 216 Iraq, 113, 127, 133 insurgent, 115 Iraqi, 112 insurgents, 113, 118, 133, 216 Ireland, 78 insurrection, 21 Ironsi, 49–50, 52 integrity, 57, 190 see also Aguiyi Ironsi intellectual, 5, 8, 12, 171, 186, 205, irreligiosity, 215 207, 214, 234 irreligious, 8, 160 intellectuals, 55, 76–7 Isaac, 159 intercede, 233 Isaiah, 148 intercession, 145 Ishmael, 159 Intercultural Dialogue, 169, 171 Islam, xi, xiii, 1–3, 5–13, 15–16, 24, interethnic, 69, 104 26, 33–5, 37, 39–40, 42, 44–9, Interfaith, 179, 237, 240, 242, 247, 58, 61, 63–8, 71, 74–6, 84–5, 249, 253, 256, 259, 263 87, 90, 93, 96, 100, 103, 112, Inter-faith Activities & Partnership 115, 119, 126–7, 129–32, 135, for Peace, 179, 246 138–9, 144–6, 155, 158–60, see also IFAPP 167–70, 178, 180–2, 187–9, interlocutor, 152 195–9, 204–20, 225–7, 229–30, interlocutors, 151, 157 233–9, 241–3, 245–7, 252–9, intermediary, 233 261–3 international, xiii, 17, 43, 48, 88, Islamic, xv, 1–2, 4–13, 22, 34–7, 118–20, 123–4, 128–9, 208, 39–40, 43–9, 52–4, 58–9, 227, 229, 230, 232 61–72, 74–7, 79, 83–4, 86, interpretation, 71, 78, 81, 90, 95, 88–9, 92–5, 102, 112, 115, 108, 111, 143, 146, 156, 163, 126–35, 137–8, 144–6, 158–60, 165, 170, 223, 230, 241 167, 169–71, 173, 175–6, interpretations, 70, 89, 95 179–81, 183–4, 186, 190, 193, interpreted, 18, 50, 82, 108 197, 199, 207–10, 212–14, 216, interreligious, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, 63, 220–2, 224–5, 229, 233, 235–6, 72–4, 104, 132, 138, 149, 169, 238–9, 242, 245, 248, 251, 254, 171, 176, 177, 179, 182, 191, 256–8, 261–3 193, 242, 246, 248 Islamic Missionary Association of Interreligious Dialogue, xiii, xv, 45, Nigeria, 48 89, 122, 149–52, 156–7, 166, see also IMAN 168, 175, 177–8, 183, 186, 188, Islamist, 64, 66–7, 72, 74, 111, 113, 237, 239–40, 243, 249, 256 129, 134, 212–14 intervention, 2, 22, 60, 87, 178 Islamists, 63, 65–6, 68, 78, 113, intolerance, 9, 63–4, 71, 139–40, 132, 134, 137, 145, 147–8, 171, 185, 195, 237 212–13, 216, 219–20, 257 intra-Muslim, 49, 84, 97, 99, 130–1, Islamiya, 132 141, 142, 158, 185, 193, 212 Islamization, 5, 15, 39, 43–5, 66, intrareligious, 63, 73, 100 77–8, 85, 90, 209 INDEX 285

Islamize, 46–7, 78 Jasawa, 225, 226, 227 Islamized, 12, 167, 198 Jasawa Development Association, Islamizing, 43, 46, 49, 61, 84, 87, 226 89, 129 J. D. Fage, 8, 195, 197 Ismaila Idris, 47, 49 jealousy, 141, 142 Israel, 139–40, 148, 153, 237, 252, Jema’a, 102, 103 260 Jeremiah, 148 Israelite, 140–1, 148, 237 Jerry Gana, 80 Israelites, 140–1, 148, 237 Jerusalem, 57, 162–3, 243 Istifanus Audu, 32 Jesuit, 169 Italy, 65 Jesus, 57, 135, 158–9, 162–6, 180, Ivor Wilks, 11, 198 244, 246, 253 Iwuchukwu Marinus, 223, 224, 226, Jew, 145, 166 238, 239, 241, 256 Jewish, 140–1, 148, 178, 193 see also Marinus Iwuchukwu Jews, 78, 121, 140, 147, 158–60, Izala, 49, 74–7, 129–34, 145–6, 170, 163, 184, 231 210, 213, 216, 217, 219, 235 jihad, 1–2, 5–13, 16, 19, 34, 48, see also Jama’atul Izalatul Bid’ah 58–9, 63–4, 66, 68, 77, 85, 93, Wa’ikhamatul Sunnah and 103, 111–12, 167, 197, 198, 199, Yan Izala 225, 230 jihadist, 8, 10, 103, 111 J. A. Atanda, 63–4, 81, 205, 207–8, jihadists, 2–3, 6, 10–11, 35, 102–3, 210, 212–13, 219, 234 128, 167, 196, 225 Jaba, 41 jihads, 7, 9–10, 103 Jacob, 159 J. Isawa Elaigwu, 44, 208 Jacob A. Olupona, 191, 242, 245, 249 jiyza, 6, 10, 11, 19, 242 Jacques Dupuis, 164–6, 241, 243, JNI, 44, 47–8, 53–4, 127, 131, 208, 253–4, 256 209, 210 jahiliyyah, 93 see also Jama’atu Nasir Islam Jainism, 160 Job, 159 Jalingo, 44, 98, 100–101 job, 137 Jam’iyat ad-Da’aw al-Islamiya, jobs, 23, 125, 134 132–3 Johannine, 162 Jama’atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda’awati John, 143, 161, 162, 180, 243 wal-Jihad, 111 John XXIII, 165, 183 Jama’atul Izalatul Bid’ah John Borelli, 156, 240, 241 Wa’ikhamatul Sunnah, 49, 74 John Cobb, 156, 241 see also Izala and Yan Izala see also Cobb Jama’atu Nasir Islam, 39, 44, 46, 210 John Chrysostom, 161 see also JNI John Hatch, 28 James Robertson (Sir), 206 John Hick, 241 James Wuye (Rev), 179–80 John O. Voll, 66, 67, 213, 214 Jan Assmann, 139–42, 148, 152, John Paden, 209, 210 237–8, 239 John Paul II (pope), 84, 182 Jan Boer, 15, 26, 31, 199, 202, 203, Johnson (Dr), 30 204, 207 Jolly Nyame (Rev.), 80–1 Jan G. Platvoet, 169–70, 245 Jolly Tanko Yusufu (Mallam), 41 jangali, 6 Jonah Jang, 226, 227 286 INDEX

Jos, xiii, 37, 42, 49, 71, 75, 98, Kaje, 41 100–106, 110, 115–17, 181, Kanamma, 112 183, 198, 204, 208, 209, Kanem-Bornu, xiii, 2–5, 9, 17, 174, 215, 218, 224, 225, 226, 195, 196 227, 229 Kano, xv, 2–3, 5–7, 17–18, 22–6, Joseph Kony, 78 37, 45, 49–51, 58, 62, 75–6, Joseph Masson, 169 79, 97–8, 111, 114, 118, 124, journalist, 114, 231 128–9, 131–3, 181, 183, 201, journalists, 218 203, 209–10, 216, 218, 222, Judah, 148 224, 226, 229, 253, 260, 262 Judaism, 142, 146, 158, 213, 237 Kanuri, 2, 4, 12, 17, 19, 21, 36, 42, Judas, 141 63, 68–9, 79, 103, 167, 193, 216, judge, 6, 34 225, 239 judgment, 2, 83, 152, 202 Karl Barth, 144 judicial, 1, 5–6, 59, 93, 118, 197, Karl Kumm, 204, 238 212, 232 Karl Maier, 137 judicious, 96, 222 Karl Rahner, 239, 243 Jukun, 5, 11, 13, 102–4, 116 Katab, 41 juridical, 95 Katsina, 2–3, 5–7, 12, 17–18, 24, 43, jurisdiction, 87 55, 58, 76, 97–8, 111, 118, 183, jurisdictions, 91 203, 217 jurisprudence, 11, 59, 92, 184 Kebbi, 5, 17, 92–3, 223 jurists, 95 Keffi, 200 jus sanguinis, 108–10 kharaj, 6 Justice Abu Rannar Panel, 59–60 Khartoum, 223 Justice, 78, 220, 245, 261 Khomeini, 65, 74, 76 justice, 7, 10, 27, 30, 34, 53–4, 57, see also Ayatollah Khomeini 60, 78, 92, 94, 107, 115, 160, killings, 98, 118, 223, 224, 232 168–9, 176–7, 185, 192 king, 3, 6, 8, 10, 20, 33, 149, 196 justification, x, 8, 107, 138, 147, 180, kingdom, xiii, 1–2, 4, 8, 162, 166, 191, 206 178–80, 225 justified, 53, 78–9 kingdoms, 1–3, 13, 102 justify, 2, 16, 144, 164, 188, 207 kings, 2, 6–7, 11, 18, 75 knowledge, xii, 3, 16, 24, 29, 145–6, Kaba, 235 151–2, 176, 201–2 Kabiru Atiku, 113 Kontagora, 17, 24, 200, 203 Kabwir, 26 Koran, 115 Kaduna, 37, 42, 44, 49–51, 75–6, see also Qur’an 78–80, 96–9, 102, 114, 131, koranic, 234 179, 181, 183, 186, 201, 207, kudin arashi, 59 209–12, 218, 222, 224, 232, kurdin kasa, 6 248, 251–2, 259, 262–3 kufir, 148 Kaduna Mafia, 55–6 Kukah, 46, 69, 207, 208, 209, 210, Kaduna Nzeogwu, 50 211, 215, 219, 248 see also Nzeogwu see also Matthew Hassan Kukah Kafanchan, 98, 218 (Bishop) kafir, 22 Kutumbawa, 12 Kagoro, 41 Kuwait, 43, 48, 76, 129 INDEX 287

Kwara, 48, 53 legalization, 107 Kwararafa, 2, 5 legalized, 191 legendary, 4, 196 Lagos, x, 20, 48, 55, 83, 170, 186, legendry, 44 204–5, 210, 218, 220–2, 227, legends, 4 231, 233, 248–9, 252–3, 259–60 legislation, 59–60, 91, 97 Lamido Sanusi, 220 legislative, 17, 31, 86, 204 Lamin Sanneh, 9, 197, 243, 261 legislators, 91 land, 6, 10, 15, 17, 19, 44, 99, 103, legislature, 86, 96 140, 184, 225–7 legitimacy, 6, 79, 158, 160, 195 language, 2, 22–3, 32, 36–7, 78, 104, legitimate, 4–5, 31, 112, 161, 231 110, 122, 140, 148, 161–3, 167, Leonard Swidler, 241 206, 226, 237 Levtzion, 66–7, 213, 198, 213–14, 257 languages, 102–3, 122, 163, 195 see also Nehemiah Levtzion law, 2, 6, 11, 17–18, 21, 35, 40, 53, liberate, 53, 137 58–9, 61–2, 79, 83, 86, 90–1, liberation, 53, 137, 150, 153, 199, 235 95–6, 106, 107–8, 110, 115–16, liberties, 157, 164, 189–90 118, 141, 174–5, 189, 217, 220, liberty, 121, 143, 174, 189, 232, 248 221, 223, 224, 227, 228, 248, Libya, 43, 76, 129–30, 132–3, 135, 254, 262, 264 210, 236 lawful, 34, 186 Libyan, 129, 133 laws, 18, 34, 59, 117–18, 138, 171, Libyans, 130, 132–3 191, 222 lieutenant, 28, 34, 49, 50, 52 lawyers, 24, 191 lifestyle, 36–7, 199 leader, 3, 26, 50, 56, 75, 84, 112–13, limited, 5, 16, 23–4, 53, 55, 70, 83, 128–9, 132–3, 179, 210, 229 116, 119–20, 134, 201, 203, leaders, ix, xiv, 1, 7, 9–10, 15, 17, 21, 207, 209, 210, 211, 213, 214, 25, 32–4, 36, 40–1, 45–7, 49–52, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 55–6, 58, 60, 63, 65, 67–8, 75–6, 229, 232, 233, 236, 238, 244 78, 80, 90, 113, 125–7, 129, 132, lingua franca, 167 137–8, 144–5, 147, 149, 159, Lissi Rasmussen, 7, 34, 43, 103, 196, 162, 167, 169–71, 176, 182, 185, 207, 226, 261 189, 191, 197, 200, 208, 210, see also Rasmussen 212, 214, 216, 239, 246, 247 literacy, 33 leadership, 2, 4, 7–10, 16–20, 22, 25, literalist, 230 27, 35, 57–8, 67, 70–1, 75–6, literalists, 69, 147 80, 90, 103, 112, 114–15, 122, literally, 57, 126, 175, 247 128, 132, 184, 198, 201, 205, literarily, 71, 233 207, 210, 217, 225 literary, 212 leaderships, 19, 121, 125, 134 liturgical, 36, 120, 125 Lebanese, 23 liturgy, 121, 246 Lebanon, 91, 113 Lk, 179–80 legacy, 76, 118, 197, 215 Local, 225–6 Legal, 76, 82, 92, 212 local, 1, 9–10, 18, 32, 36–7, 42, legal, 5–6, 35, 53, 59, 76, 82, 83, 86, 65, 70, 80, 91, 96, 105–8, 113, 91–3, 95–6, 116, 118, 174, 176, 115, 122–3, 128, 130, 132–4, 184, 189, 220, 222, 231–2 200, 201, 204, 219, 225, 226, legalistic, 206 228, 243 288 INDEX locality, 32 Magaji of Keffi, 200 locally, 36, 113, 120, 122, 125, 206 Maghreb, 1, 127 locals, 21, 32, 65, 112 Magi, 160, 242 logical, 9, 67, 77, 90, 135, 139, 142, Magian, 145 152, 165–6 Maguzawa, 11–12, 25–6, 193 logos, 162 Maguzawas, 202 Loimeier, 55, 59, 77, 99, 106, 128, 129, Mahdi, 8, 13, 35, 39, 66, 128, 207 135, 208, 210–12, 216–19, 224, Mahdist, 26 227, 230, 234, 235, 236, 239, 245 Mahdists, 35 Lokoja, 17, 22, 42, 200, 201 Mahmoud Ayoub, 145, 150–1, London, 28, 111, 195–7, 199, 201, 176–7, 184, 199, 238, 239, 203–5, 207, 210, 217, 219, 220, 241, 248 224, 226, 227, 230, 233, 234, Mai of Bornu, 3–4, 196 235, 236, 238, 239, 241, 242, Mai Umme Jilmi, 196 244, 246, 251, 252, 253, 254, Maiduguri, 17, 37, 42, 97, 111–14 255, 256, 257, 258 Maier, 137, 258 looting, 68, 98 see also Karl Maier lootings, 105 Mainasara, 211 Lord, 78, 141, 144, 146, 159, 165, Maitama Sule, 90, 222 181, 184, 238, 258 see also Dan Masin Kano Lord Lugard, 48 Maitatsine, 75, 84, 97–8, 129, 255 lords, 19 Makurdi, 42, 207–8, 224, 247, 255 Louis Brenner, 196, 235 Malam, 76, 248 love, 3, 46, 77, 151, 159, 168–9, 171, Malamai, 44 174, 179–80, 189 Mali, 5, 126–7, 133, 198 loyalists, 10 Maliki, 11 loyalty, 21, 36, 45, 67, 76, 107, 127, Mallam, 41, 49, 113, 216, 229 133, 140, 180, 220 Mallam Jibril ibn Umar, 8, 12, 127 Lubich, 182, 247, 248 mallamai, 5, 6 see also Chiara Lubich mallams, 135, 210 Lugard, 15–30, 33, 36, 48, 59, 94, Mambila, 122 200, 223 Manchester, 21 see also Lord Lugard and mandate, 26 Frederick Lugard Manifest, 178 Luke, 243 manipulation, 119, 226, 232, 236 Luminosa Award, 182 Mansa Musa, 126 Lutheran, 32 marginal, 192 Lutherans, 120, 122 marginalization, 101 marginalize, 80 M. A. Abdu-Raheem, 159, 242 marginalized, 9–10, 25, 35, 70, 74, Macaulay, 30 78, 107, 116 see also Herbert Macaulay Marinus Iwuchukwu, 223, 224, 226, Maccabees, 141 239, 241 Macpherson Constitution, 129 see also Iwuchukwu Madagascar, 169 marriage, 4, 125, 228 Madaki, 217 marriages, 182–3 Mafia, 55–6 martyrdom, 141, 237 see also Kaduna Mafia Marxist, 62, 77, 82–3, 136 INDEX 289

Mansa Musa, 126 Micah, 148 Mass, 206 Michael Crowder, 12, 196, 197, 207 mass conversion, 39, 46, 129 Michael Fitzgerald, 240 Mass Mobilization for Self-Reliance, see also Fitzgerald 89 Middle-Belt, 32, 42, 42, 52, 54, mass riots, ix, 133 61, 68, 88, 101–3, 125, mass violence, 50, 190 203–4, 257 massacre, 78, 99, 113, 218 Mid-Western, 202 masses, 5, 7, 74, 95, 137, 175 migrants, 43 material, 27, 48, 75, 98, 120, 130, migrated, 8, 23, 37, 116, 233 136, 138, 181, 190 migration, 102–3, 125 materialistic, 46 militancy, 77, 79, 81, 102 matrimony, 87 militant, 64, 66–7, 71, 77–8, 95, 113, Matt, 162 138, 185, 218 matter, 12, 42, 51, 54, 58, 61, 86, 96, militants, 74, 130 114, 126, 177 military, 3, 8, 17–18, 22, 30, 39, 47, matters, 6, 19, 46, 52–4, 58–9, 81, 49–52, 55–8, 60, 62, 73, 75, 83, 87, 89, 130, 176, 210, 221, 84–5, 87–90, 98, 107, 112–13, 245 115, 117, 132–4, 199, 201, 210, Matthew Hassan Kukah (Bishop), 46, 211, 212, 217, 232, 234 69, 209–10, 219, 248, 257 Millenarian, 215 see also Kukah millenarianists, 69 Matthews Ojo, 213, 216, 218 Miller, 22, 23 Mauritania, 113 see also Walter Miller Mawlana Mawdudi, 65, 214 mini-ayatollahs, 76 mayhem, 97, 229 see also Yan Shia or Shiawa Mayor of the palace, 3 minimalization, 70 McKoskry, 20 Minna, 37, 42 MCPN, 62 Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, 206 see also Muslim Committee for a missiology, 120, 169, 244, 245, Progressive Nigeria, 61–2 246 Mecca, 2, 13, 56–7, 67, 74, 90, 93, mission, 15, 21–6, 29–31, 32, 33, 131, 133, 159–60, 196, 198–9, 37, 43, 54, 66, 70, 138, 142, 216 149–50, 169, 178, 199, 201, media, 179, 226, 229, 238, 239, 241 202, 204, 207, 210, 234, 239, Mediation, 179, 247 240, 241, 244 medical, 24, 32, 47 missionaries, 1, 15–16, 21–7, 30–2, Medina, 13, 57, 67, 90, 131, 160, 34–7, 41, 52, 54, 119, 122, 168, 198, 199, 229, 230 170, 187, 201–2 mediocrity, 191, 192 missionary, 1, 21–2, 24, 30, 31–3, Mediterranean, 37, 65 35, 37, 39–43, 48, 70, 100, 122, Mennonite, 24 125, 144, 168, 199, 201, 202, merchants, 5, 8, 22, 126, 198, 201 203, 204, 214, 244, 246 meritocracy, 110, 191 missionary differentiation, 202 meritoriously, 56 missions, 27, 30–2, 37, 41, 45, 53–4, messiah, 8, 206 63, 71, 120, 200, 201, 202, 205, Methodists, 120, 121 206, 208 metropolis, 104 mixed, 114, 177 290 INDEX modern, x, 20–1, 24–5, 33, 35, 42, mother church, 32, 120, 233 53, 57, 64–5, 74, 78, 84, 90, 93, motherland, 50 96–7, 101, 109–10, 118, 122, movement, 8, 12, 30, 36, 49, 63–4, 126, 133, 137, 142–3, 158, 168, 66–8, 74, 75–7, 123–4, 128, 174–5, 183, 199, 201, 202, 203, 145, 182, 205, 206, 213, 214, 204, 206, 209, 213, 220, 233, 215, 216, 217, 235, 239, 247 236, 237, 242, 249 movements, 13, 31, 64, 66–7, 72, 76, Modernism, 69, 214, 258 112, 125, 142, 144, 213, 216, modernism, 69 218, 219, 236, 239, 247 modernist, 70, 82, 143 Mpun, 104 modernists, 65, 69 MSS, 47, 75, 132, 235 modernity, 69–70, 210, 213, 214, see also Muslim Students Society 219, 222, 224, 239 MSSN, 48 modernization, 65 see also Muslim Students Society of modernizing, 55 Nigeria modus operandi, 60, 118, 123, 137, Muammar Qaddafi, 129, 132 192 see also Qaddafi Mohammed Bello, 234 Mughal, 64, 160 Mohammed Marwa, 129 Muhammad Ahmad ibn Said, 13 Mohammed Sani Umar, 64 Muhammad al-Maghali, 6, 127 Mohammed Yusuf (Ustaz), 112, 113, see also al-Maghali 114, 115 Muhammadan, 145 Mohammedan, 18–19 Muhammad Ashafa (Imam), 179, Warith Deen Mohammed (Imam), 209, 247 182, 247, 248 Muhammad Bello, 2–3, 8, 9, 58, 234 Mongols, 229 Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, monolatry, 148 12–13, 66, 199 monotheism, 139–42, 146, 148, Muhammad Khalid Masud, 65, 214, 152–3, 169, 237, 239 258 monotheistic, 140, 237 Muhammadu Korau, 58 monotheists, 145 Muhammad Rumfa, 6, 58 Moore Gilbert, 195 Muhammad Sayyid Tantawi, 145 moral, 56–7, 79, 93–4, 150, 162, Muhammad S. Umar, 34, 35, 40, 44, 176, 202, 215, 245, 246 60, 64, 67, 205, 206, 207, 208, morale, 128 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, morality, 57, 80, 91, 176, 189 215, 234, 235 morals, 138 Mujähidün, 11 morass, 135 Mukhtar U. Bunza, 34, 36, 43, 200, Morel, 28, 197, 203 201, 202, 205, 206, 208 see also E. D. Morel multi-cultural, 155, 171 Moroa, 41 multi-faith, 243 Morocco, 127, 179, 233 multi-ideological, 155 morphology, 193 multi-religious, 171 Moses, 158, 159 Muniyo, 3 Moshood Abiola, 85, 89–90 Muri, 199, 204 Moslem, 12–13, 21 Murray Last, 197, 198, 199 mosque, 74, 112, 114, 131, 216, 230 Murtala Mohammed, 60, 73, 212, 227 mosques, 3, 18, 66, 129, 131, 210, 234 Musa Yar’ Adua, 55 INDEX 291

Muslim, x, xi, xiii, 3, 5, 7–13, national, 20, 29, 36, 42, 45–6, 53–4, 15–16, 21–2, 25–6, 31–41, 65, 67, 73, 77, 81, 85, 86, 89, 91, 43–52, 54, 56–63, 65, 68–70, 100, 106–8, 116–17, 127, 175, 72–5, 77–81, 84–7, 89–91, 191, 193, 216, 229, 231, 233, 95–9, 101–2, 105, 107, 118–19, 236, 247, 248 126, 129–33, 135–6, 138–9, National African Company, 20 141–2, 144, 146, 148–9, 151, National Council of Nigeria and the 155, 166, 170–2, 174–5, 177–9, Cameroons, 85 182, 184–90, 192–3, 196, 197, see also NCNC 198, 199, 201, 202, 205, 206, National People’s Congress, 127 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, see also NPC 213, 214, 216, 218, 219, 220, National Party of Nigeria, 73, 85, 216 221, 222, 223, 224, 226, 232, see also NPN 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, Nigerian People’s Party, 73, 85 242, 246, 247, 248, 249 see also NPP Muslim-Christian, x, xiii, xv, 91, 142, Nigerian Political Science Association, 179, 188, 224 85 Muslim Committee for a Progressive see also NAPSA Nigeria, 61–2 National Republican Convention, 85 Muslim-dominated, 10, 16, 129, 176, see also NRC 213 National Youth Service Corp, 216 see Muslims, ix, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, 4, also NYSC 6–7, 9–12, 15–16, 19, 21–7, 31, Nationalism, 30 34–5, 37, 39–40, 43–51, 53–9, nationalism, 30–1, 65, 203 61–5, 67, 69, 71–2, 74–7, 99–100, nationalist, 30–1, 65 104–6, 110, 113–15, 118–19, nationality, 8, 129, 164, 180 121, 124, 126–8, 130–6, 138–9, nations, 7, 43, 65, 148, 237, 240, 249 144–53, 155, 157–61, 167–79, native, 16, 23, 25–6, 35, 40, 59, 167, 181–2, 184–91, 193, 197–202, 202, 228, 245 205–8, 213–14, 217–20, 223–4, natives, 25, 32, 42, 104, 202, 226 226, 229, 231, 233–4, 236–7, naturalization, 109, 192 239, 243, 247–9 nature, 67, 81, 86, 95, 120, 143, 157, Muslim Students Society, 47, 75, 132, 169, 190 235 Nazareth, 57 see also MSS NCA, 46, 54, 209 Muslim Students Society of Nigeria, see also Northern Christian 48 Association see also MSSN NCNC, 85 Mussulmans, 18 see also National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons Naraguta, 104 negativity, 26, 30, 40, 144, 147 Nasir Makarim al-Shrazi, 145 negotiation, 118, 225 Nasiru Kabara, 75, 128–30, 132, 210 negotiations, 65 see also Sheikh Nasiru Kabara Negro, 253 Nassarawa, 24, 102 Nehemiah Levtzion, 198, 213–14, 257 nation, 29, 39, 54, 66, 82, 107, 110, see also Levtzion 182, 190, 205, 208, 213, 234, neighbor, 114, 177, 179–80 236, 247 neighborhood, 149 292 INDEX neighborhoods, 183 Nigerian Political Science Association, neighborliness, 151, 185 192 neighbors, 36, 42, 57, 130, 140–1, Ningi, 102–3 150, 156, 168, 175–6, 182, 185, NKST, 32, 122 201, 218, 237 see also Nongo U Kristu ken Sudan Neo-colonialism, 220 hen Tiv nepotism, 93–4, 111 NNPC, 89 NEPU, 36, 49, 127 see also Nigerian National see also Northern Elements Petroleum Corporations Progressive Union Noah, 159 Netherlands, 65, 199, 202, 204–5, Nok, 102, 198, 245, 253, 259 211, 253 nomadic, 8 network, 33, 55, 66, 113, 124, 255 nomenclature, 122, 170 networks, 66 non-believers, 70 New Testament, 143, 158, 161, non-Christians, 122 163–4, 242 non-denominational, 32, 204 Newell Booth, 170, 245 non-dialogical, 151 Ngas, 104, 193, 225, 254 non-Fulani, 94 NGOs, 191, 218 Nongo U Kristu ken Sudan hen Tiv, Nguru, 43 32, 122 Niger, 4, 9, 17, 20–2, 112, 115, 127, see also NKST 130, 201, 203, 207, 211, 259 non-Hausa, 42 Nigeria, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, 1, 4, 9, 13, non-indigenes, x, xi, 117, 191 15–17, 19–28, 30–60, 62–4, non-indigenous, 23 66–93, 95, 97, 99–104, 106–7, nonintervention, 20 109–13, 115–39, 141–2, 145, nonmainline, 32 147, 151–3, 155, 157–8, 167–77, nonmembers, 48, 70–1 179, 183–93, 195–237, 239, non-Muslims, 10, 58 241–2, 244–9 nonnegotiable, 121, 174, 185 Nigerian, x, xi, xii, 12, 16, 24, non-religious, 82 27, 30, 33–4, 36, 39–41, North Africa, 1, 12, 127–8, 171, 178, 46–7, 49, 51–2, 55–7, 59–60, 198, 233, 246 63–4, 66–8, 70, 73–4, 76–9, north, x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 5, 15–17, 81–2, 84–5, 88–90, 92, 95–6, 21–6, 28–33, 36–7, 39–40, 99, 101–3, 106–7, 109–13, 42–56, 59–60, 62, 64, 68–9, 115, 117–18, 121, 125, 128–30, 72–3, 75–7, 81, 85–6, 88–9, 133–5, 144, 167, 170–2, 174–5, 91, 94, 97–8, 102–3, 107, 110, 182, 185–7, 189, 191–2, 198, 112, 115, 118, 124–6, 129, 134, 204, 208–9, 214–18, 220–2, 170, 175, 183, 186–8, 191, 201, 224, 228, 230, 235–6, 239, 202, 207, 209, 210, 216, 217, 242, 244, 249, 251–2, 254–6, 219, 234 259–60, 262–3 North Central, 54, 102 Nigerians, x, xi, xii, xiii, 27, 30–3, 37, northeast, 42, 51, 80, 102, 204, 216, 49, 56, 62, 68, 72, 81–2, 84–6, 232 96–8, 104–6, 109–10, 116–17, northeastern, 1, 4 119, 124–5, 128, 137, 171, northern, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 2, 4, 9, 174–5, 177, 185, 190, 192, 13, 15–17, 19–26, 27–55, 58–60, 206, 216, 220–1 62–4, 66–86, 89–93, 95, 97, INDEX 293

99–104, 106–7, 110–13, 115–39, obsession, 59, 70, 76, 108, 216 141–2, 144–5, 147, 151–3, 155, obsessive, 21, 168 157–8, 167–77, 179, 181–93, obstacles, 139, 151, 188, 201 198–200, 202–3, 205–12, 214, occupation, 103–4 216, 218, 222, 228, 231, 233, Odumosu, 83, 192, 220, 249, 259 236, 239, 242, 247–8 see also Olakunle Odumosu Northern Christian Association, Ogbomosho, 227, 251 41, 46 Ogbu Kalu, 215, 259 see also NCA OIC, 88, 221 Northern Elements Progressive see also Organization of Union, 36, 49 Islamic Countries see also NEPU oikoumene, 232, 246, 248, 253, 264 northerners, 36, 38, 44–6, 52, 55, oil, 108 73, 115, 201 Olakunle Odumosu, 192, 220, 249, northwest, 102 259 northwestern, 9, 208, 210–12, 235, see also Odumosu 239, 245, 251, 257 Old Testament, 125, 161, 242 Nostra Aetate, 121, 165, 232, 261 oligarchic, 13, 90, 228 notoriety, 124 oligarchy, 9–11, 19, 33, 47, 52–3, notorious, 75, 134 69–70, 90–1, 102, 107, 198, NPC, 36, 40–1, 49, 85, 127, 216 200–201 see also National People’s Congress Olupona, 191, 242, 245, 249, 259, NPN, 73, 85, 216 261 see also National Party of Nigeria see also Jacob Olupona NPP, 73, 85 Olusegun Obasanjo (President), 56, see also Nigerian People’s Party 60, 73, 91 NAPSA, 85 see Nigerian Political see also Obasanjo Science Association Olympiads, 111 NRC, 85 Olympics, 111 see also National Republican Omar Farouk Ibrahim, 217, 221, 224 Convention omniscience, 135 Nsukka, 207 Omo Omoruyi, 192 Nupe, 5, 11–13, 17, 193, 200 oneness, 63, 144, 148, 152, 160–1, NYSC, 216 163 see also National Youth Service Onitsha, x Corp Online, 195, 230, 238, 253, 257, 260 Nzeogwu, 50 ontologically, 158, 193 see also Kaduna Nzeogwu openness, 33, 151–2, 168, 246 operation, 28, 53, 93, 107, 138, oath, 33–4, 205 211–12, 220, 231, 234, 262 Obafemi Awolowo, 242, 249, 259 operations, 30, 77, 102 Obasanjo, 56, 60, 73, 91 opinion, 15–16, 28, 57, 63, 83, 95, see also Olusegun Obasanjo 176, 221, 236, 238, 245 (President) opponents, 31, 60, 65, 87 obligation, 64, 121, 123, 198 opportunities, 23, 55, 108–9, 115–16, obligations, 57, 188 132, 152, 228 obligatory, 11, 61, 121, 158, 180 opportunity, 27, 83, 104, 107, 116, obsessed, 90, 171 151, 162, 216 294 INDEX opposition, 10, 12, 21, 28, 45, 61, 88, Origins, 197, 254, 257 110, 117, 143, 201, 239 orthodox, 7, 78, 120 oppression, 2, 94, 242 orthodoxy, 7, 213 oppressive, 153 Otherness, 161 optimism, 42 others, 9, 16, 30, 34, 56, 78, 82–4, 91, optimum, 190 93, 98, 111–13, 134, 143, 145–6, option, 83, 210, 217, 218, 219, 224, 150, 157, 160, 165–6, 174, 180, 227, 230, 231, 234, 235, 236, 182, 191, 193, 228, 243 248 Othmar Keel, 141, 237 opulence, 134 Ottoman, 64 oracle, 87 Oturkpo, 42, 207–8 oral, 102 Ousmane Kane, 210, 213, 219, 222, ordained, 32, 48 224, 239, 257 order, 8, 11, 33, 35, 48, 62, 64–5, ousted, 17, 60 75, 95, 145, 157, 160, 164–5, outbreak, 74 170, 181, 186, 190, 197, 198, outburst, ix, 79 231, 233, 245 outcasts, 57 orders, 7, 20, 35, 49 outlawed, 59 ordinance, 59, 226 outsiders, 116 ordination, 32 outspoken, 134 organic, 169, 244 outstanding, 5, 144, 207 Organization of Islamic Countries, over, 6–9, 16, 18, 20, 22, 29, 35, 40–1, 88, 221 49, 53, 59, 62, 65, 71, 73, 79, 81, see also OIC 88–9, 97–9, 101, 105–6, 110–13, organization, 44, 46–8, 54, 76–7, 177, 128, 130, 132–3, 144, 146, 79, 88, 113, 121–2, 127, 132–4, 162, 190, 216, 229 137–8, 146, 179, 182, 186, 209, overarching, 114, 129, 135 212, 229, 239, 246 –8 overcentralization, 108 organizational, 33 overcome, 142, 147 organizations, 7, 35, 41–3, 46, 48–9, overdependence, 228 54, 66–7, 70–1, 74, 76, 79–80, overheated, 142 83, 88, 113, 117–18, 122–4, overlap, 83, 100, 150–1, 212 129, 131–2, 134–5, 137–8, 147, overlapping, 212 178–9, 183, 185, 191–2, 205, overlords, 140 208, 235, 240, 246 overseas, 124, 233 organized, 6, 33, 35, 45–6, 50–1, 79, overthrow, 60 177, 218 overthrown, 22 orgy, 72, 79, 105 overtures, 22, 129, 248 Orientalism, 212, 257 Owerri, 210 orientation, 93 ownership, 103, 110, 198, 255, 226 Orientations, 239–40, 261 oxymoron, 78, 220 oriented, 129, 175, 185, 215 origin, x, 4, 40, 42, 50, 55, 62, 80, Pacem in Terris, 165, 183 93, 102, 105, 108, 116, 146, pacification, 104 163, 167, 196, 204, 208–9, 211, pagan, 3, 27, 37, 75, 94, 204 215, 217, 228, 242 paganism, 8 original, xi, xiv, 4, 13, 69, 104, 106, Pakistan, 43, 95, 129, 210 110, 135, 167, 198, 200, 225, 249 pandering, 84, 88 INDEX 295 panel, 59–60, 211 patterns, 67 parable, 180 Paul, 51, 84, 164, 182, 257–8 paradigm, 41, 121, 141, 149, 158, Paul Knitter, 157, 241, 243, 257 167, 242, 245 Paulist, 247, 258 paradise, 103, 136, 168 pawns, 45 paradox, 69, 81, 135 PCID, 122, 149–50, 177, 240 Paradoxes, 212, 219, 252 see also Pontifical Council for paradoxical, 37, 142 Interreligious Dialogue parallel, 42, 66, 132 PDP, 85 Paralympics, 111 see also People’s Democratic Party paralyzed, 95 peace, 51, 64, 71, 75, 77, 93, 101, parameters, 111 111, 152, 159, 168–70, 173, 177, paramount, 77, 157 179, 182, 185, 188, 193, 210, paranoia, 90 221, 227, 229, 241, 242, 246, paranoid, 135 248, 249 parents, 108–9, 111, 193, 211, 228 Peace of Augsburg, 10 parliament, 39 peaceful, 17, 34, 64, 94, 151, 159, parliamentary, 73 168, 170, 173–5, 185–6, 193, partiality, 34 247 participants, 157, 191 peacefully, 104, 149, 151, 201 particular, 36, 44, 54, 63, 82, 84–6, Pebbles, 254 88, 109, 115, 162, 166, 169, peculiar, 32, 71, 87, 116 192, 205, 230 Pedro Arupe, 169 parties, 36, 49, 73, 85, 89, 105, 127, Pentecostal, 80–1, 119, 123–4, 126, 170, 216 137–8, 144, 213, 215–16, 218–19, partisan, 249 233, 236, 245 partners, 130, 157, 166, 176, 179, Pentecostalism, 70, 123, 137, 215–16, 189, 198 219, 236, 254, 259 Partnership, 246 Pentecostalizing, 80, 219 party, 24, 31, 41–2, 73, 81, 85–6, Pentecostals, 71, 123–6, 143, 219 127, 158, 170, 203, 216 people, x, xvi, 1–2, 4–6, 8, 11–12, passage, 25, 68, 146, 159, 184 15–16, 18–19, 21–7, 30, 32, 34, passed, 91, 94 36–7, 41–2, 44, 50–1, 53, 55–7, pastor, 80, 81, 179, 247 60, 63, 66–8, 70, 80, 82, 92–5, pastoral, 45, 46, 63, 149, 261 98–9, 102–11, 113–18, 121, pastors, 36, 135, 137–8 123, 125, 133, 135–8, 140–1, pasture, 104 143–4, 147–53, 155–6, 158, Pategi, 24 161–7, 173–8, 181–2, 184, 188, paternalistic, 34 190, 193, 196, 198, 204, 208–9, path, 129, 148, 162 218, 225–7, 229–30, 232, 236, pathetic, 81 239, 246–7, 259 patience, 123 peoples, x, 7, 17, 23, 29, 31, 39, 102, patriotic, 57 149, 167, 170, 177, 185, 192, patronage, 77 204, 225, 242, 243, 244, 246 Patrons, 230 People’s Democratic Party, 85 patrons, 47 see also PDP pattern, 5, 105, 135, 236 People’s Redemption Party, 216 Patterns, 238, 241, 261 see also PRP 296 INDEX percent, 6, 42, 55, 125 pilgrimages, 2, 57, 233 percentage, 34, 55, 57, 104, 204 pilgrims, 54, 57, 61, 67, 133, 170, 216 Percy Girouard, 25 Pius IX, 143, 238 perennial, 72, 98, 176, 223, 224, 226 places, 7, 9, 18, 24, 26, 31, 41, 48, permit, 183, 229 58, 64, 70, 98–9, 101, 113–16, perpetrators, 98, 174, 191 121, 181, 184, 186, 207, 243, persecution, 8, 13, 142 247 person, 25, 28, 32, 108, 111, 114, Plateau, 48, 53–4, 61, 79, 98, 121–2, 165, 170, 171, 181, 183, 100–106, 110, 116–18, 189, 193 203–4, 218, 224–7, 252, personalities, 89, 111 261–3 personnel, 26, 57, 120, 128, 130–1, plateau, 102 133, 192, 211 Plateau Indigenous Development Peter, 163, 166 Association Network, 225 Peter Clark, 197, 209 see also PIDAN Peter Phan, 241, 244 platform, 47, 68, 73, 81 Peter Schineller, 209, 211, 212, 225, plenary, 83, 99, 186 261 plights, 135 petrol, 113, 176 ploughed, 66 petroleum, 89 pluralism, 9, 90, 144, 152, 156–8, Pew Forum, 232, 252 160–7, 169, 171, 174, 238, 241, Pharaonic, 153 242, 243, 246, 248 Pharisees, 162 pluralist, 56, 83, 156, 160–1, 163, 193 phenomena, x, 64, 99, 100 pluralistic, x, xvi, 64, 71, 83, 88, 90, phenomenon, x, xi, 30, 37, 51, 67, 72, 92–3, 95, 144, 158, 165–6, 168, 80, 98, 111, 118, 137, 169, 176, 172, 174, 188–9, 213, 241, 243, 193, 201, 202, 213, 225, 245 245, 246, 248 philanthropic, 26 pluralists, 157, 241 philanthropy, 27 plurality, 117, 156, 165, 169, 193 Philip Ostien, 94, 211, 214, 220, 222, pneumatically, 163 223, 226, 227, 249, 258 pogrom, 50–1, 74 Philipp W. Hildmann, 139, 149, 188, pointers, ix, xii, 161, 164 189, 237, 249 polarities, 64, 142 philosophical, ix, 12, 112, 155, polarity, 45, 58 167–9, 212 polarization, 88 philosophy, 63–5, 72, 112, 155, 168, polarized, 28, 62, 83, 87, 123, 128, 189, 202, 214, 220, 244 187 physical, 119, 124, 126, 148, 179, polarizing, 88, 130 230 polemics, 132, 151 PIDAN, 225, 226 police, 98, 113–14, 217, 229, 231 see also Plateau Indigenous policemen, 48, 113 Development Association policies, 31, 35, 65, 84, 89, 111, 117, Network 133, 187, 191, 192, 231 Pierre Charles, 169 policy, 19–20, 30, 34, 40, 54–6, piety, 144 59, 82, 89, 95–6, 104, 106–10, pilgrim, 56, 84 115–17, 135, 175, 191–2, pilgrimage, 13, 53, 56–7, 84, 128, 202, 249 131, 159, 196, 199, 216 politic, 110 INDEX 297 political, ix, x, xiii, xiv, 1–2, 4–11, position, 25, 27–8, 33, 44, 55, 62, 13, 15–17, 19–20, 23, 25–8, 75–6, 80, 81, 82, 83, 88, 143, 30–6, 39–47, 49–51, 53–6, 144, 145, 147, 151, 152, 160, 58, 60–9, 71–4, 76–7, 79–82, 163, 166, 188, 192, 214, 236, 84–6, 89, 91–2, 100–106, 112–13, 238, 244 115–16, 118–19, 126–8, 132, positions, 9–10, 22, 31, 42, 55, 62, 134–6, 140, 142, 147, 153, 65, 76, 85, 89–90, 106–7, 109, 167, 172, 176–8, 184–7, 111, 145, 221–2, 228 189–92, 195, 196, 197, 199, positive, 16, 96, 149, 150, 152, 157, 206–12, 216, 217, 222, 224, 164, 173, 175, 178, 182, 189, 225, 231, 234, 235, 236, 239, 214 245, 249 possibility, 52, 95, 166, 188 politically, 3, 5, 7, 10, 42, 50, 52–3, possible, 26, 35, 40, 45, 57, 62, 64, 68, 77, 81, 103, 115 89, 95, 117, 127–9, 149, 152, politicians, 55, 60, 85–6, 90, 113–15, 164, 178, 188, 207, 225 171, 176, 219, 228 post, 26, 41, 47, 61, 63, 94, 164, politicization, 142 209 politicizing, 88, 140 post-amalgamation, 27 politicking, 52, 54 post-colonial, 74, 95, 101, 119, politics, xiii, 13, 15, 33, 40, 44, 49, 139, 173, 197, 210, 213, 219, 52, 58–60, 63, 73, 76, 80–1, 222, 224, 232, 237, 239, 246, 91, 107, 114, 126, 168, 195, 253, 257 198, 199, 204, 205, 207, 208, postcolonial, ix, x, xiii, 13, 93, 102, 209, 210, 211, 215, 217, 219, 131, 187, 191–2, 195, 213 220, 221, 223, 224, 228, 233, post-independence, 25, 40, 41, 236, 249 43, 59, 69, 91, 115, 127, polity, 29, 215 147, 192 polls, 85 post-independent, 41, 43, 47, 48, 58 polygamy, 125 postmodern, x, xii, 90, 155, 193 polytheism, 145, 160 post-plenary, 189 polytheistic, 159 posturing, 47, 80–1 polytheists, 159, 229 poverty, 74, 171, 175, 176 pontiff, 165 power, 2–4, 6, 9, 13, 18–21, 25, Pontifical Council for Interreligious 41–2, 49, 58–9, 62, 73, 84–5, Dialogue, 122, 149, 150, 166, 90, 95, 132, 134, 138, 153, 197, 177, 183, 240, 243 198, 199, 207, 208, 209, 210, see also PCID 211, 215, 221, 228, 243 poor, 56–7, 92, 114, 130, 135, 137, powerbrokers, 56 235 powerful, 55, 123 Pope, 51, 84, 120, 143, 149, 182, powerhouse, 17 239–40, 261 powers, 6, 25, 31, 41, 77 popular, x, 4, 76, 123–4, 127, 167, practical, 168, 186, 189 169, 176, 190 practice, 10–11, 55–6, 58–9, 65, population, 11, 22, 26, 34, 37–8, 82–4, 92, 95, 103, 109, 121, 42–3, 56, 70, 73, 96, 101, 138, 122, 127, 137, 140, 145, 148, 176, 185, 202, 207, 246 160, 183, 192, 211, 213, 227, populations, 16, 52, 101 233, 242 Port Harcourt, x practiced, 2, 5, 59, 93, 148–9, 214 298 INDEX practices, 10, 35–6, 54, 56, 68, 75, privileges, 20, 56, 74, 106, 108, 110, 103, 119, 122–3, 125, 140, 141, 116, 175, 203 146, 158, 160, 164, 170, 171, pro-Islamic, 89, 197 172, 184, 195, 237, 245 pro-Shari’a, 62, 84, 85, 87 pragmatic, 66, 175, 178, 183 Proclamation, 40, 150, 166, 240, pragmatically, 74, 164, 240 243, 253 prayer, 3, 18, 123, 145, 150, 163, 238 productivity, 111, 192 pre-Christian, 158, 169 products, 26, 29, 104, 124, 206 pre-colonial, x, xiii, 1, 35, 90, 93–5, profess, 3, 122, 143, 145, 183 131, 187, 195 professed, 123, 134 pre-independence, 60, 65, 127, 147, professing, 2 206 profession, 94, 137 pre-Islamic, 169, 158 program, 31, 65, 129, 216, 232 pre-jihad, 58 programmed, 141, 158 preach, 48, 148, 162 programs, 84, 121, 124, 126, 131, preachers, 5, 12, 34–5, 119, 126, 179, 185, 191, 221 136–7 progress, 26, 37, 110–11, 129, 155, pre-amalgamation, 16 170, 188, 192, 201, 246 precursors, 100–101, 190 progressive, 36, 49, 61, 82, 127, 155, Prefecture, 207 160, 169, 172–5, 186, 188–9, premier, 39, 44, 49, 50, 66, 118, 129, 220, 223 174 prohibition, 15, 83, 96, 198, 199, Presbyterians, 70, 120–2 201, 203, 204 presidency, 84–5, 91, 221 project, 53, 149, 188, 216, 247 President, 56, 84, 91, 134, 228 projection, 22 president, 41, 43, 56, 62, 73, 84, 85, projects, 24, 66–7, 83, 122, 131–2, 90, 91, 134, 179, 221, 222, 228 134–5, 157, 175, 178–9, 190, President Shehu Shagari (Alhaji), 84 222, 236, 246 see also Shagari promulgation, 52 presidential, 73, 80–1, 85, 89–90, propaganda, 51–2, 226 221, 222 propagate, 84, 122, 144, 183 pressure, 53, 55, 103, 133, 176, 202, propagation, 26, 48, 111 208 propagators, 198 presumptive, 89, 104 properties, 50–1, 68, 71, 73, 79, prevalence, xi, xiii, 40, 92, 97, 127, 97–8, 105–6, 129 139, 171, 183, 184, 185, 226, property, 6, 57, 91, 93, 98, 118, 168, 237 181, 187, 223, 226 prevalent, 29, 34, 63, 65, 91, 100, prophecy, 123 160, 170, 187, 193, 231, 239 prophet, 13, 44, 56, 112, 145, 184, priest, 103 206, 230, 233, 244, 246, 253 priestly, 163 Prophet Mohammed, 90, 158, 160, 242 priests, 22, 206 prophetic, 239, 242 primaries, 80 prophets, 137, 148, 158, 159 prime, 5, 9, 39, 59 proponent, 25 Prime Minister, 39, 50, 59, 60, 206 proponents, 90, 92, 93, 144 primitive, 13, 30 proposal, 28, 86, 189, 226 privileged, 10, 33, 70, 91, 95, 133, prosecute, 84, 118 228, 246 prosecution, 231 INDEX 299 proselytes, 163 Qadir, 127, 145, 233–4 proselytization, 15, 24, 25, 31, 32, Qadiriyya, 7–8, 44, 67, 75, 127–30, 48, 63, 122, 124, 126, 148, 180, 132, 210, 216, 233–4 185, 202 Qadiriyyah, 36 proselytize, 25, 49 Qadiriyya-Nasiriyya, 130 protected, 6, 11, 31, 84, 174, 184 qarar, 96 protection, 15, 34, 61, 136, 189–90 Qayrawan, 11 protectionist, 34 qualification, 33, 107, 110–11, 180, Protectorate, 2, 4, 13, 16–17, 19–20, 192 24–5, 27–9, 200 queen, 4 Protectorates, 20, 27–8, 110 questions, ix, 29–30, 65, 87, 96, 99, protest, 51, 62, 68, 89 140, 145 Protestant, 32, 41, 70–1, 78, 120–2, quota regulation, 55, 108 142, 144, 232, 251 quota system, 107–8 Protestantism, 143 Qur’an, 24–5, 130, 144–7, 158–61, Protestants, 10, 32, 36–7, 46, 78, 183, 230, 238, 242 119–20, 126, 143, 188 Qur’anic, 24, 25, 67, 144, 146, 147, protracted, 58, 62 158, 159, 160, 161, 183, 184, Province, 24, 33, 34, 41, 200, 201, 210, 242 202, 203, 205, 208, 226, 253 Quranic, 48, 239 provinces, 17, 20, 28, 203 provincial, 59 Rabbinic, 142 PRP, 216 R.A.B. Dikko (Dr), 31, 41 see also People’s Redemption Party Rabeh, 4, 17, 58 Psalm, 162 race, 50, 121, 157, 164, 180, 238, psyche, 67, 118, 229 241, 242, 243 psychological, 135, 141, 187 races, 26, 29, 159 public, 53, 56, 75, 82–4, 93, 95, racism, 30 98–9, 106, 109, 112, 126, 136, radical, 8, 12, 25, 67, 68, 72, 74–7, 177, 179, 191, 206, 213, 216, 127–30, 132–5, 137, 148, 159, 218, 219, 222, 227, 232, 237 217, 229, 235 publication, 149, 223, 226, 236 radicalizing, 40 publications, 97, 99, 218, 222, 236 radicals, 159 publicized, 133 Rafiu A. Akindele, 87, 221, 251 publicly, 12, 31, 43, 44, 45, 75, 76, rahmah, 181 89, 122, 182, 183 rahman, 180, 185 published, 122, 143, 186, 236, 237, Rahner, 239, 243, 261 240 raided, 198 punishment, 59, 146, 147 raiders, 94 purificationist, 7 raiding, 68, 94, 103 puritan, 7, 10, 49, 58–9, 67–8, 215 railway, 24 puritanical, 10–12, 199, 229 Raimon Panikkar, 241 puritanist, 214 Ramadan, 3 purity, 10 Randall L Pouwels, 198 Randle (Dr), 30 Qadariyya, 48–9, 63 Rank and file, 25, 68 Qaddafi, 129–30, 132–3, 235 ranks, 7, 10, 66, 69, 107, 134 see also Muammar Qaddafi Rano, 5 300 INDEX

Rasmussen, 7, 34, 37, 43, 62, 71, 103, Reformation, 78 196, 197, 198, 205, 206, 207, 208, reformer, 8, 76, 112 209, 210, 211, 212, 216, 226, 261 reformers, 47, 128 see also Lissi Rasmussen reformist, 10, 12, 133–4, 138, 145 rational, 68, 70, 77, 92, 95 reformists, 133–5, 213, 236 rationality, 69–70, 189 reforms, 59, 133 Raymond Hickey, 51, 207, 208, 209, regime, 26, 54, 60, 84, 130, 235 211 regimes, 84 RCCG, 124 region, 4–5, 15–16, 20, 33, 40–2, 44, see also Redeemed Christian 48, 49, 50, 58, 83, 86, 102, 108, Church of God 129, 174, 184, 186, 189, 198, reactionary, 65 203, 212, 242 reactions, 34, 68, 92, 100 regional, 40, 44, 49–50, 73, 86, 107, rearticulation, 168 115, 129, 193, 201, 216, 247 rebellion, 35 regionalize, 228 rebuffed, 225 regions, 17, 196, 216, 247, 255 recognition, 59, 84, 86, 124, 128, registered, 88, 121 130, 161, 179, 182 registration, 88, 109, 192 recommendation, 60, 122, 169 regulation, 10, 26, 55, 108, 203 recommendations, 59–60, 110, 179, reign, 162, 190 186, 232, 246, 248 reigned, 9, 13, 91 recommended, 6, 60, 86, 92, 146, reigning, 11 165, 188, 190, 228 reigns, 4, 58, 191 reconciliation, 51, 75, 182 reincarnation, 216 reconnoiter, 16 Reinhard Bonnke (Rev), 124 reconquista, 78 see also Bonnke riots record, 45, 46, 79, 184, 224, 230 reinstatement, 95, 210, 213, 219, recorded, 6, 26, 37, 45, 97, 145, 218, 222, 257 222 reject, 51, 69, 71, 85, 90, 92, 143–5, records, 75, 97–8, 223, 227 148, 165, 184 recruitment, 55, 107 rejection, 27, 31, 67, 86–7, 141, 143 redeem, 153 rejuvenate, 168 Redeemed Christian Church of God, rejuvenated, 43 124 relation, 41, 77, 82, 143, 148, 160, see also RCCG 164–6, 179–81, 216, 225, 232 Redemption, 216, 240, 253 Relations, xiii, 1, 17, 15, 58, 84, 118, referred, 1, 4, 32, 69, 168, 181, 228, 119, 120, 128, 138, 147, 149, 236 157, 16 8, 174, 177, 185, 187, reflect, 63, 67, 76, 92, 107, 110, 122, 189, 196, 197, 198, 199, 205, 164, 167, 174, 220 206, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, reflected, 36, 67, 82, 141, 199 213, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, reflection, 54, 56, 157, 238 222, 224, 227, 230, 232, 234, reflective, 126, 226 238, 248, 249 reflects, 17, 34, 104, 112, 131, 142, relationship, x, xi, xiii, xv, xvi, 3, 12, 148, 167, 198 15–16, 23, 27, 36, 38–9, 45, 50, reform, 7–8, 12, 59, 64–7, 75, 91, 66, 69, 72, 74, 80–1, 83, 91, 99, 208, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 102, 109, 111, 119, 122, 130, 216, 217, 235, 236, 239, 245 132, 139, 147, 155, 156, 161, INDEX 301

166, 168, 173, 176, 182, 185, 237, 238, 240, 241, 242, 243, 187, 202, 223, 235, 236, 242 245, 246, 249 relationships, 40, 173, 176, 186, 199, religiously, 19, 53, 83, 88, 92, 140, 246 156, 179, 237 relatives, 95, 201, 247 religious-political, 88 relativism, 156–7 relinquished, 27, 128 relevance, ix, 32, 46, 100, 176, 229 relocate, 116, 118 reliable, 98, 133 relocated, 8, 23 relieved, 20, 28, 53 remonstration, 249 religion, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, xv, 3, 5, removal, 47, 210, 213, 219, 222, 7, 11–12, 15, 18–19, 23, 31, 257 34, 39, 45, 48, 52, 58, 60–4, renaissance, 214, 249 71–3, 76, 78, 81–6, 88–91, 95, renewal, 64, 213, 214 99, 101, 104, 114, 119, 121–2, renounced, 76, 88 136–7, 139–43, 145, 148, 152, renowned, 6, 127–8, 132, 182, 222, 158, 160, 162, 164–5, 167–70, 238, 241 174, 176–7, 183–5, 190–1, 193, reorientation, 91 195, 198, 199, 204, 205, 207, repeal, 191 208, 209, 211, 212, 215, 217, repealed, 117 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, repercussions, 64 244, 226, 227, 231, 232, 233, replace, 46, 86 234, 236, 237, 242, 244, 245, replaced, 11, 22, 25, 59, 192 247, 249 replacement, 89 Religionists, 126 replicate, 66, 68, 129 religions, x, xv, xv, xvi, 39–40, 57, 63, replications, 102 69, 87, 89, 96, 126, 136, 139– report, 16, 59, 92, 94, 109, 200, 42, 144–6, 149, 152, 155–61, 211, 223, 225, 226, 227, 229, 164–5, 168, 170, 176–9, 182, 230, 231, 232, 252 185, 188, 193, 213, 216, 217, reported, 6, 10–11, 31, 37, 51, 218, 219, 221, 232, 237, 238, 55, 97, 98, 106, 112, 113, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 129, 206, 221, 229, 230, 245, 247–8 232 religious, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 3–4, reporter, 114, 232 7–12, 19, 23, 35, 39, 40, 42, reports, 16, 30–1, 42, 63, 98, 105, 44–6, 49–58, 60, 62–3, 64, 66, 197, 200, 204, 218, 223, 229, 69–72, 75, 78–9, 81–90, 93–4, 230, 231 97, 99–101, 105–6, 111, 113–15, representation, 144, 166, 190 117–18, 121–2, 123–5, 127, 130, representations, 228 132, 135–41, 143, 145, 147, representative, 33, 144 149–51, 156–8, 159, 160–71, representatives, 4, 16, 61, 170, 240 173–8, 180–5, 187–92, 197, represented, 55, 79–80, 82, 120, 204, 210, 215, 217, 218, 219, 153, 191 221, 222, 223, 224, 226, 227, representing, 32, 62, 86, 111 230, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, repression, 77–8 237, 238, 239, 241, 242, 243, reprimanded, 20 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249 reprisal, 91, 98 Religious Pluralism, xi, xv, 88, 155–67, reprobate, 70 169, 171, 173–4, 183–5, 189, 191, reproduction, 200 302 INDEX republic, 1, 4, 9, 39, 62, 73, 85, 89, responsible, ix, 1, 7, 27, 45, 50, 56, 112, 115, 116, 127, 190, 220, 86, 90, 100, 111, 118, 121–2, 249, 251, 254–5, 257, 259 127, 133, 168, 171, 190 republican, 85 restricted, 24, 25, 35, 181, 209 requirement, 10, 61, 105, 123, 140, restriction, 32, 40, 128, 202 180–1, 185 restrictions, 23, 25, 26, 30 requirements, 60, 179, 237, 249 restructure, 21 research, 13, 40, 63, 94, 99, 106, 149, restructuring, 174 220, 227, 249 result, 5, 20, 31, 43, 49, 55, 64, 65, researchers, 98 67, 72, 98, 99, 107, 108, 113, researches, 99 133, 142, 193, 230, 232 resent, 115, 118, 158 resulted, 39, 41, 48, 51, 59, 65, 66, resented, 11, 49, 201, 235 69, 97–9, 105, 124, 128, 129, resentment, 22, 85–6, 117, 191 132, 190 reserved, 57, 105, 109, 116, 161, 168 Retribution, 146 resettling, 225 return, 13, 20, 27, 43, 60, 90, 135–6, residence, 49, 116, 181–2, 228 141, 152, 168, 215 residences, 181 returned, 8, 32 resident, 18, 23, 29, 34, 74, 101, 106, revealed, 139, 146, 159–60, 184 114, 117, 189, 200 revelation, 139, 148, 184, 189 residential, 182 revelations, 159, 162 residents, x, xi, 99, 104, 105, 112, revenge, 115, 218, 224, 226, 262 114, 118, 175, 183, 191, 193, revenue, 6, 108, 134, 228 232 reverberations, 87 residing, 101, 106 revere, 233 resign, ix, 109 revered, 199, 229 resignation, 24 reverence, 158 resigned, 25, 30 review, 45, 60, 62, 69, 76, 82, resistance, 2, 8, 17–18, 22, 35, 37, 69, 99–100, 117, 171, 210, 220, 227, 78, 88, 206 234, 244, 249 resisted, 21, 103, 204 reviews, 101, 224 resolution, 224, 247 revised, 197, 243 resolve, 3, 17, 170, 186, 223, 224 revision, 258 resolved, 62, 229 revisiting, 223, 224, 226, 230, 256 resource, 78, 228 revival, 92, 208, 213 resources, 23–4, 27, 53, 56, 57, 108, revivalism, 39, 63–8, 72, 74, 213, 214 109, 118, 120, 126, 129, 134, revivalist, 65, 112, 212, 214 184, 246, 248 revivalists, 212 respect, 3, 12, 18, 29, 33, 67, 82, revolt, 16, 141, 213 121, 123, 149, 151, 156, 157, revolts, 35 158, 160, 161, 165, 167, 170, revolution, 12, 19, 27, 68, 74, 75, 76, 171, 174, 177, 181, 185, 77, 133, 134 193, 246 revolutionary, 7, 213 respectable, 75, 92 revolve, 106, 215 respected, 3, 8, 59, 78, 92, 125, 167, reward, 107, 158, 159, 181 169, 174, 183, 189, 192 rewards, 11 responsibility, 20, 45, 48, 57, 61, 138, rhetoric, x, 30, 40, 49, 60, 150, 187 180, 184, 217, 218, 240 riba, 96 INDEX 303 richer, 28, 136 rule, 9, 15, 18–19, 21, 25, 26, 31, 34, riddah, 96 38–41, 68, 72, 80, 90, 100, 103, rifles, 113 115, 118, 129, 200, 202, 205, rigged, 206 207, 209, 234 rigging, 39 ruler, 6, 11, 63 right, 18, 64, 67–8, 78, 84, 87, 90–2, rulers, 5–6, 29–30, 47, 58, 95, 112, 103, 121, 122, 126, 164, 165, 134, 190 167, 174, 183, 190, 228 rules, 96 righteous acts, 159 ruling, 5–6, 9, 11, 19, 42, 85 righteous majority, 193 ruptured, 72, 167, 187 rights, x, xi, 64, 84, 87, 90, 93, 98, rural, 41, 121, 207 106, 109, 110, 115, 116, 117, Rwanda, 78 118, 121, 127, 157, 174, 183, 189, 192, 220, 222, 224, 226, Sabaean, 145 229, 238, 242, 248 Sabaeans, 159, 160 Rijk A. van Dijk, 70, 219, 254 sabon gari, 25, 181, 247 riot, 97, 112–13, 124 sacrifice, 238 rioters, 50, 68 sacrifices, 2 rioting, 43 sacrosanct, 111 riots, 69, 75, 79, 84, 86, 97–100, sadaqah (sadakah), 136, 181, 247 133, 218, 224 safe, 60, 94–6, 161, 166, 206 risalah, 180 Sahara, 1, 103, 170, 201, 207, 211, rise, 55, 64, 65, 73, 74, 77–8, 128, 233, 259 187, 213, 219, 237 Saharan, 1, 11, 70, 198, 215–17, 219, rites, 3, 36, 206 235, 242–3, 254, 262–3 rituals, 11, 35–6, 80, 162, 245 Sahel, 210, 234 rival, 29, 44, 63, 239 Said Hawwa, 145, 239 rivalries, 99, 115 Saifawa, 3–4 rivalry, 48, 63, 100, 130, 147, 151, saints, 145, 233 172 Salafi, 199 rivals, 40, 49, 133, 141, 158 Salafis, 199, 229 robbed, 85 Salafist, 111 robbers, 171 Salafiyya, 12, 66, 68, 128 robbery, 93, 206 Salam, 11, 239, 255 Roman, 163, 165, 167, 246 Sallah, 182 Roman Catholics, 120–1 salvation, 44, 69, 139, 143, 145, 161, Roman Empire, 142, 167 164–5, 169, 172, 242 Roman Loimeier, 55, 106, 128, 129, salvific, 242 208, 210, 212, 216, 217, 219, Samaritan, 162, 180 227, 230, 235, 236, 239, 245 Samuel Ajayi Crowther (Bishop), 21 Rome, 57, 120–1, 178 sanctified, 165 Ron, 104 sanctioned, 78 root, x, 63, 66, 71, 106, 157, 191, 246 Sango, 87 roots, x, 66, 70, 122, 215, 245 sanguine, 21 Rotimi Suberu, 88, 221, 227, 229, Sani Abacha, 75, 84, 108 262 sanitizing, 92, 214, 223, 260 royal, 6, 17, 20, 131, 203 Sanni Umaru, 113, 229 Royal Niger Company, 17, 20 see also Boko Haram 304 INDEX sarakuna, 6, 11 secession, 50, 190 Sardauna of Sokoto, 13, 39, 43–4, secessionists, 51 46–7, 50, 60, 66, 209, 216 second-class, x, 95, 96, 175 sarki, 6 secret, 63, 95, 128, 130 Saudi Arabia, 12–13, 40, 43, 48, secretariat, 79, 149–50, 218, 220, 222, 66–8, 76, 93, 128, 129, 130, 224, 239, 248–9, 253, 261 131–3, 135, 145, 199, 207, sect, 111, 113, 229, 230 210, 235 sectarian, 36, 142, 248 Saudi Arabian, 1, 12, 66–7, 128, 131, sectional, 107 155 sections, 16, 108 Saudi Arabians, 130, 163 sects, 47, 59, 130, 134 Saudis, 131–2, 135, 235, 236 secular, 65, 81–3, 189–90, 214, 215, saved, 70, 103, 143, 166 217, 219, 223, 236 Sayyid Qutb, 65, 145, 171, 220, 239, secularism, 81–3, 212, 214, 219, 220, 245 233, 236 scheme, 24, 25, 28, 147, 192, 202 secularist, 143 schisms, 36 secularity, 68, 81–3, 87 scholar, 6, 8, 44, 112, 128, 134, 145, secularization, 82, 219 170 secularized, 189 scholarly, 6, 165 security, 57, 71, 75, 77, 81, 93, 98, scholars, ix, xiv, xv, xvi, 2, 6, 12, 112–14, 118, 136, 168, 185, 28, 34–5, 47–8, 65–7, 127–8, 187, 191, 199, 212, 216, 144–5, 147, 149, 155, 159, 164, 229–30, 232 169–71, 190, 192, 198–9, 207, segregated, 104 213, 238, 241, 245 segregation, 231 scholarship, 69 Segun Osoba, 192 scholarships, 106 self, 26, 29, 41, 68, 72, 79, 89, 104, school, 24–5, 82–83, 106, 131, 144, 120, 123–5, 129, 140, 206, 225, 182, 220, 223 228, 239 schools, 24–5, 29, 31, 33, 47–8, 54, self-defense, 79 67, 81–2, 98, 106, 109, 114, 129, selfish, 56, 136, 151 131, 177, 186, 202, 204, 210, self-rule, 38, 63, 68, 72, 129 213, 234, 238 self-supporting, 123 SCIA, 54 Senegal, 8, 128 see also Supreme Council for Senegalese, 128 Islamic Affairs, 54, 209 senior, 52, 55, 109 Science, 192 senseless, 50, 99 sciences, 158 sensitive, 89, 92, 189 scientists, 191 sensitize, 80 scribes, 162 sentiments, 79, 118 scriptural, 96, 238 separate, 2, 61, 70, 113, 148, 181 scripture, 71, 143, 158, 164, 233 separation, 6, 81–2 scriptures, 146, 152, 161 separatist, 40 SDP, 85 Serbian Orthodox, 78 see also Social Democratic Party serfdom, 153 seal, 44, 53, 140, 234 service, 27, 171, 185 seat, 9, 18, 74, 208 services, 10, 24, 32, 38, 48, 99, secede, 49 178–9, 192, 198, 202, 246 INDEX 305 servitude, 160 shekir, 11 session, 87, 97 Shi, 76, 130, 133–4, 145 sessions, 62, 86, 123 Shi’ite, 76, 130, 133–4, 145 setback, 35 Shiawa, 76 setting, 9, 20, 37, 149, 181, 192, 201 see also mini-ayatollahs or Yan Shia settled, 18, 26, 103, 104, 116, 225, shield, 140 226 Shielding, 230 settlement, 25, 116 shirk, 145, 160, 239 settlements, 204 sidelining, 107 settler, 104, 174 sides, 51, 99, 151 settlers, 102, 105, 116–17, 225 Sierra Leone, 24 sex, 177 sifting, 155 sexism, 249 Sikhism, 160–1 Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, 65, 214, 258 SIM, 32 Shagari, 56, 62, 73, 84, 85, 221 see also Sudan Interior Mission see also President Shehu Shagari similarities, 66, 152 (Alhaji) sin, 247 Shahs, 74 singled, 68, 185 Shaikh Umar, 4 sister, 120, 121, 122 Shaikh, 4, 8 sisters, 186 shareholders, 88 situation, 11, 42, 68, 100, 115, 118, Shari’a, 7, 87, 35, 39, 40, 52–3, 142, 159, 169, 191, 231, 244 58–62, 66, 74, 78–9, 82–8, situations, ix, 58, 77, 150, 191 90–8, 112, 115, 176, 189–90, skeptics, 188 211, 212, 214, 217, 220, 222, skilled, 23, 24, 45, 125, 134 223, 224, 249 skills, 24, 33, 42, 201 Shaykh Muhammad Mutwalli skimming, 81, 135 Sha’rawi, 145 skirmishes, 7, 97 Shehu Usuman dan Fodio, 33 slave, 94, 103, 198 see also dan Fodio, Usuman dan slavery, 17, 21, 59, 167, 198 Fodio and Uthman dan Fodio slaves, x, 4, 6, 10, 18, 61, 94, 198, Shehu, 2, 8, 16–18, 47, 56, 62, 73, 200 84–5, 94, 103, 199, 221, 234, SMA, 22, 201 256 see also Society of African Mission Shehu of Bornu, 17, 47 social activism, 7 Abubakar Garba, 17 Social, 5, 85, 97, 176, 197, 199, 201, Shehu Muhammad al-Kanemi, 2 220, 223–4, 235, 245, 249, 252, Shehu of Sokoto, 16 259, 261, 263 Sheikh, 43, 44, 47, 49, 53, 233, 234 social, x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 9–10, 16, Sheikh Abd al-Qadir al-Jaylani, 127, 19, 24–6, 30–3, 35–9, 42, 233 44–6, 53–4, 57–8, 63–4, 71, Sheikh Ahmad Tijani, 127, 234 73–5, 77–9, 82, 91–4, 100, 107, Sheikh Mahmud Abubakar Gumi, 44, 115–18, 124, 127–8, 133, 135–8, 47, 49, 53, 74–5, 127, 131, 133, 142, 147, 150, 152, 155–6, 160, 210, 216, 217, 235 162, 164, 170–8, 180–1, 183, Sheikh Nasiru Kabara, 75, 128–30, 185–9, 191–3, 202, 231, 236, 132, 210 244, 249 see also Nasiru Kabara socioeconomic, 11, 71, 192 306 INDEX

Social Democratic Party, 85 sources, 70, 94, 108, 123, 125, 130, see also SDP 134, 137, 138, 144, 245 social justice, 7, 10, 30, 53–4, 57, 107, south, x, 1–2, 9, 13, 21, 24, 28–33, 115, 176–7, 192, 220, 245 36–7, 45, 51–2, 54–6, 60–2, 65, sociopolitical, xii, 6, 46, 76, 84, 112, 77, 86, 88–9, 91, 102–3, 107, 188, 192, 207, 229 115, 118, 124–5, 170, 198, 202, social-religious, 161 208, 209, 211, 212, 213, 216, social services, 38, 178, 202 221, 225, 227, 229, 233 societies, 9, 29, 36–7, 64, 93, 95, 97, southeast, 51, 65, 73, 85, 216 102, 155, 158, 167, 169, 175, southeastern, 85 178–9, 189, 193, 214, 238–9, southern, x, 1, 20, 21, 23–4, 27–30, 243, 246, 248 35, 37, 41, 44–5, 47, 48, 49, 55, society, x, xii, xv, 5, 13, 21–5, 27, 61, 79, 89–91, 101, 104, 110, 29–30, 33, 35–6, 42, 47–9, 53, 117–18, 124–5, 175, 190, 199, 56–7, 62, 64, 66–8, 70–1, 75, 201, 203, 204 78, 83–4, 86, 88, 90–5, 101–2, southerners, 36–7, 50, 90, 124 105, 113, 118, 128, 134–6, 138, southwest, 54, 73, 85, 216 143, 149–50, 152, 155–7, 167, sovereign, 19 169–75, 177–9, 181–2, 184, speaking in tongues, 123 189–93, 197, 198, 202, 205, Spain, 78, 184 210, 213, 214, 217, 219, 220, Spirit, 123, 162, 163, 166, 178 221, 222, 223, 224, 227, 228, spirit, 29, 67, 149–50, 158, 162–3, 229, 230, 234, 235, 246, 249 168, 180, 191 Society of African Mission, 22, 202 spiritual, 8–10, 12, 17, 45, 53, 57, 67, see also, SMA 94, 112, 124–5, 127–9, 134–6, socio-cultural, 155, 169, 192 144, 150, 152, 162–3, 171, 176, socio-economic, 11, 71, 192 199, 202, 215, 223, 236 sociological, 91, 192 spiritual paths, 127 sociology, 158 spirituality, 127, 132, 161 socio-political, 6, 46, 76, 84, 112, split, 28, 36, 49, 127, 190 188, 192, 207, 229 splits, 120 socio-religious, 161 spokesman, 144 Sokoto, xiii, 1–5, 8–9, 11–13, 15–20, sponsor, 53, 81, 120–1, 134 22, 33, 39, 42–4, 46–8, 50, 58, sponsors, 76, 113, 120, 133 60, 62–3, 66, 73, 75–6, 93–4, sponsorship, 21, 53, 56–7 103, 113, 128, 133, 174, 181, sports, 111 183, 195–203, 205, 208–10, S. S. Salifu, 80 216, 234, 253, 260, 263 stability, 16, 20, 187 soldiers, 18, 49, 51, 55, 60, 113, 130 stakeholders, 178 solidarity, 150, 177, 242 standard, 66, 91, 95, 107, 110–11, 156, solution, 191, 192, 212, 219 163–4, 166, 192, 243, 244 solutions, 135, 215 standardizing, 239 Songhai, 126 standards, 6, 8, 27, 184 soteriology, 69, 165 state, ix, xii, xiii, 2, 6–7, 10, 13, 18, soul, 139 29, 33, 48, 54, 57–8, 61–6, 71, souls, 126, 180, 202 73, 76, 80–4, 86, 88, 91–3, source, 79, 92, 126, 134, 166, 200, 95–7, 100–104, 105–6, 108–10, 214, 222, 251 112–13, 116–18, 129, 135, 143, INDEX 307

174–5, 186, 189–90, 199, 203, 209, 210, 212, 213, 218, 219, 207, 209, 210, 211, 215, 217, 222, 227, 232, 245 218, 220, 222, 223, 224, 225, style, 36, 74, 112, 126, 128 227, 228, 229, 230, 234 sub-region, 83, 186, 189 state decree, 117 subaltern, 220 statement, 51, 80, 113, 144, 153, sub-Saharan, 11, 70, 215, 216, 217, 183, 222, 229 219, 235, 242, 243 statements, 52, 159 subjects, 3, 6, 21, 23, 114, 149 states, x, xii, 1–11, 13, 17, 19, 21, 26, subjugate, 7 29, 33, 52–4, 60, 62, 66, 68, 74, subjugated, 19, 103 77, 79, 82–3, 85–6, 91–3, 95, subjugation, 70 98–9, 107–9, 111–12, 115–18, submission, 229 123, 126, 135, 146, 149, 157–9, subordinate, 11, 29 166–7, 176, 178, 179, 182, 183, subordination, 33–4 190, 192, 195, 196, 197, 198, subscribe, 104, 121, 123, 137, 145–6, 206, 209, 210, 212, 214, 216, 223, 233 218, 221, 222, 223, 224, 226, subsidize, 203 227, 228, 229, 240 subsidizing, 28 statesman, 78 subsidy, 28 statistical, 34, 37, 42, 45, 95, 98 substandard, 192 status, 33, 59–60, 96, 109–10, 112, substantial, 46, 55, 66–7, 99, 102, 138, 162, 228–9 104, 108, 162 stewardship, 15 suburb, 181 stigma, 178 suburbs, 182, 247 stories, 181, 183 subversive, 35 story, 4, 21, 58, 101, 125, 161, 201, Sudan, 1, 4, 8, 11–13, 17, 21, 203, 207, 211 24, 31–2, 40, 42–3, 66, 91, stranger, 168 95, 122, 128–9, 190, 195–9, strangers, 228 202, 204, 210, 242, 253, strategically, 45, 207 256 strategize, 137 Sudan Interior Mission, 32 strategy, 26, 34, 37, 39, 40, 151 see also SIM structural, 119 Sudan United Mission, 24, 31–2, 199, structure, 4, 13, 15, 19, 28, 36, 42, 202, 204 112, 121, 167, 174, 181, 197, see also SUM 201, 228, 230 Sudanese, 2, 58, 223 structures, 9, 37, 39, 42, 90–1, 126, Sufi, 8, 35–6, 49, 67, 76, 77, 129, 175, 191, 230 127–8, 132, 185, 214, struggle, 45, 62, 78, 102, 130, 135 233–4, 239, 248 struggles, 9, 100–101 Sufis, 146, 233, 239 students, 47, 48, 71, 75, 86, 97, 132–3, Sufism, 233, 235, 263 156, 191, 195, 196, 205, 235 suicidal, 183 studies, 40, 67, 70, 76, 102, 131, suicide, 113, 114, 133, 141–2, 186 168–9, 191, 212, 215, 219, 249 Suleiman Kumo, 58, 211 study, x, xiv, 22, 44, 63–4, 91–2, 99, sultan, 3, 9, 15, 17–18, 20, 22, 33, 101, 114, 120, 126–7, 130, 133, 47, 59, 75, 128, 134, 200, 140, 151, 155, 164, 169, 187, 205, 210 188, 192, 197, 199, 202, 204, Sultanate, 9 308 INDEX

Sultan of Sokoto system, 15, 19, 21, 24–6, 28–9, 33, Abdurrahaman, 17–18, 22, 200 35, 39, 52–3, 59, 68, 73, 81, 83, Muhammad Attahiru II, 18, 33, 85–6, 91, 92, 93–6, 102, 103, 205 107, 109, 112, 118, 160, 167, 176, Shehu Attahiru Ahmadu, 18 190, 196, 202, 215, 222, 248 Sultans, 17 systematic, 61, 83, 231 SUM, 24, 31–2 systems, 87, 153, 171, 212 see also Sudan United Mission Sunna, 49, 74, 111, 145, 230 Tafawa Balewa (city), 98, 100, 101 Sunni, 9, 12, 130, 134, 145, 185, tafsir, 130, 239, 255 233 takeover, 54, 133 superior, 11, 139, 149, 161, 165–7, talakawa, 10, 11, 19, 22, 107, 118 174, 193 talents, 111 superiority, 7, 18–19, 29, 45, 74, 127, Taliban, 230 144, 146, 157, 164, 188, 242, Tanzania, 196, 261 243 Taraba, 80, 102 superseded, 76, 145 Tarayyar Ekklesiyan Kristi A Sudan, 32 supersessionism, 145–6, 188, 238 see also TEKAS supporters, 8, 9, 12, 76, 136, 212 Tarayyar Ekklesiyoyin Kristi A supremacy, 90, 128 Nigeria, 122 supreme, 47, 54, 58, 61, 69, 87, 91, see also TEKAN 147, 169, 209 tariqa, 7, 35, 44, 63, 76, 127, 128, Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 170, 54, 209 208, 216, 219, 233, 234 see also SCIA Tarok, 193 surrender, 3, 17, 37, 144, 222 tawhid, 144, 160, 180 surrendered, 20, 80 tax, 6, 10–11, 19, 94, 138, 201, 242 surveillance, 75 taxes, 6, 11, 18, 94, 109, 116 Survey, 197, 232, 251, 256 taxonomy, 213 survival, 173 taxpayers, 53, 56–7, 61, 83 suzerainty, 5 teachers, 1, 12, 48, 61, 195, 196 swear, 33 teaching, 22, 79, 84, 114, 122, sword, 133, 199, 234, 256 127–8, 144–6, 157, 162, 169, sworn, 33 180, 233 sycophancy, 111 teachings, 71, 77, 112, 123, 135–6, Syllabus Errorum, 143 144, 147, 157, 180 Sylvester Ugo, 85 technocratic, 55 symbiotic, 169 technocrats, 122, 222 symbol, 166, 165, 238, 247 technological, 24, 175 sympathetic, 34 technology, 25, 65, 126, 168 sympathizers, 134 TEKAN, 122 sympathy, 52, 234 see also Tarayyar Ekklesiyoyin Kristi symptomatic, 9 A Nigeria synagogues, 3 TEKAS, 32 synchronous, 5, 36, 152, 164 see also Tarayyar Ekklesiyan Kristi syncretism, 7–8, 156 A Sudan Synod, 178, 246, 262 Temple, 3, 25, 28, 142 Syria, 145 tenets, 64, 134, 138, 143, 219 INDEX 309 tension, 46, 49, 72, 87–8, 106, 115, 138, 142, 147, 160, 163, 164, 162, 172, 187–8 172, 175, 214, 230, 231 territorial, 127 times, 18, 35, 58, 76, 78, 135, 142, territories, ix, 3–4, 11, 16–17, 20, 148, 159, 170, 181, 199, 210, 22, 28, 34–5, 65, 93, 102, 135, 220–1, 234 204, 207 tithes, 136 territory, 2, 58, 102, 203, 113, 229 title, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 87, 208 terror, 77, 102, 248 Tiv, 11, 13, 32, 48, 69, 104, 106, Terrorism, xiii, 101, 224, 232, 259 116, 122, 193 terrorist, 74, 77, 99, 113, 118, 138, T. J. Bowen, 21 178, 229 tobacco, 6 tertiary, 48, 191 Bashri Tofa, 85 testimony, 247 tolerance, 9, 23, 141, 159–60, 164, Testing, 224, 262 239, 242, 243 text, 82, 140, 143, 144, 146, 147, tombs, 145 158, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, tongues, 123, 244 166, 170, 200, 223, 229, 239 tool, ix, 32, 38, 39, 53, 69–70, 91, Thailand, 232 148, 174, 176, 189, 204, 239 theatricals, 123, 219 topic, 83, 86, 87, 92, 101, 155, 195, theocratic, 44 226 theologians, 144, 148–9, 156, 164, Torodbe, 7 169, 239, 244 Toronto, 24, 233, 234, 236 theological, 12, 22, 70, 71, 120, 123, Totalizing, 63 138, 141, 144, 145, 147, 149, totalizing, 63–4, 71, 141, 153, 161, 150, 152, 153, 155, 156, 157, 174 158, 161, 163, 164, 165, 167, towns, x, xi, 51, 93, 116, 198 169, 175, 189, 192, 244, 246 Toyin Falola, 132, 195, 217, 219, 223, theological assumptions, 71, 100, 167 236 theology, xiii, xv, 69, 82, 125, 139, see also Falola 142, 152, 156, 158, 161, 163, trade, 1, 6, 17, 21, 94, 95, 198, 165, 179–80, 189, 237, 238, 200–201 239, 241, 242, 243, 245, 246 trademarks, 199 Theophilius Danjuman, 55 traders, 1, 5, 26, 170 theory, x, 10, 69, 121, 158, 192, 195, tradition, 41, 44, 96, 102, 112, 131, 238 135, 151–2, 157, 160, 162–3, Thomas Hodgkin, 12–13, 196–7, 166, 185, 210, 213, 219, 222, 254, 256 233, 242 threat, 39, 47, 147, 229 traditional, 3, 5, 7, 10–11, 22, 30, threatened, 10, 62, 86–7, 109, 187, 36, 47, 65, 76, 80, 96, 104, 112, 217 113, 126, 128, 130, 134, 158, throne, 3, 124 160, 168, 169, 170, 188, 199, Tijaniyya, 7, 36, 44, 47–9, 63, 67, 75, 208, 210, 242, 244 127–9, 133–4, 210, 216, 233–4 traditionalist, 15, 21, 23, 26, 29, 166, Timbuktu, 5–6, 127 193, 204 time, 5, 7, 9, 12–13, 17, 18, 24, 25, traditions, 32, 123, 134, 141, 149, 27, 41, 42, 44, 52, 55, 58, 62, 150, 155, 157, 160, 164, 165, 70, 71, 73, 81, 83, 85, 90, 91, 166, 175, 178, 182, 185, 193, 93, 94, 104, 105, 114, 133, 137, 197, 241, 242, 243, 245 310 INDEX transcendence, 244 Umar Danfulani, 103, 225 transformation, 152, 209, 211, 252, Umar Tal, 128 263 UMBC, 42, 68 transformed, 210, 217, 227, 230, see also United Middle Belt Congress 234, 257 umbrella, 47, 54, 79, 122–4, 183, 247 transition, 2, 7, 166, 169, 208, 217, umma, 66 221, 224, 229 Umma movement, 76–7, 235 translation, 17, 162, 200, 220, 239, UN, 114, 229 243, 245 see also United Nations transparent, 137 un-Islamic, 65, 68, 75, 112 transplanting, 246 un-Islamized, 198 trauma, 187 unbelief, 145, 146, 170 traumatic, 229 unbelievers, 10, 11, 18, 22, 96, 148, traumatized, 98 239 travellers, 200 uncharitable, 56, 57 travels, 4, 199 unchristian, 57 treachery, 34 uncompromising, 139, 141 treasures, 180 unconquered, 103 Treasury, 203 uncorrupted, 70 treaties, 17 uncritical, 136 treaty, 21 unemployed, 112 tribal, 44–5, 231, 249 unemployment, 171 tribalism, 93 unethical, 95, 206 tribes, 102, 159 unfavorable, 22, 42, 89 tribesmen, 10 unfriendly, 22, 130 tribute, 4, 11, 44, 61, 193, 247 unhealthy, 40, 49, 91, 130, 183 trillions, 54 unholy, 229, 230 Trinitarian, 169 uniformity, 66, 121 Trinity, 165 unifying, 43 Tripoli, 2 union, 32, 36, 71, 127, 190, 193, 200 troop, 17, 18 united, 20, 24, 31, 32, 42, 44, 45, 46, tropical, 203 49, 51, 54, 55, 60, 68, 73, 74, 77, trust, 114, 124, 177, 225, 247 123, 127, 149, 163, 178, 179, 182, truth, 31, 116, 137, 139, 141, 142, 191, 199, 202, 204, 210, 221, 143, 144, 146, 148, 150, 152, 223, 224, 226, 227, 229, 240 157, 162, 165, 166, 184, 188, United African Company, 20 199, 212, 233, 234 United Middle Belt Congress, 42, 68 Tuareg, 8 see also UMBC Turkey, 64 United Nations, 240 turuq, 44, 48, 49, 63, 214 see also UN Tutsi, 78 United States Commission on typology, 163, 240 International Religious Freedom, 227 ubiquitous, 130, 141 see also USCIRF Uganda, 78 United States of America, xvi, 74, 77, Ugo, 85 123, 149, 178–9, 182, 223, 224, ulama, 138, 190, 234 226, 227, 240 ultraconservative, 10, 112 see also the US and USA INDEX 311 unity, 3, 52, 73, 75, 77, 101, 107, 111, vassal, 4, 8, 10, 19 121, 163, 170, 180, 182, 193 vassals, 3, 140 Unity Party of Nigeria, 73 Vatican, 121, 143, 150, 165, 169, see also UPN 183, 206, 232, 240, 261 universal, 57, 121, 165–6, 183 viability, 188, 228 universality, 242 viable, 83, 175, 210, 217, 218, 219, universally, 156 224, 227, 230, 234–6, 257 universities, 61, 71, 86, 215 vices, 78, 92–3 University, xvi, 5, 13, 22, 24, 48, 71, victims, 43, 68, 89, 94, 98, 105, 146, 75, 76, 97, 112, 113, 114, 129, 178, 191, 218 132, 133, 134, 135, 179, 195, Victor Chukwulozie (Rev. Fr.), 45, 196, 197, 198, 199, 208–19, 197, 209, 253 223, 224, 227, 234–9, 241, 242, victory, 10, 47, 74, 85 243, 245, 246, 248, 249 vigilante, 79, 81 unpatriotic, 56 village, 26, 51, 94, 98, 111–12 unwelcomed, 117 violation, 58, 93 unwillingness, 151 violence, ix, x, xi, xiii, 42, 45, 50, UPN, 73 62–4, 67–9, 72, 75–9, 98–101, see also Unity Party of Nigeria 104–6, 111–13, 117, 137–40, uprising, 26, 35, 39–40, 69, 132, 203 142, 148, 153, 159, 173–5, 178, urban, 43 181, 187, 190–1, 195, 217, 218, Urhobo, 106, 116, 227 219, 223, 224, 226, 227, 236, US, 70, 82, 178 237, 238, 247, 248 see also United States of America violent, 49, 62, 64, 68–9, 75–9, 84, and USA 97–9, 101, 105, 112–13, 130, USA, 24, 132, 241 140–2, 148, 158, 176, 179, 187, see also US and United States of 218, 223, 232, 247 America virtues, 168, 176, 178, 185, 247 USCIRF, 227, 229 vision, 66 see also United States Commission vociferous, 88, 95 on International Religious voice, 47, 54, 57, 127, 209, 211, 212, Freedom 227, 247 Usman dan Fodio University, 133 voiceless, 209, 211–12, 261 Usmaniyya, 44, 127, 216 volatile, 147 Ustaz Mohammed Yusuf, 112 volatility, x, 36 see also Boko Haram vote, 85, 206 Usuman dan Fodio, 1, 4–8, 10, voting, 90 12–13, 18–19, 33, 44, 48, 58, 63–4, 66, 90, 127, 167, 233 Wadai, 2 see also dan Fodio, Shehu Usuman Wahba al-Zuhayli, 145 dan Fodio, and Uthman dan Wahhabi, 12, 67, 68, 128, 130–1, Fodio 145–6, 214, 216, 233 Uthman, 44, 197 Wahhabis, 145, 239 see also dan Fodio, Usuman dan Wahhabism, 12–13, 66, 67, 129, 131, Fodio, and Shehu Usuman dan 145–6, 199 Fodio Wahhabiyya, 66, 67, 214, 239 Uzukwu, 168–9, 244, 246, 263 wali, 234 see also Elochukwu Uzukwu walkout, 62 312 INDEX

Walter Ofonagoro, 221, 259 win, 73, 90, 126, 128, 145, 206 Walter Miller (Dr), 22–3 wisdom, 92, 166 war, 3, 11, 18, 22, 32–3, 39, 43, 47, witness, 122, 150, 177, 184, 191, 49–52, 55, 62, 70, 74, 78, 96, 232, 246, 248 102, 107, 117, 133–4, 141, 164, witnessed, 72, 79, 84, 99, 117, 247 190, 209, 211, 215 witnessing, 121, 150 warfare, 141 women, 57, 107, 111, 138, 150, 168 warlike, 159 won, 31, 75, 85, 111, 130, 157 warriors, 198 workers, 24, 117, 150, 176 Wase, 24, 204 world, 12–13, 16, 27, 32, 33, 35, Waziri Ibrahim (Alhaji), 216 43, 46, 62, 66–7, 70, 78, 90–2, WCC, 46, 121–2, 177, 183 94–5, 121, 122, 133, 140, 142, see also World Council of Churches 144, 148, 152, 157, 163–8, 170, WEA, 122, 177 175, 177, 182–3, 193, 200, 201, see also World Evangelical Alliance 202, 205, 208, 209, 213, 216, wealth, 8, 95, 134, 136, 138, 147, 181 218, 224, 227, 231–6, 238–40, wealthy, 136 242, 244–8 weapon, 62, 152, 176 World Council of Churches, 46, 121–2, welfare, 10, 57, 61, 95, 121, 178, 181, 164, 177, 183, 232, 246, 248 185, 202 see also WCC WESJOMO, 209 World Evangelical Alliance, 122, 177, see also Western State Joint Muslim 183 Organization see also WEA Wesleyans, 21, 32 worldview, 90, 135, 141, 146, 151–2, West, 2–3, 5, 102, 164, 186, 189, 158, 160, 164, 167–9, 171–4, 193, 195–7, 203, 210, 214, 217, 175, 184, 188–9, 214, 245 220, 227, 230, 233–4, 243, 251, worldviews, 155, 158, 175 253–4, 256–7, 261, 263 worldwide, 171 West Africa, 1, 7, 9, 20, 23, 24, 115, worship, 11, 18, 84, 99, 114–15, 186 122–3, 143, 145–6, 148, 160, Western, 16, 23–5, 27, 32–3, 35–6, 162, 183–4, 219 38, 42, 48, 54, 65–9, 74, 77–8, worshippers, 87, 162 82, 93, 104, 112, 119, 133, 142, worshipping, 114, 164, 172 155, 164, 171, 173, 175, 189, Wukari, 204 199, 201–3, 205, 209, 214, 220, Wusasa, 23 244, 246, 253 Western Nigeria, 9, 35, 36, 40, 202, xenophobia, 100 205 xenophobic, 100 Western State Joint Muslim Organization, 209 Yahweh, 148 see also WESJOMO Yakubu Gowon (General), 49–50, Western Sudan, 8, 11, 12, 13, 198, 52–6, 60, 216 199 Yakubu Yahaya, 76, 129, 133, 134, 217 Westport, 195, 255–6 Yan Izala, 145, 146, 170, 213, 217 white, 16, 23, 30 see also Izala and Jama’atul Izalatul white paper report, 92, 223 Bid’ah Wa’ikhamatul Sunnah William R. Burrows, 165, 240, 243 Yan Shia, 76 Wilson Sabiya, 61, 212 see also mini-ayatollahs or Shiawa INDEX 313

Yaqub, 6 Yusufu Bala Usman, 62, 119, 136, Ya’qub of Bauchi, 11 192, 232, 263 Yauri, 5 Yusufu Turaki, 68, 197, 198, 215 Yazbeck, 255 Yelwa, 181, 183, 218 zakat, 6, 136, 181 Yerima, 91 Zamfara, 5, 17, 62, 66, 91 see also Ahmed Sani Yerima Zango Kataf, 98, 99, 100, 101, 224 Yobe, 111–12, 229 Zaria, 2, 5–7, 23–5, 31, 37, 41–2, Yohana Madaki (Colonel), 217 45, 48, 51, 71, 75–6, 97, 99, Yola, 37, 42, 94, 97, 200 102–3, 118, 128, 133, 181, Yoruba, 5, 17, 30, 46, 104, 116, 193, 183, 203, 211, 232, 236, 227, 245 258, 263 Yorubaland, 20–1 Zazzau, 5 Yorubas, 106, 222 zeal, 4, 141–2 Young Muslim Association of zealotism, 141 Nigeria, 47 zealotry, 142 young, 49–50, 52, 55, 75, 114, 132, zealous, 2, 46 214, 216 zina, 59 youth, 71, 124, 136, 178, 216 Zionist, 119 youths, 79, 81, 112, 124, 218 zoning, 182, 228 Yunfa, 8, 13 Zoroastrianism, 95, 161