RESEARCH INSTITUTE Tenth Annual Report

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atwtord Urwwsfty Ltoranes L*p*. of S*»cW o<%c*oo6 C7S~T- Box _J2a /O Fol Z_3±_ Foi - Tlfle — MENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH INSTITUTE Tenth Annual Report

Covering the period July 1, 1964 to June 30, 1965 MENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH INSTITUTE

THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN TABLE OF CONTENTS

Statement the Director 4 Institute Staff 84

The Research Program 7 Sources Support 90 Research in the Biological Sciences VV. Agranoff, (Bernard 'Fen Years 96 Coordinator) 9 The First Physiological Psychology 9 Findings in the Biological Sciences 101 Biochemistry II 114 Neurojjhy.siology 16 Findings in the Psychological Sciences Nemomorjjhology 21 Findings in the Societal Sciences 131 Research in the Psychological Sciences (Leonard Uhr, Findings in the Systems Sciences 137 Coordinator) 23 Psycholinguistics 23 Findings from the Schizojjhienia and Psychopharmacology PercejJtion, Learning, and Cognition 25 Project ■ ■ 148 Human Factors and Skills 36 Psychojjhai macology 37 Psychojjhysiology 38 Research in the Societal Sciences (Richard L. Meier, Coordinator) II Change and Development in Societies 11 Conflict Processes in Social Systems 12 International Political Systems 15 Research in the Systems Sciences (Merrill M. Flood, Coordinator) 16 Biological Systems 46 Psychological Systems 49 Social Systems 50 Information Processing Systems 52 Mathematics of General Systems 57

Other Institute Activities 60 The Teaching Program 60 Institute Services 65 Professional and Community Activities of the Stall 67 Institute Publications 69

Stake Publications, 1961-1965 70

Administrative Committees 84 2 3

of tute have made important contributions, can provide new insights toward possible solutions to problems in many fields. Increasing acceptance of this viewpoint is now apparent among a number of STATEMENT OF THE DIRECTOR scientific and professional leaders in the mental health fields. ""Our third goal is the application of findings from the above years ago, a group of scientists from the University of Chicago work to the prevention, diagnosis, and cure of mental illness and Tencame to The University of Michigan to establish an interdis- mental retardation. The original plan for the development of the ciplinary institute in a medical school to carry out a broad program Institute formulated in 1955 provided that the biological, psycho- of basic research grounded on integrative theory in the behavioral logical, and systems science areas would be organized the sciences, directed toward developing procedures for the prevention societal sciences, next; and then the interdisciplinary and clinical and cure of mental illness. research areas. We are now in the latter phases of implementing this During the j^ast decade the Institute has grown from three scien- plan. The Clinical Research Coordination Area was established in tists and a secretary to a staff of 182 jjersons. Our building, which 1965 to serve as a bridge between the Institute and clinical pro- we occupied in late 1959, is already inadequate. Since 1960 our grams in other units of the Department of Psychiatry. We believe research activities have almost doubled. At present more than this will hasten the application of fundamental research findings forty major research projects are under way at the Institute, and to the tare of patients. Clinical investigations at the Institute several new ones are planned. Many hundreds of articles, and more have thus far been concerned with schizophrenia, mental retar- than thirty books, have resulted from research done here. Our dation, alcoholism, clinical pharmacology, and psychopharmacology. official publication, the journal Behavioral Science, has steadily We hope to extend these efforts to include controlled, objective increased in readership until it now has more than 3,700 subscribers investigations of techniques of psychodiagnosis, evaluations of proc- and is to be found in most of the world's major scholarly libraries. ess and possible outcomes of different methods of individual and The program developed since the Institute was established group psychotherapy, and various other aspects of biological psy- focuses clearly on three major objectives. Our first goal is the inte- chiatry. gration of the various disciplines in the physical, biological, and The form of coojjeration among natural scientists and behavior- social behavioral sciences into a unified body of knowledge. While al scientists, clinicians and nonclinicians, which has characterized no one will deny that man partakes of a social as well as a biological the Institute from the beginning has in recent years received many nature, there is a fundamental schism between the views of the forms of recognition. In 1961 the Commission on Mental nature Joint of man held by many jusychiatrists and social scientists on the Illness and Health jmblished a rejjort to the Congress making recom- one hand, and by neurologists and biological scientists on the other. mendations for national j>rograms to advance mental health. The This modern manifestation of the mind-body problem has serious mental health legislation of the Kennedy Administration was a practical consequences for the study and treatment of mental illness. direct outcome of this report. Staff members preparing this report The Institute represents one of the first attempts to reconcile these visited the Institute and investigated its program in detail. A prior- divergentpoints of view. ity recommendation of the was that interdisciplinary insti- Second, rejiort we carry out a program of basic research on (a) nervous tutes to do basic research in the behavioral sciences relevant to system structure and function in health and disease; (b) how infor- mental health should be encouraged. Our Institute was one of within mation is processed the living body and among human beings the first programs of this sort established in a state university medi- in health and disease; and (c) social structure and process, which cal school and emjjhasizing an integrative apjiroach to the study determine for norms acceptable behavior and are also imjiortant of man. Over the last ten years the Institute has on several occa- determinantsof psychopathology. sions been visited by scientists about to set up research programs The two fundamental concepts of information {processing and elsewhere and has served as one basis for their planning of buildings system organization permeate many of our research projects, in all and programs. the main areas of our program: psychological, biological, social, and Our journal Behavioral Science was the first interdisciplinary mathematical. The general systems approach to the conceptual inte- journal to be to research and theoretical work in all the sciences, devoted gration of the behavioral to which members of the Insti- behavioral sciences. Since 1956 other interdisciplinary journals have 5

first; been founded, including the American Behavioral Scientist and the THE RESEARCH PROGRAM Journal of Psychiatric Research, reflecting the growing interest in such an interdisciplinary approach to the study of behavior. The Mental Health Research Institute, a unit of the Depart- The study of information jjrocessing in living systems has been ment of Psychiatry of The University of Michigan, conducts an inter- given priority support by the United States Public Health Service disciplinary basic research program directed toward discovering the and other government agencies, expansion in it being strongly sup- causes of mental illness and developing jjroceduresfor its prevention jjortedby various Congressional committees. and cure. The Institute's research activities fall into five major Recently stejjs have been taken by the American Psychiatric areas. Four of these are the scientific coordination areas: the bio- Association toward the formation of a committeeon general systems logical sciences, the jjsychological sciences, the systems sciences, theory. No memberof our staff took any initiativein this, but in the and the societal sciences. Two new scientific areas, the interdiscipli- first year of this activity more than fifty jjsychiatrists, some of them nary research area and the clinical research area, will be added leaders in the field, indicated an interest in jjarticijjating because during the coming year. The remainingarea includes general institu- they recognized jjotential in this ajjproach to problems of jjsychia- tional, technical, and administrative activities. All these efforts try and mental health, in which our Institute has jjioneered. fuse into a single concerted attack on fundamental jjroblems of A statement made in the Institute's Fifth Annual Rejjort is behavior and mental health. equally apjjrojjriate here. "We are jjroud of certain accomplish- The Biological Sciences Coordination Area emjjhasiz.es the study ments to date, disajjjjointed that some lines of research did not of the relations between the brain and behavior. These studies are develop, but hopeful of maintaining in the future an organization being pursued in our laboratories of physiological psychology, neu- staffed by the best scientists that can be obtained who are devoted romorjjhology, neurojjhysiology, and biochemistry. to basic research in the behavioral sciences and mental health Two long-term jjrojects in this area are concerned with the jjroblems." chemical or physical changes which accompany learning and memory. A study of fixation of memory in the goldfish demonstrated that memory is fixed during a sjjecific time period immediately following conditioning, and that memory fixation seems dejjendent on the formation of protein. Another jjroject is concerned with the brain jjrocesses which are involved in sensory information processing, in the control and modification of sensory injjuts, and in the facilitation and inhibition James G. Miller, M.D., Ph.D. of sensory-motor interaction. Studies have concentrated on sensory Director, Mental Health Research Institute coding at the single-cell level, and the differentiation of patterned or frequency resjjonses of those cells which respond to more than one tyjje of stimulus. Two other long-term projects were continued. One dealt with the chemical and metabolic differences among various parts of the brain. The other was concerned with the structure and function of brain lipids, and the role of lipid metabolism in brain develojjment, and disease. Carriers of phenylketonuria (PKU), an inherited metabolic deficiency which can lead to severe mental retardation if not treated soon afterbirth, werethe subject of an intensive investigation. About four fifths of PKU carriers can be definitely identified by means of a simple biochemical test. These people can then be warned that they may have a PKU baby, and that early diagnosis and treatment is essential for the jjrevention of mental retardation. 7

function, Whereas the Biological Sciences Coordination Area emphasizes occupies a central place in the Institute's research program. The the discovery and understanding of organismic jjrocesses underly- Systems Sciences Coordination Area is characterized by formal and ing behavior, the Psychological Sciences Coordination Area examines mathematical apjjroaches to jjroblems and consequent generality of in detail the behavior of the total organism itself. The scientists the solutions. It evaluates models about the interrelationships among in this group are continuously striving to discover the baselines of biological and behavioral variables. This approach is being used in normal behavior against which the behavior of the mentally ill may a wide variety of studies, including studies of schizophrenia, of deter- be compared. Such studies can lead to new diagnostic and therapeu- minants of coojjerative and noncoojjerative behavior, of various tic methods. social and jjolitical jjrocesses, of information-processing systems, While researchers in the biological sciences exjjlore the biologi- and of other biological and sociological systems and subsystems. cal bases of learning and memory, scientists in this area are con- Brief descriptions of work done during the year are given cerned with learning as a jjsychological process. A variety of differ- below. For the benefit of those readers who wish more information ent models, chiefly concerned with the develojjment of learning about sjjecific jjrojects, staff publications which resulted from work structures and processes during infancy and early childhood, are rejjorted here are cited in jjarentheses throughout the descriptions. being constructed and tested by simulating them on a comjjuter. These citations give the name of the senior author and a publication The models simulate such cognitive functions as language learning, number. Complete references may be found in the list of staff jjerceptual development, concejjt and jjroblem solving. jjublications at the end of this rejjort. the of The Institute is cooperating with University Michigan Major findings made during the year are reported at the end a and of Speech Clinic in a joint project on ajjhasia related sjjeech dis- number" of the descriptionsof studies. These findings are printed in italics orders. Since many sorts of ajjhasia involve a breakdown of the and are signalled by a dot like tire one u'hich begins this paragraph. patient's ability to speak and to understand concejjts, one of the central approaches in the jjroject is the study of the ajjhasic's infor- RESEARCH IN THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES mation-handling capabilities. Severalways in which these cajjabilities differ from those of normalshave been discovered. Bernard W. Agranoff, Coordinator Psycholinguistics, or the {psychology of language, views the use PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY of language as one kind of learned human behavior. A continuing Learning and Regeneration in Planarians research program is devoted to the study of language as behavior- how it is learned, how it affects and is affected by jjerception and Clay, Leavitt, Shigehisa, Shelby thought, and how and why it changes. Work during the year used Learning may be thought of as a more or less permanent a mathematical theory of nets to examine lexical structure, the ways change in an organism's resjjonse to imjjinging stimuli. New infor- in which words in a language are associated with each other. mation may be acquired, new understanding gained, or new skills Other projects in this area were concerned with the coding proc- develojjed. In order for these changes to be permanent, or fixated, esses within the human sensory system, with some factors influen- they must somehow be recorded and stored by some kind of ma- cing information-jjrocessing cajjacity, and with jjsychological factors terial change in the body of the organism. Various jjrojects at the in allergenicreactions. Institute are devoted to learning what these changes are, where they The Societal Sciences Coordination Area examines the social are, and how and under what conditions a flow of information leads context of the behaving individual. The scope of this area includes to a specific andretrievable informationstore. the behavior of groups and societies as well, since these influence This study is devoted to the jjsychological, physiological, and behavior and determine its norms. Projects during the year have biochemical phenomena associated with learning and regeneration been concerned with change and develojjment in societies,with con- in various simple animals ranging from the jjlanarian, a common flict processes in social systems, and with international jjolitical freshwater flatworm, to rats and jjigeons. There is evidence that systems. ribonucleic acid (RNA), a large molecule found inside animal cells, One of the most fruitful unifying concejjts in science is the is one of the biochemical "carriers" or "coders" for memory in all description of a process or a series of processes by mathematical organisms, including man. Several years ago, Dr. McConnell and equations. The develojjment of mathematical models therefore his students showed that acquired behavioral tendencies could be 8

formation,

McConnell, Shinkman, Salive, transferred from a trained planarian to an untrained planarian if 2. A control group of families who had non-PKU, retarded chil- the untrained animal could be induced to cannibalize pieces of dren in the same schools and hospitals as the PKU patients. tissue from the trained animal. Later work at the Institute showed 3. A second control group of families whose children were not that a similar transfer could take place if RNA were extracted retarded but did have another serious, chronic, inherited disease, from trained worms and injected into untrained animals. These cystic fibrosis. were the first studies performed anywhere that indicated that A standardized interview form was constructed to evaluate the acquired behavioral tendencies could be transferred from one or- mental health of jjarents and other relatives of the samjjle children. ganism to another. The interviews were conducted by staff members of the Survey Re- Findings: search Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan. Planarians can be trained to select either the light or the dark A program of testing the close relatives of PKU children to see " in a simple T-maze. a dark-trainedanimal is to an un- colored arm If fed which trained cannibalistic planarian and then the cannibal is likewise trained of them are truly carriers for this disease was begun during the carriers to select the dark arm, it learns very rapidly indeed. If the cannibal is, year. Through this program, 80 per cent of the true however, trained to select the light arm instead (that is, trained opposite can be identified by means of a biochemical test. This will make it to the way the animal it ingested was trained), the cannibal learns signifi- jjossible tcj warn a groujj of peojjle with a high risk of having a PKU cantly more slowly, but still learns more rapidly than if it had not canni- baby and to inform them how to jjrevent the mental retardation that balized al all. If a cannibal ingests parts both of a light-trained and of a occurs in untreated PKU. dark-trained (i.e., it ingests conflicting "instructions"), its planarian if Findings: speed of learning is significantly retarded and it appears to show "conflict behavior" in the maze during training. (McConnell, Clay, Salive, Persons heterozygous for phenylketonuria do not report more Ltavitt, Shigchisa, Shelby) drinking" problems, nervous breakdowns, depressions, hospitalizations for mental illness, or contact with physicians than persons in control groups. Psychopathology Associated with Heterozygosity for Phenylketonuria (Blumenthal) Men re- Blumenthal report more drinking problems than women, but women port more" nervous breakdowns and depressions, and rate higher scores on Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited disease characterized by a check list of psychiatric symptoms. However, it appears that while women the lack of ability to convert the ammo acid jjhenylalanine into report more nervous breakdownsand psychiatric symptoms than men, these tyrcjsine (see "Brain Pathology and Metabolism," ]>age 15). If it reports are less apt to be correlated with hospitalization for mental illness than similar by men. (Blumenthal) is not treated very early in life, this disease almost always leads to reports have more drinking severe mental retardation. It occurs only in jjeojjle who carry two Persons who been divorced at some timereport problems, hospitalizations mental illness, nervous breakdowns, and genes for PKU, one being inherited from each jjarent. the " for depressions, and score higher on a check list than carry one gene and are of psychiatric symptoms jjarents of children with PKU must each persons who have never been divorced.(Blumenthal) known as heterozygotes. As far as is known, heterozygotes ajjpear normal, some individuals but investigators have suggested that such BIOCHEMISTRY are more ajjt to become mentally ill than noncarriers. If this is so, it would be jjossible to study the relationshijj between a biochemical Biochemical Correlates of Behavior known trait and jjsychiatric characteristics since it is that carriers Agranoff, Brink, G. Davis, Roger Davis, Klinger, MacKay of PKU have some biochemical differences from others. The current study was designed to find out whether there is an association be- The jjurjjose of this ongoing study is to gain further knowledge tween mental illness and heterozygosity for PKU. about the biochemical changes which accomjjany learning. During the past year studies of fixation of memory in the goldfish were Three groups of people were tested: carried out. 1. The families of 64 PKU patients. These children were all Goldfish were taught in the course of twenty trials to swim over retarded and came from state hospitals and training schools and a hurdle when a light went on in order to avoid an electric shock. from sjjecial education classes in Michigan. Ordinarily the fish retained memory of the twenty trials for weeks

10 11

Center,

Shinkman,

So, A device was designed in which fish are taught to swim at the speed of a fixed light in a tank which is revolving at a constant speed. This device, which automatically records the rate at which a fish learns to track light, is useful for measuring changes in fine control of the nervous system and in endurance, as well as in the ability to learn. Findings: The goldfish is a useful subject for studies of memory. Puromycin disrupts memory in the goldfish if administeredimmedi- ately after" conditioning.(Agranoff, Klinger) Electroconvulsive shock produces a memory deficit in goldfish similar" to that found with puromycin if administeredimmedatelyfollowing conditioning. (Roger Ravis, Agranoff) Both electroconvulsive shock and puromycin must be given very shortly" after learning trials to produce a memory deficit, indicating that memory is being fixed in a specific time period of less than two hours following conditioning.(Roger Davis, Agranoff) Fixation of memory in goldfish appears to be a temperature- dependent" process. (Roger Davis, Agranoff) Diagrammatic summary of our experiments on memory in the goldfish. (A) Fish are given twenty trials on day 1 in blocks of and ten trials on day 4. (IS) Lipid Chemistry of the Nervous System Puromycin injected immediately following trial 20 reduces performance on day 4 Agranoff, to the naive level. Puromycin injected one hour later has no Radin, Basu, Benjamins, Davies, Foote, Hajra, Kishimoto, effect. (C) Puromycin Kopaczyk, injected immediately before trial 1 appears to have no effect on the increase in Petzold, Wajda performance on day I (short-term memory), but nevertheless blocks memory fixa- of tion. When puromycin. is injected twenty minutes trials, The intensive jjrogram research into the structure and func- before short-term tion of memory is unimpaired, and some fixation occurs. (Reprinted from IS. IV. Agranoff, lipids, the fatty substances which make up 50 per cent of 11. E. Davis, and /. ./. ISrink, Chemical studies on memory fixation in goldfish. brain solids, was continued. While little is yet known of the role Brain I, W3-10').) of lipids in the function of the nervous system, there is a growing body of evidence that lipid metabolism is somehow important to or months. When they were given a convulsion by means of an elec- brain function, develojjment, and disease. Studies with animal tric shock, or were treated with the antibiotic jjuromycin, immedi- brains continued to yield valuable information about the function of brain ately after the first twenty trials, they to the lipids. The brains of humans whohad died from neurologi- "forgot" how avoid cal shock. The loss of memory following convulsion is similar to that diseases were used in investigations of pathological processes in- observed in human jjatients who received electroconvulsive shock volving lipids. for the treatment of mental illness. The results with puromycin are jjarticularly interesting because this antibiotic is known to inhibit Phospholipid Inositide. Mitochondria are the cell components which supply energy to the synthesis of jjrotein. It would then seem that the formation of the other parts of the cells. They contain a small amount of jihcjsphatidyl inositol phosphate, a lipid found in large amounts in the jjrotein is required for the formation of permanent memory. If brain. Measurements witli radioactive phosphorus show that the small either puromycin or electroconvulsive shock is hours or given two amount of this lipid present in mitochondria is in a constant state of more after the twentieth trial instead of immediately there is rapid formation and rapid breakdown. Studies were conducted during the no effect on memory storage. year to help elucidate the role of phosphatidyl inositol phosphate in Electroconvulsive shock can block memory two hours after train- mitochondria in the hope that this might ultimately explain the relatively ing, if the fish are cooled. These experiments indicate that the fixa- large amounts of this lijjid in the brain. By the use of techniques developed tion of memory is dependent on the temjjerature of the brain. in this laboratory, it was demonstrated that adenosine triphosphate, a high- 12

five,

Seidl, Seiffert, Suomi,

Research, 1966,

after,

13 energy comjjountl in the mitochondria, is responsible for the synthesis of Fish brains were shown to contain ordinary fat (triglycerides), un- this lipid. Experiments with various inhibitor agents demonstrate that the like the" brains of higher animals. The fatty acids in the triglycerides are lipid is very likely on the outside of the mitochondria. The findings could somewhat more saturated than the fatty acids found in the goldfish phos- mean that phosphatidyl inositol phosphate is involved in the transport of phoglycerides, which resemble those of man and rat. (Radin, Agranoff, ions through the walls of the mitochondria, although the mechanism is Wajda) not clear. yet the major acid the gangliosidefatty acids, was to Studies were also done on the of found formation of CDP-diglyceride, a lipo- he " in two stages. In the stage, acetic acid molecules condense nucleotide precursor of the inositol A biological enzyme which formed first li|>ids. system to form a shorter fatty acid (palmitic). In the second, the shorter acid is catalyzes the formation of this substance was found. Work is now in prog- elongated to form stearic. The mode of this and other fatty ress to identify the enzymes involved. formation of acids was found to be similar in rats of three different age groups: pre- Findings: myelination,active myelination, and slow myelination. Additional evidence was to indicate that the stearic acid in cerebrosides is in Adenosine triphosphate is the precursor of phosphatidyl inositol found formed phosphate" in mitochondria. (Hajra, Seiffert, Agranoff) one step, directly from acetic acid. (Radin, Hajra, Kishimoto, Davies) The enzymaticformation of CDP-diglyceride by a group of enzymes The brain enzyme which removes galactose from cerebroside is was demonstrated." (Petzold, Agranoff) found" in the soluble portion of brain cells, as well as in kidney and spleen. It catalyzes the reaction of cerebroside xuith water to form ceramide and Brain Glycolipids. The brain contains an unusual group of fatty acids, galactose. Its activity is greatly increased by the presence of taurocholic the glycolipids, which are made up in part of fatty acids that occur only acid, which ordinarily is found in bile. This enzyme may account for the in small concentrations in other jiarts of the body. This continuing project destruction of cerebroside that is found in certain demyelinalive diseases. is concerned with how these acids are made, how to measure their con- (Radin, Hajra, Kishimoto, Davies) centrations, and flow to measure the concentrations of the enzymes which Free fatty acids have been to exist in rat brain. They consti- The found make them. brain enzyme 2-ketostearate oxidase was studied particu- tute only" a small portion of the total brain fatty acids and increase with larly. During the year, rat normal brains and diseased human brains were age in a similarfashion. It is likely that they are formed by the constant studied in an effort to understand the chemical liases for abnormalbehavior breakdown of brain lipidsand are reulilizedfor lipidsynthesis or destroyed. and neurological disease. (Radin, Hajra, Kishimoto, Davies) A new method of measuring the concentration of brain gangliosides was used in a study of the changes which occur with age in rat brains. This method was also used in analyzingdifferent regions of brains of people Brain Pathology and Metabolism who died of multijjle sclerosis. Agranoff, Foote, Suomi Acetic acid is the main building block used by the brain to form fatty acids. Radioactive acetic acid was employed in a study of the mode of This continuing research program is concerned with relation- formation of the ganglioside fatty acids. ships between specific nervous system functions and specific metab- An enzyme in the brain which removes galactose from cerebroside olic processes. The hereditary character of various neurological was studied. diseases suggests the presence of some biochemical abnormalities. Findings: Investigations have continued to determine if two of these diseases, Previously required phenylketonuria and Gaucher's disease, might be caused by or re- " unidentified factors for the activity of 2-keto- lated stearate oxidase have been identified as magnesium and vitamin C. The to lipid abnormalities. products of action by the enzyme have been identified as carbon dioxide and the odd-numbered fatty acid, heptadecanoic acid. This enzyme is Phenylketonuria. This inherited disease, which leads to severe mental evidentlypart of the chain of enzymatic reactions by which the brain forms retardation if not treated in infancy, appears in persons who are unable odd-numbered fatty acids from even-numbered ones, and explains why to convert one essential ammo acid, phenylalanine, to another, tyrosine the former acids accumulate in brain with age. (Radin, Hajra, Kishimoto, (see "Psychopathology Associated with Heterozygosityfor Phenylketonuria," Davies) page 10). It was previously demonstrated in this laboratory that the ratio Gangliosides in rat. brain accumulate at a steady pace during the of oleic to stearic acid is abnormally low in the brains of phenylketonurics. first three" weeks of then at a somewhat slower pace, and still later During the past year further analyses of brains of patients who died of begin to disappearfrom the brain. The later disappearance may be related phenylketonuria were performed. The brains were separated into gray to decreasing brain function in later life. (Radin, Kishimoto, Davies) matter and white matter, then into various lipid classes. In all of the 14

Stearic,

life,

15 glycolipids, the pattern jjreviously observed, namely a decrease in the mation is recorded, processed, and directions for the response of major unsaturated acid in relation to the major saturated acid, was seen. the organism to the stimulus coded into other patterns of electric Finding: impulses. In this continuing program of research, a combination of In the glycolipids of the brains of phenylketonuria, the ratio of behavioral and neurojihysiological techniques is used to study the the major" unsaturated acid to the major saturated acid seems abnormally brain processes which are involved in sensory information process- low. This is seen in both gray and white matter. (Agranoff, Foote) ing, in the control and modification of sensory injjuts, and in the facilitation and inhibition of sensory-motor interaction. Special Gaucher's Disease. Mental retardation accompanies Caucher's disease attention has been given to the problem of how different tyj^es of if it occurs in but not if it occurs in adults. It is characterized by sensory information (e.g., light, sound) are represented in the brain an abnormal accumulation in the spleen of cerebroside, a lipid related and how they interact with one another and with motor functions. to nervous tissue lipids. Studies of the cerebroside of the spleen in Gaucher's Such interaction is related to the organization of the sensory input disease were completed during the year. In the studies, spleens removed to the types of sensory stimuli. from patients suffering from Gaucher's and how the brain codes different disease were comjjared with normal on coding at single-cell level, spleens. Studies have concentrated sensory the and the differentiation of the jjatterned or frequency resjjonses of Finding: those cells which resjjond to more than one type of stimulus. Some " On the basis of analyticalfindings', possible mechanismsof Gaucher's of these studies involve the behavior of such "jjolysensory" cells in disease were proposed. (Suomi, 1) a numberof brain structures (the caudate nucleus, the hippocampus, the amygdala) which are involved in motor and sensory control. In Studies on the Isolation of Nuclei these studies of brain coding and how changes in the brain affect Agranoff the coding, a combination of methods are used which include surgery, electrojjhysiological recording of brain waves, electrical and Previous work in this laboratory resulted in new methods for chemical stimulation of the brain, and evaluation of the resulting the study of the nucleic acids of brain nuclei. Continuations of these changes in behavior. studies have involved the use of a sucrose gradient technique to obtain pure samples of nuclei from various tissues of the body. The The Developmentof Sensory Interaction in theBrain. Since it appears Coulter Counter, a device ordinarily used for counting blood cells, that sensory interaction and sensory-motor interaction in the brain may form a basis and coordination, it is to the process has been adapted for the of This for learning fruitful study counting nuclei. device has also of brain newborn animal. By study- been used for distinguishing interaction as it develops in the of the normal from jjathological nuclei. ing the electrical development or "electro-ontogenesis" of sensory interac- Regenerating and cancer were liver tissues used for model systems. tion, it is possible to evaluate the interactive process separately from the Findings: participating sensory jjrocesses. The sensory responses of the brains of kittens are studied from birth to adulthood to determine at what time the A new gradient-making device has been developed studies on for individual sensory responses (to light, touch, and sound) appear in various subcellular" particles and macromolecules. (G. Davis, Santen, Agranoff) parts of the brain (cortex, cerebellum). The developmentof the interactionof The Coulter Counter has been adaptedfor the counting of nuclei. such responses in these sensory and motor brain centers may be independent (Santen)" of the development of the separate senses. These acute and chronic experiments are designed to determine when each sensory input system becomes in these brain areas, how the senses interact with NEUROPHYSIOLOGY functional separate each other, when such complex interaction takes place, and how these Sensory Interaction and Sensory Coding in the Brain critical developmental periods relate to the development of smoothly integrated behaviors.(Fox, Allman) Fox, Takagi, Airman, Butcher, Kettlewell, Lickey, Wyse Single-Cell Coding and Conditioning. As part of the general program concerned with the manner of sensory coding by single cells and groups of When the sensoryreceptors an organism are stimulated, these of cells in the brain, other conditioning studies (similarto the studies of slow stimuli are translated, or coded, into patterns of electric imjitdses potential changes during conditioning) at the single-cell level have been which travel along the nervous system to the brain. Here this infor- in progress, fn these studies, single-cell sensory response patterns are com-

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infants,

Santen,

Shinkman, O'Brien, Sherwood, piled by computers. The response patterns to two different stimuli are Sensory Integration in the Insect Brain. Research was continued on separately determined and changes following repetition of the stimuli the sensory-coding properties of invertebrate brains, using microelectrodes are observed. Cells are characterizedby their response to different stimuli, to record the responses of single cells to various sensory stimuli. Earlier by their regularity or irregularity of discharge, and by their response to studies of visual coding in the brains of crickets were extended to audi- stimulation of various parts of the brain. tory coding in these insects. Since the ultimate interest of the project is Most relevant studies concern changes in the probability or pattern in how sensory coding changes with learning, these simple but well inte- of response of a single cell in response to a jjreviously weak stimulus after grated large-cell nervous systems provide an excellent network in which associative pairing (conditioning) of the weak stimulus with a stimulus that to study sensory organization. The limited behavioralrepertoire of these elicits one strong discharge. Such changes in coding following conditioning insects restricts the range of meaningful sensory stimuli which can be coded. at the single-cell level provide a very simple electrical substrate for learn- Cricket calls were duplicated electronically to bring them under the ing. These findings suggest that the polysensory cell may act as the simplest experimenters' control, and cell discharges of the cricket brain in response [joint at which sensory messages may interact associatively, with the effect to these auditory stimuli were studied in an attempt to identify different of changing one another and thus changing the final meaning to the pattern discharges for different behaviorally meaningful stimuli. Demon- organism. stration of the "recognition" by single cells in the brain of these compli- Findings: cated insect calls will, it is hojied, provide insight into the cellular organization of sensory information in the more comjjlex human brain. Related Polysensory cells in the cat cortex to stimuli respond different with behavioral studies in which insects tire "reinforced" by these sounds are unique" response discharge patterns. (Fox, O'Brien) also being carried out. (Fox, Sherwood) Repetition of a stimulus may result in a habituated or reduced responding" of a single cortical cell. (Fox, O'Brien) Slow Potential (Direct Current) Correlates of Senscry Interaction and Conditioning. Slow potential or direct-current measures provide another Paired association of a weak and a strong stimulus may result in " index of sensory interaction in the brain. These slow potential responses increased responding of the cells to the weak stimulus, independent of sensitization . (Fox, O'Brien) to various sensory stimuli were studied extensively in cats during the past year. Work continued in two general areas: studies of cortical localization, Role of Heavy Metals in Motor Inhibition. The caudate nucleus sensory interaction, and stimulus specificity; and studies of changes in the contains a large amount of copper which appears to be somehow involved slow jjotentialduring habituation and conditioning. Earlier work had rein motor inhibitory or "stopping" behavior, fnvestigations of the role of vealed differences in "coding" by jjolarity of response of different types of topper in the caudate nucleus were continued during the year. Previous sensory input in different cortical areas. These experiments were designed studies using cats were extended to rats with similarresults. Using the ion to determine the relationship between associative pairing of stimuli and exchange method developed earlier, precise amounts of copper were intro- changes in the cortical sensory coding by the direct current response. It duced into discrete brain areas, the caudate and the hippocampus. When was previously demonstrated that slow potential changes occur during deposited in the caudate, this metal produces a "reversible lesion" and the habituation and during such associative jiairing of two stimuli during the loss of ability to stop on a signal. Biochemical studies to determine if conditioning procedure. During the past year, details of these persisting copper-level changes and dopamine-level changes in the caudate are re- associative interactions were studied with the aim of elucidating this little lated to deficient motor performance are also in progress. The importance understood process. of these studies derives from the known relation of these brain structures to Findings: Parkinson's disease and the role of copper in Wilson's disease, two diseases of the motor nervous system. An orderly decrease in amplitude of Ihe direct current brain response lo seen a sensory modalities Findings: " sensory stimuli were for number of (visual, auditory, somatic). (Fox, Lickey) A method has been developedfor producing reversible biochemical Habituation the direct current response in general is a highly lesions" in brains by the use of of ion-exchangeresin beads. localized" phenomenon. (Fox, Lickey) Such reversible lesions are " highly localized to specific brain areas. " With strong somatic stimulation a nonlocalized "diffuse" habitu- Copper deposited on one side of the rat caudate nucleus results ation was seen. (Fox, Lickey) in a reversible" loss of ability to avoid an aversive stimulus when the stimu- True (greater than algebraic summation) and inhibi- lus appears on the side facilitation opposite Ihe copper deposit. tion (less" than a single response) were seen when stimuli were interacted Copper deposited into the caudate nucleus produces "classic" with each other. (Fox, Lickey) neurological" duplicating surgical removal the caudate The current response the brain was differentiallyrespon- (Butcher, of nucleus. direct of 1) sive to" moving,flickering, and stationary stimuli. (Fox, Lickey) 18

\ £

effects,

19 Orderly changes in the direct current response were seen following the ionic content of the Ringer's solution was systematically varied associative" pairing of stimuli. (Fox, Lickey) and the effects of these variations on the receptor potentials elicited In the course the " of conditioning procedure the "polarity code" by different odors wereexamined. response to a stimulus in the related cortical area showed "coding" similar to that for the other stimulus of the associated pair. (Fox, Lickey) Findings: Two the three potentials elicited by odors, Determinants of Sensory Patterned Cell Resj>onses in the Cat Brain. of types of receptor As the electronegative" "on-" and potentials (associated with all odors), part of the program of research on sensory and coding in "off-" interaction in the absence sodium Lithium, tetraethyl- the brain, computer analysis of the patterned discharge of simple cortical disappear of or potassium ions. cells in cat brains following a sensory stimulus was undertaken. By com- ammonium chloride, and choline chloride ions cannot substitute for sod- piling the ium ions in the olfactoryreceptor. (Takagi, Wyse) responses of a single cell over many repetitions of a sensory stimulus, it is possible to compute the probability distribution or frequency The third type, the electropositive potentials (associated with, some distribution in response to different stimuli. These distributions provide hut not" all odors) nearly disappear in the absence of chloride ions. The quantitative evaluation of the qualitatively different ways in which a potentials decrease linearly as the concentration of chloride ion is de- polysensorycell responds to differentstimulus inputs. creased. The remaining electropositive potentials are attributed to po- Findings: tassium ions.(Takagi, Wyse) All three kinds receptor in the absence There are uniquely of potentials disappear " shaped probability distributions for a tingle of calcium" ions. (Takagi, Wyse) brain cell responding to different sensory inputs; i.e., there is unique pattern or Sodium ions and potassium ions are essential to the excitation frequency coding of different stimuli in single brain celh (Fox " of Shinkman) v the olfactory receptor. (Takagi, Wyse) The Inhibition in the olfactory receptor is caused by the electroposi- waveform of the evokedpotential recorded near single " " from a tive potentials elicited by certain odors, and these potentials in turn are cell may be duplicated by the curve of probability that the cell in will fire produced by means chloride ions. Wyse) response to a sensory stimulus. (Fox, Shinkman) of ('Fakagi, The roles sodium, potassium , calcium, and chloride ions in the The firing probability of a single cell may duplicate the " of evoked" potential whole olfactory receptor are similar to the roles these ions in other parts waveform (positive and negative, early and late of of and com- Ihe nervoussystem. ('Fakagi, Wyse) ponents) not any special part-evoked potential components probably do not // is is to represent different cell populations (Fox, Shinkman- " highly probable that the role of the olfactory mucus see Fox, 1, 2, 3) supply the above four ions lo the olfactory receptor membrane. (Takagi, Wyse) lonic Mechanisms of the Olfactory Receptor Potentials Takagi, Wyse NEUROMORPHOLOGY Friede, Fleming, Knoller, Laskey, Musser, Vossler This project is concerned with how information is coded the sensory of within receptors an organism. Other investigators had shown This long-term jjrogram has been devoted to research on chemi- that sodium, potassium, calcium, cal and and chloride ions are essential to metabolic differences among the various parts of the brain, nerve activity. (An ion an is atom or group of atoms carrying an with emphasis on detailed mappings of the chemical architecture electrical charge.) Experiments of were carried out in this laboratory the brain. to determine the roles of these ions in the coding mechanisms ode sensory receptors. Quantitative Tests of the Histochemical Methods for Phosphomon- Ringer's solution esterases. Histochemical methods, which employ dyes or other reagents to contains sodium chloride, potassium chloride reveal the presence extensively and calcium chloride, and of chemicals in tissue samples, were used resembles blood serum in its saline in this project to map distributions of enzymes and other chemicals in the stttuents Nervous function cc£ of an isolated organ placed in Ids brain. A series of tests was done to determine if differences in staining ton will conttnue sol - for many hours. Previous studies intensity which occurred with the a group of enzymes, factory of the frog o - jjhosphomonesterases, receptor placed in Ringer's solution and implanted reflected true differences in levelsof enzyme activity. mtcroelectrodes, had shown wkh that different odors elici three Zl Finding: of electrtcal receptor potentials. In experiments during the jjastySr Histochemical reactions for phosphornonesterases, if used under 20 "

A. i

O'Brien,

O'Brien, 22 v danli d mlilion refit quantitative! ional difft in Finding n enzymeactivity. (Friede, Fleming, Knoller The cells of Ihe turkey glycogen body contain high activity of several enzymes anaerobic glycolysis, hut show little activity citric A of of Quantitative Mapping of Acid Phosphatase in the Brain of the acid cycle enzymes. (Friede, Fleming, Knoller) Rhesus Monkey. Standardized histochemical methods were used for systematic measurements of acid phosphatase activity in 51 regions of the An Enzyme Histochemical Study of Torpedoesand Dendritic Swelling brain of the Rhesus monkey. in the Cerebellum. Pathological changes in cerebellar Purkinje cells are swellings FINDINt often accompanied by swellings of the dendrites or of the axons of these cells; the latter are referred to as torpedoes. Enzyme histochemical " Regional variations in and phosphatase activity among various studies of human tissue show that both dendrite swellings and torpedoes portions of gray mailer from Ihe brain of the Rhesus monkey are small. may contain high levels of activity of oxidative enzymes and acid phos- excel,! for a group of nuclei with exceptionally high acid phosphatast phatase, although the findings in torpedoes are more variable than those in activity. (Friede, Fleming, Knoller) dendrite swellings.

Histochemistry of the Glycogen Body of the Turkey Cord. I Spinal The histochemical behavior pathological axonal swell he glycogen body is a small aggregate of glycogen-storing cells of found only ings " cells more dendriteswellings in the spinal cord oi birds; its function is unknown. Enzyme ul cerebellarPurkinje varies than that of show histochemical (Friede, Fleming,Knoller) Studies that these (ells are well equipped with enzymes of anaerobic glycolysis, but show very little activity of enzymes involved in the citric acid cycle. I hese findings support the concept that the cells of the glycogen body are IN THE highly specialized in metabolic pathways related to glycoaen RESEARCH PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCES metabolism. 6 ' ° Leonard Cookdinatoi-

PSYCHOLINGU ISTICS The use of language, whether spoken or written, may be regarded as one kind oi learned human behavior. Like other learned behaviors, it may be affected by a variety of psychological and cul- tm;il factors. Psycholinguistics, the jjsychology of language, is concerned with language as behavior—how it is learned, how it affects and is affected by perception ami thought, and how and why it changes. The goal of this continuing project is to develojj a theory of language strut tine and function which takes into account human psychological capabilities and limitations and the influence of social structure.

Semantic Space Anatol Rapoport, Livant, Amnon Rapoport, Roosen-Runge, Boyd Ihe lexical structure of a language, the ways in which words in the language are associated witli cadi other, has an itiijjortant effect on meaning. We know intuitively that just as a jjerson associates with some jjeojjle more than with others, so in language a given word is more often associated with some words than with others. For example, "car—tires" are more closely associated than "car-vanilla." This leads to the concept of "distance" between pairs Discussion continues afteran Institute seminar of words. The problemof defining this distance ojierationally reduces 22 23

FiNDiNt;: enzyme

Uhr, to that of obtaining exjjerimental data which are sufficiently con- strength of association. This distribution is well represented by either of sistent to establish a numerical value which can be designated as two mathematical distributions, a Greenwood-Yule distribution or a the distance between two given words. This can be done in a variety truncated Poisson distribution. In either case, the parameters of the dis- independent the strength association. (Anatol of ways, for examjjle, by noticing the frequency with which one tribution are practically of of Rapoport, Livant, Amnon Rapoport. Roosen-Runge, Boyd) word is associated with another in a word-association test given to a large jjojjulation of subjects. The connectivity of an association net, on the other hand, is very much by the strength the association links. Thus a directed graph Once a distance has been assigned to every pair a "affected of of words in constructed a vocabulary 100 words is likely to apart into 12 given vocabulary, the resulting network can be as a from of fall regarded mathe- to IS connected components the links are the closest, but only into 6 to matical space. One approach to if psycholinguistics is via the study of X the links are the or sixth associates. Had the links the of components if fifth jjrojjerties this space as they are reflected in certain jjarame- been put in entirely al random, Ihe typical number of connected com- ters, constants or which characterize these jjrojjerties. If these jjara- ponents would have been 3 or 4. It is to be expected, of course, that as meters can be interpreted in terms related to the jjsychology of lan- one proceeds to weaker links, the graph begins to resemble a randomly guage, they can be taken as the concepts of the emerging jjsycho- connected graph. (Anatol Rapoport, Livant, Amnon Rapoport, Roosen- linguistic theory. Runge, Boyd) Experiments were conducted as follows: a subject is presented " In 20-word vocabularies, the dimensionality of trees turns out with a vocabulary of from 20 to 100 words (depending on the con- to be three or a result similar lo that found by the methods of the ditions of the experiment). He is instructed to indicate associations semantic differential. However, this result does not seem to have any significance because dimensions could not so within this vocabulary in various ways, again, dejjending on the for the present, the far- be semantically; second, because simulated randomly con- conditions of the exjjeriment. The result is the unit datum, interpreted namely structed trees also turn out to have three or dimensions. (Anatol a linear grajjh, which, dejjending on instructions, four the may be either Rapojjort, Livant, Roosen-Runge,Boyd) an ordinary grajjh (in which the Amnon Rapojjort, links connecting the nodes are un- So have between the directed), a directed grajjh (in which far no significant differences been found the links are directed), or a semantic" spaces women. (Anatol Rapojjort, Livant, Amnon tree (a grajjh without of men and of cycles). One of the independent variables, Rapoport, Roosen-Runge, Boyd) therefore, is the type of net implied in the instructions. The size and type of vocabulary is another independent variable. The third LEARNING, AND COGNITION is the type of subject population, here either male or female. The dependent variables are several statistical distributions It is imjjcjssible for a scientist who wishes to study learning to re- observe lated to the nets, for example, the distribution of the number of watch the learning jjrocess directly; he can only the behavior of a make as- links (associations) converging upon a given node (word); the prob- subject in a learning situation and from his behavior To test these ability that a given grajjh will be connected; the distribution of the sumjjtions about the nature of the learning jjrocess. the model sizes of connected subgraphs in the population of graps; the dimen- assumjjtions, he can state them as a theoretical model. If sionality is can jjerform the of the space in which the graphs can be imbedded, etc. All written as a comjjuter jjrogram, the computer these properties process. model comjjared with the are interpreted as properties of a semantic space The functions of the can then be determined by the associations. behavior of human subjects, and the scientist can thus test the validity of alter his so that its Word-association nets constructed by the subjects were com- his theory and, if necessary, can model human The fol- pared according to the strength of association. For example if the behavior will conform more closely to behavior. subjects were lowing use for and testing theories instructed to indicate the word most closely associated jjrojects this method develojjing with a word, of given the next most closely associated, etc., a separate learning. net can be constructed using the links of different "strength " We wished to find out Comj>lex Models of Psychological Processes what statistical properties of the resulting net are most strongly affected by the strength of association Uhr, Denton, Isaac, Levitt, Newman, Reich, Robinovitz, Simenson, Findings: and Glen Ingram of the System Development Corporation The distribution of the so-called in-degree of a directed graph (the Several different models are being developed and tested. number" links converging of on a word) is practically unaffected by the These models are chiefly concerned with the develojjment of learn- 24

four,

first,

PERCEPTION,

Sauvain, Sims,

25 ing structures and processes during infancy and early childhood. In bine the problems of jjattern recognition and language learning that we order to gather information from its environment in a usable would like to have in a single model. an organism must devise methods for recognizing, describing, classi- Symbol and Language Learning. Two new comjjuter programs for fying, and determining relations between classes, and must organize string transformation learning were completed. The learning rules given these methods into some kind of internal structure for jjrocessing the programs were developed specifically for language translation. Both the information. One aim of this research is to find suitable sets programs are similar to the third model described in Uhr (5). Both have of measures, transformation rules, and class relations, and to design the ability to infer and construct their own classes in order to resolve suitable internal structures for the models so that they can respond ambiguitiesor to reorder strings; and both arecapable of unlearningwrong- various appropriately to theirenvironmental inputs. An evenmore important ly inferred material by changing the weightings attached to the has built up. In effect, aim is to find efficient methods for building such structures as a pieces of the memory structure that the program these contain sets of rules for constructing their own functional function of exjjerience, and to develop a model which can build programs memories, which, will allow them to new inputs its ownstructure. it is hojjcd, jjrocess jjroperly. The programs differ in the following ways. The coded in JOVIAL Pattern Recognition. Work was comjiletcd on a jirogram that first (Ingram), has the ability to form higher-order classes from two concatenated turns a two-dimensional pattern (such as a line drawing) into a contour, classes. For example, the program may take the three single grammatical and then decomposes this contour into a string of primitive strokes which classes, "Subject"-"Verb"-"Object." From the string of classes "Verb"- characterize the pattern, and which differ in length, slope, and curvature. "Object," the program can form a higher-order class "Predicate." This These strokes, or characterizes, represent "letters" in the "perceptual allows the program to use as a context not merely the members of a single alphabet" of the program. The program next tries to develojj a set of class but also the members of strings of classes. Successively higher-order "words," composed of these letters, that will give it sufficient descriptive classes can be comjjosed, so that these strings can. potentially, be of any power to assign the correct name to new, unknown patterns. Starting with complexityand of any length. no information about the types of patterns it must identify, and no good 'Flic second jirogram, coded in SNOBOL (Uhr), cannot form higher- characterizing statements about these patterns, the program tries to learn order classes. But it can decompose some long strings into shorter strings, what primitive strokes, and what combinations of these strokes and [pre- to give more efficient and flexible memory storage; and it can handle dis- viously combined strokes, will help it make better characterizations and continuous discourse. hence give better identifications. The learning and discovery methods l'hese programs are now being subjected lo a variety of different tests. simulated in this program, which was coded in JOVIAL for the Philco 2000 The specific learning rules given the models were developed with language computer, could achieve good recognition of hand-printed letters of the translation in mind, and they are being; tested primarily for their ability alphabet by using primitive strokes as the basic characterizes. to learn to translate between several different jjairs of natural languages. A third program is being coded (Sauvain) to attempt to recognize, But there are other types of transformations for example, from active and to learn to recognize, to answer, or from— integer to its successor continuous patterns. In addition to segmenting passive voice, from question to and then recognizing patterns that are connected one to another, the on which they may also lie tested. (Uhr, 6) also — program will attempt to describe the individual patterns structurally, A third program has been formulated and is now being coded to to and specify the relations between the different patterns. The jirogram model both jjattern recognition and language learning at the same time. is designed to process relatively cleanly drawn patterns such as chairs and This program, coded in SNOBOL (Uhr). attempts to build up larger and stick-figures. Thus we would hope that it can learn to output correctly larger wholes in the spirit of the earlier pattern recognition programs, but descriptive statements of the sort, "There is a stick-boy holding the left with as few as possible assumptions built up. As these wholes transform to hand of a stick-girl with long hair and no right hand." This model will symbolic materials, such as words and phrases, these will be built up in attempt to decide what sorts of things to expect and when to look next as much the same manner. Thus it is hoped that this program will be capable a function of the information it lias gained so far. Its scan of the pattern of learning to recognize the objects in jjictures and to describe them in will thus be controlled by the specific problem being processed, and not one language (e.g., English) and then in another (e.g., French). any by preprogrammed ordering. It should be more efficient than the A fourth program has been coded in SNOBOL (Reich), and will traditional program, and more similar to the scan followed by human sub- shortly be tested, which attempts to learn the grammar of a language as a jects. must The model also determine when it has gained enough infor- function solely of experiences with well-formed sentences in the language. to mation decide among possible alternatives, and it must learn to string The program is told that the sentence is acceptable, but it is given no together response symbols correctly, imposing something like a grammar additional information about the grammatical classes or the relations to on them give well-formed sentences. Thus this program begins to com- between words.

26 27

form,

first, Concept Formation. Work on a model for concept formation was Miscellaneous. An exjjeriment on the language learning ability of continued. human subjects has been completed and is now being analyzed (Isaac). The meaning of a word is one type of concept. The meaning of a This should give us useful information with respect to our language phrase or a combination of words is a higher-level concept, and the mean- learning models. ing of several phrases which comprise a sentence is a concept of an even Two attempts are being made to deejjen the languagemanipulation higher heirarchical nature. Currently an investigation is being made programs in the direction of handling semantic information. The (Denton) into the nature of the variables which affect sentence compre- coded in SNOBOL (Reich), attempts to have the program learn the gram- hension. Many linguists feel that the assignment (by means of implicit matical structure of sentences, and also learn the semantic structure, and rules of grammar) of all words in a .sentence to an implicit structural relate these two. This is an extension of his earlier program that learns interpretation is a necessary precondition for the comprehension of that grammar. The second (which will be an extension to the above-mentioned sentence. According to Robert Lindsay's computer-based model of lan- programs coded by Uhr) will attempt to have the program learn that some guage learning which is tested by this investigation, each word in a of the inputs it receives are jicrceptual, and others are symbolic. Next the particular sentence is assigned to a specific structural representation large- program must learn what the symbols refer to. Included among possible ly on the basis of rules (possessed implicitly by the native speaker of the referents are the internal states and the behavior of the program, as languages) which state how a given word may be related syntactically and well as perceived inputs, ft is hoped that such a program will be able to semantically to other words. The experimental technique for studying learn to make correct statements about what it sees and what it does, to the meaning of concepts at the sentence level involves distorting and respond correctly to commands and to cjuestions, and to understand and making ambiguous certain parts of the sentence. Specifically, this is effected learn from statements such as "Dog and cat are both animate nouns," by substituting nonsense syllables for particular words at crucial points in assigning the word "noun" as the name for the class that it lias previously a sentence. In order to assign the nonsense words to a particular role in inferred "dog" and "cat" should belong to, because they have certain the implicit structural representation of that sentence, the human hearer things in common. must make use of certain contextual cues; i.e., the person must take account a higher level graph-manijjulation language, has been of the manner in which the nonsense word is related to other contiguous planned and coded in preliminary form (Reich). Essentially, it allows the words in that sentence. The hearer's task can be made more difficult by programmer to manipulate graphs conveniently, in much the same way making the contextual cues ambiguous and uncertain. At the present time that SNOBOL allows the jjrogrammer to manipulatestrings. For example, an analysis is being made as to what points in the sentence are most vul- a statement in this language would point to or describe a graph, specify nerable to the introduction of uncertainty. In addition, various hypotheses how to get to a subgroup of this grajjh, and specify a set of transforma- are being tested. For example, is the meaning of a nonsense word which tions to be made on this subgrajjh. The first version of this language has is related structurally to several other words in a sentence more difficult been written interpretively in SNOBOL. A new version, allowing more to grasp than meaning the of a nonsense word which is structurally related powerful algorithms and employing a simplified data structure and a to only one other word in that sentence? basically new compilation technique, has been developed and will shortly be coded. Problem Solving. Several models are being programmed to learn to A reformation of the game theory of perfect information zero-sum play games, solve puzzles, and deal with other problems that require long games employingpartiallyordered directed line graphs has been developed deductive strings of interactions with an environment. (Reich) which describes savings effected by storage techniques such as the rote A "general game playing program" (BOGART) lias been coded in learning in Samuel'schecker player. MAD (Newman) now and is being tested for its ability to learn to play a Three simple programs have been coded (by Uhr, in SNOBOL) to of variety simple board games, such as tic-taotoe, hexapawn, gomoku, and incorporate learning mechanisms into the context of teaching machine checkers. This program attempts to learn the appropriate moves for sig- programs. The first (Uhr, 1) allows someone unfamiliar with computers nificant board or subconfigurations, both as it plays games and as it is given programming languages to write teaching machine jjrograms with tutorial in materials the form of "book moves." It can combine configura- branches, and only loose specification of correct answers. The second tions into larger and larger configurations and can make generalizations allows the program to turn ordinary texts into rough drafts of teaching over several different specific configurations that in fact are similar with machine programs, and then allows a teacher to rather conveniently edit to respect a given game. and smooth this preliminary text. The third generates teaching machine A model that learns to programs, been in a predict the next set of events in a series is problem-by-jiroblem, in domains that have described being coded in simple SNOBOL (Robinovitz). This attempts to deepen some of suitable format to the generator. This has been coded to generate the features in to the modelsof Grimsdale et al., and of Simon and Kotovsky, arithmetic and language translation problems; we are now attempting which to try predict the next events in numerical and logical series extend its abilities to handle more complex problems. 28

A. L

first,

GRAMPS,

29 Comjiuter Simulation of Cognitive Behavior Computer Simulation of Percejitual Develojjment Gyr, Brown, Fleisher Gyr, Brown, Willey, Zivian Such as behavior, exjjecta- The capacity to form logical classes and to perform systematic early cognitive processes purjjoseful tion, by the organism between itself and its experiments on an unknown environment according to some logical and the discrimination to develojj in an orderly fashion from the sensori- calculus has been shown by other researchers to develojj with age, environment seem motor and the jjroperties of the environment and has been hypothesized to be a result of an orderly sequence of structure of the infant which he moves. This an to simulate primitive behavioral events. Thus, "sensorimotor intelligence" jjrecedes the in research is attempt sensorimotor on and to determine if certain stage of "formal ojjerations," which in turn develojis according to systems computers of be such an orderly evolutionary from the interaction of sensorimotor these intellectual develojjments can generated from sys- jjrocess of intelligence with the enviroment. Various models of cognition are tems—in short, to test theories of the develojjment intelligence by using being develojjed and tested in this jjroject to exemjjlify these differ- simulation techniques. Work the was the develojj- ent thought activities. Exjjeriments are being conducted along two during jjast year concerned with ment of visual percejjtual elements in the infant. Evidence sug- lines: (1) to determine if these jjrocesses do occur at different develop- sensorimotor structures of higher forms of organisms mental stages; and (2) to determine if the different thought processes gests that are with some for example, are associated with different conditions of stress. endowed elementary jjercejjtual tendencies— the eye to scan along contours and is sensitive to Four major models of each tends of figures cognitive jjrocesses, divided into contrasting shades of light. Pattern discrimination—recognizing, two submodels, have been constructed, simulated on the computer, classifying, discriminating among different visual shajjes—seems and are being tested against data obtained from human subjects in and to be a learned capacity. As part of the learning jjrocess, the organism problem-solving experiments. Model 1 assumes that the subject may develojj certain percejjtual elements in terms of which it has no "theory" or classification system for or his the universe analyzes the visual world. Such jjerceptual elements may be straight environment, but records only the physically of the detectable states lines, angles, curves, parallelisms, symmetries, and the like. environment and makes decisions in a pure trial-and error fashion. This process is hypothesized to be typical of a very early of In the formation of such jjerceptual elements the organism's stage head, role. development. Model 4 assumes that the subject already has devel- eye, and locomotor movements may jjlay an important oped a logical system for classifying events and the They heljj both to determine what form perceptual elements will relations between take the them. On thebasis of this system, he first determines all the logically and to jjrovide internal types of feedback which enable organism discriminate between environmental inputs possible events which can occur in a given situation, and com- to changes in then caused by motion in the putes the likelihood that each of these events will occur. This proc- its own movements and changes caused by environment. the devel- ess is considered typical of a much later stage of development. Models comjjuter simulation program oped here active which there is 2 and 3 take intermediate positions between Models 1 and 4. rejjresents an j^erceiving system in an "eye" which scans over an input by "rotating" along x and y axes. Subjects in the exjjeriments were college students (under vari- The of and "jjeri- ous conditions of stress), children in the 7th, Bth, and 9th grades, jjrogram also has the equivalent "central" and emotionally disturbed children. pheral" vision. The "eye" moves in the direction of objects located in the jjeripheral field and brings these into "focus." As it Findings: thus scans over visual certain "retinal cells" fire. Every move- Under conditions of time stress in a ment of the eye in a single direction, every change in fixation from problem-solving situation, sub- one and jects "will regress to the cognitive processes represented in 'Model 1. en- point to another, means that groups of "retinal cells" If Scan- couraged to economize on moves, in a stress condition called "decision "cortical cells" are excited together or are unexcited together. stress," subjects manifest Model "/ behavior. (Gyr, Brown, Fleisher) ning along certain forms in the environment such as a straight line may assemblies of cells, Preliminary analysis seems to indicate some change in cognitive result in the excitation of relatively constant " as a and between sensory and behavior function of age, with the performance of systematic 'experi- also may permit some interfacilitation ments on the environment a behavior which is prevalent at certain higher motor activity. Scanning along completely irregularly formed con- ages. (Gyr, Brown, Fleisher: Gyr, 2) tours, on the other hand, would not have these jjroperties. The 30

Therefore,

fields,

31 to react to constancies of this kind computer program is designed o facilitate such invariant sensorimotor connections. z and to 8 Ul The phases of learning of the program concern the CO preliminary 1.0 curves, UJ attainment of systematic scans along straight lines, angles, I- >N and the like from an initial state at which all scanning is random. «N wUI * The jjrogram is designed to search for certain jjerceptual elements "— — in a complex visual field and to organize these behaviorally in certain ito UJ ways. Perception here is tied to motor activity and perceptual ele- tc 0 bits Ibit 2 bits i o ments are in fact coded and organized into units which have direct UJ 2 012 bearing on the motor activity of the organism. A jjrogram for the develojjment of primitive percejjtual units stimulus uncertainly on response time aphasics (A) and nonaphasics has been written. Future jjrograms will be concerned with the jjer- Effects of for (N). Means data IS aphasic and IS normal subjects each of days and of from for five cejJtion of objects of sjxice, with jjroperties of percejjtual organ- are plotted in the first three graphs. Overall means for each uncertainty condi- ization, and the like. (Gyr, 3) tion are plotted to the right.

Information Processing by Aphasics ing the an adult intelligence test with verbal parts and performance parts, and Raven's Progressive Matrices, a set of incomplete D. Tikofsky, Florence Carson of the University of Michigan Speech pictures where Clinic comjjletion dejjends on immediate visual perception or on analogical reasoning. The aphasic jjerson suffers some loss of communication func- The reaction time exjjeriment examinedthe sjoeed and accuracy tion as a result of brain damage. This loss can be a loss of sjxjken of resjjonse of 18 ajjhasic: and 18 normal subjects on a nonverbal language, of reading ability, of understanding oral questions, or of visual motor task. In this study, there was as much interest in evalu- ability to search out meanings of words or phrases. Yet in his every- ating the technique for studying aspects of information handling day behavior he also performs very comjalex tasks, which suggests by ajjhasics as in the sjjecific exjjerimental results. The main goals that he retains at least some internal language such as were to assess the effec t on resjjcjn.se time of increasing the amount memory, thinking, classification, or information processing in gen- of information to be handled, and to examine the effects of prac- eral. The long-term goal of this program is to assess the complex tice on sjjeed and accuracy of resjjonse. nonverbal performance of the ajjhasic which may depend ujjon in- Subjects were required to match stimuli presented sequentially ternal languagefunction. with corresponding stimuli on a control board, by pressing the Because of their loss of communication function, most ajjhasics ajjjjrojjiiate button. After a brief training period, subjects were run do show some deficit in responding to verbal material. Such material for five consecutive clays. On each clay, they received three experi- is also emotionally disturbing to the aphasic, since it immediately mental conditions, a one-choice, a two-choice, and a four-choice demonstrates this loss to him. In order to avoid the contaminating matching task. effects of such emotionalmaterial, a series of nonverbal exjjerimental One rote learning study used an adaptation of the Digit Symbol tasks were develojjed. The exjjeriments were designed to assess the task, a part of the Wechsler Scale. It requires that the subject learn internal information-processing function of language without de- to associate certain symbols with certain other symbols, and the speed jjending on verbal communication. and accuracy with which he records his response serve as a measure Subjects were 23 jjatientsin the Ajjhasia Division of the Univer- °f his intellectual ability. Performance is affected by visual defects sity of Michigan Sjjeech Clinic. Each jjatient served as a subject in and motor disturbances involved in writing, and also by changes in at least two of the studies. The experimental information jjrocessing an individual's ability to adapt to a new learning situation. Aphasics tasks were designed to appraise complex reaction time, rote learn- who take the WAIS typically make their lowest scores on Digit ing, and rule learning. In addition, all patients had received on Symbol, and even the best of these scores are significantly below admission to the clinic a series of verbal and nonverbal tests, includ- average. This is true of aphasics who do superior work on the other 32

A. i.

12345123451234S DAYS DAYS DAYS BITS OF UNCERTAINTY

WAIS,

Carson,

function,

33 WAIS jjerformance subtests. With very few exceptions, however, " Under proper conditions, aphasics can learn very abstract rules ajjhasics solve this task with a high level of accuracy. Their low and apply them with the same effectiveness as normals, but they learn much moreslowly than do normals. (D. F. Carson, Tikofsky) scores are due to abnormally slow performance. Rule-learningstrategies aphasics and normals. (D. Carson, The question was raised as to whether aphasics might improve differ for F. " Tikofsky) their performance on Digit Symbol with practice. Would directions Rote learning is much more difficult than rule learningfor aphasics. urging them to work fast cause them to trade accuracy for sjjeed? The structural properties aphasics' rule-learning ability seem Fifteen ajjhasic subjects were given five one- and one-half-minute of similar" lo those of normals, but the aphasic is seriously handicapped by the of successive were urged to work as trials on each two days. They limited number of stimuli he can deal with at one time. (D. Carson, F. fast as jjossible. A week or more later, nine of these subjects were Tikofsky) given two additionalsessions of jjractice. The rule learning exjjeriment dealt with aphasic jjerformance Develojjment Generalized Measures Response Selectivity on a categorization task, where subjects are required to sort a large of of number of objects into categories according to some rule, which they Pollack must learn. In these exjjeriments, the objects were a set of 32 drawings with the following variables: form (circle-triangle); color (black- A common thread running through a wide range of clinical white); size (small-large); number (one form-two forms); and border and exjjerimental testing jjrocedures is the requirement that an (circular-triangular). Subjects were 31 aphasics and 8 normals. observer is calledujjon to make dichotomouschoices, e.g., acceptance or rejection of a problem of screening is For each learning series, a subject sorted 8 drawings from the given diagnostic sign. The sensitive to bias in the observer's diagnosis (see pp. 59-60 of the 1964 set of 32, presented in a series ofrandom orders of 8, until he reached Annual Rejjort). For examjjle, a physician employing a strict cri- a criterion of 16 consecutive correct resjjonses, after which he sorted terion for the jjresente of a diagnostic sign will make fewer false the rest of the drawings according to the rule he had just learned. negative resjjonses than one emjjloying a weaker criterion for the The rules for sorting were different for each learning series and presence of the diagnostic: sign. On other hand, the latter were of varying degrees of comjjlexity. Subjects' performances on the physician will turn more correct cases than the former. rote learning tasks which were similar to the rule learning tasks were up positive also studied. Desjjite these known existing biases, it is often necessary to obtain a measure of the discriminativeskill of the observer—in the present examjjle, the physician emjjloying a diagnostic sign—in Findings: specific sejjarating out positive from negative cases. " Despite their marked heterogeneity, aphasics show the same lawful Methods exist for directly sjjecifying the discriminability of and orderly behavior on an information-handling task as do normal sub- observers for well-definedexjjerimental situations. A typical example jects. (D. F. Tikofsky) is the detection of sinusoidal signals against random noise back- " Aphasics are slower and more variable than normals, and they re- grounds. However, in many situations of importance to the health quire longer periods to adjust, to a task with any degree of efficiency. (D. sciences, the assumptions underlying the well-defined experiment Carson, F. Carson, Tikofsky) may be violated. It thus seemed more reasonable to strive for a " All aphasics showed some improvement on the Digit Symbol Task parameter-free generalized measure of response selectivity than for as a result of practice; group performance improved in a consistent and an exact measure which is based upon strong assumptions. orderly fashion, liul even with ten practice sessions, only five subjects The curve relating jjositive detections to false negatives is achieved a final score which was at a normal level for their age group. (D. called the Receiver Operating Characteristic-or ROC-curve. The Tikofsky) Carson, F. Carson, area under the ROC-curve has recently been shown to be equivalent " Those aphasics with high initial scores on the Digit Symbol Task to the proportion of correct selections expected in a two-alternative showed more improvement than aphasics with low initial scores. (D. forced-choice exjjeriment. In the latter type of experiment, one V. Tikofsky) specimen exhibits the diagnostic sign and the other does not. The a choice a " All aphasics showed high degree of accuracy and a low rate of for the observer is no longer accepting or rejecting diagnos- speed. (D. Carson, F. Tikofsky) tic sign, but rather simply selecting the more diagnostic of two alter- 34

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Carson,

Carson, Carson,

Carson,

35 natives. Since bias is minimized within the forced-choice jjrocedure, ing and measuring those factors which determine sjjeed and accuracy and since the area measure does notrequire parametric assumptions, of resjjonse in such situations. it is especially appealing as a generalized measure of response selec- A pilot study using three subjects and ten different vigilance tivity. tasks was run on the lOTA (Information Overload Testing Aid) Obtaining the entire ROC-curve, however, is extremely time- ajjparatus. Rate of signal presentation and complexity of noncritical consuming since each point on the curve usually requires a separate background signals were varied to determine their influence on experiment. By requiring the observer to adopt a wide range of number of signals missed and on resjjonse time. The data are only criteria for acceptance of a diagnostic sign in successive experiments, suggestive, so the descrijjtions below are quite tentative. we can derive the entire ROC-curve within a single experiment with There is no increase in missed signals over time, so the classical the aidof arating scale. An n-categoryrating scale in a single experi- vigilance decrement was not obtained. However, only 1 per cent of ment will yield a ROC-curve nearly equivalent to that obtained by n all signals were missed for all conditions; detection performance was separate experiments. very high. We would not exjject missed signals to be a sensitive meas- The proposed combination of the rating-scale jjrocedure with ure of vigilance decrement where tasks are comjjlex and require the area measure was explored in the past year within recognition more attention to make decisions. Such forced attention was one memory experiments and experiments in signal detection against result of our comjjlex stimuli. noise In the backgrounds. latter, we were particularly concerned There was a consistent increase in response time during all with the performance of a in detection system which the observer tasks. However, the slower the rate of jjresentation, the greater the was also response a furnished the of machine detector set to known decrement, so a simple fatigue factor cannot accountfor the change. levels of performance. Moreover, as comjjlexity of background was increased,response time Findings: was greater and deteriorated more as sessions wore on. The few signals that were missed were in the less complex task. " A generalized measure of response selectivity ivas demonstrated for the case in which only a single point is available for estimating the Response time is a more jjrecise measure of decrement than is ROC-curve. (Pollack, 3) signal detection in vigilance situations where stimuli are generally A generalizedmethodfor obtaining a measure of response selectivity more comjjlex and attention is forced to a high level. Also, evalu- was demonstrated" for two experiments in recognition memory. (Pollack, 4) ating changes resulting from stimulus comjjlexity enables us to as- The response selectivity of observers, of machine detectors, and sess the cost of forced higher attention. of combined" man-machine detection systems was evaluated within the A new jjiece of ecjuijjment is under construction which will context of the signal detection task. It is found that the performance of permit more efficient timing and data collection as well as expedite the interactive man-machine detection system typically fell short of the analysis of data from vigilance situations. theoretically expected performance of the combination of detectors. The performance of the man-machine system is not necessarily as good as the better system component alone. In the performance of the combined PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY detector system may be as poor as the poorer system component. Indis- criminate combinations of detectors may, therefore, reduce the sensitivity Contracejuive Methods and Sexual Behavior an otherwisesuperior detection of system. (Pollack, 2) Miller, Burns, House, Fensch the HUMAN FACTORS AND SKILLS This continuing program of research is concerned with behavioral effects of various drugs. Factors Influencing Information Processing Capacity In coojjeration with the Ann Arbor Planned Parenthood a D. Carson comparative study is under way on the effects of two methods of contraception: an oral agent (Enovid) and a mechanical device In many work situations, such as industrial insjjection, military (diaphragm or intrauterine coil). The study has three aims: (1) to vigilance, and laboratory experimentation, people monitor simple detect any personality differences between women who choose the displays of signals. It is important that the monitors respond quickly oral agent and those who choose the mechanical method; (2) to and accurately to thesesignals. This study is concerned with identify- determine if, and in what ways, these two methods affect sexual 36

A i

fact,

Clinic,

37 situations, altered adjustment; and (3) to determine and compare any emotional and just as amplitude judgments can, in other be other psychological and physiological side effects of the two modes by the lasting effects of a preceding stimulus. of contraception. Findings: Subjects are 100 women, 50 of use oral agent and whom the Variation in stimulus amplitudes does not affect the detection of the mechanical At of 50 method. the beginning the study subjects microlemporal" fluctuation in a stimulus train. were given a demographic questionnaire, which included such items The interval between the stimulus pulses has a strong effect on as age, length of marriage, and attitudes of self and spouse towards the detection" of the microlemporal fluctuation. Yet the just noticeable contraception; two standard personality tests; and the Clyde Mood difference between Ihe interval and the discontinuity is constant and there- to test affective side effects such as depression. These tests fore does not follow the Weber law. were repeated at the end of one month and will be repeated at the " The number of pulses in the stimulus train directly affect the end of six months. Subjects are keeping necessary records. The study perception of the microlemporal fluctuation in a nonmonotonic fashion. is still in progress. c The position of pulses in Ihe stimulus train also directly affected Ihe detection of Ihe micro-temporal fluctuation. Specifically, thresholds were very much elcvtted nonsymmetrical stimulus patterns, and there PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY for is a greater eljecl when the discontinuity occurs late in ihe train than Psychophysiology of the Human Sensory Processes when it occurs early. The temporal discriminative ability described above can be dis- Uttal, Lamm rupted" when a burst of stimuli precedes the lest by as much as a half in lime This project is concerned with the coding processes within the second. Preliminary results indicate that the greater the difference and number between the preceding and the mashing stimuli, the greater somatosensorysystem, i.e., the skin body that and other parts of the the disruption. respond to such stimuli as touch, temperature, etc:. Recently developed techniques have allowed the electrical signals of the human somatosensory system to be recorded without surgical intervention. Hypnotic Inhibition of Immediate-Type Skin Hypersensitivity Another approach which directly supplements this electrophysio- Pollard, Beatty logical one is to stimulate the subject's skin with patterns of electrical stimuli and to determine the nature of the It has long been recognized that many allergies and skin con- discriminative Even responses to variationsin the stimulus pattern. These psychophysical ditions may be caused at least partly by psychological factors. datacan be correlated with the when specific allergenic: substances have been the skin reac- electrophysiological data or inspected of independently in a search for the important coding tion is frequently modified or increased by the emotional state parameters. the skin may During the last year, this project concentrated on the psychophysi- patient. When injected with antigenic substances, the react test) or cal type of experiment. Laboratory automation reached a high level, either after a period of delay (as in the tuberculin usually occurs with a small digital computer running experiments in a fully immediately. The immediate hypersensitive response automaticfashion. in hayfever victims who are sensitive to ragweed. direct hypnotic The major emphasis during the past year was on multipl- stimu- Previous research elsewhere has indicated that suggestion response, lation effects. The effects of the pattern of stimulation on the sub- can inhibit the immediate-type hypersensitivity and to the depth jects' discrimination of a discontinuity (a microtemporal fluctuation) that the degree of inhibition is directly related °f to confirm the in a train of stimuli were investigated. Specifically, we were inter- hypnotic trance. The present research is designed previous the hypnotic tech- ested in the discrimination of microtemporal fluctuations in stimu- studies and to control and standardize niques. of the tech- lus trains when variations in the stimulus pattern, such as changes Once this is established, various modifications nique can inhibitory and the in intensity level, in the interval between pulses, number of be made in order to evaluate the effect in the begun dur- pulses, or in the position of the discontinuity, were introduced. various susceptibilities of individuals. The experiments, ing the are conducted as follows: Further work was done on the temporal refractoriness-the disrup- year and still in progress, tive effects of a stimulus burst on a succeeding Male volunteer subjects are skin-tested for ragweed sensitivity temporal judgment Stanford which is independent of any perceived amplitude fluctuations. The and those found reactive are tested and scored on the time sense apparently can be disrupted by the preceding stimulus, Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale. The subjects are trained with rapid 38

Scale,

Krissoff,

found,

39 induction techniques and retested for hypnotic amnesia and anes- RESEARCH IN THE SOCIETAL SCIENCES thesia. The trained subject is then hypnotized and given four in- L. Mkikr, Coordinator jections, two in each upper arm. Each arm receives injections of Richard antigenic substance and a subject control substance. The is told that CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT IN SOCIETIES the left arm will not react to the injected substances. The reactions The of both arms are recorded and the measurements compared. These Simulation of Social Systems comparison figures are correlated with the previous scores on the Meier, Doyle Stanford Scale and the depth of hypnosis. There have been no working models in ecology which would allow exploration of the various ways in which a community inter- of Hearing Psychophysics acts with, and adapts to, its environment. Mathematical models have Pollack had severe limitations. This project is an attempt to reduce ecological concepts of community to a model which can be operated by A jointresearch with program the Sensory Intelligence Labora- students (and thus be used as a teaching device) and can be modified tory has been started to determine stimulus factors related to the by researchers to specific cases. of suit perception pitch and to frequency discrimination. A much wider In previous work, records of the moose, bear, and wolf popula- range of investigations of the coding of auditory frequency informa- tions in Isle Royale National Park over a 50-year period were used tion should be possible with a small digital computer to be installed to construct a working model of the interactions between these three in June, 1965. populations and their environment. The interactions werereduced During the year two of types experiments were conducted. The by a scale of more than a million-to-one. The model is in the form frequency discrimination of short tones against noise backgrounds of a game, allowing a year of interactions between component was examined, and the short-term full auditory memory for a single populations to be out in about a half hour. tone heard within the context played of neighboring tones was studied. During the year earlier results with the model were corrobo- Findings: rated. The underlying mathematical theory of the model was developed, be on a if it A waveform counting model of auditory pilch was tested and found so that the model could simulated computer invalid." (Pollack) were desired. A review of suitability for junior college teaching in is The frequency discrimination of short tones is optimal against an biology under way. intermediate" noise background, rather than against a quiet background, as Findings: would be predicted by a counting model We waveform of auditory pitch. fl The earlier biosyslems theory the prerequisite to a cannot adequately explain this phenomenon. We think it is of factors related to the population explosion is inadequate. More must be known in order masking of "'clicks" or transient signals by short factors introduced tones. (Pollack) to predict. Prior disturbance the environment, example, is an exceed- Ohm's Acoustical Law— of for which stales that the auditory system ingly important contributing (Meier, Doyle) analyzes" a complex tone into its constituent frequencies— factor. is considerably The peak figure 3,000 moose reported in an earlier more limited than is generallyaccepted. (Pollack) of wildlife eemus" for Isle Royale is not credible if more recent population dynamics 'lata are accepted. (Meier, Doyle) Development of Word Perception in Children " The simulation procedures can be learned by nonbiologists from Pollack, Tikofsky wiiien instructions, indicating that it is a form of theory that is self- teachable. (Meier, Doyle) As a joint project with the Speech Clinic and the Language Development a research program was begun to examine the Psychological Commitment and Accommodation to Social Change development of auditory and speech discrimination in children. we In Pilisuk, Locker particular, plan to examine the development of: (1) discrimina- among different speech loss of status or use- tion phonemes; (2) language and other motor Rapid social change which entails a sudden dysfunctions resulting from delayed sensory feedback; (3) the domi- fulness for certain vocational groups often creates severe emotional nance of the right ear in multi-channel listening environments. stress for individuals in these groups. This study is a pilot enquiry

40 41

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Center, into the economic, vocational, and ideational adaptability of individuals and organizations who may face a sudden shift in vocational status. Maladaptive reactions to status shifts in the past have involved such phenomena as addictions, mystical cult movements, mass hysteria, and organized opposition to change. Questionnaires were sent to samples of military officers and persons in defense contracting firms. The data are being used to relate indices of vocational commitment to the ability of individuals to consider the possibility of a shift in current levels of military preparedness, and (heir willingness to consider newroles and alternative types of accommodation suitable to a society with less emphasis upon national defense. A concurrent investigation into the adaptability of organizations is being done. Various indices of corporate activity are being used to discover the degree of economic diversification (beyond defense-oriented industry) of decision-making elites of several major The tiling played here is designed to resemble two countries in an arms contractorsfor the name Department of Defense. race/peace race dilemma. The players, icho are nol allowed to communicate with Findings: each other, may make either "peaceful" or "aggressive" moves. The personality types the their performance provide data on .1 sample Air Forte id players mid ihe characteristics of of officers regard major reductions in military the by which people in n situation learn to trust or to distrust " be more /niiiess conflict preparedness to sought after by most segments of Amail an society one another. than by themselves.(Pilisuk, Locker) Interdependence " of management elites among several major defensi measuring contracting firms has increased over the past ten (Pilisuk Locker: deadlocked in a fully aimed stale, neither will win. By I) both the personality types of the players and the characteristics of their performance as they repeat the game over and over again, we CONFLICT PROCESSES IN SOCIAL SYSTEMS are collecting information about the process by which people learn The Psychology of Conflict to be trustful or suspicious of oneanother. A number of experimental variations have been used in order Pilisuk, Anatol Rapoport, Chapman to discover what conditions are conducive to cooperative or competitive were discover why a rela- The aim of this research project is to discover how the behavior outcomes. Other variations used to how a distrustful re- of one person and the responses of the other in a conflict situation tionship of trust sometimes breaks down and lationship knowledge gained has proved affect the resolution of the conflict. While someconflicts are resolved might be changed. The useful of stable groups. It with mutually beneficial outcomes, others harden and deteriorate. in developing a theory of the formation may also be in the redirection of human conflicts from Trust is a major factor in the two-person experimental game being helpful violent to used to study this conflict process. Where trust develops, both play- productive solutions. Specific have dealt with the effects of ers may win real monetary rewards. If trust is demonstrated by only variations in the past year one other the amount time to reconsider one's move and with the player the player will benefit greatly at his expense. Mutu- of taken ability to or in the form of a display of in- al suspicion and distrust, however, deprives both players of a reward make promises threats tentions to the of studies deals with effects (see "Cooperation, Competition, and Cognition," page 49). other player. One series The actual of introducing for attack and another deals with experimental game is designed to resemble two an option surprise countries in the effect of an absolutely honest and conciliatory strategy. an arms-race /peace-race dilemma. By converting missiles to factories, both players may reap the benefits of economic produc- Findings: tion. Disarmament by only one player exposes him to losses which Players tend to fall into a pattern in which they behave much like are paid to the e " more heavily armed player. However, if both remain <>ch other. Pair members who evolve into uncooperative "warhawks" 42

years. Pilisuk,

43 frequently blame each other for the failure in cooperation. (Pilisuk, Anatol a marked stability in status ordering for ihe period being studied, with Rapoport, Chapman) the middle-poiver European nations holding moderately high-status positions while the Asian, African, Latin American Under conditions in. which there is no opportunity communica- from midcentury on and " for nations generally continue in their low-status positions. (Singer, tion, of intentions, the players tend lo establish either the cooperative pat- Singer, 12, 13, 14) tern or the competitive pattern rather early. When an opportunity to communicate one's intentions is present, the period of bargaining is A central hypothesis in balance-of-power theory is that as the longer. (Pilisuk, Anatol Rapoport, Chapman) number" of interaction opportunities in the international system decreases, Opportunities to demonstrate intentions tend to be used lo de- the frequency and/or magnitude of war should increase. Using the per cent " as an interaction oppor- ceive the other player, making it difficult to reestablish trust. However, of nations in different classes of alliance index of loss, strongly under conditions when a promise of cooperation cannot he undone, it is tunity this study found that the hypothesis was confirmed very likely that the pair will, eventually make such promises and finally for the twentieth century, but firmly rejected for the nineteenth century. develop a cooperative pattern. (Pilisuk, Anatol Rapoport, Chapman) When the degree of bipolarization of the international system was used as our index interaction opportunity loss, it was again found that such loss Presence of an option lo gain a sudden advantage at the other of " correlated positively with war in the twentieth, century and negatively in player's expense (surprise attack) very greatly disturbs the incentives to the nineteenth century. (Singer, Singer, 11, 13, 14) cooperate and players tend to take high risks in using ihe option, with resultant losses lo both players. (Pilisuk, Anatol Rapoport, Chapman) A prearranged strategy involving the continued honest, statement INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL SYSTEMS of intentions" and the continuous willingness to disarm one step more than the other player greatly increases the probability of achieving a Human Behavior in International Politics trustful resolution. This appears true even when the other player doesPt Singer recognize the behavior pattern which the first player is demonstrating. (Pilisuk, Anatol Rapoport, Chapman; Pilisuk, 3, f) In the effort to develop unified social science theory, too little attention has been given to the effect of international politics upon Correlates of War man and his society, and vice versa. In order to establish some of the Singer, Small conceptual and empirical links among individuals, groups, nations, and the international system, 49 theoreticaland experimental studies There are many competing theories or explanations of the from psychology, sociology, and anthropology have been selected, "causes" of war, but there is almost no reliable evidence with which edited, and integrated into a single theoretical fiamework. (Singer, to test these theories. The purpose of this project is to gather sufficient quantitative evidence, covering all international wars between 1815 and 1945, to permit the rejection of some of the competing theories. To this end, we are first gathering data and running corre- Quantitative Research in World Politics lations to ascertain whether the frequency, severity, and magnitude Singer of war is most strongly correlated with (a) of the properties interna- A is the development tional system; (b) properties of the warring prerequisite for a science of world politics nations themselves; °f procedures which (c) the prewarrelationships between the warring nations; relatively systematic observation procedures— or (d) the must be standardized, visible, explicit, and repeatable. In order to behavior and interaction patterns they exhibit during prewar the demonstrate that work of a rigorous and quantitative nature can period. These data will be compared to data in cases where the inter-nation indeed be done, eleven studies were commissioned in 1962. conflict did not result in war. The ultimate goal is to ascertain the relative potency of structural, cultural, historical, and Findings: psychological variables as predictors to war. Party and committee roles have more influence than personal Findings: policy" references on the foreign policy behaviorof U.S. Senators. (Singer, fi) A nation's . rigorously defined list of the members the The greater the perceived hostility directed against a tem of international sys- " vis-a-vis from 1817 through 1940 and the status these nation- decision-makers, the more hostile they will be in their expressions members, rank-order of the defined in terms of attributed diplomatic importance, reveals original source. (Singer, 6) 44

Small;

45 The escalation of local war to global war (1914) cannot be pre- of the first mechanism and the relative strengthening of the second. dicted" from behavioral phenomena alone, but only from a combination of Various forms of abnormal behavior would then occur. behavioral and perceptual variables.(Singer, 6) Because of the dependence of the phenomena involved on a " The probability of a nation's becoming involved in external con- large number of psychobiological parameters (parametersare the conflict cannot be predictedfrom its domesticattributes. (Singer, f>) stants which characterize a conceptual system), in some cases organic In both rural and urban nations, high unemployment predicts to treatment such as drugs or shock therapy will be in others involvement" in war (but not necessarily the initiation of it), with varying psychotherapy; in still others, a combination of both. Thus the lime lags. (Singer, fi) theory leads to the conclusion that the points of view of the "organ- There is no discernible constant ratio between battle casualties icists" and the "psychotherapists" are reconcilable, and that the and civilian" losses that predicts a to nation's surrender in war. (Singer, 6) contradictions between the two schools are basically spurious. The The trend toward economic integration in the North Atlantic area theory outlines a neurophysiological model for the mechanism of reached" a peak in the early 1950's and has declined since. (Singer, 6) psychotherapy and draws in this respect some conclusions that agree with known procedures. RESEARCH IN THE SYSTEMS SCIENCES The incidence of schizophrenia at a relatively young age follows theory. 3) A joint research Mkrrii.i. M. Flood, Coordinator directly from the (Rashevsky, project with clinical psychiatrists was begun to test clinically some con- BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS clusions of the theory. During the past year the theory was de- further, A Neurophysiological Model of Schizophrenia veloped to predict certain relations between some personality traits of an individual and the clinical course of development of Rashevsky schizophrenia. The nature of schizophrenia is still a controversial question. The "psychosociological" school and the "organic" school claim Man-Machine Interaction in Automobile Driving contradictory results. However, both schools agree thatschizophrenia Rashevsky, Ehrlich represents a withdrawal from reality, and that of manifestations driver schizophrenia are directly due to some malfunction of the central A biophysical theory of the reactions of an automobile nervoussystem (CNS). had been developed earlier. (Rashevsky, 2) It was concluded that the safety in a manner on a number of bio- A neurophysiological model of schizophrenia, based on the of driving depends definite logical of the driver, as well as on such external con- mathematical theory of the CNS, had been developed by Dr. Rashev- characteristics as lane, size of the car, speed. research sky at the University of Chicago. The theory postulates that in the ditions width of the and A project the The study, CNS of each individual there are two mechanisms: one responsible was begun to test some conclusions of theory. it is understandingof the human for "realistic" or "normal" reactions to actual situations, hoped, will yield a more profound the other factors contributions responsible for reactions that may be produced as a result of dream- involved in driving, and thus make important toward of prevention. like states, hallucinations, faulty reasoning, etc. The two mechan- solving numerous problems accident isms mutually inhibit each other. When the first mechanism is stronger than the second, the second is completely inhibited and Reward and Punishment an individual reacts normally. If the first mechanism is weakened, Rashevsky the second may prevail, and abnormal behavior, incompatible with reality, results. Studies based on some neurobiophysical models of learning The relative weakening of the have been carried out on the relative effectiveness of reward and first mechanism, or the relative punishment. strengthening of the second, may be produced by several causes It may result from organic changes in the CNS, or it may be the result Finding: of "conditioning" by psychosocial situations. If, especially in early Under sociological conditions, the relative frequency of a hie, an individual " certain finds himself in situations where "normal" reac- wrong act can be reduced only about 50 per cent by punishment, no matter tions lead to unpleasant experiences, this may result in the inhibition h "w severe. (Rashevsky) 46 47

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effective; PSYCHOLOGICAL SYSTEMS Findings: Behavioral Constants in Choice Behavior Extensive experiments with two rats, drugged with tricyanoaminopropene" and undrugged, yielded highly reliable parameter values in a Flood, Breed, Leon learning situation with brain stimulation used for positive reinforcement, over a wide variety of experimental configurations. (Flood, Breed, Leon) The goal of this continuing project is to develop a general and Chronic injection the drug tricyanoaminopropeneproduced no valid mathematical theory of of learning and decision-making behavior very significant" change in the parameter values measured for tzvo rats after in animals, humans, and small task-oriented groups. These learning many preliminary trials in each condition. (Flood, Breed, Leon) experiments measure directly the successive small changes occurring Testing many stochastic learning models against a large quantity in the behavior of individual subjects, either when they do or when of experimental" data is feasible using the Project MAC time-sharing they do notreceive areward. system. (Flood, Breed, Leon) Experiments carried out during the year were designed to assess Cooperation, the effects on choice behavior in rats of: three-choice versus six- Competition, and Cognition choice tasks, differing schedules of reinforcement, and chronic injec- Anatol Rapoport, Dale, Mowshowitz tions with tricyanoaminopropene, a drug which speeds the for- up The aim of this ongoing project is to develop an experimental mation of ribonucleic acid the body. (RNA) in There is evidence method for studying the way attitudinal factors (e.g., trust, suspicion, that RNA is somehow involved learning in and memory storage (see trustworthiness, collective interest) interact in determin- "Learning and Regeneration in Planarians," If this is page 9). mg the behavior of two or more persons subjected to conflicting true, then an increase in the rate of RNA formation should affect motives: to competeor to the rate of learning. Rats made a cooperate. few thousand sequential choices In these experiments, the simple "Prisoner's Dilemma" game is among three or six alternatives a bar-pressing in apparatus, with used to investigate the determinants of cooperative and noncooper- positive reinforcement for correctchoices given by electrodes planted ative behavior. Each of two players one of two moves, to chronically in the hypothalamus. This chooses experiment was repeated sev- cooperate or not to cooperate. The not communicate eral times for eachrat. players may with each other, and they choose their moves simultaneously. If both A six-parameter (parameters are the constants which character- cooperate, both are rewarded; if both choose not to cooperate, both ize a conceptual probabilistic system) learning model developed pre- are punished (rewards and punishments are in sums of money). But viously was tested against the experimental results. Analysis of a if one player cooperates and the other does not, then the cooperator large amount of six-choice data for two undrugged rats shows fair ls punished and the noncooperator is rewarded. The rewards and agreement with the theory, but only after the rats have each com- punishments are so set that it is logically more advantageous to each pleted some ten thousand responses. These two rats showed the same individual player not to cooperate, no matter what the other does. general pattern of behavior, whether drugged or undrugged, after However, it is more advantageous to both to cooperate. The game completing the long of preliminary period responses. It also seems thus provides an opportunity to study the interplay of conflicting unlikely that the drug produced any very significant change in learn- motives. ing behavior during the preliminary response periods. The object of the research is to develop a valid mathematical The computer programs used in testing the stochastic learning model which will describe the behavior of an "average" individual models against the experimental data were redone to permit their m the various experimental situations. The parameters (constants) use remotely from Ann Arbor on a time-sharing basis under the °f the model are concerned with the psychological characteristics of Project MAC of system Massachusetts Institute of Technology. This this "average" individual. The model can then be used to compare facility it has made possible to test the data easily against several this "average" with other "average" individuals from models, individual mathematical but the results are inconclusive as yet. different populations or in radically different conditions. The experimental program with rats was concluded, and an Findings: analogous experimental program with subjects, human using mone- were developed with a view of (1) tary rewards, was begun. analysis Several mathematical models The of the data already collected ascertaining" which, the closest approximations to the statistics will continue lor some time. if any, gives °f the data and (2) comparing performances of different populations in 48

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self-interest,

49 terms of the parameters of the models. The models examined were: a four- tions. In this series of studies, theoretical models of the relevant state Markov chain (Model 1); a Markov chain with absorbingslates (Model social and political processes are designed; these models are formu- 2); a Markov chain with one of the parameters subject to "learning"(Model lated as far as possible in mathematical terms; some of their major 3); a composite of Markov chains with a distribution of parameter values quantitative implications are stated; and the theory is tested against (Model 4); and a stochastic learning model (Model 5). (Anatol Rapoport, Chammah, Dale, Mowshowitz) empirical data and, if necessary, revised. One study was concerned with communication within and Models 1 and 4 gave poor with the time courses the agreements of among from principal" variable,namely the frequency cooperative responses. Models groups. Findings communication and information sci- of were stor- 2, 3, and 5 gave good agreements with this time course. Models 2 and 5 ence used to establish criteria for measuring the coding, also gave good agreements with the variances, but Model 3 predicted vari- age, recall, and processing of information. These criteria were then ances which were too low. Thus Models 2 and 5 gave the closest agreement used to investigate the use of specialized languages, codes, and models with the statistics chosen for the dependent variables. (Anatol Rapoport, in inter- and intra-group communication. Dale, Mowshowitz) Findings: Assuming Model 2, the comparison of performances of men and // appears that generally, a code, model, or language used by two women" leads to the conclusions women that:(1) are less responsive to their or more" groups will tend to remain intergroup partner's cooperativeresponse; (2) they irreversi- uniform if communications are less prone to make an are more frequent and more important than communications within each ble decision to unconditionally; are to cooperate (3) they more prone make group. within-group communications become predominant, the code, an irreversible decision to compete If unconditionally. (Anatol Rapoport, language, or model will tend to split up into versions each Dale, Mowshowitz) different for of the internally communicatingsubgroups. (Deutsch, Singer, Riesel- Assuming Model 5, the only significant difference between men and hach) women" turns out to be in the to tendency respond cooperatively to the The frequency and importance mutual communication over the other's cooperativeresponse a non of (following cooperative response by self). entire" group tend to decline as the group size increases, because distance This tendency is smaller in women. Dale, of (Anatol Rapoport, and communication overload, the amount within Mowshowitz) and of communication smaller subgroups tends to increase. (Deutsch, Singer, Rieselbach) Imitative Behavior It therefore follows that a "Tower of Babel" effect should be expected" for a group or system whose size increases faster than do any coun- Rashevsky tervailing improvements in communication technologies; and that there are limits the Work elsewhere lo size of any group within which a common communication had dealt with the effects of mass imitation on 'ode can be maintained. (Deutsch, Singer, Rieselbach; Deutsch, 3) the persistence of "irrelevant" behaviors such as the hand-shaking, Another study was concerned with criteria for evaluating alter- frequent use of some irrelevant remarks or exclamations, It etc. was native and competing social science theories or models. It seems pos- concluded that if an eradication of such irrelevant behavior is desir- sible and useful to rank alternative theories in order of the number able, it can be achieved by rewards for not performing the acts, but of cases or classes of cases which they cover, provided that the opera- not by punishment for their performance. During several the year, tional rule for counting such cases is held constant. Other things be- additional equations pertinent to the theory were derived and are lng equal, of cases a given theory, being used in a study of therole of imitation the larger the number covered by in aggressive and pacilis- the more are the of to test tic attitudes. The work done thus significant results experiments performed far suggests a possible explanation the theory. (Deutsch, of why humanity on the whole is rather II) aggressive, even though The literature was to determinerecent trends in poli- aggressiveness may not be an innate reviewed characteristic of man. tical theory and political philosophy. (Deutsch, 13) theory SOCIAL SYSTEMS The most vigorous developments in recent political involve the incorporation of the results and methods of survey research, Social and Political Processes systems theory, and mathematical models, and the analysis of quan- Deutsch, Singer, Rieselbach t'tative data. (Deutsch, 13) The long-standing gap between normative political theory and e Ceneral systems theory offers a conceptual framework for exam- mpiri cai political theory is becoming narrower in some of the re- ining theories of various social and political processes and organiza- cent work. (Deutsch, 13) 50

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Chammah,

Chammah, Smith,

Smith,

51 Cybernetics of School Segregation The problem area selected for study was information input over- has a Rashevsky load. The capacity of a living system to transmit information finite limit which can be exceeded or overloaded. A system under been Work had done earlier on a sociological feedback circuit the stress of information input overload can utilize adjustment proc- segregation. involved in school (Rashevsky, 8) The greater the in- esses to prevent a complete breakdown in performance. The adjust- tensity of anti-Negro feeling a the be in population, greater will ment processes important in this research were: (1) omission— failing of more schools, the precentage segregated schools. The segregated to transmit one or more signals; (2) error-incorrectly transmitting the more anti-Negro feeling will exist. Differential equations govern- one or more signals; delaying transmission of a sequence this been (3) queuing— ing phenomenon had established. During the year previous of signals, which is temporarily stored; (4) filtering—giving priority results were generalized to include effects ratio of the the of the in processing to of signals; and (5) abstracting—proc- the certain classes Negro population to white population, and the effects of mi- essing with less than complete detail. meas- gration of Negroes from information Quantitative regions of strong anti-Negro feeling to ures of each of these adjustments were developed. The purpose of regions of weakeranti-Negro feeling. (Rashevsky,6) this investigation was to examine the performance of three living systems—the organism, the group, and the organization—under con- INFORMATION PROCESSING SYSTEMS ditions where the rates of information input ranged from relatively Cross Level Research—lnformation Input Overload slow to so fast that they clearly overloaded the capacity of the sys- Miller, House tem to transmit the information. Particular points of interest were (1) the compar ability across levels of the functional relationship be- General systems behavior theory classifies life into a hierarchy tween input in bits per second (a bit being a unit of information) of concrete system levels: cells, organs, organisms, groups, organiza- and output in bits per second, and (2) similarities and differences tions, and so on, to the supranational In level. this approach to the across levels in the type and percentage utilization of adjustment behavior of living systems, generalizations that apply to two or more processes. system levels receive emphasis, in addition to the more usual general- Using human subjects, seven experiments were conducted, two izations thatapply to two or more individuals or types of individuals. at the organism, three at the group, and two at the organization level. The research conducted had its origin in general systems behavior The commonalitiesacross the experiments were as follows: (1) Eight theory, and accordingly, was pointed toward the of quantification different in a random series, 25b regularities across the different levels studied. signal lights were illuminated signals in length. (2) Six comparable series of signals were constructed, one for each of the six input rates. (3) The input rates were 2-82, 3.75, 5.63, 7.50, 11.25, and 15.00 bits per second. (4) The basic but- response was to depress one of eight primary buttons when the and Primary ton lit. (5) To each output panel, four secondary, two tertiary, °ne quaternary button were added beneath the primary level to > "orm a response tree for less precise responses (abstraction). Important particulars among the experiments included the following. The first organism-level experiment (O-l) differed from the second (0-2) in that the abstracting process was made easier for the °-2 systems by having the signal appear in the buttons provided for the abstracting response as well as in the primary level buttons. The groups were composed of three men in a face-to-face situation; the organizations were composed of three three-man groups. In the so- Schema the called "dispatcher" groups, one member distributed the input be- of button-light arrangement on the input-output From top to bottom, rows panel. tween "node" organi- the four of button-lights constituted the two output members. The "node" groups and tertiary and primary, secondary, quaternary output levels and were, respectively, blue, zations were the same as the O-l systems, except that two and eight ■ bgreen, yel-J and red. members, respectively, were located in the system information chan- 52

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53 nel prior to the system output member. The structure of the "decider" systems was such that two parallel, but completely redundant, input series were channeled through the system, coming together, INPUT in time, on the panel of the output member who had to decide how to respond to the two sets of signals on those occasions when discrepancies appeared between them. Data analysis is not yet complete, but the following findings have been made. 0-1 OUTPUT 0-2 OUTPUT Findings: A. ORGANISM LEVEL The average rank-order correlation among Ihe seven sets of six input"rale means was 0.80, indicating a good agreement among the experi- INPUT ments on the nature of Ihe relationship between input and output as measured in information transmitted in bits per second. For all experimental systems, output increased with input up to the rate of maximum information transmission, but subsequent increases in input led lo decreases in output, i.e., ihe information input overload curve. (Miller, House) Of the several mathematicalstatements considered for the purpose of describing" the input-output relationship, F, for all seven studies, the following one best combines Ihe criteria of fit and interpretation:F(x) = l(x) N(x) D(x); where x — input rale in bits per second and the multiplicative functions I, N, and D are interpreted, respectively, as related lo experi- DISPATCHER OUTPUT NODE OUTPUT DECIDER OUTPUT mental instructions, system noise, and the use of immediate memory as a B. GROUP LEVEL queue for signals. For this set of experiments, most of the performance decreni'-nt resulting from system overload is accounted for by D(x). (Miller, INPUT Cabot, House) " Organisms (human individuals) in Ihe 0-1 type of experiment transmit more information and abstract less than in the 0-2 type. This finding supports the concept, that adjustment processes, like other behavior, are subject to control by variables such as payoffs, instrumentation, and instructions. (Miller, House) " Both the "dispatcher" and "node" groups are superior to the "decider" group in information transmitted; the "dispatcher" group omits 'ess than the other two groups; there is a tendency for the "dispatcher" group to filter more than the "decider" group and to abstract more than thc "node" group; there is a tendency for the "decider" group to abstract more than the "node" group. (Miller, Cabot, House) NODE OUTPUT The in the 0-1 type experiment DECIDER OUTPUT " organisms (human individuals) ""struct more than either the "node" group or the "node" organization n C. ORGANIZATION nd selectively omit less than the "node" group. No differences were found LEVEL between the "node" group and "node" organization. (Miller, House) 1 SyUem StrUCtUre nd inf°rmati lor each the more "ysTms. " "» /'""' of experimental The "node" system, either group or organization, transmits tends '" " and abstracts less than the "decider" system. The latter make more errors and filter more. (Miller, Cabot, House)

54 55

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_i Information Retrieval Systems Theory of finding relevant information, and use of syntactic bonds between descrip- Kochen tors in index terms and in queries to reduce the thus increased rale of finding irrelevant information. (Kochen) Mathematical models explaining how information systems func- The use of a time-shared information retrieval, system based on tion, how they can malfunction, and how to compare proposed coordinate" system indexing is advantageousonly if its use for information remedies are constructed and analyzed in this project. We are con- retrieval is a small, but highest-priority, fraction of the total computer cerned, for example, with the advantages, if any, of a computer-based load. An enormous read-unite memory must be permanently tied up with such a information retrieval or dissemination system over book-based or system. (Kochen) other systems; with the effect on performance of varying the design parameters of a timesharing system based on coordinate indexing; MATHEMATICS OF GENERAL SYSTEMS and with the extent to which computer aids in intelligence minimize Behavioral and Biological Systems Models the chance of breakdown due to information overload, inadequate Flood, but timely responses, and adequate responses which are too late. Anatol Rapoport, Na We think an of information system as composed of three things project has two purposes: (1) to mathematical ques- -documents, This resolve fields of knowledge, and processing agents-and are tions of importance in the Institute's behavioral and biological re- studying six the possible couplings among these. Documents, for search, and (2) to discover and investigate problems that are pri- example, are coupled to other documents through citation, to fields marily of mathematical interest and importance but arise naturally through relevance, and to agents through authorship or use. The in the course of other studies. dynamic processes of these couplings are modeled in order to derive The special Markov process models used to describe the results results pertaining to growth, stability, and balance of performance ol various learning experiments have been derived by making as- and effort. sumptions regarding the subject and experiment that seem reason- The functions of agents are to pose queries, find answers, trans- able. form their queries, recognize relevant answers, and adapt to and For example, the assumptions of linearity and symmetry yield improve with experience. Certain of these functions might be advan- the special model used in most of the work under the project on tageously automated, and therefore are studied by means of auto- determination of behavioral constants in choice behavior, called mata theory. the "Symmetry Model," and there are three independent parameters Queries are classified as recall, search, and research. An infor- for each possible outcome in this case. The assumption thattheproc- mation retrieval system is viewed as an organized procedure by the ess is quadratic and symmetrical yields a model with seven inde- agent for recall and search. Hit-rate, acceptance-rate, and waiting pendent parameters for each response class. Other sets of assump- time are presently used as performance variables, and better vari- tions yield still other models, most of which are analyzed further ables are still being sought. Total cost per query, including prepara- theoretically and some of which are also tested against experimental tory time spent by the querist, is used to measure effort until better data. measuresof effort areestablished. Network graphs have been used in studies of many biological Findings: and sociological systems and subsystems. Examples include neuronal nets, acquaintanceship nets, word association nets, and information The major problems in " concrete information systems and the great- retrieval nets. Nets that develop stochastically over time, and espe- est potentialities of solution are in the direction aiding in process generating of the of cially those representable by linear graphs, are of interest in these of introducing special logic-like languages resem- applications. graphs, bling natural language rather than Enumerations have been made of such random attempting to analyze the content of and when a new unconstrained natural language itself. (Kochen) especially of trees (connected graphs without cycles), The node is added. amount of "intellectual effort" expended by an retrieval" system, plus that information* expended by the user in preparation, is a con- Findings: stant which depends on the difficulty the of query. (Kochen) The distribution node-degree of trees of given order is approxi- The extent to which of relevant and only relevant are mately" Poisson whereas the becomes geometric upon addition retrieved" can be references distribution controlled through use of a thesaurus to increase the rate °f a new node. (Flood, Anatol Rapoport, Na) 56 57

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information, Biparty graphs, representing interaction between two (social) ing results. The interactive mode of search enables the user to groups, are less seldom trees than are itniparty graphs when the number capitalize on his own experience and judgments during a computer nodes exceeds 12. o) (flood. Anatol Rapoport, Na) run in a way possible only under on-line operation.

Heuristic Programming Findings: Search codes for optimization calculations are useful for a wide Leon variety" of otherwise intractable scientific and engineering problems. (Flood. Leon) Problems requiring complex numerical analysis can be formulated as "peak-finding" problems (i.e., finding the values of the vari- o Online interactive use of search aides enables the user to make ables that maximize a function). Several new programs for the IBM his eah illations more efficient, by -wise variation o) parameters controlling Ihe seal ih procedures. (Flood, Leon) 70!) I computer have been developed and used to solve a wide variety of peak-finding problems, using heuristic (trial-and-error) rather than algorithmic (mathematically systematic) procedures. Iterative search programs of this kind make feasible solution of statistical estimation and distribution problems that are otherwise mathematically intractable. These computational techniques make it possible to use and analyze complex mathematical models and associated experimental data that are essential for a deeper understanding of a wide variety of behavioral phenomena at all levels of human action and interaction. Several search procedures proposed by others have been added to the general-purpose code developed previously under this project. Comparisons have been made between these various methods when applied to a set of test problems. This experience is making it increasingly possible to tell in advance which of the many available search codes is apt to be most efficient for some new class of problems. In addition to the use of these search codes for solving a variety of Statistical estimation and mathematical programming problems, and among other applications, the codes are being used under this project experimentally to determine the structure of various ammo In Institute seminar in progrei acid molecules by the energy-function method developed by S. Levinthal at Massachusetts Insti lute of Technology. These molecular structure problems constitute a set of test exercises of widely varying ACTIVITIES degrees of difficulty. Others are using our codes in a wide variety of OTHER INSTITUTE applications, including optical lens system design, electrocardiogram interpretation, time-shared computer system design, hydroelectric THE TEACHING PROGRAM dam location, electrical transformer design, and public service utility This area of Institute activity is devoted to training students in planning. methods and techniques of basic research; to keeping staff members The search codes arebeing modified for use under Massachusetts informed about new developments and methods in menial health Instiiute of Technology (Project MAC) and System Development research; and to providing opportunities for the exchange of ideas Corporation time-sharing systems. Preliminary runs under these two and information across disciplines. systems, with on-line interaction for the selection of critical param- The Institute offers a course each year with the general title eters controlling the search procedures used, have given very promis- Research in Menial Health for residents in psychiatry and for other 58

Flood,

59 special students. This year the course was taught by Dr. Bernard W. of cognitive systems; Dr. John Ross of the University of Western Agranoff, and dealt with the biological roots of behavior. In addition, Australia spoke on memory and cognition; and Dr. Rashevsky dis- nine Institute staff members taught courses or presented individual cussed the mathematical biology of imitative behavior. lectures to classes in other University units. Alliance aggregation and war from 1815 to 1945 was the subject In addition to various intra-lnstitute seminars, staff members of a talk by Dr. J. David Singer of the Institute; Dr. Rashevsky out- gave talks on their current research to an informal discussion group lined some "feedback" aspects of segregation; and Dr. Marc Pilisuk which met for lunch each Thursday. The Thursday afternoon semi- of the Institute reported some studies of trust and deception. Psycho- nars, at which a number of scientists spoke on investigations re- somatic death rates in seventeen countries were discussed by Dr. lated to the interests of the Institute, were also continued. Stanley Rudin of the Veterans Administration Hospital, Lexing- During 19-b 1-1!)(>5, Mr. Alex Bernstein of the Simulmatits Cor- ton, Kentucky. poration and Dr. Ithiel de Sola Pool of the Simulmatics Corporation Dr. Clinton DeSoto of The Johns Hopkins University spoke on and Massachusetts Institute of Technology made presentations on spatial paralogic; and Dr. Murray Miron of the University of Illinois computer simulation of some cognitive processes; and Dr. J. C. R. described new directions in psycholinguistics. Licklider of IBM Corporation Laboratories discussed interaction between man and computers. Postdoctoral Fellowships was Visual perception discussed by Dr. Bela [ulesz of Bell Tele- A postdoctoral training grant from the National Institute of phone Laboratories; and Dr. A. F. Sanders of The Institute for Mental Health, U.S. Public Health is now entering its fifth Perception, Sesterberg, the Netherlands, described the selective year. The grant, which allows five trainees to study at the Institute, process in the functional visual field. Dr. Stephen S. Fox and Dr. supports people who have recently obtained their M.D. or Ph.D. of Sadayuki Takagi the Institute gave talks on sensory processes in degrees and who wish to extend their backgrounds in interdiscipli- the nervous Dr. system; Robert Thompson of Louisiana State Uni- nary fields related to mental health research. The Fellows attend versity described an extension of Penfield's centrencephalic theory; special Institute courses and seminars, carry out research under the and Dr. Guilio Canloni of the National Institute of Mental Health guidanceof Institute staff members, and may take University courses. discussedchemistry, brain, the and behavior. During the past year, David Albert, a psychologist from McGill Drug dependency in animals was described by Dr. Gerald A. University, has been studying the effect of external electric currents Deneau of Ihe of University Michigan; Dr. fames Polidora of the on learning in rats. John J. Brink, a biochemist from the University University of Wisconsin spoke on the behavioral effects of induced of Vermont, and Roger E. Davis, a zoologist from the University of phenylketonuria in rats; and Dr. Thomas Humphries of Massachu- Wisconsin, have been studying the biochemical factors involved in setts Institute of Technology described the mechanism of specific memory fixation in goldfish. W. Barrett Denton, a psychologist from cell association during sponge aggregation. the University of Texas, has been carrying out dynamic modeling Dr. Nicolas Rashevsky of the Institute discussed a neurophysio- and simulation of cognitive processes with computers. Phillip L. logical model of schizophrenia; Dr. Fini Schulsinger of Kommune Emerson, a psychologist from Washington State University, has be- Hospital, Copenhagen, and Dr. Sarnoff Mednick of The University gun to develop programs for learning by computers of image reading of Michigan gave a jointreport on a longitudinal study of children and languages, and to study the stationary linear stimulus-response with a high risk of schizophrenia; and Dr. Ivar Lovaas of the Uni- model applied to discrete sequences of trials. David Bowen, a bio- versity of California at Los Angeles described a reinforcement theory chemist from the University of Pittsburgh, is investigating the approach to the treatment of childhood schizophrenia. properties of a brain enzyme which appears to be involved in cer- Dr. David Premack of the University or Missouri spoke on rein- tain neurological diseases. forcement; Dr. Nathan Azi in of Anna State Hospital discussed aggres- Openings in the program arise from time to time and interested sion; and Dr. S. Harry Jerison of Antioch College presented a new applicants should write to the Director of Training, Dr. Norman approach to the study of vigilance. K adin, or to individual staff members with whom they might wish Stability and change in human characteristics was discussed by to study. Dr. Benjamin Bloom of the University of Chicago; Dr. Duane Metz- ger of the University of Illinois reported on an ethnographic study 60 61

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60 The Graduate Research Program distributed logic: machine designs were proposed. These designs are elementary in the sense that no function could be eliminated from the design for The Institute offers research experience and training psy- without destroying its ability to process in parallel its intended classes of chiatric residents and for graduate and medical students. During the algorithms. Several algorithms were considered, and the values of their year one resident in psychiatry at the Institute completed research descriptors and their execution times on the machines were estimated. for a dissertation toward the M.Sc. degree, and eight graduate students completed or continued research for dissertations toward the Alberto Lkon completed work toward a Ph.D. degree in the Depart- Ph.D. degree. ment of Industrial Engineering on General Purpose Optimizing Tech- Tibor Bi'.zi'RDi completed research for an M.Sc. thesis in the Depart- niques. Optimizing techniques are important in the study and analysis ment of Psychiatry on Bodily Manifestations of an Emotion-Psychosomatic of operations and systems. In innumerable complex situations it is neces- Aspect of Anxiety. Clinical evaluations of the somatic symptoms of anxiety sary to estimate the optimal factor combinations, i.e., the combination of are hindered by lack of a unified frame of reference because of the "mind- factors which will produce the best possible result. In optimizing real-life body" controversy. A breach-healing approach is suggested; i.e., studying problems, industrial and otherwise, it is frequently impossible to work interaction between mind and body utilizing systems theory. Anxiety is with the system itself, for practical and economic reasons. This study aimed regarded as the outcome of disturbance in a constellation of factorsranging to develop the "best" optimizing technique for certain specific models from biochemical to social. The various factors are assigned to levels of which describe operational, economic, or organizational systems. organization, each representing some relevant aspect of the integrated total functioning of the individual. The clinician using systems theory can Fred Altman began research toward a dissertation in the Department readily amalgamate the overall pathological influences of anxiety resulting of Psychology on The Electro-ontogenesis of Sensory Interaction in the in bodily symptoms. This approach is particularly suitable for the psychia- Brain. Past work has shown that interaction exists in the brain among the trist, whose background includes both medicineand the behavioral sciences. electrical responses elicited by the various sensory stimuli. The present developmental studies are designed to investigate the underlying mechan- John T. Burns completed research toward a doctorate in the Depart- isms of the interaction, and to understand interaction as a possible separate ment of Psychology on The Effects of Errors on Subsequent Responses in process. Light and sound stimuli are presented individually or in pairs to a Self-Paced Reaction-Time Task. This study of the microbehavior in- cats at various stages of development, and the evoked potentials from the volved in serial skilled performance was designed to discover whether the cortex and the cerebellum in response to these stimuli are recorded. The response or responses immediately following an erroneous response are data are used to evaluate the development of these sensory systems in the influenced by the preceding error. Experiments were conducted on the brain in terms of evoked potential, wave latency, duration, and SPAR'I'A (.Self-Paced Automated Reaction-Time Apparatus). It was found recovery time. The findings will be compared to the morphological and that an erroneousresponse results in a marked lengthening of the reaction behavioral development of the animals, with the aim of elaborating possi- time to the next stimulus. The inhibition was greater when the behavioral ble mechanisms of the sensory-motor and sensory-sensory bases of integrated task was relatively complex and/or the intertrial interval was relatively behavior. short. This phenomenon,which was interpreted as a kind of is consistent with a single-channel concept of human information-process- James O'Brien began research toward a dissertation in the Depart- ing capacity. ment of Psychology on Single-Cell Activity in the Cat Cortex During Sen- sory Conditioning. Caxton C. Foster completed research for a Ph.D. dissertation in the Past experiments on learning involving the central nervous system Department of Electrical Engineering on Parallel Execution of Iterative have indicated that different areas of the brain are differentially involved Algorithms. Many designs have been suggested during for distributed logic com- the course of learning, both in time and degree of involvement. [ puters, sometimes called "content-addressable memories," "spatial com- Recently a few studies have shown that some single cells in the brain puters," "catalog memories," "parallel processors," "search memories," and modify theirbehaviorin a learning situation, and that others are unaffected, "iterative circuit computers." Unfortunately, the development of theory h may be that the type of single cell or its connections with other cells in has not kept pace with the hardwareproposals. In the past there has been the brain is more important for learning than the cell's location in a no means for comparing new designs witli earlier or with alternative im- given area in the brain. plementations. The present study attempted to remedy this situation in This research is aimed at elucidating some of the characteristics of two ways. First, a classification scheme was devised whereby those algorithms single-cell activity which correlate with the time course of the learning that might be expected to benefit from the parallelism introduced by dis- Procedure. Single cells of the brains of cats are characterized or classified tributed logic can be classified. Each class of algorithms then tan be ln- terms of differential sensitivity to various sensory stimuli, spontaneous studied as a unit. for certain classes of algorithms, "elementary" rate, and unique temporal patterning, and then this information is used 62

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refractoriness,

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in combination with the behavior of these cells during the course of classi- relevance for the development of cognitive and perceptual models in cal conditioning. Knowledge of correlations between single-cell activity psychology, as well as for certain fundamental notions in general systems during learning and general brain cell characteristics is important to research. The aim of the present research is to give a mathematicalrecon- broad general theories concerning the brain and learning. struction of a number of concepts such as "register," "operation," "access," and "transfer" which are known heuristically to be of great importance in George Allen began research toward a dissertation in the Communi- the design and use of digital computers, and to investigate the interde- cation Sciences Program on Two Perceptual Measures of the Syllable Beat pendence and range of applicability of these concepts. It is hoped that this in Rhythmic Speech. Linguistic science classifies English as a stress-timed will yield a clearer understanding of some of the basic features common language, that is, one in which the time intervals between successive major to all information-processingdevices. accents in a continuous phrase tend toward equality. In order to clarify I the meaning of this it is necessary to measure the time inter- INSTITUTE SERVICES vals between stress-points. Subjects were asked to indicate when the beat Data Analysis of a syllable occurred. In the first experiment, they listened to repetitions Data Analysis, under the direction of Mrs. Nancy Dejohn, acts of English utterances recorded on magnetic tape loops and tapped their as information center recommen- fingers in time to the rhythm of the syllable. The time of the taps rela- a liaison and providing procedural tive to the utterance was measured. In the second experiment, subjects dations and information sources through maintenance of reference heard a click superimposed on the repeated speech and were asked to manuals, information on data processing hardware and and move this click, by turning a knob, until it occurred when they felt they computer programs and writeups. would have tapped. The location of the click was a second measure of Requests for usage of the IBM 7090, located at the University the location of the syllable beat. These two measures were investigated as of Michigan Computing are administered, and information to their reliability and validity, and the relation of the indicated stress concerning Computing Center policies, memos, and services is pro- t point to the speech was examined. It was found that subjects differ among vided. Computing Center messenger service is maintained four times as to themselves where they tap and place the click in the syllable; daily for input and outputof program decks and cards. for a given subject, the location of the and the placement of tap the may on loan, reservations for click may be different.The variabilityof a subject's on a given syllabic Desk calculators be obtained and taps the an Institute-located seems to be related to the role of that syllable in the over-all rhythm of the time on digital computer, are utterance, with lower variability on rhythmically accented syllables. The handled through Data Analysis. location of the stress point, although different for different subjects, is The unit also maintains machine records, service contracts, generally close to the release of the last consonant before the main vowel data files, punch card data processing supplies, coding materials, of the syllable. and limited data storage. Increasing use of data processing techniques has more than kept Paul N. Ray began research toward a doctorate in the Department pace with the rapidly expanding Institute. This service unit has of Sociology on The Role Education of in Community Resource Allocation. more than trebled its in the last calendar year, providing Earlier work on the simulation of metropolitan output growth had indicated that keypunching and verifying of coded alphabetic and numeric infor- in the future the development of school quality is likely to play a much programs; paper t more serious role in the long-term capital improvement program decision mation and computer Flex-o-Writer punching of and than had been allowed by political scientists. The simulation was adjusted tapes for computer use; interpreting, reproducing, repositioning, so that this feature could be incorporated, but questions remained as to addition to card decks; tape splicing; board wiring; and advice and whether it employed valid relationships. The present study is devoted to assistance. finding and validating a model based upon recent Michigan experience with school quality changes and community resource allocation. It is The Library discover the hoped to preconditions and strategies for improving the Under the direction of Mrs. Renata Tagliacozzo, the Library qualityof education in school districts. collection has continued to serve as a source of basic reading and Research from f Peter H. Roosen-Runge began research toward a dissertation in the reference materials for the Institute staff. personnel Communication Sciences Program on Formal Representatives Access other University departments also make use of the Library. The of but and Control in Digital Computers. The general-purpose computer has rate of growth of the books collection has remained constant, come to serve as the paradigm case of an information-processing device. the size of the periodicals collection has shown a tendency to increase ■"* An abstract characterization of its structural features has considerable at a faster pace. 64

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65 A number of routines for procuring, in the shortest possible chronized with the computer memory locations. However flexible a time, documents or informationavailable in other libraries or scien- piece of instrumentation may be, original research often requires a tific institutions have been developed. mode of operation not provided for in the original equipment The acquisition and maintenance records of the periodicals design. have been converted into an IBM punch-card system. This conver- To allow visual monitoring of subjects during psychophysical sion was made to facilitate the gathering of data on rate of collec- experiments, two closed-circuit television systems were installed. tion growth, distribution of holdings in the various disciplines, The lOTA (Information Overload Testing Aid) apparatus was selection for binding, and other needed statistical information, plus modified to allow it to function as originally intended, as well as to % the printing-out of journallists for distribution. serve as the basic memory and data read-in /read-out for a vigilance As part of a plan for the expansion of the bibliographic serv- experiment. To provide greatly expanded operational features for ices, a study has been made to assess the needs of the Institute staff aphasia studies (see "Information Processing by Aphasics," page 32), for bibliographic assistance. The study has identified two categories portable instrumentation employing electronic modules as basic of staff members, one of which is in favor of obtaining bibliographic building blocks is presently being constructed. help in the form of a "current awareness" service, while the other Instrumentation was also provided for simulation of an arms- prefers to receive assistance in terms of retrospective searches of the race/peace-race dilemma (see "The Psychology of page 42). literature. A plan for combining internal resources of the Institute This equipment allowed eight subjects to interact in pairs and great- with outside services for information retrieval is being studied. ly accelerated the data-compiling process. The use of transistorized Work to test the availability of service from some large informa- circuitry and glass reed switches reduced the over-all equipment size tion systems in the biological and mental health fields is being and also increased the operational reliability. The Instrument Shop carriedout. provided many devices during the year. Among these were several perforated paper tape readers that were developed and constructed The Shops to allow inexpensive experimental programming. The Electronics and Instrument Shops, under the direction of A thin-layer chromatograph was constructed that later served as Conrad Juchartz, design, construct, and maintain equipment and a modelfor a commercial version. To supportbehavioral studies with instruments used to support research at the Institute. Much of the newts, several mazes were developed. Mazes were also developed to instrumentation must be continually modified to meet the chang- aid studies of learning in planarians (see "Learning and Regenera- ing demands of an experiment. The actual use of a particular piece tion in Planarians," page 9). of equipment will often show a need for operational features not originally provided. This type of service demand requires a flexible shop facility as well as a diversified technical competence among PROFESSIONAL AND COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES OF THE STAFF Shop personnel. Numerous staff members participated in activities of their pro- One projects recently completed, of the the TART (Thoroughly fessional societies, acted as consultants to hospitals and government Automated Reaction Timer), has had several operational modifica- agencies, and engaged in other outside services. Most of the staff 1 I tions which became necessary after equipment shortcomings rela- attended meetings of their professional societies during the year, to new tive experiments were observed. The general approach in and many of them read papers at scientific meetings and conferences. case was to reduce the this intertrial interval between subject re- Many staff members also lectured to community groups and partici- sponses to stimuli by selectively the shortening operational sequence. pated in symposia and seminars at other universities. Some of the Another project note was the an IBM of adaptation of electric activities of the Institute staff during the past year are listed below. typewriter as a readout device on a small laboratory computer (CAT—Computer for Averaging of Transients). This provision Dr. Bernard W. Agranofi- served on the Biochemistry and Nu- doubled the data output rate of the system for this mode of opera- trition Fellowship Panel of the National Institutes of Health, and : tion. To provide greater flexibility of operation, a repetitive voltage participated in a workshop on memory sponsored by the Neurosci- pulse from the computer was used to drive external electronic ences Research Program. He continued to serve as advisory editor modules that allowed a time-preset stimulus condition to be syn- °fAdvances in Lipid Research. 66 67

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Rapoport Dr. Mkrriix M. Flood was re-elected Vice President of the " Dr. Anatoi. participated in numerous American Institute of Industrial Engineers and reappointed to the seminars, and symposia, in the United States and abroad. He pre- National Research Council. He served on the Science Information sented papers at meetings of the International Peace Research Asso- Council of the National Science Foundation, as Vice Chairman of ciation and the American Psychological Association, and at the Con- the Cybernetics Committee of the Institute of Electrical and Elec- ference Institut de Psychologic He was also co-conductor of the Social tronics Engineers, as a member of the Advisory Committee to the Science Research Council Summer Institute at Stanford University. l of the Operations Research Society Transportation Science Section The Ann Arbor Committee for United Nations Day presented of America, and as United States delegate to the Third Interna- its 1965 UN Day Award to Dr. DavidSinger. tional Symposium on Traffic Theory. He was a member of the J. University of Michigan Committee for Planning a Health Sciences j Dr. Ronald S. Tikofsky served on the Time and Place Com- Information Center. Dr. Flood also served as editor of Management \ mittee of the American Speech and Hearing Association. Series B. Dr. Leonard Uhr was appointed associate editor of the Journal Dr. William J. Horvath was appointed to the board of editors of Psychopharmacology, continued as the representative for psychol- of ManagementScience. ogy and the other behavioral sciences on the National Science Foun- Dr. Manfred Kochen participated in the meeting of the dation Advisory Committee on University Computer Facilities, and American Mathematical Society on the National Register of Scien- j gave a number of invited talks, including one at the British Associa- tific and Specialized Personnel and was a substitute member of the \ tion for the Advancement of Science. Cybernetics and Systems Science Committee of the Institute of Elec- trical and Electronic Engineers. He acted as consultant to the Uni- INSTITUTE PUBLICATIONS of Michigan Committee for Planning a Health Sciences In- versity An official publication of the Mental Health Research Insti- formationCenter. i tute is the quarterly journal, Behavioral Science. This interdiscipli- Dr. James G. Miller served as Chairman of the University of nary journal contains articles on general theories of behavior and on Michigan Committee for Planning a Health Sciences Information empirical research specifically oriented toward such theories, with Center. He was a member of the Board of Trustees, Secretary, and special emphasis on research relating to mental health and disease. Executive Director of the Interuniversity Communications Council A regular department "Computers in Behavioral Science" is found (EDUCOM). He was a participant in the White House Conference " in each issue. Volume 10 is appearing in 1965. Beginning with Vol- on Education, and chairman of the panel of judges of doctoral dis- f ume 11 in 1 960, the journal will increase publication frequency to sertations in the fields of development, counseling, and mental six issues per year. health, for the Creative Talent Awards Program of the American j In addition toBehavioral Science, two other journals have their Institutes for Research. headquarters in the Institute and are edited by Institute staff mem- Dr. Marc Pilisuk received an award from Division 9 of the bers: The Journal of Mathematical Biophysics, under the editorship American Psychological Association for his paper (with Thomas of Dr. Nicolas Rashevsky, and The Worm Runner's Digest, edited by Hayden), "Is There a Military Industrial Complex Which Prevents I>. James V. McConnell. Dr. Anatol Rapoport is co-editor of General Peace? Consensus and Countervailing Power in Pluralistic Systems." Systems, the yearbook of the Society for General Systems Research. From time to time, papers intended for scientific circulation are Dr. John C. Pollard served as chairman of the Committeefor issued by the Institute as reports or preprints, so that the results of in the State Michigan. Postgraduate Psychiatric Education of studies which have been completed by staff members may be immedi- Dr. Norman S. Radin became a member of the Physiological ately available.Preprints 125 to 1(31 appeared this year. Chemistry Study Section of the National Institutes of Health, and *! continued to serve on the board of editors of the Journal of Lipid Research. Dr. Amnon Rapoport was First Award Winner of the Creative Talent Awards Program of the American Institutes for Research. 68

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69 STAFF PUBLICATIONS 2. Macomb County tackles alcohol education. Mich. Alcohol Educ. 1964, 1, 25-33. July 1, 1964-June 30, 1965 3. What about drinking and driving? Mich. Alcohol Educ. J., 1964, 1,9-11. Richard J. Allen Sidney Cobb See LindsleyFoote J. 1. (With Kasl, S. V.). Some psychological factors associated with Bernard W. Agranoff illness behavior and selected illnesses. /. Chron. Dis., 1964, 17, 1. (With W.) Identification and estimation of glycolipids of 325-345. the spleen in Gaucher's disease. Fed. Proc, 1964, 23, 375. 2. Current comment: the epidemiology of rheumatoid arthritis. 2. Molecules and memories. Perspectives in Biol, if Med., in press. Arthr. & Rheum., 1965, 8, 76-79. See Gary A. Davis, Roger E. Davis, J. Lindsley Foote, Amiya K. [ 3. Intrafamilial transmission of rheumatoid arthritis. In J. V. Neel, Hajra, Paul D. Klinger, Gary L. Petzold, Ulrich B. Seiffert, j M. W. and W. J. Schull (Eds.), Genetics and chronic and William D. Suomi j diseases. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing in press. Monica D. Blumenthal 4. Patterns of illness in executives, foremen and craftsmen. /. Ind. convulsions following with- 1. (With Reinhart, M. J.). Psychosis and Med. ir Surg., in press. from ethchlorvynol. Amer. Med. Assoc, 1964, 190, drawal /. 5. The prevention of gout. Amer. Jour, of Pub. Health, 1965, 55, 154-155. 353-54. John P. Boyd 6. (With Hall, W.). A newly identified cluster of diseases: rheumatoid See AnatolRapoport arthritis, peptic ulcer and tuberculosis. /. Amer. Med. Assoc, in press. Patricia J. Bright 7. (With Kasl, S. V.). Some psychological and social characteristics See Roger E. Davis of patients hospitalized for rheumatoid arthritis, hypertension, and duodenalulcer. /. Chron. Dis., in press. John J. Brink 8. (With Kasl, S. V.). Health behavior, illness behavior, and sick 1. (With LePage, G. A.). Metabolism and distribution of 9-0-D- role behavior. ./. Chron. Dis., in press. Arabinofuranosyladenine in mouse tissues. Cancer Research, 1964, 24, 1042. j Gary A. Davis 2. (With LePage, G. A.). 9-0-D-Arabinofuranosyladcnine as an in- i 1. (With Santen, R. J., and Agranoff, B. W.). The production of a hibitor of metabolism in normal and neoplastic: cells. Cana- j linear density gradient with a proportioning pump. Anal. Bio- dian J.Biochem., 1965, 43, 1. ! chem., 1965, 153, 11. i j John S. Brown Roger E. Davis . i ?- See John W. Gyr 1. (With Agranoff, B. W.). Effects of electroconvulsive shock and of puromycin on memory in goldfish. Fed. Proc, 1965, 24, 328. Lawrence L. Butcher 2. (With Bright, P. J., and Agranoff, B. W.). Effect of ECS and 1. (With Fox, S. S.). Reversible loss of response inhibition following puromycin on memory in fish. /. Comp. Physiol. Psychol., in I deposit of copper ions in rat caudate. Proc. Amer. Psychol. press. i Assoc, in press. 3. (With Klinger, P. D., and Agranoff, B. W.). Automated training and recording of a light-tracking response in fish. /. Exper. Albert Cafagna Anal. Behav., in press. I See John W. Gyr W- Barrett Denton Albert M. Chammah 1. A computer simulationof human concept learning. Amer. Psychol., See Anatol Rapoport 1964, 19, 575. (abstract) Margaret L. Clay K arl W. Deutsch i' 1. (With Mosler, U.). The annotated bibliography of research on j 1. (With Russett, B. M., Alker, H., and Lasswell, H. D.). World planarians. Worm Runner's Digest, Part V, 1964, Vol. 6, No. 2, handbookof political and social indicators. New Haven, Conn.: 57-81; PartVI, 1965,Vol. 7, No! 1, 43-55. ) YaleUniv. Press, 1964.

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; 2. Social resources for the growth of science. In C. J. Friedrich (Ed.), 5. The systems approach to library planning. In D. R. Swanson (Ed.), Public policy. Yearbookof the Littauer School of Public Admin- The intellectual foundations of library education. Chicago: istration, Harvard University. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University of Chicago Press, 1964. Pp. 38-50. Univ. Press., in press. 6. The objectives of TIMS. In M. K. Starr (Ed.), Executive readings 3. On theories, taxonomies and models as communication codes for in management science. New York: Macmillan, 1965. Pp. 369- organizing information. Behavioral in press. 375. 4. Max Weber unci die Machtpolitik. Verhandlungen dcs 75. Deut- 7. A flexible and general computer code for the analysis and appli- schen Soziologenlages, Tubingen, 1965. cation of mathematical learning models. MHRI Preprint 147. 5. The future of international politics. Bull. InternationalHouse of 8. A Stochastic Adaptive Sequential Information Dissemination Sys- Tokyo,in press. tem—SASIDS. Internal Working Paper No. 25, Social Sciences 6. The theoretical bases of data programs. In R. L. Merritt and Project, University of Berkeley, 1964. Also in M. S. Rokkan (Eds.), Comparing nations. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Kochen (Ed.), Some problems in information science. New Univ. Press, in press. York: Scarecrow Press, 1965. Pp. 276-288. 7. External influences on the internal behavior of states. In B. Farrell 9. (With Leon, A.). A universal adaptive code for optimization (Ed.), Approaches to worldpolitics. Evanston, 111.: Northwestern (GROPE). In Vogl and Lavi (Eds.), Proceedings of symposium Univ. Press, in press. on. recent advances in optimization techniques. New York: 8. Some quantitative constraints, on value allocation in society and Wiley, in press. politics. Behav. in press. 10. (With Kochen, M.). Some bibliographic and sociological devices 9. Arms control in the European political environment. Yale Re- to improve maintenanceof current awareness aboutliterature. search Memoranda(Preprint), 1965. In M. Kochen (Ed.), Some problems in information science. 10. Introduction. In Q. Wright, A study of war. Chicago: Univ. of New York: Scarecrow Press, 1965.Pp. 271-275. Chicago press, 1965. 11. Stochastic Learning Aptitude Test (SLAT). MHRI Preprint I">7. 11. (With Singer, J. D., and X.). The organizing efficiency of L Lindsley Foote theories: the N/V ratio as a crude rank order measure. MHRI 1. (With Agranoff, B. W.). Fatty acids of the brain in phenylketon- Preprint 148. uria. ./. Neurochem., 1964, 11, 589-594. 12. (With Merritt, R. L.). The effect of external events on national 2. (With Agranoff, B. W., and Allen, R. J.). Fatty acids in esters and and international images. In H. Kelman (Ed.), International cerebrosides of human brain in phenylketonuria. /. Lipid Res., political behavior. New York: Rinehart, Holt k Winston, in in press. press. See L. Siegel 13. (With Rieselbach, L. N.). Recent trends in political theory and Stephen political philosophy. Annals of the American Academy of S. Fox Political and Social [une, 1965. 1. (With J. H.). Duplication of evoked potential waveform Science, 1965, 14. (With Weilenmann, H.). The Swiss city Canton: a political in- by curve of probability of firing of a single cell. vention. Comparative 1965, 7, 4, 393-408. 147,888-890. 2. (With O'Brien, J. H.). Evoked potential waveform and single Jane Doyle unit probability. Proc. Biophysics Society, 1965, 15. See Richard L. Meier 3. (With O'Brien, J. H.). Duplication of evoked potential waveform by probability of spike firing. Proc. XXIII Int. Cong. Physiol. MerrillI M. Flood in press. 1. Introduction to operations research theory and method. Proceed- ' See Lawrence L. Butcher ings of the Sixth Annual Research Department of Reinhard L. Friede Mental Health, Lansing, Michigan, December, 1963, 1-6. 1. An enzyme histochemical study of torpedoes and dendritic: swell- 2. Synthetic experimental data from stochastic learning models. ings in the cerebellum. Acta Neuropath., 1965, 4, 288-292. MHRIPreprint 134. 2. (With Knoller, M.). Quantitative tests of histochemical methods 3. The systems approach to library planning. Library Q_uart., 1964, for phosphomonoesterases. Histochem. Cytochem., 1965, 13, 34, 326-338. 125-132. 4. (With Leon, A.). A universal adaptive code for oplimiatizon 3. (With Knoller, M.). A quantitative mapping of acid phosphatase (GROPE). Space Sciences Laboratory, University of in the brain of the rhesus monkey. /. Neurochem., 1965, 12, Berkeley, November, 1964. 441-450. 72

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Mohr-Siebeck,

California,

Science,

Smith,

Science, O'Brien,

Studies,

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California,

73 4. (With Vossler, A. E.). Histochemistry of the glycogen body of the 3. Total information systems in planning and alerting. In Some turkey spinal cord. Histochemie, 1964, 4, 330-335. problems in information science. New York: Scarecrow Press, 1965. Pp. 25-40. John W. Gyr 4. Toward information system science. In Some problems in infor- 1. (With Brown, J. S., and Willey, R.). Computer simulation and mation science. New York: Scarecrow Press, 1965. Pp. 41-46. 143. psychological theories of perception. MHRI Preprint 5. Preliminary operational analysis of a computer-based, on-demand, C, Brown, of 2. (With Cafagna, A. and J. S.). Computer simulation document retrieval system using coordinate indexing. In Some three models of cognitive behavior. MHRI Preprint 131. i problems in information science. New York: Scarecrow Press, 3. (With Brown, J. S., Willey, R., and Zivian, A.). Computer simula- 1965. Pp. 47-60. No. 2, tion and psychological theories of perception. Report 6. (With Uhr, L.). A model for the process of learning to compre- Project for Development of Language Functions, University of hend. In Some problems in science. New York: 1965. information Michigan Center for Human Growth and Development, Scarecrow Press, 1965. Pp. 94-104. 4. (With Brown, J. S., Willey, R., and Zivian, A.). Computer simu- Bohnert, G.). The automated multilevel encyclopedia as Bull., 7. (With H. lation and psychological theories of perception. Psych. a mode of scientific communication. In Some problems in infor- in press. motion science. New York: Scarecrow Press, 1965. Pp. 156-160. Amiya Hajra 8. Review of f. Becker and R. M. Hayes, Information storage and retrieval', 1964, 52, 1. (With Radin, N. S.). Cerebroside galactosidase of pig brain. Fed. New York: Wiley, 1963; in Proc. lEEE, 990. Proc, 1965, 24, 360. Krystyna Kopaczyk 2. (With U. 8., and Agranoff, B. W.). Labeling of mitochon- 1. (With Ratlin, N. S.). In vivo conversions of cerebroside and 3a 32 ATP. drial phosphatidyl inositol phosphate by P, and by [y ] ceramide in rat brain. J. Lipid Res., 1965, 6, 140-145. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., in press. Sylvan Kornblum Thomas Hayden 1. Response competition and/or inhibition in two-choice reaction See Marc Pilisuk time. Psychon. 1965, 2, 55-56. William J. Horvath See Bertram Peretz 1. A mathematicalmodel of participation in small group discussions. Madelon Krissoff Behav. 1965, 10, 164-166. See WilliamR. Uttal j; 2. The systems approach to the national health problem. MHRI Preprint 138. Alberto Leon See Merrill M. Flood Yasuo Kishimoto William P. Livant 1. (With Radin, N. S.). A reaction tube for methanolysis; instability of hydrogen chloride in methanol. J. Lipid Res., 1965, 6, 435- See Anatol Rapoport 436. James V. McConnell 1. Worms and things. Worm Runner's Digest, 1964, VI(2), 1-2, 82-86. Paul D. Klinger 2. Memories, molecules and minds. Sandorama, 1964, March, 16-17. 1. (With Agranoff, B. W.). Puromycin effect on memory fixation in Reprinted in The physician's panorama, 1965, 3, 4-6; Harvard the goldfish. 1964, 146, 952. Revieiu, April, 1965. See RogerE. Davis j 3. Worms and things. Worm Runner's Digest, 1965, VII(l), 1-8, Mechthilde Knoller 56-57. 4. Editor, The worm re-turns: the best the Worm Runner's See Reinhard L. Friede and Anatol Rapoport from Digest. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1965. Manfred Kochen 5. Editor, A manual of psychological experimentation cm planarians. 1. Editor, Some problems in information science. New York: Scare- Worm Runner's Digest, May, 1965. j. crow Press, 1965. j 6. chemicals, & contiguity. J. Animal Behavior, in press. 2. An adaptive system for directly recording and retrieving informa- 7. Comparative physiology: learning in invertebrates. Annual Rev. tion in single, English-like sentences. In Some problems Physiol., in press. in information science. New York: Scarecrow Press, 1965. Pp- 8. The modern search for the engram, "n+m." Mannheim: C. F. -14-24. Boehringer & Soehne in press.

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Science,

Cannibals,

formal,

GmbH, Richard L. Meier 2. (With Kornblum, S.). A rapid flexible parallel-access heca-bit read- 1. Developmentplanning. New York: 1965. ing and storing scheme. Medical Electronics irßiological Engi- 2. (With Doyle, J. P.). Simulation of the concept of community in neering,in press. ecological systems: the moose-beaver-wolf-environment system Gary L. Petzold of Isle Royale. MHRI Report No. 16. I. (With Agranoff, B. W.). Studies on the formation of CDP-diglycer- 3. Information input overload: features of growth in communica- ide. Fed. Proc, 1965, 24, 476. tions-oriented institutions. In F. Massarik (Ed.), Mathematical Homewood, Richard D. approaches lo behavioral science. 111.: Marc Pilisuk Inc., Press, Irwin, and Dorsey 1965. Pp. 82-93. 1. (With Hayden, T.). ls there a military industrial complex which resource 4. Regional development studies IV; proposals for human prevents peace? Consensus and countervailing in Conservation, School power plural- development in the Detroit area. Dept. ol istic MHRIPreprint 144. Michigan, Ann Arbor, systems. of Natural Resources, University of 2. An introduction to behavioral science for the clinical worker in November, Michigan, 1964. mental health. MHRIPreprint 151. 5. Science and economic development. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. 3. (With Winter, J. A., Chapman, R., and Haas, N.). Honesty, deceit, Press, in press, (paperback). and timing in the display of intentions. MHRI Preprint 153. 2, 35-37. 6. The innovatingmetropolis. Trans-action, 1965, 4. (With Potter, P., Rapoport, A., and Winter, J.). War-hawks and MHRI 7. Varieties of organization for developmental panning. peace-doves: alternate resolutions to experimental conflicts. /. Preprint 142. Conflict Resolution, in press. 5. Protest and policy: the battle for self-respect in the war on poverty. James G. Miller The Correspondent, in press. In R. W. 1. Psychological aspects of communication overloads. 6. The first teach-in: an insight into professional activism. The psychiatry Waggoner and D. ). Carek (Eels.), International Correspondent, in press. clinics: communication in clinical practice. Boston: Little, 7. Halcones guerreros y palomas pacificas: algunos resultados de Brown, 1964. Pp. 201-224. nuestros experimentos. Papers the IX Inter-American Con- on ill- of 2. Psychiatric research. In Proceedings of Congress mental gress Psychology, in press. 1964. of ness and health. Detroit: Michigan State Medical Society, 8. Conciliation and defection in a disarmamentgame. Acta Psycholo- Pp. 3-6. gica, Proceedings of the XXVII International Congress of Psy- re- 3. A theoretical review of individual and group psychological cology, Vol. 23, 1964. actions to stress. In G. H. H. Wethsler, and M. Green- blatt (Eds.), The threat of impending disaster. Cambridge: !rwin Pollack M.I.T. Press, 1965. Pp. 1 1-33. 1. Ohm's Acoustical Law and short-termauditory memory. /. Acoust. 4. Flic dynamics of information adjustment processes. In J. Masser- Soc Amer., 1964, 36, 2340-2345. man (Ed.), Science and psychoanalysis, Vol. VIII. New York: 2. (With Madans, A. B.). On the performance of a combination of Grime and Stratum, 1965. Pp. 38-48. detectors. Human Factors, 1964, 6, 523-531. 5. Medical and social aspects of anxiety. ./. Neuropsychiatry, 1964, 3. (With Norman, D. A.). A non-parametric analysis of recognition 5, 7, 389-395, 423-427. experiments. Psychon. 1964, 1, 125-126. 6. Living systems: basic concepts. Behav. Science, 1965, 10, 3, 193- 4. (With Norman, D. A., and E.). An efficient non-parame- -237. tric analysis of recognition memory experiments. Psychon. 7. Living systems: structure and process. Behav. 1965, 10, 1964, 1, 327-328. 4, 337-379. 8. Living systems: cross-level hypotheses. Behav. 1965, 10, John C. Pollard 4,380-411. 1. (With Uhr, 1.., and E.). Drugs and phantasy: the effects of hallucinogenic drugs on normal college students. Boston: James O'Brien Little, Brown, in press. See Stephen S. Fox :i Gorman S. Radin Bertram Peretz 1. Cerebroside. In R. J. Williams and E. M. Jr. (Eds.), 1. A modulator for discrete trains of pulses. Electroenceph. &" Encyclopedia of biochemistry. New York: Reinhold Publishing Clinical Neurophysiol, 1965, 18, 508-510. Co., in press.

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Sci., Galanter, Sci., Science,

Science, Stem,

Lansford, 2. The hydroxy fatty acids: isolation, structure determination, quan- 8. Review of S. I. Hayakawa, Symbol, status, and personality, New titation. /. Am. Oil Chemists' 1965, 42, 569-580. York: Harcourt, Brace, & World, Inc., 1963; in 1964, 21, See Amiya K. Hajra, Yasuo Kishimoto, and Krystyna Kopaczyk 4, 486-495. 9. (With A. M., in collaboration with C. J.). Amnon Rapoport Prisoner's dilemma: a study in conflict and cooperation. Ann 1. (With Messick, D. M.). Computer-controlled experiments in psy- Arbor: Universityof Michigan Press, 1965. chology. Behav. 1964, 9, 378-382. 10. Comments on the symbol symposium. In J. R. Royce (Ed.), Psy- 2. (With Messick, D. M.). A comparison of two payoff functions on j chology and the symbol: an interdisciplinary symposium. New multiple-choice decision behavior. J. Exp. Psychol., 1965, 69, York: Random House, 1965. Pp. 95-105. 75-83. 11. Game theory and human conflict. In E. B. McNeil (Ed), The 3. Sequential decision-making in a computer-controlled task. /. nature of human conflict. Englewood N.J.: Prentice- Math. Psychol., 1964, 1, 351-374. Hall, 1965. Part 3, Pp. 195-226. 4. (With Messick, D. M.). Expected value and response uncertainty 12. Game theory and intergroup hostility. In M. Berkowitz and P. in multiple-choice decision behavior. /. Exp. Psychol., in press. B. Bock (Eds.), American national security: a reader in theory 5. Estimation of continuous subjective probability distribution in a and practice. New York: Free Press, 1965. Part 4, pp. 368-375. sequential decisiontask. Human Factors, in press. 13. The impact of cybernetics on the philosophy of biology. In N. 6. A study of human control in a stochastic multistage decision task. Wiener and J. P. Shade (Eds.), Progress in biocybernetics. Behav. in press. Vol. 2. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing 1965. Pp. 141-156. 14. (With Pilisuk, M.). A non-zero-sum gamemodel of some disarma- Anatol Rapoport ment problems. In W. Izard (Ed.), Papers I: Chicago Con- 1. The scientific relevance of C. Wright Mills. In I. Horowitz (Ed.), ference 1963. Philadelphia: Peace Research Society, Univer- The nexu sociology: essays in social science and social theory sity of Pennsylvania, 1965. Pp. 57-78. (Same as MHRI Pre- in honor of C. Wright Mills. New York: Oxford University print 124.) Press, 1964, Ch. 6, 94-107. Paperback reprint, Galaxy Books 15. What is information? In O. Lerbinger and A. J. Sullivan (Eds.), 148, 1965. Information, influence, and communication: the theory and 2. (With Knoller, M.). Translation of Leo Szilard, On the decrease of practice of public relations. New York: Basic Books, 1965. entropy in a thermodynamic system by the intervention of in- Pp. 225-239. telligent beings (from the original article, "Über die Entropie- 16. Norbert Wiener as the prophet of a revolution. /. Nervous and verminderung in einem thermodynamischenSystem bei Eingrif- Mental Disease, 1965, 140, 1, 8-9. fen intelligenter Wesen." Zeitschrift fur Physik, 1929, 53, 840- 17. Critique of Herman Kahn, On escalation: metaphors and scen- 856). Behav. 1964, 9, 4, 301-310. arios. New York: Praeger, 1965; in Virginia Quarterly Review, of a proposed theory by H. A. Mandelsohn. In M. 1965, 41, 3, 370-389. 3. Critique i: Blumenthal (Ed.), The Denver Symposium on Communiclions 18. Review of Norbert Wiener, God and Inc.: A comment Research for Safety. Chicago: National Safety 1964. on certain points where cybernetics impinges on religion, Pp. 159, 169-171, 195-196, 218-231. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1964; in Bulletin of the 4. Can science unite East and West? 1964, 47. (Also avail- Atomic May, 1965. Pp. 39-40. able in mimeo as, "The interests of American and Soviet 19. Review of Committee on Social Issues, Psychiatric aspects of science"). the prevention of nuclear war, New York: Group for Advance- 5. (With Livaut, W. P., Boyd, J., Kramer, F., and Roosen-Rungc, P- ment of Psychiatry. Report 57, Vol. 5; in Frontier, 1965, 16, H.). Studies in behavioral aspects of grammar and semantics. 5, 19-20. Technical Documentary Report, RADC. Prepared under Con- 20. Net theory as a tool in the study of gross properties of nervous tract No. AF 30 (602)-3042, MHRI, University of Michigan, systems. Perspectives in Biol, and Med., 1965, 9, 142-164. (Same Ann Arbor, March, 1964. as MHRI Preprint 171) 6. Review of E. Feigenbaum and J. Feldman, Computers and thought, Nicolas Rashevsky 1964, New York: 1963; in Management 1. Some remarks on Rosen's quantum-mechanical approach to gene- 7, 1, 203-210. tive studies. New York: Free Press, 1965 [International Yearbook 7. Review of Bernard B. Conflict and conformity,Cambridge, 2. Mathematical biology of automobile driving: I. The shape of 1964, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1963; in Contemporary Psychology, the tracking curve on an empty straight road. Bull. Math. Bio- 9, 7, 273-276. physics, 1964,26, 327-332. 78 I I

Soc, ETC., Chammah, Orwant,

Science,

Cliffs,

Science, Co.,

Science,

Golem, Council,

Current, Scientists,

McGraw-Hill, Science,

Cohen,

79 Paul G. 3. Some possible quantitative aspects of a neurophysiological model Shinkman 1. Dugesia of schizophrenias. Bull. Math. Biophysics, 1965, 27, 21-26. (With Hertzler, D. R.). Maze alternation in the planarian, 4. Models and mathematical principles in biology. In T. H. Water- tigrinia. Psychon. 1964, 1, 407-408. (With Kornblith, C. L.). Comment on observer bias in classical man and H. Y. Morowitz (Eds.), Theoretical and mathematical 2. biology. New York: Blaisdell, 1965. Pp. 36-54. conditioning of the planarian. Psychol. Reports, t965, 16, 56. Vernon, M.). planarians. 5. On imitativebehavior. Bull. Math. Biophysics, 1965, 27, 175-185. 3. (With L. An apparatus for injecting and Motor 1965,20, 6. A note on the cybernetics of segregation. Bull. Math. Biophysics, Perceptual 726-728. in press. J- David Singer of biological in terms of the ' 7. The representation phenomena 1. (With Hinomoto, H.). Some calculations on the selection of in- Bull. Math. Biophysics, in press. theory of predicates. spection MHRIPreprint 139. sociology: cybernetics of segregation. systems. 8. Some cybernetic aspects of Data-making in international relations. Behav. 1965, 10, (Eds.), Progress in biocybeme- 2. In N. Wiener and J. P. Schade 68-80. tics, Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Co., 1965. Pp. 186- Vol. 2. 3. Soviet and American foreign policy attitudes: a content analysis 199. of elite articulations. Resolution, 1964, 8, 424-485. note imitative behavior. Bull. Math. Biophysics, 1965, 27, ./. Conflict 9. A on 4. The political science of human conflict. In E. McNeil (Ed.), The 305-310. nature of human conflict. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965. Walter R. Reitman Cosmopolitan attitudes and international relations courses: some 1. (With Dill, W. R., and Hilton, T. L.). Kei Ei Sha E No Zyo Ken 5. tentativecorrelations. Politics, in (Japanese translation of The New Managers). Tokyo: Toyo J. press. Editor, Empirical theory in international relations: ten Keizai Shin Po 1965. 6. quantitative studies. New York: Free Press, 1965 [InternationalYearbook 2. Argus: an information-processing model of thinking. Behav. 1964, 9, 270-281. of Political Behavior Research, Heinz Eulau, General Editor]. 7. Review of David Lilienthal, Change, hope and the bomb, Prince- 3. Cognition and thought: an processing approach- information ton, Princeton Univ. Press, 1963: in Amer. 1964, New York: Wiley, 1965. N.J.: J. 70, 2, 249-250. Rock, A Leroy N. Rieselbach 8. Review of Vincent strategy of interdependence, New 1964; I, See Karl W. Deutsch York: in Amer. Polit. Sci. Rev., 1965, 59, 220-221. Peter H. Roosen-Runge 9. Data-making in international relations. Behav. 1965, 10, See Anatol Rapoport 68-80. 10. (With M.). Alliance aggregation and the onset of war, Richard J. Santen 1815-1945. In J. D. Singer (Ed.), Empirical theory in inter- See Gary A. Davis national relations. New York: Free Press, 1965. (Same as ■k MHRI Preprint 156) Konstantin Scharenberg 11. (With M.): Formal alliances, 1815-1940: a quantitative 1. (With Liss, L.). The histologic structure of the human pineal description. J. Peine Research, in press. (Same as MHRI Pre- body. Progress in brain research, 1965, 10, 194-217. print 155) 12. (With Small, M.). The composition and status ordering of the Ulrich B. Seiffert international system, 1815-1960. MHRI Preprint 158. 1. (With Agranoff, 11. W.). Isolation and separation of inositol phos- 13. (With Small, M., and Kraft, G.). The frequency, magnitude, and phates from hydrolysates of rat tissues. Biochem. et Biophys. severity of international war, 1815-1945. MHRI Preprint 159. Acta., 1965, 90, 574. 14. Editor, Human behavior in international politics: contributions See Amiya K. Hajra from the social-psychologicalsciences. Chicago: Rand-McNally. 1965. Siegel L. See Karl W. Deutsch 1. (With Foote, J. L., and M. J.). The enzymatic synthesis of from d-biotinyl 5 - propionyl Coenzyme A holocarboxylase Melvin Small and the Azocarboxylase. Biol. 1965, 240, adenylate J. See David Singer 1025. J. 81 80

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Chem., Keith Smith 5. (With Newman, C). Discovery procedures for game playing pro- 1. Some on-line uses of computers in the behavioral sciences. MHRI grams. Proc. 20th Annual Meeting of the Assoc. Comp. Mach., 1965. Preprint 161. See Manfred Kochen and John C. Pollard See Karl W. Deutsch William R. Uttal Volney Stefflre 1. Do compound evoked potentials reflect psychological codes? Psy- 1. (With Lantz, D. L.). Language and cognition revisited. J. Abnor. chol. Bull., in press. Soc. Psychol., 1964,69, 472-481. 2. Oscillations in the amplitude of human peripheral nerve action 2. Simulation of people's behavior toward new objects and events. potentials during repetitive stimulation. Kybernetik, in press. Am. Behav. Scientist, 1965, 8, 9, 12-15. 3. On relations between men and machines. Proc. Engineering Sum- mer Conference on Computers in Real Time. Univ. of Michi- William D. Suomi gan College of Engineering, 1964. 1. (With Agranoff, B. W.). Lipids of the spleen in Gaucher's disease. 4. (With Krissott, M.). The effect of stimulus pattern on temporal ].Lipid Res., 1965,6, 211. acuity in the somatosensory system. J. Exper. Psychol., in press. Sadayuki F. Takagi Albert E. Vossler 1. Electrical responses to odours of degeneratingolfactoryepithelium. See Reinhard L. Friede Nature, 1964, 202, 1220. Richmond Willey Centrifugal regulation of olfactory activity as studied by 2. bulb See W. Gyr stimulation of the amygdala and the anterior limb of the anter- John ior commissure. Jap. J. Physiol., 1964, 615-629. J. Alan Winter 3. The effect of clectrotonus on the olfactory epithelium. J. Gen. See Marc Pilisuk Physiol., 1964, 48, 323-335. R. Zivian 4. Electrical activity and histological change of the degenerating Arthur See W. olfactory epithelium. ]. Gen. Physiol., 48, 559-569. John Gyr 5. lonic mechanisms of olfactory receptor potentials. Proc. XXIII Int. Congr. Physiol. in press.

Ronald S. Tikofsky 1. A comparison of the intelligibility of esophageal and normal speakers. Folia Phoniatrica, 1965, 17, 19-32. 2. (With Tikofsky, R. P.). Intelligibility of dysarthric speech. J- Speech Hear. Research, 1965, 7, 325-333. 3. Approaches to the study of aphasia in adults. In R. W. Rieber and R. S. Brubaker (Eds.), Speech pathology. Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Co., in press. Leonard Uhr 1. The compilation of natural language text into teaching machine programs. Fall Joint Computer Conference AFIPS Conf. 1964, 26, 35-44. 2. Editor, Pattern recognition. New York: John Wiley & Sons, in press. 3. (With Ingram, G). Language learning, continuous pattern recognition, and class formation. Proc. of IFIP Congress, 1965, in press. 4. Pattern recognition. In A. Kent and O. Taulbee (Eds.), Electronic information handling. Washington, D.C.: Spartan Press, 1965; and in L. Uhr (Ed.), Pattern recognition. New York: WileV' in press. 82

Sci.,

Proc,

i* MENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Advisory Committee

Raymond W. Waggoner, M.D.. Sci)., Chairman of the Department of Psychia- try: Director of the Neuropsychiatric Professor of Psychiatry, Chairman Robert C. Angell, Ph.D., Director of the Center for Research on Conflict Resoln Professor of Sociology William Haber, Ph.D.. Dean of the College of Literature, Science, and the Arts; Professor of Economics Wit liam N. Hubbard, |k.. Ml)., Dean of the Medical School; Professor of Internal Medicine Ri in VI. M.D.. Professor of Surgery Cordon E. Peterson, Ph.D., Director of the Communication Sciences Laboratory; Professor of Communications Sciences; Professor of Electrical Engineering Stephen H. Spurr, Ph.D.. Dean of the Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate

Myron E. Wecman, Ml).. M.P.H., Dean of the School of Public Pro lessor Public Health

The MHRI Library Executive Committee (amis G. Miller, Chairman RICHARD L. MEIER, Ph.D.. Research Social Associate Professor of Con Ri imi \rd L. I'riiDi William P. Livant servation John W. Gi r William Uttai Surendra I'armar, Visiting Scientist William J. Horvath, ex officio Irwin Poi.i.vck. Research Psychologist; Professor of Psychology John C. Pollard, Ml).. Research Psychiatrist; Assistant Professor of Psychiatry Norman S. Radin. Ph.D.. Research Director of Training, Mental Academic Staff Health Research Institute (Full I ime and Part Time) Nicolas Rashevsky, Research Mathematical Biologist; Professor of Mathe- matical Biology Merrill M. Flood, Senior Research Mathematician; Professor of Indus- Walter R. Ph.D.. Research Psychologist; Professor of Psychology trial Engineering; Professor of Mathematical Biology in the Department of J, David Singer, Research Political Associate Professor of Poli Psychiatry tical Science Ralph \V. Gerard, M.D.. M.l).(he), 1.it1.1).. Senior Consulting I 1.. Kin ii Smith, 1'h.1).. Research Psychologist; Professor of Psychology Director of Special Studies and Professor of Biological Sciences. "Sadayuki Takagi, M.D., Ph.D.. Visiting Research Scientist University of Irvine LEONARD Uiir. Research Psychologist; Associate Professor of Psychology James G. MnxER, M.D., Ph.D., Senior Research Psychiatrist; Director. Mental William R. UttAL, Ph.D.. Research Psychologist; Associate Professor of Psychol Health Research Institute; Professor of Psychiatry and Psychology ogy Anatol Rapoport, Ph.D., Senior Research Mathematician; Professor of Mathe- *-" I.i.sni GLENN, S.T.D., Consultant in Mental Health and Religion matical Biology Konstanin Scharenberg, M.D.. Professor Emeritus of Neuropathology Ryßi W. Senioi Research Consultant in Political Monica D. Blumenthal, Associate Research Clinical Biochemist Hans yon Braiciii rscii. Associate Bernard W. Agranoff, M.D., Research Associate Professor of Bio logical Chemistry "Anifj. H. Associate Research Psychologist; Assistant Professor Friede, M.D., of Psychology "Reinhard L. Research Neuromorphologist; Associate Professor Margaret Clay, Psychologist: Psychol- of Pathology L. Associate Research Lecturer in WILLIAM HORVATH, Ph.D.. Research Physicist; Assistant Director J. v-axton C. Foster, M.S., Associate Research System Physicist Kochen, Manfred W. Research Mathematical Biologist; Associate Pro STEPHEN s. Associate Research Psychobiologist; Assistant Professor of lessor of Mathematical Biology Psychology JAMES V. Ph.D., Research Psychologist; Professor of Psychology John VV. Gyr, Ph.D.. Associate Research Psychologist; Lecturer in Psychology

longer * No al the Institute in "/ June 1965 fro longer al the Institute as oj lane 10, 196} 84

Institute;

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Studies Health; of

Scientist;

Ph.D., Ph.D.,

Biochemist;

Ph.D.,

Ph.D., REITMAN, Ph.D., Scientist;

Ph.D., Sell., LL.D., Scientist; California, Ph.D.,

M.E., D.D., Consultant; Deutsch, Ph.D., Science M.D., Ph.D., M.D., Biochemist; Carson, Ph.D.,

Ph.D.,

Ph.D., Fox, Ph.D., McConnell,

30,

85 Philip Dale, 8.5., Yasuo Ph.D., Associate Research Biochemist Research Assistant Gary Sylvan Ph.D., Associate Research Psychologist A. 8.A., Research Assistant 8.A., William P. Levant, Ph.D., Associate Research Psychologist Frederick C. Research Assistant 8.A., Bertram If.ret/, M.S., Associate Research Engineer Carol Fleisher, Research Assistant Marc: Associate Research Social Psychologist; Assistant Professor *LaDona M. Fleming, Research Assistant of Psychology, School of Nursing; Lecturer in Psychology Joseph Harding, 8.A., Research Assistant Roger Uros M.D., Associate Research Neuropathologist Howard, Research Assistant Assistant Ronald S. Tikofsky, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Speech Robert C. M.A., Research David Albert, Ph.D., Assistant Research Psychologist Paul 8.A., Research Assistant Tibor Assistant Research Psychiatrist *Neii. M. 8.A., Research Assistant Ph.D., Assistant Research Biochemist Madelon 8.A., Research Assistant John J. Fred I.F.wriT, 8.A., Research Assistant John T. Assistant Research Psychologist Albert M. M.S., Assistant Research Communication Scientist Alberto M.5.E.(1.E.), Research Assistant William E. Assistant Research Biochemist "Gerald Levitt, M.S., Research Assistant Roger E. Ph.D., Assistant Research Zoologist "Marvin Lickey, A.8., Research Assistant W. Barrett Denton, Ph.D., Assistant Research Psychologist Michael Locker, 8.A., Research Assistant "Roger "Hugh Dingle, Assistant Research Zoologist 8.A., Research Assistant ♦Clinton F. Ph.D., Assistant Research Social Psychologist; Postdoctoral "Gersiiom C. Morningstar, M.A., Research Assistant Fellow Abbe Research Assistant J. Lindsley Foote, Ph.D., Assistant Research Biochemist; Instructor in Biological Charles 8.5., Research Assistant Chemistry James H. 8.A., Research Assistant Gary Amiya Hajra, Ph.D., Assistant Research Biochemist 8.A., Research Assistant Robert F. Ph.D., Assistant Research Psychologist Arthur Poskocil, 8.5., Research Assistant Hwa-Sung Assistant Research Mathematician Paul Ray, 8.A.. Research Assistant "Amnon Rapoport, Assistant Research Psychologist Peter 8.5., Research Assistant "Leroy N. Assistant Research Political Scientist; Postdoc- "Raymond M.A., Research Assistant toral Fellow Stewart M.A., Research Assistant t'l.Ricn Assistant Research Biochemist Peter Roosen-Runge, Research Assistant Paul Ph.D., Assistant Research Psychobiologist; Postdoctoral Fellow Harold 8.5., Research Assistant Voi.ney Assistant Research Social Psychologist Gloria Sampson, 8.A., Research Assistant Renata Tagliaco/./o, D.Nat.Sci., Assistant Research Scientist; Librarian Richard M.S., Research Assistant Martha Wa.jda, Assistant Research Biochemist Eduardo N. Siguel, Research Assistant "KrystynaKopaczyk, Ph.D., Postdoctoral Fellow Norman F. Research Assistant Weigher van Instructor in Psychiatry Mei.vin Research Assistant George W. Research Associate "Robert 8.A., Research Assistant J,Kirby Marcia Fiingoli), M.A., Research Associate 8.A., Research Assistant Wfn-Chao Research Associate Yvonne Research Assistant Sally ♦Millicent Johnstone, 8.5., Research Associate Wacker, Research Assistant Conrad Juchartz, 8.5.(E.E.), Research Associate Richmond Willey, M.A., Research Assistant "Mechthilde Dipl. Med. Tech., Research Associate Arthur M.S., Research Assistant "Barbara Research Associate Joan W. A.8., Assistant Editor Wholly Supported by Other Units Constance M.A., Librarian George D. M.A., Research Assistant tPAui, M. Fins, Ph.D., Senior Research Psychologist; Professor of Psychology Fred Research Assistant Stanford C. Ph.D., Research Psychologist; for Research John P. Boyd, M.A., Research Assistant on Learning and Teaching; Professor of Psychology John S. A.8., Research Assistant Alexander P. Dukay, M.D., Research Psychiatrist: Clinical Director and Assistant Medical Superintendent, Ypsilanti State Hospital Lawrence L. Research Assistant Sidney Richard 8.A., Research Assistant Cobb, M.D., Research Epidemiologist; Program Director, Survey Research Robert Research Assistant Center; Lecturer in Epidemiology, School of Public Health Ronald M.A., Research Assistant Reuben Chapman, 8.A., Research Assistant Nolonger at the Institute as of June 30, 1965 tDeceased * \o longer at the Institute as of June30, 1965 86

Kishimoto, Davis, Kornblum, Fensch,

Pilisuk, Ph.D., M.S.,

Roessmann, 8.A., Associate; Hulse, Isaac, Be/.fridi, M.D., Kettlewell, Brink, Krissoff, Burns, M.A., Chammah, Leon, Davifs, Ph.D., Davis,

Ph.D., Manei.a, Fink, Mowshowitz, 8.5., Newman, O'Brien, Pet/old, House, Na, Ph.D., Ph.D., Reich, Rieselbach, Ph.D., Reitf.r, Robinovit/., Seifffrt, M.D., 8.A., Shinkman, Salive, Steffi.rf, M.A., Sauvain, Ph.D., M.S., Simenson, 8.5., Houten, M.D., Small, M.A., Brooks, M.P.H., Solomon, Thomas, Hsieh, M.A., 'Formes, 8.A., Ed.M.,

Knoller, Zivian, Lamm, 8.A., Barth, Williams, Allen, Ai.tman, 8.A., Ericksen, Director, Center

Brown, Butcher, 8.A., Cabot, Carter, M.S., Cassfi.l,

87 Administrative, Clerical and Secretarial, Technical and 11/e Vaivods ADMINISTRATIVE Martin I. Pastor Geraldine VanderMolen STAFF 'Sandra Swinehart Supporting Research Staff Kenneth Vourd Evelyn Kay Vaughn Constanline P. Ballas (Full Time and Part Time) Angelinc Wilson Ruth P. Engelhert "Martha Wood *Mary E. Moebius TECHNICAL Ronald Piggott *Kaye Aprill RESEARCH STAFF Walter Piwonski Loretta Baker Bud E. I'ratt *Brenda Berger William. Ash *Charles Pugh *Morna Bevier Schizophrenia and Psychopharmacology Research Project Shipra Basil Michael Ransom 'Pamela Blair y ,)avid dri llez Brooks Staff -l n R° R Penelope Academic In r" 'Bonnie Roeher Margaret Cabot Larkini i" Bn n t l Carrigan, Ph.D., Ji. «Ric hard Santen 'Kathleen Cardini tl'ATßictA M. Assistant Research Psychologist 'Howard Berland W. M.D., Ph.D., »Richard Sari Ramotia Cussigh fRALPH M.D.(he), Principal Investigator Gordon X.Brown I. *Peter Sarasohn Nancy Dejohn fF.iRA Associate Research Psychologist Buckley Carolyn Seidl 'Ann Desautels THelen B. Frit/, M.A., Assistant Research Sociologist Burcri John Jessie M. Shelby * Jane Durham 'Amar S. Chalnl cl . , ,-,. v „„„, Hospital Research ...SU Shl Shl ehls:l. Engel Ypsilanti State Personnel S,.i Yimr Chanu S 'Judith ,B 'Robert>° Sims Patricia Ferguson A a "TAn ' fVicTOR W. M.D., Clinical Director !« fu° Ri^ard Small Marjory Green tRoBERT A. Moore, M.D., Clinical Director of Research and Training; Assistant Ej Robert Smith »Mary Elaine Hannewald 'Marcia" Dickmann , *„, „, .. ... „ Professor of Psychiatry _. , Charles. Stallman 'Yvonne' Hayes "Karen Doehrman tAi.EXANDER P. Dukay, M.D., Research Psychiatrist; Clinical Director and Assist- wmiam () „onna Ha "Steve Doehrman ant Medical Superintendent ., llvc„al 'Anne Harrison IGforge Torres Brow ynsky, Resident Stall Member J3 16 """"", 'Philip Yon Bretzcl Bonnalyn Heck " Fensch tJoHN Oi.ariu, Resident Staff Member Gerald "Albert E. Vosslcr Christine Kambas na PPO ir H 'Johanna Wirbel Patty Katona Nonacademic Staff in Charlotte Wolter 'F.dna Kelly *n hi ■ ane Worman 'Sandra Koemke fLncy Watkins tNorman Starr Kelly v'l H *J f-Edna "Ned Haas Rudolph F. Wucherer Helen Konapck S Har cll Kir/niar !r*"Merrily Hartu Paul Voder Nancy * No longer at the Institute as of June 30, 1961 Lawrence Zee Sharon Lane Peter Henig t No longerat Project as of June 30, 1965 'Barbara Humphries Lemen supporting Barbara Ludwig 1 nomas jennett RESEARCH STAFF _Eleanor Marshall Carol Kornbhth . , „ Linda. Marshall...... Laskey. »'Edwardr i i Berger .. Mane , „ Norlene. Martin... "Larry Le.tch...... 'Kenneth Bryant ,shaion M(En(la,fer Barbara C. Liang I ula Fortson .Ka.hryn Miller "Frederick Ludwig Nancy Mills Patricia MacKay I'aul Klinger „ . ' .... . * V, Barbara Milstcn 'Davidj»rMagaw Scott. .. .1 , _,," MacKay 'Sandra Moore Judy Mahaffy *n i- A. i *Reodi Mabon 'Barbara„,, , Mull.. Frank' - Masiarcz. ' Davis... M. Miller...... it wn ij i c i ...Norma Murphy Carol L. Miller Helen Sebree ...* , ..... „ ' t Mallcy 'Mary a »»n i .. 'Carol ; Ann Miller Everett, L. Wilson Barbara, „ . „,..,I homas Miyata... . 4I D. ,.,Wilson „ , „ Peters ..,,,'* ' 'John . Linda Morlcv Carol „ ,■ Diane Ray George Mpitsos»» " ' CLERICAL...... AND . , R -r,. nlond James L. Mullison Joseph Musser MarlysM^l^Schutjer Carol Nash Claire Adler 'Lorraine Suter "Barbara Otto 'Patricia Alexander Carolyle Towers * No longer at the Institute as of June 30, 1965 88

Breed, Gerard, Sc.D., Mattson, M.Ph., Scott

» Kershul,

M.D., M.D.,

.«, ".,-, O " Qiiinnell ,^. r .»,„

STAFF

89 SOURCES OF SUPPORT 1964-1965 .National Science Foundation: Biochemical Correlates of Be- APPROPRIATION havior 23,53(i.81> FROM Subcortical Mechanisms for In- SOURCES hibilion and Facilitation . . . 32,758.71 Psychology of Conflict 18,882.72 $671,000 National Institutes of Health: Research Program in Psycho- Phospholipids of the Nervous acoustics System ■ Psycholinguistic Models in Phenylke- 40.464.11 Psychopathology Some Relations Between Lan- tonuria Helerozygotes and Urohypophysis in Self- guage Nonlingnistic Ihe Behavior Osmoragulation in Teleost Psychophysiological Studies of Fishes Sensory 56,410.83 Computer Simulation of a Class Processes of Cognitive Theories Sensory Motor Anticipation in Advanced Research Projects Choice Reaction Time Agency, Department of Defense: Learning and Retention in Dynamic Computer Models of Amphibians Cognitive Processes Learning and Regeneration in the Planarian Air Force Systems Command: Information Processing in Liv- Kernel Sentence Analysis . . . 634.33 ing Systems American Cancer Society, Inc.: Effects of LSD in Tests of Crea- Polyploid Cell DNA and RNA 357.58 tivity and Tolerance to Re- gression Atomic Energy Commission: Brain Glycolipicls: Metabolism Biological and Psychological and Pathology Effects of Radiation in the Studies in Cooperation and Planarian Conflict in Small Groups Research in Mathematical Behavioral Science Inc.: Biology Effects 2,652.33 Investigation of Brain Tumors Drug with Silver Carbonate Computer Simulations of High- Carnegie Corporation of New York: er Mental Processes Research Program on Interna- Psychophysiological Studies of tional and Conflict Studies . . 10,258.56 Sensory Processes Research on General Systems 1,741.57 Schizophrenia and Psychophar- macology Michigan Memorial-Phoenix Chemical Architecture of the Project: Brain Psychological Commitment to Postdoctoral Research Train- Roles of a Defense-Oriented ing Grant Social System 1.136.92 Biochemical Parameters in Schizophrenia (Career Devel- Michigan State Board opment Award, of Alcoholism: Blumenthal) M. Evaluation of an Alcoholism Supply Grant Learning and Regenerative Group Therapy Program . . (Career Develop- Michigan Upper Peninsula Al- Processes coholism Project 2,124.31 ment Award, J. McConnell) 90

Lit

FROM OTHER SOURCES

STATEOF MICHIGAN FROM OTHER

15,41-1.00

7,031.16

2,158.28

19,018.93

Research,

3,685.87

91 THUS FAR AWARDED FROM Sensory Motor Anticipation in Choice Reaction Time, July Office of Naval Research: 1965 through August 1966 9,718 Biological Behavioral and Sys- Computer Simulation of a Class of tems 4,653.88 Models Cognitive Theories, July 1965 University of Michigan through February 1966 12,948 Preliminary Research: The Urohypophysis in Sclf-Osmor- agulation Fishes, Learning and Regeneration of in Teleost July 1965 through Newts 76.05 October 1985 . '. 1,400 Phospholipids of the Nervous Sys- 'TOTAL 671 TOTAI $ 932,251.80 tem, July 1965 through Decem- ber 1968 FUTURE Psychopathology in Phenylketon- APPROPRIATION uria Heterozygotes (Career De- through August 1966 37,666 FAR AWARDED OTHER SOURCES Psychopathology in Phenylketon- 1965-66 National Institutesof Health: uria Heterozygotes, (Career De- velopment Award, M. Blumen- Psychophysiological Studies of 1965 llial), July 1965 through Decem- Sensoiy July ber through 1967 $ 34,145 1967 April and Computer Simulations of Higher Concept Discrimination Mental July 1965 Learning by Aphasics, July 1965 through September 1965 13,514 through May 1968 83,172 Investigation of Brain Tumors with Silver Carbonate, July 1935 National Science Foundation: 68,002 through January 1968 .. Psychophysiological Studies of Information Processing Study of Sensory July 1965 Scientific Thinking, March 1966 through February 1967 28,933 189,096 through February 1969 Some Relations Between Lan- Research in Mathematical Biol- guage and Non-Linguistic Be- ogy, July 1965 through Decem- havior, July 1965 through Octo- ber J967 92,380 ber 1965 .' 8,352 Studies and Con- in Cooperation A Study of Semantic Space, Janu- flict in Small Groups, July 1965 59,759 ary 1966 through December through August 1960 '. 1966 37,300 Glycolipids: Metabolism Brain Models, and Pathology, July 1965 Psycholinguistic July 1965 through 1966 19,806 through January 1969 358,526 June Molecular Organization and In- Research Program in Psycho- formation Transfer, October acoustics, July 1965 through 1965 through September 1966 . 60,638 August 1966 Postdoctoral Research Training Psychology of July 1965 July 1965 through June through October 1965 12,566 1966 ..' 63,450 Reaction Time Investigation of Information Processing in Living the Process of Decisions in Hu- 1965 mans, October 1965 through Systems, July through r January 1969 533,71 > October 1966 Learning and Retention in Am- Subcortical Mechanisms for In- phibians, July 1965 through De- hibition and Facilitation, July cember 1965 2,100 1965 through September 1965 9,137 Learning and Regenerative Proc- Biochemical Correlates of Behav- esses, July 1965 through Janu- ior, July 1965 through May 1966 22,700 ary 1968 . .' 60,819 92 93

APPROPRIATION OTHERSOURCES FROM STATEOF MICHIGAN

$ ,000 116,945 FOR ACTIVITIES

FROM STATE OF MICHIGAN THUS FROM

$ 800,000

Processes, 42,034

Processes,

41,683 Conflict, Grant,

1,751 APPROPRIATION FROM FAR AWARDED SOURCES Air Force Systems Command: Research on Nervous System Or- ganization from an Information Processing Point of View, July 1965 through July 1967 ...... 56.743 Atomic Energy Commission: Biological and Psychological Ef- fects of Radiation in the Plana- rian, July 1965 through August 1966 26,250 Behavioral Science Inc.: Drug Effects 4,000 Carnegie Corporation of New York: Research Program on Interna- tional and Conflict Studies, July THE FIRST TEN YEARS 1965 through June 1967 ..... 29.624 Michigan Memorial-Phoenix Project: Synthesis of Radioactive Convul- A summary of activities sants, April 1966 through March 1967 4,250 of the Mental Health Research Institute Michigan State Board Alcoholism: from its founding through July, 1965 Evaluation of an Alcoholism Group Therapy Program, July 1965 through July 1967 ...... 26,250 Michigan Upper Peninsula Alco- holism Project, July 1965 through November 1966 .... 17,886 Office of Naval Research; Behavioral and Biological Sys- terns Models, July 1965 through September 1965 2,240 Social Science Research Council: Simulatipns of Cognitive Processes for Research in Programming Languages, September 1965 through August 1966 769 University of Michigan Preliminary Research: Mitochondrial Phospholipids, July 1965 through November I 1965 2,6»» Copper in Wilson's Au- gust 1965 through May 1966.. 2,500 TOTAI | 800,000 TOTAL 43° 94 95

STATE OF MICHIGAN THUS FROM OTHER

Research,

Disease,

f2,19S.

94 1955-1965 our laboratories with animals or with patients. Quantitative methods have been devised 1965 marks the tenth anniversary of the Mental Health for discovering which are most effective and least harmful to AugustResearch Institute. It seems an appropriate time to attempt patients. The Mental Health Research Institute has now conducted many of on an objective stock-taking of the Institute—to review its establishment studies drug effects human behavior. The of and growth, its goals, and its accomplishments. The development of development these new drugs has led to a decrease in total state the Institute since it was established in 1955, its purposes, and the number of hospital psychiatric patients in the United States in each of the last nine years. This is theoretical concejjts on which its research program is based, are the first such deuease in patient numbers in psychiatric history. outlined in the Director's Statement at the beginning of the rejxjit. In This section focuses on the research program itself— the jjrojects that a joint study between the Institute and the clinical units of the De])artmenl of have been carried out by our scientists, and some of the findings Psychiatry, many of ihe characteristics of psychia- that have resulted. Many of these projects could only have been tric outjiatients were coded on IBM cards and a factor analysis was conducted in an interdisciplinary setting such as ours. Some of the made by computer to determine whether jjatient groupings could highlights of the Institute's research program since 1955 follow. be obtained on an objective basis which corresponded to the tradi- The six-year project on schizophrenia and jwychojjharmacology tional diagnostic categories. This provided findings useful in psychiatric diagnosis. was a coojjerative research project of the Institute and Ypsilanti State Hosjfftal. This project investigated the causes of schizophrenia Laboratory exj^eriments have demonstrated certain physiologi- and the characteristics which distinguish schizophrenics from the st" and behavioral changes which occur under fear or anxiety in norma] population, whether these differences are biochemical, so- response to psychological stress. These findings may enable us to ciological, or behavioral. It thereforerepresented a true interdiscipli- discover how to counteract the breakdown that accompanies emo- nary effort. The findings are to be published in a monograph. This tional disturbances and thus keep patients out of hospitals. book will, among other tilings, present the evidence that there are An electronically instrumented intelligence test has been built seven separate subgroups of schizophrenics, show a number of objec- which can be used objectively to diagnose differences between nor- tive ways in which schizophrenics differ from normals, and jrrovide mal and retarded children and adult patients. This device was also u a new diagnostic battery which can be of wide clinical use. -sed in a joint project of the Institute and the Neuropsychiatric More than twenty different drugs for treating senility, schizo- Institute in investigating problem-solving patterns that characterize phrenia, psychotic dejmession, and neurosis have been tested in S( lii/opliienits in different diagnostic: categories. One of the focal interdisciplinary problems being studied by 'he Institute's biologists and psychologists is the relationship between the RNA molecule and the fixation of experience or memory. This problem is fundamental in several respects. First, work on it may yield better understanding of the relation of brain chemistry to behavior, and second, it is an important facet of the general problem of information storage in living systems. Learning situations have been developed for fish and worms which enable the e*]>ei imeiiicT to assess the behavioral effects of various chemicals known to enhance or inhibit the production of RNA. The combined s*ills in biochemistry, psychology, and neurophysiology which are Becessarj to execute such jjrojects make it almost impossible for an effort of this sort to be carried out anywhere except in an interdis- -1 'plinarv program like ours. In a continuing research project, a combination of behavioral a'Hl neurophysiological techniques is being used to study the brain The Menial Health Research Institutt Processes which ate involved in sensory information processing, in 96

97 the control and modification of such inputs, and in the facilitation pies of cooperative and interdejjendent effort involving scientists and inhibition of sensory-motor interaction. trained in several disciplines. Over the past four years a project dealing with the chemical One of the most fruitful unifying concepts in science is the architecture of the brain has made several findings about the distri- description of a process or a series of processes by mathematical equa- bution of various compounds throughout the brain, which may be tions. The development of mathematical models therefore occupies related to the understanding of mentalretardation. We also plan to a central place in the Institute's research program. One particularly carry out detailed studies of the chemical correlates of brain develop- fitting example of this approach can be found in a research project ment as well as of various metabolic diseases of the brain. on nets. A net is simply defined as a large array of nodes with con- Another long-term project in our biochemistry laboratories is nections between them. The network may be composed of nerve cells concerned with the structure and function of lipids, and their role in the brain, of individuals in a family, or of nations associated by in brain structure, development, and disease. The work has included trade relations. Thus, by describing the similar properties of these studies of lipid metabolism in Gaucher's disease and phenylketon- nets mathematically, one can generalize a scientific statement over a uria, two hereditary diseases often associated with mental retarda- wide array of instances. The development of these formal state- tion. ments is clearly a mathematician's task; the application of these Phenylketonuria is another problem which is best investigated statements to particular instances may fall within the province of in an interdisciplinary setting. Not only is this disease being studied neurophysiology, sociology, or economics. Clearly such efforts could from the biochemical point of view, but the fact that it is an in- not even be contemplated in research installations which do not herited disease has led us to investigate entire families of such have the benefits and power of interdisciplinary research. patients by survey methods in an effort to discover other factors Various membersof the staff have had their work acknowledged associatedwith it. by honorary degrees and awards, election to national office in scien- Mathematical learning models are relatively recent develop- tific and professional organizations, lectureships, and other forms ments in behavior theory. Since many of these models involve meas- ofrecognition. There has been an annual increase in the number of ures of rewards or reinforcements which motivate learning, it has research articles and books published by Institute staff members. been difficult to develop experiments to test them. This has been The steady increase in readership of the Institute's official publica- principally because, with every reinforcement that is given to an tion, the journal Behavioral Science, also gives evidence of the organism, the state of the organism is changed because of the satia- spreading interest in the interdisciplinary approach to studies of tion effects of repeated reinforcements. This particular problem behavior. has been solved at the Institute by reinforcing learning in rats by One of the principal advantages of the location of the Institute stimulation in the septal region of the hypothalamus. This project m a university setting is that the staff gain from having graduate is the result of coojieration by a mathematicianand a neurophysiolo- students and postdoctoral students assist them in the research pro- gist. fsTam. Conversely the staff can contribute to the educational activi- The use of computer simulation techniques to gain a better ties of the university. understanding of behavior rests on the following presuppositions: In the past ten years the number of graduate students who an- (a) To the extent that a behavior theory or any subpart of it is pro- mially have found employment at the Institute has grown to more grammed for a digital computer, the statements in the theory must than 30. These students come from a variety of departments, such be made unambiguous before they are accepted by the computer. as psychology, biochemistry, and communication sciences. We also (b) Artificial experiments using the computer to test the theory may tor five years have had a training grant from the National Institute be made in a fraction of the time it would require to do these ex- 01 Mental Health of approximately $65,000 a year. This has en- periments with live animals. The time thus saved enables the scien- abled the Institute to train five postdoctoral fellows yearly, eaclt of tist to refine and change his exploratory statements at a much receives intensive research training in a field other than the more rapid rate than would be possible without the use of com- °ne in which he obtained his degree. In addition, we have had a puters. This technique requires a depth of understanding of be- lumber of other jxistdoctoralfellows. havior, computer technology, and mathematics rarely combined The research opportunities available at the Institute have also e in a single individual. Our simulation projects, therefore, are exam- »couraged medical students at various levels of training and resi- 98

yk 1

99 dents in psychiatry to seek positions here. We now train on the average about two psychiatric residents in addition to a few medical stu- dentseach year. FINDINGS IN THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES The Institute teaches a semester course each year in the De- partment of Psychiatry which is part of the regular program for PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY residents in psychiatry. Various senior staff members have taught Fixation of Experience this course, which is titled Research in Mental Health and which deals with problems, methods, and philosophies of research in the Asymmetric nerve impulses from the cerebellum, if con- behavioral sciences. Courses in other departments of the Univer- tinued" over sufficient time, can cause an enduring change in the sity have been taught by a number of our staff members, some of neurons of the spinal cord which receive the impulses. (Gerard, whom have joint appointments in other departments. Chamberlain,Halich; 1961) The Institute's expansion has depended uj>on yearly increases Bilaterally unequal bombardment of motor centers of the state The Institute began operations in 1955 with an " in the budget. spinal cord in over 60 untreated or saline-injected rats a $175,000 from the mental budget. produced appropriation of state health fixation of postural asymmetry of the hind funds have increased every year, so that the legs in 45 minutes. In Since that time, State 20 rats injected with 8-azaguanine, was minutes. appropriation from the State of Michigan was $671,000. the time 70 In 16 1964-65 injected witli tricyanoaminojjrojjene, it was 30 minutes. (Gerard, received grants from various govern- In addition the Institute has Rothschild, Halick, Buckley, Shelby; 1963) ment granting agencies and foundations interested in furthering basicresearch in mental health. Avoidance Conditioning To summarize our work at the Institute during the first ten years, we have listed below some of the findings from our research " In avoidance-conditioning studies with rats, tricyanoamino- for this period. These statements are necessarily brief. Fuller de- propene decreased mean latency \>zr trial and average number of scriptions of the investigations may be found in publications by our avoidances jjer day, in the second and third days after a single injec- staff members and in previous Annual Reports. At the end of each tion, up to 50 jrer cent against control values. Tricyanoaminopro- finding, the names of the responsible staff scientists and the year of pene and 8-azaguanine seem to have no appreciable effect on maze- the Annual Report in which the original study was described are learning in rats. 8-azaguanine slows [>erformance in an avoidance given in parentheses. task. Tricyanoaminojjropene and 8-azaguanine do not alter one-trial A number of persons who were not members of the Institute conditioning in mice. (Gerard, Rothschild, Chamberlain, Buckley, staff were associated with research {projects here. They are as fol- Halick, Shelby; 1963) lows: Thomas Bittker, of Medical Flor- University Oregon learning ence University of Michigan Speech Clinic; Erwin Roy Chlorpromazine affects and performance of avoidance " where are John, New York Medical College; E. Lowell Kelly, Department of at all stages coordinated movements necessary. It c'oes not reduce the effects of stress or classical conditioning, the Psychology, University of Michigan; Donald R. Korst, Dejrartment procedures Medicine, Wisconsin; Magee. most likely to elicit highly emotional behavior. (Roths- of Internal University of Kenneth R. 'nild, Department of Neurology, University of Michigan; Donald C Mar- Buckley, Shelby; 1962) quis, Sloane School of Industrial Management, Massachusetts Insti- of Taste Preference tute of Technology; Arthur Platz, Veterans Administration Hos- Mechanisms pital, Perry Point, Maryland; James Thatcher, IBM Research Lab- After lithium jjoisoning in rats, the jjreferred input concen- oratories; Charles Vossler, Cor- Cornell Aeronautical Laboratories; tration" of potassium chloride is markedly stronger than pretoxic don Wyse, Department of Zoology, University of Michigan; and prelerence, while sodium chloride input preference remains the Leonard Zegans, Tavistock Clinic. same. This indicates that lithium chloride replaces potassium chlor- me in the body. The shift in the usual intake quantities lasts for aPproximately 24 hours, after which time the normal intake patterns are restored. (Rothschild, Buckley; 1961) 100

Chamberlain,

Center; Carson,

101 Learning and Regeneration in Planarians symptoms than men, these reports are less apt to be correlated with hospitalization for mental illness than similar reports by men. If planarians are first divided in two immediately following (Blumenthal; 1965) a single" acute dose of irradiation, their survival rate is significantly Persons who have been divorced at some time more elevated. Planarians can receive weekly chronic doses of X-ray irra- rejiort drinking" problems, hospitalizations for mental illness, nervous diation aj^proximately one-fifth as large as the acute lethal dose over score on a list of psy- a excess a showing a higher mortality breakdowns, and dejjressions, and higher check jieriod in of year, without their divorced. are given chiatric symptoms, than persons who have never been rate than did nonirradiated control animals. If jffanarians (Blumenthal; 1965) 1600 roentgens in a single acute dose (ajaproximately two or three times the dose needed to kill a human being), they will all die. If " About 80 per cent of the carriers of jmenylketonuria can be planarians are given only 200 roentgens per week, they can survive definitelyidentified. (Blumenthal; 1965) for years without showing any adverse effects from the radiation, even a of tens of of though they accumulate total dosage thousands BIOCHEMISTRY roentgens. (McConnell, Clay; 1963, 1964) Biochemical Correlates of Behavior " If jffanarians are given too many training trials jier day, or too many training sessions per week, they will reach a j^eak of jjer- " Puromycin disrupts memory in the goldfish if administered formance very rapidly and then very rapidly decline. If the trials immediately after training. Electroconvulsive shock produces a similar if are stretched out over a longer jjeriod of time, jierformance is much memory deficit in goldfish to that found with jiuromycin more constant.(McConnell, Clay; 1964) administered immediately following training. Both electroconvulsive shock and jntromycin must be given within two hours following Planarians can be trained to select either the light or the dark training trials to produce a memory indicating that memory colored" arm in a simjrle T-maze. If a dark-trained animal is fed to is being fixed in a specific time period following a training experi- an untrained cannibalistic jffanarian and then the cannibal is like- ence. Fixation of memory in goldfish appears to be a temperature- wise trained to select the dark arm, it learns very rajridly indeed. If dejrendent process. (RogerDavis, Agranoff; 1965) the cannibal is, however, trained to select the light arm instead System (that is, trained ojjjjosite to the way the animal it ingested was Lipid Chemistry of the Nervous trained), the cannibal learns significantly more slowly, but still The enzyme alkyl jjhosjffiatase was isolated in a soluble form learns morerapidly than if it had not cannibalized at all. If a canni- and "some of its projjerties investigated. It is active against a number bal ingests jjarts both of a light-trained and of a dark-trained jffana- of synthetic substrates. The purified enzyme acts only on lipid phos- rian (i.e., if it ingests conflicting "instructions"), its speed of learning jffiatesand, unlike other phosphatases, is effective in the absence of is significantly retarded and it appears to show "conflict behavior" metal ions. (Agranoff, Flacks, 1961) in the maze Shinkman, during training. (McConnell, Clay, Synthetic cytidine diphosphate-diglyceride is enzymatically Leavitt, 1965) Shigehisa, Shelby; reactive" in extracts of brain.(Agranoff, 1961) Cytidine diphosj>hate diglyceride was chemically synthesized, Genetics of Phenylketonuria, a Form of Mental Retardation giving" high yields. (Agranoff, 1962) Persons heterozygous for jrhenylketonuria donot report more The enzymatic formation of CDP-diglyceride by a group of drinking" jiroblems, nervous breakdowns, dejjressions, hosjfftaliza- enzymes" was demonstrated. (Petzold, Agranoff; 1965) tions for mental illness, or contact with physicians than do jrersotts An enzyme called galactose oxidase,from the mold Polyporus in control groups. (Blumenthal; 1965) circinatus," reacts with galactocerebroside, a lipid characteristic of Men report moredrinking problems than women, but women the nervous system. Maximal enzymatic activity is present in this report" more nervous breakdowns and dej^ressions, and have higher reaction when solvents other than water are used. This unusual sit- scores on a check list of psychiatric symptoms- However, it appears uation makes it possible to detect very small amounts of cerebroside that while women report more nervous breakdowns and psychiatric and other galactose-containingmaterials quite easily. (Agranoff, 1961) 102

deficit,

Suomi; Salive, Suomi;

Suomi;

103 The Caucher's disease glucocerebroside is made up of two is jjrobably made directly from acetic acid. (Radin, Hajra, Kishi- comjronents" with very different fatty acid jiatterns. Those of one moto,Davies; 1965) glucocerebroside fraction contain jirimarily 16-carbon atoms, the The long acids in brain are formed by elongation of palmitic, other 24. This would suggest that there are two functionally differ- stearic," and longer fatty acids. Like the shorter acids, the long acids ent glucocerebrosides which accumulate in the sjffeen in cases of undergo degradation to acetic: acid. (Radin, Hajra; 1963) Caucher's disease. the Despite previous rejiorts to contrary by other Similar elongation takes place with unsaturated fatty acids researchers, no galactocerebrosides of the tyjre occurring in the brain in the" brain. (Ratlin,Kishimoto; 1963) were found. Caucher's disease may be caused by the lack of a single Radioactive cerebrosides injected rat are enzyme, although it is probably the result of a more comjrlex mole- directly into brains degraded" to ceramidc, which is converted in to cular mechanism. (Suomi,Agranoff; 1963, 1964) part sphingomyelin and in jjart hydrolyzed to fatty acid. (Radin, Kopaczyk; 1964) The cerebrosides of brain contain a variety of fatty acids, The initial stejr in this degradation is catalyzed by an enzyme some"of them very long in comparison to those found outside the which" hydrolyzes off galactose from cerebroside. This enzyme has brain. Some of these long acids have an odd number of carbon been partially jmrifiedand is being studied for its projjerties. (Radin, atoms and the amounts of these acids increase considerably with (Hajra; 1965) One age. It was found that the odd acids are formed by two routes. Develojmient of new methods of analysis permitted an inves- route is by addition of 2-carbon onto acid, a 3-carbon units jrropionic tigation" of the changes witlt age that take place in rat brain. The acid. The other is an removes a car- by enzyme system which single stearic acid of gangliosides accumulates at a steady pace during degradation bon from even-numbered fatty acids. The one-carbon the first 20 days of then more slowly for over a month more, acts on several of acids, acids, system types fatty including saturated then decreases in amount. The arachidic acid of gangliosides, on mono-unsaturated acids, and di-unsaturated acids. Odd acids are the other hand, accumulates steadily with age the has (over j^eriod also attacked. The nature of the one-carbon degradation system covered). The ester-linked fatty acids show changes resulting in in- been jjartly elucidated.First the fattyacid is converted to a 2-hydroxy creasing imsaturation and chain length. (Radin, Kishimoto, Davies; or fatty acid, which can then be utilized for cerebroside synthesis 1965) attacked further. The hydroxy acid is next oxidized to a keto acid, Several new devices have been invented of general interest to which is then oxidized to carbon dioxide and a fatty acid having biochemists." One is a method for collecting samples coming out of one less carbon atom. The last has the novel feature ofrequiring stejj gas Another is a of chroma- C activity. (Radin, Hajra, Kishimoto, Parmar, Davies; chromatographs. method making gas vitamin for columns 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965) tograjm which will withstand high temjjeratures. Another is a simjrle device for carrying out high-temperature chemical reac- Using a new method of isolating 2-hydroxy fatty acids, it was tions. In commercial production is a device for apjffying samjffes shown" that small amounts of these acids exist outside the brain. How- to thin-layer chromatographic plates. (Radin, Kishimoto, Hajra; ever, they do not occur in liver or adijjose tissue. Large amounts are 1962,1963, 1964, 1965) jjresent in [peripheral nerves. (Radin, Kishimoto; 1962) The chemical com|rosition of ])laques from brains of patients " has About 50 jrreviously undiscovered fatty acids (such as cis-6,7- dying of multijrle sclerosis been determined. Although these -hexadecenoic" acid, acid, and tis-4,5-c:is-7,8-hexa- portions of brain show great deficiency of cerebrosides, they have a decadienoic acid) were found in the brain through examination of normal or above-normal concentration of gangliosides. The types the structures of the fatty acid molecules. (Kishimoto; 1963) of gangliosides present are the same as those found in adjacent and normal white matter, but the relative amounts are a little changed. Most brain stearic acid molecules are not made from " directly The data suggest that the gangliosides of white matter occur jari- acetic acid but rather from palmitic acid, by elongation with acetic marily in the axons and that the gangliosides of axons differ from acid. The palmitic acid molecules used for the elongation are those those of neurons. (Radin,Kishimoto; 1965) recently released from ester linkagerather than those just synthesized The lipids of goldfish brains are unusual in that they include from acetic acid. This was found to be true for stearic acid in gang- triglycerides," a groujj of lipids found in all organs but not in mam- liosides and in ester lipids. The stearic acid in cerebrosides, however, malian brain. Goldfish brain is like mammalian brain in possess- 104

life,

cis-15,1fi-docosenoic

105 ing cerebrosides, but the proportion of hydroxy acids is quite low. Nucleotides (Radin, Agranoff, W'ajda; 1965) " Acid-soluble nucleotides in human red cells vary from time There are no jffrenyl fatty acids [present in the fatty acids of to time in an ajjparently random fashion within an individual un- the brain" in jjatients suffering from phenylketonuria. However, it der controlled dietary intake. (Ling; 1959, I960) is ajijjarent that there are other differences in the fatty acid com- Oxyhemoglobin, when undergoing denaturation, can oxidize position as comjiared to normal brain comjjosition. (Agranoff, serotonin" (5-hydroxytryj:>tamine) and several related 5-hydroxyin- Foote; 1963) doles. The reaction is comjffetely inhibited by carbon monoxide and by vitamin C (ascorbic acid). (Blum, Ling; I960) " In jrhenylketonurics, the ratio of oleic: acid to stearic and Jjartially inhibited arachidonic acids in the brain lipids is abnormally low. (Foote, Reserjjine changes the nucleotide patterns in rabbit brains Agranoff; 1964) two "hours after injection, but not those in blood and liver. (Ling; " In the glycolijffds of the brains of phcnylketonurics, the ratio 1960) of the major unsaturated acid to the major saturated acid seems Administration of chlorjjromazine to rabbits daily for 21 days abnormally low. This was seen in both gray and white matter. tends" to lower the amount of guanosine nucleotide in the brain for (Agranoff, Foote; 1965) from 24 hours to 20 days afterward. (Ling; 1961) In rats, a high jffienylalanine diet results in a decrease in brain" serotonin level and jjoor jjerformance on the Hebb-Williams NEUROPHYSIOLOGY maze test for rat intelligence. Isocarboxazide also leads to jx>or per- Brain Processes Which Facilitate or Inhibit Behavior on Hebb-Williams test, but results an formance the in increased Connections in the brain between the perigenual cortex and levelof brain serotonin.(Yuwiler,Loitltit; 1961) the head" of the caudate nucleus have been demonstrated electro- " Removal of the thyroid gland in young rats results in lowered jffiysiologically,chemically, and surgically. Stimulation of points in over-all brain weight, below-normal cholesterol values, and below- the head of the caudate nucleus produces the same effects as stimu- normal cerebroside weights. The jjrotein content of the brain is not lation of the jjerigenual cortex, that is, inhibition and facilitation affected, but brain jffasmalogen is. Feeding thyroid extract compen- of resjiiration, somatomotor response, spontaneous motor activity, sates for some of these deficiencies. (Radin, Marks; 1961) and spinal reflexes. Stimulation of inhibitory areas is accompanied A methodfor the simultaneousdetermination of lipids, DNA, by an aroused state in the cat. Such "aroused inhibition" is similar and RNA" in the animal brain shows that the total number of cells to that seen in voluntary inhibition of behavior. (Fox, Kimble, in the brain of the young rat is about onehalf billion. Large amounts Lickey, 1961) of DNA jjrecursors are incorjjorated into the DNA of the young rat. Cats with bilateral caudate lesions cannot perform a resjxmse (Agranoff, 1963) requiring" voluntary inhibition of behavior, but have no difficulty same motivational A new gradient-making device has been develoj)ed for studies Jierforming an active motor resjronse under the " Hearing,Kimble, Lickey; on subcellular particles and macromolecules. (G. Davis, Santen, conditions. (Fox, 1961) Agranoff; 1965) Dejiositing copper unilaterally in the caudate nuclei of cats " reversible ipsilateral circling similar to that pro- The Coulter Counter has been for the counting of and rats produces adajrted in that locus. Neither zinc, mercury, nor saline nuclei." (Santen; 1965) duced by a lesion deposited unilaterally in the caudate has any measurable effects. A technique for the rapid separation of inositol jjhosjffrates Copper deposited bilaterally in the caudate nucleus produces the was devised." (Agranoff, Seiffert; 1965) classical neurological sign of bilateral caudate removal, "obstinate Radioactive jrhosj)horus injected into the body is incor- progression," in which the animal cannot stop forward movement [jorated" into complex inositides in body tissues. (Agranoff, Seiffert; againstan immovable obstacle. (Fox, Butcher; 1964) 1964) Both the caudate nucleus and the hippocampus have facili- Adenosine triphosphate is the precursor of phosphatidyl ino- tatory" and inhibitory effects on the flow of information to the cor- sitol "phosphate in mitochondria. (Hajra, Seiffert, Agranoff; 1965) tex. The hipjxrcampus simultaneously inhibits cerebellar sensory 106 107 1

O'Brien;

Santen; responses and facilitates visual cortical sensory responses. Visual Even the smallest doses of barbiturate anesthesia will block and auditory injmts to the cerebellum show inhibitory and facili- both "direct current and arousal responses. (Fox, Lickey; 1964) tative interactions with each other and with hippocampal inputs, Direct current potentials are specific in wave form and ampli- tlepending on specific timing relationships (order, separation, and tude"to a number of stimulus parameters (flicker, intensity, and intensity of stimuli). The liijjjjocamjral area of the brain has modi- movement). (Fox, Lickey; 1963, 1965) fying effects on other of which parts the brain and brain stem are " Local direct current potentials of the cortex can be differ- involved in arousal or attentiveness functions. (Fox, Liebeskind; entiated from generalized cortical arousal. (Fox, Lickey; J 963) 1963) " Cats with the hippocampus removed are deficient in learn- Single Cell Ceding and Conditioning ing a task which requires them continually to alter their responses, Single cells in the cerebellum respond to either auditory or but are superior in those aspects of the task which require consistent visual" inputs or to both. Cerebellar single-cell responses to auditory responding. A new hippocampal-cerebellar pathway has been de- or visual stimuli may be modified by hippocampal stimulation. scribed which shows synaptic properties and may be important in Single cerebellar cells may respond to movements of objects in the sensorimotor readiness or behavioral orienting resjjonses. Auditory visual field over a distance as small as two degrees. Single cerebellar inputs to the cerebellum utilize a different anatomical jiathway cells may be monocularly or binocularly activated. amyg- from visual and hijjpocampal injmts to the cerebellum. (Fox, Liebes- dala, or hippocampal stimulation may modify the patterning of kind; 1963) visual cortex single-cell firing in response to light stimuli. Contin- uous "white noise" can block cerebellar single-cell responses to a Slow Potential (Direct Current) Correlates of Sensory Interaction flash of light. (Fox, Liebeskind, O'Brien; 1964) and Conditioning Single-cell responses to light onset, to light and to Direct current potential polarity may differentiate types of both"onset and offset occur in cricket brains. Certain single cells sensory" inputs, dejjending on the sjjecific cortical area. Direct cur- in cricket brains show sustained firing during illumination and rent sensory potentials in various cortical areas show habituation of others do so in sustained darkness. Adaptation of the firing rate of amplitude with repetition. Associative jrairing of habituated visual, some single cells in cricket brains occurs after light onset. Some auditory, and somatic stimuli with nonhabituated stimuli may over- single cells in cricket brains show cyclical "active" periods of high comehabituation effects. (Fox, Lickey; 1963) firing rate and "quiet" jjeriods with no firing, regardless of the (Fox, Direct current resj)onses to different stimuli (auditory and stimulus conditions. Dingle; 1964) " the cat cortex to somatic) may show facilitative interactions which cannot be pre- " Polysensory cells in respond different stimuli dicted from simjffe summation. Conditioning and habituation occur, with unique resjionse discharge j^atterns. Repetition of a stimulus often being most obvious during the direct current after-effects of may result in a habituated or reduced responding of a single corti- sensory stimulation. In the course of conditioning, direct current cal cell. Paired association of a weak and a strong stimulus may result stimulus, responses to the conditioning stimulus often come to resemble rein increased responding of the cells to the weak indepen- sponses to the unconditioned stimulus. Direct current manifesta- dent of sensitization. (Fox, 1965) tions of conditioning are not likely to seen re- be in the primary lonic Mechanisms of the Olfactory Recejitor Potentials ceiving area for a given conditioned stimulus. (Fox, Lickey; 1964, 1965) Two of the three types of recejnor jootentials elicited by odors," the electronegative "on-" and "off-" potentials (associated with " The nonjjrimary-cortex direct current responses tend to all odors), disappear in the absence of sodium or potassium ions. habituate more rapidly than the j>rimary-cortex resjionse to the Lithium, tetraethylammonium chloride, and choline chloride ions same stimulus. (Fox,Lickey; 1964) cannot substitute for sodium ions in the olfactory receptor. The " Direct current polarity follows a "primary negative" rule that third type, the electropositive potentials (associated with some but a stimulus will be represented in its appropriate primary cortex by not all odors) nearly disappear in the absence of chloride ions. The a relatively negative direct currentresponse but in any other cortical potentials decrease linearly as the concentration of chloride ion is area with a jjositiveresponse. (Fox, Lickey; 1964) decreased. The remaining electropositive potentials are attributed 108

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109 to potassium ions. All three kinds of receptor potentials disappear in lations of cholinesterase ajijjear in sheath cells around neurons in the absence of calcium ions. Sodium ions and potassium ions are the brain, subesophageal ganglion, and thoracic ganglion of the essential to the excitation of the olfactoryreceptor. Inhibition in the lobster, in the connective tissue sheaths or septa which separate olfactory receptor is caused by the electropositive potentials elicited subregions of these organs, and in neuropil (synaptic) areas. Little by certain odors, and these potentials in turn areproduced by means cholinesterase occurs within the main body substance (perikaryon) of chloride ions. The roles of sodium, potassium, calcium, and of neurons or within nerve fibers in most of the larger fiber tracts. chloride ions in the olfactoryreceptor are similar to theroles of these The cholinesterases of the lobster, though eserine-sensitive, do not ions in other parts of the nervous system. It is highly probable that resemble most vertebrate cholinesterases either in their action on therole of the olfactorymucus is to supply the above four ions to the acetyl vs. butyl substrates (substances on which the enzyme acts) or in olfactoryreceptor membrane. (Takagi, Wyse; 1965) jireferential inhibition of their action on a particular substrate by a specific inhibitor, such as 3-Acetylrjyridine does not act exclusively on the hijDpocampus l-5-bis(4-allyldimethylammonium- or di-isopropyl fluorophosphate of the" brain of rats, as has been hypothesized. General effects on phenyl)-})entan-3-l-dibromide (BW) (DFP). When the cardiac ganglion of nine interrelated neurons in balance, motorcoordination, food and waterintake, and body weight in tissueculture, possible to some can be produced by injecting 3-AP into animals, following removal the lobster is isolated it is maintain activity in at two of the hippocampus. (Rothschild; 1959) integrated electrical the neurons for least weeks. Cholinesterase is precisely localized at the synajnic junction between " In rats, a fall in the numberof circulating eosinophilic white the primary sensory cells and the second-order neurons of certain blood cells can be conditioned by methods like those used in estab- crustacean eyes, as well as being present in very large amounts lishing a conditioned "fear" or "anxiety" response. This response to throughout the higher-order integrative centers of their visual j^sychological threat closely resembles the fall in number of eosino- pathways. (Maynard; 1959, 1960) jihilic white cells occuring in traumatic jihysiological shock. (Gol- lender,Lata; 1959, 1960) Chemical Architecture of the Brain " A conditionedfall in the number of circulating eosinophilic In multiple sclerosis, changes of oxidative enzymatic activity white blood cells is either prevented or is greatly diminished by re- are most" striking in oligodendria cells, while axons, nerve cells, peri- moval of the cingulate cortex in rats. (Gollender Law; 1960) karya, and neuropil (synaptic areas) remain virtually unaffected. Illuminating the retina of the frog inhibits spontaneous firing Normal astrocytes are characterized by little oxidativeenzyme activ- in the" optic nerve. When the light is removed thereis an initial burst ity while hyjaertrophic astrocytes show a large increase of such activ- of fiber activity followed by srxmtaneous discharge. (W. Horvath, ity, often exceeding that in nerve cells. (Friede, Fleming; 1961) Peretz, AnatolRapoport; 1962) The development of tyjffcal post-mortem alterations in cerebellar" tissue depends on the {presence of anaerobic glycolysis. Block- NEUROMORPHOLOGY ing of glycolysis prevents the develojiment of such post-mortem alterations. (Friede,van Houten; 1961) Cholinesterase Histochemistry in the Lobster " Senile plaques in Alzheimer's Disease have strong enzymatic " There is a large concentration of cholinesterase in the region activity and contain numerous mitochondria. (Friede, Magee; 1961) of the dendritic arborizations of the sensory neurons in the abdomi- " Exjjerimental histochemical changes in the cerebral cortex nal muscle receptor organs of the lobster. The body of the fast- correlate with concomitant altered slow wave activity of EEG re- adapting neuron contains more cholinesterase than that of the sloW- cordings. (Friede,Fleming; 1961) adapting neuron, but the latter is more sensitive to externally ap- Glia cells in white matter jjroliferate and show an increase of plied acetylcholine. The cardiac ganglion of the lobster which elicits enzymatic" activity preceding myelination (myelination is the period heart muscle contractions in lobsters has comparatively small duringwhich myelin sheaths are formed around axons). The pattern a Vossler; amount of cholinesterase (located in sheath cells around neurons), of cell jaroliferation differs among fiber tracts. (Friede, A. whereas the stomatogastric ganglion, which controls the muscles 1961) of of the stomach, contains large amounts of the enzyme (in sheath " In the normal human brain the number glia cells varies cells around neurons and at junctions between them). Heavy accumu- greatly among different tracts but is fairly constant for any given

110 111

; sion process may be resjxmsible for or may trigger brain edema. (Friede; 1962) Under certain jjathological conditions, the granular layer of the" cerebellum develops a selective edema which is strictly con- fined to illis layer. (Friede: 196}) In Clarke's column in the spinal cord the number of glia cells "attached to a nerve cell is a linear function of axon length. {Friede; 1962) Lactic dehydrogenase isoenzyme distribution patterns differ considerably" in the various portions of a transected sciatic nerve. (Friede; 1964) Lactic dehydrogenase activity and activity levels of several other" oxidative enzymes increased proximodistally in the terminal portion of trac tvs gracilis and tractus cuneatus. (Friede; 1964) On the average lactic dehydrogenase and NAD-diajffiorase increase" by 28 per cent at the periphery of demyelinated plaques in human brains, and decrease by 64 per cent at their center. (Friede; 1961) Normal patterns of distribution of oxidative enzymatic activity (DPN-diaphorase) of shrunken cells both in a tissue set lion of human brain stem. The production hyjjerchromic depends on the" osmotic pressure of the cytojffasm around the nucleus of the cell and that of the fluid surrounding the cell. Resulting changes of be in animals and some tract. There are intricate correlations between glial and axonal enzy- cell volume can jaroduced living to extent, matic activity in the various fiber tracts. (Friede. Fleming; 1961) even during fixation of tissues for microscojjic study. (Friede; 1963) The histological and cytological distributions of mitochon- Nerve cell size increases with body weight as a crude logarithmic " (Friede; 1963) dria "in brain tissue agree with the distribution of certain enzymes fitnclion. known to be localized in mitochondria. (Friede, Fox; 1961) There is a ]>ossible relationship between axon swellings and " a nerve fiber. Detailed mappings of the distribution of the enzyme DPN- the injury currents in transected (Friede; 1963) diaphorase" in 135 nuclei and tracts of the human brain were elabo- Considerable sjiecies variation of the distribution of cerebellar rated. (Friede,Fleming; 1962)

113 1 the nerve cells. These changes probably are secondary to the deposi- recent linguistic theories. (Anatol Rapoport, Livant, Boyd, J. Jack- tionof lipids in these cells. (Friede; 1964) son; 1962) " Enzyme histochemical studies in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease When subjects are asked to produce sentences which are suggest an enzymic particularly of oxidative enzymes, in grammatically" correct but as meaningless as possible, one class of nervecells. (Friede; 1964) such sentences resembles jxjetic metaphors and another class resem- Histochemical reactions for phosphomonesterases, if used un- bles some schizophrenic productions. (Anatol Rapoport, Livant, der carefully" standardized conditions, reflect quantitatively regional Boyd, J. Jackson; 1962) differences in enzyme activity. (Friede, Fleming, Knoller, Musser, The stories told by people who differ in cognitive styles differ Vossler; 1965) in certain" grammatical characteristics, particularly in the connectives Regional variations in acid phosphatase activity among vari- employed. (Anatol Rapoport,Livant, Boyd, J. Jackson; 1962) ous portions" of gray matter from the brain of the Rhesus monkey are English grammar contains devices which compensate for small, except for a group of nuclei with exceptionally high acid phos- memory" limitations. (Anatol Rapoport, Livant, Boyd, J. Jackson; phatase activity. (Friede,Fleming, Knoller; 1965) 1962) " The cells of the turkey glycogen body contain high activity " Learning of a sentence is made much easier if, instead of re- of several enzymes of anaerobic glycolysis, but show little activity of locating the full sentence or even a portion of it, simple kernels citric-acid cycle enzymes. (Friede, Fleming, Knoller; 1965) underlying the full sentence are presented prior to the full sentence. (AnatolRapoport, Livant; 1963) " The enzyme histochemical behavior of pathological axonal swellings of cerebellar Purkinje cells varies more than that of dend- " Language and other natural codes contain structures to per- rite swellings. (Friede, Fleming, Knoller; 1965) mit the reconstructability of forgotten middlesof sequences.(Anatol Rapoport, Livant, Boyd, J.Jackson; 1963) The combined effects of word frequency and noise produce FINDINGS IN THE PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCES systematic" changes in errors of word recognition. Resjxinse biases PSYCHOLINGUISTICS account lor 90 j)er cent of these errors. Further fine-grain analysis, however, shows that an additive jirobability formulation which The opposing phenomena of assimilation and contrast oper " states that all errors are caused by the subjects' previous experience ate in the effect of a word's context its meaning, upon understood is self-limited.(D. 1963) with this relation depending upon the degreeof similarity and other The structure of association networks for populations of quantifiable connections between word and context. (Uhr; 1960) high"and low-frequency nouns has been described by a single model. For a variety of model languages, a model based on the as- Tire differ in the values of two parameters: a symmetry sumption" that gain of information networks (a) per error is a constant jjrovides jrarameter,where words cooccur as associates of each other; and (b) an accurate of prediction the learning curve. (Anatol Rapoport, a distributional similarity jjarameter,where two words have the same Livant; 1960) words as associates. Both these jiarameters are lower in populations " A learning model was developed which provides a satisfac- of low-frequency nouns. The structure of lexical networks becomes tory prediction of the distribution of errors in learning a variety of more and more random as the network is constructed from "first model languages. The average results for groups of learners are associates" to "sixth associates." This approach to randomness is better than for single learners. Individual differences in learning more rapid in pojndations of low-frequency nouns than in popula- appear to result more from the learner's characteristic rate of actions of high-frequency nouns. (Anatol Rapoport, Livant, Boyd, quiring information than from variations in the amount of informa- Roosen-Runge, Kramer; 1964) tion, but both factors are important. (Anatol Rapoport, J. Jackson, When a pojjulation of subjects perform direct question trans- Livant; 1961) formations" of declarative statements, the indices of agreementamong Subjects asked to "explain" a complex sentence "as if to a the questions formed correlate most highly with ratings of meaning- child"" decompose it into a list of simple sentences which resemble fulness, less with ratings of grammaticality, and least with ratings of the "kernel" sentences proposed as the basis of English by some frequency. People constructing a sentence to form a grammatical 114

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115 I jiath between two other sentences tend to prefer very simple word PERCEPTION AND LEARNING patterns and to avoid use of the negative. The strength of a particular syntactic bias (e.g., avoidance of the negative) varies with syntac- Gomjmter Models of Pattern Recognition and Language Learning tic context, diminishing as context becomes more complex. (Livant; A computer simulation (written for the IBM 709 and 7090) 1964) does "at least as well when it discovers and improves upon its own Three models which predict grammatical path preferences operators and measures for jjercejjtion as when measures of geome- and "grammatical errors have been develojjed. The most successful tric and topological features are built into it. From a small number model is based on a grammatical "field" in which the biases for of exjreriences with examples of patterns, the jsrogram "learned" to grammatically "irrelevant" alternatives must be weighted to predict recognize handprinted letters of the alphabet with 100 per cent accur- each choice. (Livant; 1964) acy, and "unknown" new examples of letters with 96 per cent accuracy. It "learned" variant patterns of segmented handwriting, car- When listeners are asked to judge whether the speaker ex- toon (aces and line drawings, and blurred sjreech, with accuracies on pects""yes" or "no" in reply to questions which vary in three ways: "unknown" variants of these joatterns ranging from around 90 per (a) being affirmative or negative; (b) including the word "some" or cent to 100 jaer cent. (Uhr; 1961) "any"; and (c) having words either stressed or not, these three vari- the above ables interact to create both increasing bias in exjjectation and in- When joatternrecognition jjrogram's performance is " with the of subjects creasing conflict in expectation. (Livant; 1964) comjjared performance human in several different exjjeriments, the computer [program and human subjects have Unbiased response measures indicate that common words learning curves of roughly comparable shajje. In all cases the pro- within" defined vocabularies yield higher speechreception scores than gram "learns" and "recognizes" jjatterns with fewer errors than the uncommonones. (Pollack; 1964) human subjects. (Uhr; 1961) " Subjects respond more consistently to successive presentations Ability to learn to recognize meaningless patterns despite dis- of recordings of speech and noise than to recordings of equivalent tortions" of unknown tyjje, a rather important tyjje of j>erceptual speech samples with independent samples of noise. (Pollack; 1964) and concejitual learning, is a function of the number of different When subjects construct word-association nets within a given Jjattern concepts, and of transformations within and interrelations " Uleman; vocabulary, the distribution of the so-called in-degree of a directed among these concepts. (Uhr, 1961) graph (the number of links converging on a word) is practically un- A pattern recognition program, simulated on IBM 709 and affected by the strength of association. This distribution is well 7090 "comjjuters, exhibits a fair amount of ability to learn rather represented either by a Greenwood-Yule distribution or by a trun- quickly to recognize new variant examjffes of pattern classes as a cated Poisson distribution. In either case, the parameters of the dis- function of exjjerience with examjffes. It joerformsat or close to 100 tribution are practically independent of the strength of association. jrer cent accuracy on simpler patterns (handprinted letters and The connectivity of an association net, on the other hand, is very figures, "meaningless" patterns, abstract jjatterns, spoken words), much affected by the strength of the association links. Thus a and with from 60 to 90 jjer cent accuracy on more complex jjatterns directed graph constructed from a vocabulary of 100 words is likely (line drawings, handwriting, cartoon faces, {photographed and to fall apart into 12 to 18 connected components if the links are the j simjffified fingerprints). The {program's drawings of patterns which closest, but only into six to eight components if the links are the it has learned improve as a function of experience, becoming quite fifth or sixth associates. Had the links been j>ut in entirely at ran- j recognizable and sometimes exhibiting features one might expect in dom, the typical number of connected components would have been the drawings of a young child. The program shows some ability to three or four. It is to be expected, of course, that as one proceeds to recognize continuous handwriting, and greater ability to recognize weaker links, the graph begins to resemble a randomly connected continuous sjjeech. When the jjattern recognition {program's per- graph. So far no significant differenceshave been found between the formance is compared with the jjerformance of human subjects on a semantic spaces of men and of women. (Anatol Rapoport, Livant, number of different pattern classes, in all cases except for recognition Amnon Rapoport , Roosen-Runge, Boyd; 1965) of unknown variants of photographed the program does better than the human subjects. Program and subjects exhibit similar learning curves. (Uhr, Allen, Benkard, Gohlman, Hansen; 1962) 116 117

117

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faces, Several aspects of a more general information processing upon memory and provides estimates of the degree to which a group model" have been coded, including (a) a jjrogram that attempts to can reduce demands upon the individual's memory when the mem- make generalizations of the sort that might be used in building up bers talk with each other. (Anatol Rapoport, Gyr; 1960) grammatical structures, (b) a jjrogram that attemjjts to learn to Learning and Hypnosis translate between two languages as a function of example translations given it, and (c) a program that learns to draw in a more " Contrary to the conclusion commonly drawnin the literature, powerful and interesting way than the simple program already de- a critical review of pertinent exjjerimentation strongly suggests that veloped. (Uhr, Allen, Benkard, Gohlman, Hansen; 1962) learning while under the influence of hypnosis may lead to striking The language-learning program shows fairly good ability to improvements in performance. (Uhr; 1960) learn" translate of the kind found in and makes to sentences jjrimers, Characteristics of "Random" Sequences certain mistakes that are vaguely suggestive of human mistakes. It random has some ability to learn one-many and many-one translations, " Even though they try, individuals cannot generate idioms, and alternate meanings. (Uhr, Allen, Benkard, series of zeros and ones. Each person deviates from randomness in a Hansen; 1962) characteristic and reliable fashion from day to day. The faster a series is produced, the less random it is. (Kornblum; 1959, 1960) " A pattern-recognition jjrogram has been coded for the Philco Transac-2000 which can learn to recognize handjrrinted letters of the Problem-Solving Behavior alphabet with a fair degree of accuracy. It does not recognize other events environment initially as sets as well as does an earlier jjrogram which embodies A jjerson conceives of in his pattern " on fewer assumptions that simulate living organisms. (Uhr; 1964) unrelated but laterrecognizes dependencies between them based certain jjrincijffes, as for example, contiguity. He shows bias toward A program has been coded which is able to learn, as a func- simple rather than comjjlex hypotheses regarding the interdepen- tion "of feedback from the pattern-recognition program, to draw dence events when simple hypotheses are no more likely patterns that are generally recognizable of these simple one- and two-stroke ones on a even whensimple hypo- Levitt, Reich; than complex priori grounds, and by a human. (Uhr, Allen, Benkard, Isaac, Newman, information. This bias toward simplicity 1964) theses contradict available is more jjionounced when the subject is tired. Recent or frequent use j Computer Models of Cognitive Processes of information increases the likelihood that such information will When a computer is programmed to solve jjroblems by be used again. (AnatolRapoport, Gyr; 1960) scien- models" representing three different jjrocesses which are characteristic " Natural scientists or students planning to be natural of human thought at different levels of intellectual growth and tists solve intellectual jjroblems on the PSI apparatus (an electronic under various experimental conditions, there is a good degree of logical analysis device) with fewer steps (though they are slower to corresjjondence between the computer models and the behavior of arrive at solutions) than social scientists or students planning to en- Miller; human subjects. The three different models are: Model 1: jjure trial ter that areaof study. (John, 1960) and error problem-solving; Model 3: much advance calculation and lire jjerformance of a groujj in solving problems on the PSI elaborate logical analysis; Model 2: intermediate between Models 1 aj)jjaratus" can be analyzed into a few distinctive components. and 3. (Gyr, Allen, Cafagna, Thatcher; 1961, 1964) esjjecially those jjertaining to synthesis of information, are adverse- Under conditions of time stress in a jjroblem situation, col- ly affected by mild fatigue. (Anatol Rapoport, Gyr; 1960) lege "students will regress to the cognitive process represented in Model 1. Under conditions of decision stress (i.e., minimizing num- INFORMATION PROCESSING BY APHASICS ber of overt trials) subjects will favor Model 3. (Gyr, CafagrKh Brown; 1964) In concejjt learning using nonverbal stimuli, aphasics learn on the" average fewer concepts than nonaphasics, but take only a Group Learning few more trials and make about the same number of errors per trial A mathematical model has been developed which jjredicts as the nonaphasics. Aphasics can learn at least some abstract con- group" learning of a co-ordination task. It reveals the effects of fatigue cepts efficiently. (D. 1964) 118

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119 By both populations, relational concepts are learned more which enables the investigator to measure the degree and kind of effectively" than are disjunctive concepts. Moreover, the differences similarity which exists among different visual forms was develojjed between these kinds of concepts are exactly the same for both popu- and tested. Briefly, the new technique casts the figure onto a lations, implying that aphasics are able to deal effectively with re- mosaic of small square cells, using a scanner in the shape of a five- lations. (D. Carson; 1964) cell cross, which generates jjrobabilities of occurrence of subpat- The error data demonstrate that the ajjhasics show no more terns in the larger figures, and calculates information measures on In an 30 tendency" to treat each stimulus concretely than do the nonajjhasics. these jjrobabilities. exjjeriment to test this new method, of time, on each Aphasics still retain the ability to generalize when they are presented jjeojjle ordered a grcjujj 24 figures, one at a of three distinctiveness, with a situation in which they are forced to deal with total sets scales: comjjlexity, and "good figure." Objective of examples having a given amount of internal structure. Ajjhasics measures on the same figures were obtained by three geometric also are more affected by the irrelevant information in the exam- methods: axes of symmetry, jjerimeter-area ratios, and number of ples; they often indicate that they know the rule without being able turns of the contour. It is jjossible by this technique to distinguish Furthermore, to select correctly further examjjles of the rule. (D. 1964) shajjes such as squares, ojren crosses, and solid crosses. the orientation of the shajje on the grid does not affect the jjower of Desjjite their marked heterogeneity, ajjhasics show the same the technique to make these distinctions. Some forms, however, such as do lawful" and orderly behavior on an information-handling task as checkerboards and strijjes, have not been distinguished thus far. 1965) normal subjects. (D. Carson, F. Carson, Tikofsky; (D.Carson; 1963) Aphasics are slower.and more variablethan normals, and they " of Correlations between the measures and the scales used by the require longer jjeriods to adjust to a task with any degree subjects" were minus .77, .73, and .71 for comjjlexity, distinctiveness, efficiency. (D. F. Tikofsky; 1965) and good figure, resjjectively. -Correlations for each of the derived " In a study of jjerformance on arote-learning task, all ajjhasics measures and the three scales did not differ significantly from the showed some improvement as a result of jjractice—groujj jjerform- respective values above. This result demonstrates that figure area ance improved in a consistent and orderly fashion. But even with had no influence on the judgments and that contour and internal sessions, ten practice only five of fifteen subjects achieved a final jjattern consistency were important. (/). 1964) score which was at a normal level for theirage groujj. Those ajjhasics Correlations with the three objective geometric: measures with high initial scores showed more imjjrovement than ajjhasics taken" on each figure—axes of symmetry, perimeter/area,2 and num- with low initial scores. All aphasics showed a high degree of accur- ber of turns— were uniformly low, only the number of axes of sym- acy and a low rate of speed. (D. Carson, F. Tikofsky; 196'r) metry being related to the scales in a statistically significant way. Under projjer conditions, ajjhasics can learn very abstract (D. 1964) rules"and apply them with the same effectiveness as normals, but they learn much more slowly than normals. (D. F. Carson, GENERALIZED MEASURES OF RESPONSE SELECTIVITY Tikofsky; 1965) generalized measure of was demon- Rule-learning strategies differ for ajjhasics and normals. (D- j A resjjonse selectivity , " for case in which only a single jjoint is available for esti- " F. Carson, Tikofsky; 1965) strated the mating the Receiver Ojjerating Characteristic curve. (Pollack; 1965) The structural projjerties of ability ajjhasics' rule-learning A generalized method for obtaining a measure of resjjonse seem"similar to those of normals, but the ajjhasic is seriously handi- selectivity" was demonstrated for two exjjeriments in recognition capjjed by the limited number of can deal with at one stimuli he memory. (Pollack; 1965) time. (D. F. Tikofsky; 1965) i The resjjonse selectivity of observers, of machine detectors, and " combined man-machine detection systems was evaluated ANALYSIS OF VISUAL FORMS AND SHAPES ! of j within the contextof a signal detection task. The performance of the Studies of human information processing have thus far been j interactive man-machine detection system typically fell short of the unable" to deal with the amount of information that is contained theoretically expected performance of the combination of detectors. in shajjes, forms, or structures in general. A mathematical technique j The performance of the man-machine system is not necessarily as

120 121

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Carson;

Carson, Carson;

Carson,

Carson, Carson, good as the better system component alone. In the performance ment caused by alcohol in performance of such tests. (D. Marquis, of the combined detector system may be as poor as the poorer sys- E. L. Kelly, Miller, Anatol Rapoport; 1960) tem component. Indiscriminate combinations of detectors may there- When mejjrobamate in 800 mg. dosage twice a day and fore reduce the sensitivity of an otherwise superior detection system. prochlorjjerazine," 10 mg. twice a day, are chronically administered, (Pollack; 1965) | there are no significant effects on behavior, anxiety, or jjersonality i characteristics of normal persons as measured by a battery of tests. REACTION TIME ! These drugs, chronically administered, have no effects on car driving skills and no differential effects on various tyjjes of jjeojjle as dis- In rapid motion, the time required to move the arm over a tinguished by a set of jjersonality tests. L. Kelly, Miller, D. Mar- " the root of the dis- (E. given distance ajjjjears to be linear with square quis, Uhr; 1960) tance, thus suggesting that the arm moves with constant accelera- tion. (Kornblum, Miller; 1960) Tranquil (a jjrojjrietary drug, containing triple bromides), when" administered chronically in the maximum recommended The increase in reaction time as the number of possible alter- daily close to anxious subjects, produces some decrements in jjer- natives" grcjws larger results more from increase in resjjonse alterna- on tests of jjsychomotor skills to car driving. It tives than from increase in stimulus alternatives. (Kornblum; I960) formance related does not affect other simjjle perceptual, jjsychomotor, and cognitive as com- " The difference in average reaction time to frequent skills. Although it increases sleejjiness, it does not produce restful- pared with infrequent stimuli in a series (such as differentnumerals) ness or lessen anxiety. In contrast, administration of 1600 mg. of the increases linearly as a function of the relative redundancy of mejjrobamate jjer day gives objective indications of anxiety reduc- sequence.(Fitts; I960) tion and symjJtom amelioration in anxious subjects, as determined When a choice response must be made to the second of two by both psychiatric interviews and fjeer ratings. Meprobamate also stimuli," the distracting effect of the first stimulus is negligible if the tends to depress driving skills but imjjroves time estimations under interval between the two is constant. However, if the interval is distraction. (Uhr, Pollard, Miller; 1960) random and less than 150 then the shorter the interval the j Neither mejjrobamate nor emylcamate has any identifiable longer is the reaction to the second signal. (Roy Davis; 1960) | effect" on the normal subject's ability to jjerform on various tests The above effect is increased when the subject is required to | of behavior conducted under exjjerimentally induced stress condi- make" a response to the first signal as well as to the second. Under ! tions. Dosage in the amount of 800 mg. (twice the ordinary clinical those conditions there also ajjjjears to be an increase in the response dose) of emylcamate and a similar amount of mejjrobamate alters time to the first signal which is monotonic with the interstimulus the subject's psychomotor behavior related to car driving. Emylca- interval. (Moss, Kornblum; 1963) mate in this dosage slows his reaction time; this does not occur Mejjrobamate his Six subjects were tested on a reaction time task in which the with the 400 mg. dosage. in 800 mg. doses slows time, addition accuracy. This with stimulus" jjresented was always the same, or in which stimuli were reaction and in reduces finding mejjrobamate conflicts with our earlier findings, which did not chosen from among two or four alternatives. To each stimulus was S show such effects. (Uhr, Miller; 1960) associated a unique key-jjressing resjjonse. Subjects received a Jjre- I view of the stimulus to be resjjonded to 2, 4, or 8 seconds prior to " Significantly different time- and dose-resjjonse curves have the actual stimulus jjresentation. Reaction time increased from the I been obtained for visual thresholds on a discrimination task by nor- no-choice to the two-choice condition, with no further increment \ malsubjects, under the effects of 400, 800, and 1 600 mg. of meproba- for the four-choice condition. (Moss; 1963) | mate. (Platz, Uhr, Clay, Kristoff arson, Miller; 1960) ! Meprobamate significantly imjjroves performance of normal PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY subjects" on a test of attention jjerformed under exjjerimentally anxiety. (Uhr, Platz, Miller,Fox; 1960) Meprobamate in double (800 mg.) the usual clinical dose pro- aroused " be duces no decrease in a person's ability to perform on tests of skills " Meprobamate increases a subject's ability to conditioned related to driving a car; nor does it significantly add to the impatr- i to a positive stimulus but not to a negative one, whereas prochlor- 122

fact, Gerard,

Gerard,

ms„

123 perazine has no significant effects on subjects for either tyjje of con- phenobarbital from each other or from the placebo condition. Sev- ditioning. (Uhr, Platz, Clay, Miller; 1960) eral measures from the driver trainer show statistically significant under Mejjrobamate gives tentative indications of decreasing an differences. Performance the placebo condition is significantly better on several comparisons and was never significantlyworse than individual's" performance on tests of cognition (Guilford), and of under another treatement. Several of the intra-drug comparisons affecting binocular color rivalry, but does not alter performance on are also significant. The statistically were small several other simple perceptual tests. (Uhr, Platz, Miller; I960) significant differences and their practical implications are uncertain. A comjjosite picture analgesic \ Carisojjrodol does not appear to have imjjortant derived from the significant measures showed the following rank " or musculoskeletal jjrojjerties for patients with neurological illnesses order of over-all performance, from high score to placebo, other low score: jjains. In patients with Parkinsonism it reduces the need for chlordiazepoxide, phenobarbital, diazepam, WY-3498, butaperazine, medication, while with jjsychotic: patients it may jjroduce drowsiness W-713, and meprobamate. (Miller, House, Burns, Morningstar; 1963) and possibly have tranquilizing effects but it does not control them so well as chlorjjromazine does. (Korst, Miller, " In a clinical pretest with jjsychiatric jjatients, the optimum Graham, Winkelrnan; 1960) dosage level of flujjhenazine dihydrochloride with amitriptyline hy- i drochloride appears to be two tablets administered three times a day, Carisojjrodol does not imjjair driving skills in normal people ! each tablet containing 25 mg. amitriptyline hydrochloride and 5 mg. as measured" by our tests. (Srivaslva, Miller, Korst; I960) i fluphenazine dihydrochloride. Only negligible side effects were re- (a When chronically administered, syrasingajjine hypotensive ported. (Miller,Burns, Morningstar; 1963) drug)" has no dependable significant either positive or harmful, on subjects with high blood pressure in performance on tests of j Performance on a complex behavioral task is not significantly " treated with driving skills or on a battery of other behavioral and jjersonality j different among subjects chlordiazejjoxide, diazepam, W-713, and WY-3498, tests. (Miller, Uhr; 1960) meprobamate, jjhenobarbital, nor do these drug treatments have different effects at two levels of stress. Stress Isothijjendyl hydrochloride (Theruhistin), an antihistaminic increases error frequency on difficult tasks, while on the task, drug," in double the ordinary clinical dosage, gives no indications of simple stress has different effects on different subjects. For some behavioral toxic effects on normal subjects tested on a battery of subjects, j stress interferes with performance; for others, jjerformance under jjsychomotor, visual, and cognitive tests of skills related to car stress is essentially the same as under nonstress conditions. (Miller, driving and other typical day-to-day tasks. subjects Subjectively, House, Burns, Morningstar; 1963) feel more active under double the usual clinical dosage of this drug \ thanunder jjlacebo.(Uhr, Miller; 1960) Judgment scores on driving tests were jjoorer under 20 mg. " dosage that sub- Results from tests on the lOTA device indicate that subjects daily chronic of methaminodiazepoxide, suggesting who "have been given dextro-amphetamine sulfate imjjrove their jectsunder this drug are more likely than under placebo to increase a concomitant in lateral maximum rate for jjrocessing information. In contrast, mejjroba- their speed with decrease accuracy. The phoria scores for both near and far indicated that mate, jjrochlorperazine, and l-(l-jjhenylcyclohexyl) jjijjeridine hy- vision methamino- drochloride (Sernyl) have no effect on information-jjrocessing abili- j diazepoxide jjroduces some degree of exojjhoria. The acuity score was under the methaminodiaze- ties. (Uhr, Miller, Srivaslva,Eckerman; I960) for far vision significantly poorer poxide condition than under jjlacebo. (Miller, Burns, Morningstar; Administration of [jsilocybin, Sernyl, and lysergic acid to ! 1961) normal" jjeople subjected to controlled and minimized sensory in- I of 250, 500, 1000 mg. jjut conditions makes possible a more comprehensive evaluation of " Acute administrations and of methas- the effects of these jjsychotomimetic drugs. Striking differences in tryidone with placebo and dextro-amphetamine sulfate comparison emotional reactions of subjects with the first two drugs were ob- conditions yield significant, differential effects on normal and anx- tained, in contrast to jjreviously rejjorted ajjjjarent similarities. ious subjects for a variety of performance tasks. Anxious subjects (Pollard,Bakker, Feuerfde, Uhr; 1960) are affected by 250 mg. to a greater degree than normals, particularly reaction time and imjjroving None of the measures from the mood test, the steadiness tests, in facilitating simple jjsychological self-evaluations. Reaction time for anxious subjects is increased or the" visual tests reliably discriminates the drugs W-713, meproba- by which also affects the personal tempo of both the anxious mate, chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, WY-3498, btttajjerazine, and I 500 mg. 125 124

Gerard, Small,

effects, and normal groups. Anxious subjects under 1000mg. show improved hance the ability to perceive depth and to impair reaction time, reaction time and significantly affected personal tempo. Normals though the practical significance of this in real-life situations is un- feel significantly more relaxed under this dosage. All three dosages clear. (Miller,Burns, Morningstar, Duddles, Janowitcz, Yerian; 1962) yield improved [jerformance on simple arithmetic tests. (Miller, Vasodilan neither facilitates nor retards performance by Morningstar; 1961) jjatients" with senile brain disease on a series of simple cognitive and Methastryidone in 1 gm. doses is similar to dextro-ampheta- jjsychomotor tasks. (Miller,Burns, Morningstar, Duddles, Janowitcz, mine"sulfate in its ability to improve problem-solving performance Yerian; 1962) Methas- on the PSI (Problem Solving using Information) apparatus. Light cigarette smokers show less anxiety on tests than either tryidone in 250 and 50 mg. doses impairs problem-solving perform- heavy" smokers or nonsmokers. (Srivaslva,Miller; 1960) ance.(Miller, Morningstar; 1961) Heavy smokers perform better than light smokers on a battery Methastryidone does not affect the ability of normal subjects " of behavioral tests, particularly when they are allowed to smoke and " (Miller,Morningstar; 1961) to process information. are not under stress. (Srivaslva,Miller; 1960) time measures are significantly slowed by chronic Reaction Light smokers have higher galvanic skin responses than heavy " of 1\/ gm. of phenobarbital daily but not by 900 mg. administration t smokers." (Srivastva,Miller; 1960) of mebutamate daily. They are not altered by placebo. (Miller, Burns, Morningstar; 1961) As compared with jjlacebo, mebutamate slows tajjping rates SENSORY DEPRIVATION under" stress and nonstress conditions. (Miller,Burns, Morning- both Subjects report less anxiety a 1961) during repeated eight-hour star; session" of sensory deprivation than during their such experience. conditions, and chlordiazepoxide I first Under nonstress Nevantal ! (Pollard, Feuerfile, C. W. Jackson, Kiplinger, Uhr; 1961) slow"down the rate of resjjonse on several measures of motor and cognitive performance, probably by slowing down or interfering j There are few differences between men and women in their I " to with the neural jjrocesses involved. These same two agents result in responses sensory deprivation. (Pollard, Feuerfile, C. W. Jackson, significantly longer estimates of a one-second time interval. (Miller, I Uhr,Kiplinger; 1961) Burns, Morningstar, Duddles, House, Janowitcz, Yerian; 1962) " The use of a limited visual field (goggles) as compared to a In tests of amitriptyline, chlordiazepoxide, meprobamate, and large visual field (dome) makes little difference in sensory depriva- Nevantal," a highly significant decrementin performance under stress tion performance. (Pollard,Feuerfile, C. W. Jackson, Kiplinger, Uhr; conditions was found for measures ofreaction time, time estimation, 1961) relation be- and information jjrocessing. There was a significant Changes on behavioral tests administered after sensory depri- rates resjjonse tween individual differences in anxiety level and of vation" under specific exjjerimental conditions do not parallel on a sequential reaction time task. Both low- and high-anxiety groups changes in rejjorted exjjeriences and on self-rating scales. (Pollard, showed slower rates of response than the medium-anxiety group- Feuerfile, C. W. Jackson,Kiplinger, Uhr; 1961) (Miller, Burns, Morningstar, Duddles, House, Janowitcz, Yerian; I "Suggestion" (subjects' jjrevious knowledge, set, and instruc- 1962) tions)" is very important in eliciting the typical bizarre sensory depri- administration of 4 gm. of methocarbamol daily has Chronic vation experiences. The mechanism by which suggestion affects the no effect" on driving skills or other functions measured by the tests i responses is not known, although it is possible that not only does does administration of methocarbamol in used. Neither chronic the suggested "set" increase anxiety but also anticipates appropriate an acute alcohol. (Miller,Burns, Morning- combination with dose of responsive behavior. A complex interaction between anxiety and star, Duddles, Janowitcz, Yerian; 1962) compliance would ajjjjear to result. (Pollard, Feuerfile, C. W. Jack- Judgment scores under chronic administration of 100 mg- son,Kiplinger, Uhr; 1961) " (N-(2,5-dimethyl-l-jjyrrolyl) isonicotinamide) were signi- of 5Q3242 jjrior knowledge and motivation, instructions, ficantly poorer than under placebo. Steadiness under 5Q3242 was The subject's expectations," anxiety, relationship with the experimenter, significantly better than under imipramine. 5Q3242 seems to en- and the

126 127

d dition. Auditory stimulation initiated visual hallucinations although not all hallucinations were dejjendent on external stimulation. (Pol- lard, Bakker, Uhr, Feuerfile; 1961) There are no differences in subjective effects noted between the hallucinogenic" drugs cl-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin, but piperidine hydrochloride caused minimal percejjtual disliti bailees. (Pollard, Bakker, Uhr, Feuerfile; 1961)

EFFECTS OF D LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE (LSD) ON CREATIVITY In certain subjects under lysergic acid there is an improvement" on tests of creativity. Subjects are affected by the drug in one of two ways: either defensiveness and rigidity increase, thus making the subjects less able to jjerform on the creative tests, or the subjects become considerably more flexible, sjjontaneous, and imagina- tive. It is possible on the basis of tests to predict which subjects' jjerformancewill imjjrove. (Pollard, Zegans; 1963)

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY Psychophysiology of the Human Sensory Processes The subject in this picture is in a state sensory deprivation. His movements <>/ with trains of electrical me restrained, his hands encased in soft padding, ami his eyes covered by spe- Stimulation pulses jjroduces long- cial goggles. The setting is designed to block his wee'/ 1 "/ sensory stimuli- term"sequential effects in jjerijjheral nerves. These are oscillations '"'" in the develojjment of nerveresjjonse amplitudes for jjeriods as long as a half second. (Uttal; I'M) use of continuous, free-associative reporting have much more import- Cutting off the blood stipjjly in the arm by means of a blood ant effects on the subject's resjjonse to sensory dejjrivatioii condi- jjressure" cull alters nerve resjjonse characteristics in systematic ways tions than had heretoforebeen realized. Some tyjjical interjjretations which appear to be associated with the jjsychophysical fluctuations of sensory deprivation behavior thus become untenable. (Pollard, which occur under the same conditions. (Uttal; 1964) Uhr, C. W. Jackson, Hendershott, Kiplinger, Selby; 1962) Variation in stimulus amjjlitudes does not affect the detec- The tranquilizer meprobamate in a single dosage of 400 mgs. tion "of microtemporal fluctuation in a stimulus train. (Uttal; 1965) did not" reduce sensory deprivation effects. The energizer dextroam- The interval between the stimulus jjulses has a strong effect jjhetamine did increase sensory deprivation effects. (Pollard, Uhr, on the" detection of the microtemporal fluctuation. Yet the just no- C. W.Jackson; 1963) ticeable difference between the interval and the discontinuity is Women subjects receiving both meprobamate and dextroam- constant and therefore does not follow the Weber law. (Uttal; 1965) phetamine" stayed longer in the dejjrivatioii situation than those in The number of pulses in the stimulus train directly affects the placebo group. (Pollard, Uhr, ( ll'. Jackson; 1964) the detection" of the microtemporal fluctuation. Sjjecifically, thres- elevated for nonsymmetrical stimulus patterns, Sensory attenuation, a modified form of sensory deprivation holds are very much and there is a greatereffect when the discontinuity occurs late in the where" sensory inputs are controlled, is a useful method Eor the study train than early.(Uttal; 1965) of drug responses. (Pollard, Bakker, Uhr, Feuerfile; 1961) when it occurs The temporal discriminative ability can be disrupted when a a situation, effects In sensory attenuation the of various hallu- burst"of stimuli precedes the test by as much as a half second. (Uttal; cinogenic" agents are modifiedby controlling the environmental con- 1965) 128

129 Psychophysiological Studies of Hypertension Ohm's Acoustical Law-which states that the auditory system analyzes a complex tone into its constitutent frequencies—is The blood pressureresponse patterns of patients with normal, " considerably limited than is accepted. (Pollack; 1965) labile," and high blood pressure can be differentiated by simultane- more generally , pre!S re and visual an verbal «t,t towarda»dknowledge abot,t °;,r«° "" ;^Lrpi"i«r " " \ "- The observations stated in the previous finding corroborate There is in Michigan schools a favorable climate for the in- earlier" findings, which suggest that a fundamental criterion in the i troduction" of inservice education about alcohol and its uses. There definition of labile hypertension should be the prolonged poststress is also a real need for such education of teachers in the topic areas elevations of blood pressure. (Pollard, Zegans; 1963) sampled. An average total knowledge score of 66 per cent, where a There was no correlation between blood pressure sensitivity score of 50 jjer cent rejjresents chance performance, suggests that to visual" stress (produced by unpleasant movies) and verbal stress this group is jjoorly prepared to teach about the sampled topics. (produced by repetition of statements which the subject found un- (Clay; 1964) pleasant) and mood as measured by the Clyde Mood Scale. (Bittker, Michigan junior and senior high school students score con- Pollard; 1964) sistently" near chance jjerformance in all areas of knowledge about Neither differences in experimental situation nor differences alcohol excejjt its effects on overt behavior. On this scale, they do in experimental" group affected diastolic blood pressure. (Bittker, considerably better than their teachers. Presumably this knowledge Pollard; 1964) is gained from exjjerience rather than the classroom. (Clay; 1964) Men with jjositive family histories for essential hypertension j " Students who have known a jjroblem drinker are both more have"significantly greater elevations of systolic blood pressure both i favorable in attitudes towardeducation about alcohol and treatment during and following stress than men with negative family histories for alcoholism and somewhatmoreknowledgeable in relevant areas, for hyjjertension. (Bittker, Pollard; 1964) ! (Clay; 1964) a Junior high and high school teachers who are required to Technique, for Removing Sumulus Btas ,n Psychologtcal Expenments , . bm been g nQ j^^J^ them. Subtle procedural differences can substantially alter the selves are the most hostile toward alcohol education in the schools, outcome" of most psychological experiments. Procedures are needed (Clay; 1964) which will protect data from arbitrary choices made by the experimenter. This study was concerned with developing procedures to 1. arrive at stable ratings for any set of stimuli, regardless of the arbi- FINDINGS IN THE SOCIETAL SCIENCES selection of stimuli initially made by various experimenters. trary SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS Convergence upon unbiased rating scales was demonstrated by a variety of iterative experimental procedures for the lightness of A highly integrated society is initially more sheltered against grays, for auditory variables, and for a large number of intensive, cultural" change than a loosely organized society but is subsequently nonintensive, and nonmetric stimulus variables. (Pollack; 1964) more widely affected thereby. A loosely integrated society is initial- A rapid procedure for obtaining scales of uniform difficulty ! ly more receptive to acculturative influences but is subsquently less of identification" (equidiscriminabilityscales) was developed in terms widely affected thereby. (Crane, Meier, M. Jackson, Tagliacozzo; of iterative experimental procedures. (Pollack; 1964) j 1960) Parallel effects to those of stimulus bias may be obtained by All social systems have boundary maintenance processes but controlling" the order of presentation of stimuli in a rating test. they "differ from system to system in how they function and in their (Pollack; 1964) reliability in repelling induced changes. (Crane, Meier, M. Jackson, The frequency discrimination of short tones is optimal (Tagliacozzo; 1960) against" an intermediate noise background, rather than against a Stresses on a society, such as severe deprivations, operate to quiet background, as would be predicted by a waveform counting mobilize" the adjustment jjrocesses of the society and affect societal model of auditory pitch. (Pollack; 1965) relations in such a fashion as to dramatize the major characteristics 130

yen

/ » c-i

131 w

scale was administered to 172 undergraduate students in six different of the cultural system of the society. (Crane, Meier, M. Jackson, courses at the beginning and at the end of the Tagliacozzo; 1960) political science courses. The mean cosmopolitanism score for the entire sample factors prerequisite to a , . The earlier biosystems theory ofot the prerequisite mJ si nificant increase, with most " must be known population explosion is inadequate. More factors .^^ accoumed for b gtudentg wkh no ior social sci. environment, for ; in order to predict. Prior disturbance of the exam- .n { gtudentg n junior 1965) - pie, is an exceedingly important contributing factor. (Meier; .J^ made by juniors and seniors For solving a task which is equivalent to that of an animal ! three ior soc; ai science courses, majoring in the social sciences environment, learning" to survive in a completely strange, risk-laden or educat; on (Singer; 1963) performance is a computer program has been developed whose Categories of students showing the greatest increase were: superior to that of most human subjects. The computer simulation majoring in engineering and the physical sciences; those in i K« l „o^ frr»mfrom written instruction,ine.trilctlon. J . ° ° .. . . * „.. " procedures can be learned by nonbiologists their junior year;° the or religiously nonaffiliated;' the Republi- that is self-teachable. (Meier; Jews indicating that it is a form of theory cans or politically nonaligned; those who had already taken four 1962, 1965) related courses; and those who were fourth-generation Americans. (Singer; 1964) f. SOCIAL CHANGE A sample of Air Force officers regard major reductions in SOCIAL CONFLICT military" preparedness to be more sought after by most segments of i The Psychology of Conflict themselves. Hayden; 1965) American society than by (Pilisuk, Two jjarties in a conflict situation usually act very much Interdependence of management elites among several major | like one" another. In a Prisoner's Dilemma game, a pair of players defense" contracting firms has increased over the past ten years. j will tend either to find a mutually beneficialresolution or to become (Pilisuk, Hayden; 1965) !j trapped in a mutually disastrous outcome from which it is difficult, In most countries of the world, natural resource endowments i but not impossible, to break free. (Anatol Rapoport, Pilisuk; 1963) have"strongly influenced economic development in the past and thus Conflict conditions other than the amounts of payoffs and been I are highly correlated with the per capita income that has ! losses" set by the rules of the game affect the amount of cooperative achieved, but per capita income appears to be correlated not at behavior. Requiring the jjlayers to decide slowly and gradually how all with economic development growth rates since World War 11. much to cooperate increases the amount of mutual cooperation. The (Meier; 1964) use of purely semantic "cold war" labels for the rules of the game The principal sources of recent growth have been (a) prior also tends to increase cooperation. (Pilisuk, Anatol Rapoport; 1963) expenditures" for education and public health, (b) participation in Personality tests of an individual player do not predict well international trade and the flow of persons, (c) rapid adoption of his behavior" in a group in conflict. However, under certain condi- modern techniques of communications, and (d) political moderniza- tions, a personal preference for high risks increases the amount of tion.(Meier; 1964) competitive conflict while high tolerance for ambiguity favors co- The best predictor of social and economic development in any operation. (Pilisuk, Anatol Rapoport; 1963) society" is an index of the growth in flow of social communications Over the course of a number of repeated trials in a Prisoner's in public facilities. Growth in flow is the natural outcome of sue- Dilemma" game, the two players tend to resemble one another very cessful formal education and the opening up of mass media. It closely in their degree of cooperation. Some players find themselves leads, with high likelihood, to increasing political stability and to sticking to the mutually beneficial cooperative pattern while a num- the growth of modern institutions; planning is thereby given greater ber Qf pairs fincj themselves caught in a mutually harmful and opportunity to be effective. (Meier; 1964) competitive situation. (Pilisuk; 1964) Cosmopolitanism i The cooperators in the above situation tend to play quite " competitors almost from the start. They tend to This study attempted to determine whether political science \ differentlyfrom the . than the pairs and to be more courses change students' views of other nations. A cosmopolitanism ! begin more cooperatively competitive 133 132 '**

0 n r U„ r.,-.r.1-.;/-.1/-.mctc backgrounds; (2) attributes; to what the other player is doing. Both reciprocity and following categories: (1) social political responsive of the (Rieselbach; synchrony of cooperative gestures are factors which determine the and (3) constituencies individual representatives. degree of integration of the two players into a social unit. Play with 1964) which a partner who is more like oneself in personality tyjje does not appear A shift in the jjolitical situation of the moment (e.g., " in to influence the degree of integration or the degree of trust or co- party controls the Presidency, which is the majority party Con- operation achieved. Only the trait of tolerance for ambiguity tends gress) interacts with the demograjjhic attributes and the party affili- tofavor mutual cooperation, if both jjlayersshow that trait. (Pilisuk; ations of the members of the House of Representatives to produce in I 1964) altered voting configurations bringing about an equilibrium Players in such a situation tend to fall into a pattern in positions. (Rieselbach; 1964) which" they behave much like each other. Pair members who evolve Party and committee roles have more influence than personal into uncooperative "warhawks" frequently blame each other for jjolicy" preferences on the foreign policy behavior of United States the failure in coojjeration. (Pilisuk, Anatol Rapoport, Winter, Chap- Senators. (Singer; 1965) a nation's man, Haas, Potter; 1965) " The greater the jjerceivedhostility directed against Under conditions in which there is no opportunity for com- decision makers, the more hostile they will be in their expressions munication" of intentions the jjlayers in such a situation tend to vis-a-vis the original source. (Singer; 1965) establish either the cooperative pattern or the comjjetitive pattern " When content analyses were doneof the 1957-1960 statements rather early. Where an ojjjjoi tunity tocommunicate one's intentions of those who make and reflect foreign jjolicy in the United States is present the jjeriod of bargaining is longer. (Pilisuk, Anatol Rapo- and in the Soviet Union, a tendency to focus on the other's aggres- port, Winter, Chapman, Haas, Potter; 1965) siveness was manifested by both the U.S. and the Soviet Union, as was the tendency for each to believe that peace could best be main- Opjjortunities to demonstrate intentions tend to be used to tained by its own military sujjeriority. (Singer; 1964) deceive" the other jjlayer, making it difficult to reestablish trust. How- a much degree of confidence ever, under conditions where a jjromise of coojjeration cannot be The Soviets expressed higher " were considerably undone, it is very likely that the pair will eventually make such in their own strength than did the but less of keejjing local wars limited. (Singer; promises and finally develop a coojjerative pattern. (Pilisuk, Anatol sanguine about the possibility Rapoport, Winter, Chapman, Haas,Potter; 1965) 1964) Though neither nation exjjressed much confidence in the an option to gain a sudden advantage at the other Presence of " Nations, they diverged sharjjly on matters of phasing and " expense (surprise attack) very greatly disturbs the incentives United jjlayer's insjjection in arms reduction. (Singer; 1964) to cooperate and players tend to take high risks in using the option, with resultant losses to both players. (Pilisuk, Anatol Rapoport, Win- Simulation of Inspection Systems ter, Chapman, Haas, Potter; 1965) An IBM 7090 computer was jjrogrammed to simulate the A prearranged strategy involving the continued honest state- interactions" between a widerange of disarmament insjjection sched- and continuous willingness to disarm one ment" of intentions the vciiieein.!. and«"»" a variety of evasion ulesUlt!> andailll surveillance '>""'"")techniques large / - ot step more than the other player greatly increases the jjrobabihty | schemes. Those insjjection methods which jjroduced the highest per- achieving a trustful resolution. This appears true even when the levels in detecting evasions were also the ones which pro- the formance other player does not recognize the behavior pattern which first j c ucec lne highest number of false alarms, and a high false-alarm rate Winter, i i player is demonstrating. (Pilisuk, Anatol Rapoport, Chap- " may be as ser ; ous a liability as a low detection rate. By settling for a man, Haas,Potter; 1965) slightly lower detection rate, false alarms can be nearly eliminated. Studies of Foreign Policy (Singer; 1964) The voting patterns on foreign policy of members of the INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL SYSTEMS United" States House of Representatives have been consistently re- A defined list of the members of the international lated to religious affiliation and membership on the Foreign Affairs rigorously " through 1940, and the status rank-order of these but inconsistently to 12 other characteristics in the system from 1817 135 134

U.S.,

»„*-.... sue "*-" " »"»f,- ■ -"

Committee, tional system was used as the index of interaction opportunity loss, such loss correlated positively with war in the 20th century and negatively in the 19thcentury. (Singer, 1965) Ihe escalation ot local war to global war (1914) cannot be predicted" from behavioral phenomena alone, but only from a combination of behavioral and perceptual variables. The probability of j a nation's becoming involved in external conflict cannot be predicted from its domestic attributes. In both rural and urban nations, high unemployment weakly predicts to involvement in war (but not necessarily the initiation of it), with varying time lags. The trend toward economic integration in the North Atlantic area reached a peak in the early 1950's and has declined since. (Singer; 1965)

FINDINGS IN THE SYSTEMS SCIENCES PSYCHOLOGICAL SYSTEMS Behavioral Constants in Choice Behavior The six jjarameters (the constants which characterize a percejjtual" system) in Flood's symmetry stochastic learning model can ; be reliably estimated for rats in a three-response, two-outcome exjjeriment using chronic hyjjothalmic implants for reinforcement. (Flood,F. Horvath 1960) The six Flood symmetry jjarameters are the same for the two rats measured" and are the same whether the reinforcement schedule is determined by the rat or by the exjjerimenter. They nearly satisfy the combining-of-classes condition. (Flood, F. Horvath; I960) A search algorithm and code for use with the IBM 704 com- " was develojjed which jjrovides maximum likelihood estimates Detailed descriptive floiv of the computer simulation of interactions between puter disarmament inspection schedules and evasion schemes. of all jjarameters for each of several stochastic learning models. The code also yields confidence regions for the parameter-sets, so statements can be regarding the compara- nation-members,reveals a marked stability in status ordering for the that jjrobabilistic made of the various models. (Flood, Leon, Roosen- middle-power Eurojjean nations holding moderate- tive goodness-of-fit jjeriod, with the Robinson; 1961) ly high-status jjositions from midcentury on while the Asian, Afri- ! Range, Feingold, for of maximum can, and Latin American nations generally continue in their low- " Computational techniques the calculation status positions. (Singer, 1965) j likelihood estimates and confidence regions were developed and ajj- to data from various learning experiments and A central hyjjothesis in balance-of-jjower theory is that as plied successfully learning models. These methods made unneces- the number" of interaction ojjportunities in the international sys- to several stochastic simplification of models or elaborate analytical treatment tem decreases, the frequency magnitude of war should in- sary the and/or of statistical estimation jjroblems usually found in rejjorts on crease. the per cent of nations in different classes of alliance When stochastic learning theory and experiments. (Flood; 1962) was used as an index of interaction opportunity loss, the hypothesis was strongly confirmed for the 20th century, but firmly rejected for The Beta Model of Luce fits the data from the Solomon- the 19th century. When the degree of bipolarization of the interna- Wynne" avoidance experiments with dogs appreciably more poorly 136

Small;

;

Small;

137 than various sjjecial forms of the Alpha Model, including the two- preliminary trials in each condition. Testing many stochastic learn- of data is feasible i parameter special Aljjha Model used by Bush and Mosteller. (Flood; ing models against a large quantity experimental 1961) using the Project MAC time-sharing system. (Flood, Breed, Leon; Goodness-of-fit comjjarisons, made between the Sjjecial Alpha 1965) Model, Model" of Bush and Mosteller and Flood's Symmetry when Coojjeration, Comjietition, and Cognition used to analyze data from avoidance exjjeriments with fifty rats, in- A was on which influence the dicated that the Sjjecial Aljjha Model is as accejJtable as the Sym- series of studies done the factors of individuals subject to conflicting motives: to compete metry Model for 39 of the rats, and fully accejJtable when applied behavior or to with others. In these exjjeriments, subjects played to the groujjed data. (Flood; 1962) cooperate games which each jjlayer had a choice of two moves: to cooperate humans after in Rats imjjrove more rapidly than do dogs or or to defect. The payoif matrices were varied, but in general it was " faster than rats, and an unsuccessful resjjonse, and humans improve to each player's individual advantage to but to the advan- findings rats faster than dogs, after a successful response. These are tage of the group to cooperate. situation. (Flood; 1962) dependent ujjon the exjjerimental Indices can be develojjed which predict cooperative be- Three-choice exjjeriments with human subjects yield learning havior" of persons in group games, based on the payoff properties data"thatrequire a much widerrange of parameter values in fitting of three-jjerson non-zero-sum games. The indices are contingent on the Symmetry Model than is necessary for rats, and also require more the players knowing the jjayoff matrix for a given experimental extensive runs and analyses for equally precise jjarameterestimates. situation. (Anatol Rapoport, Chammah, Dwyer, Gyr; 1961) (Flood, Goyer,Loomis, Paine, 1962) Introducing a comjjetitive situation after a cooperative one Six rats yielded highly reliable jjarametervalues over a jjeriod does "not lead to transfer of strategy from the first to the second. If of several" months of exjjerimentation in a six-choice learning situa- the comjjetitive situation occurs transfer of strategy does take tion with brain stimulation used for positive reinforcement. (Flood, jjlace. (Anatol Rapoport, Chammah, Dwyer, Gyr; 1961) Hoffman; 1964) By apjjlying a stochastic learning model to the data from Parameter values obtained from extensive exjjeriments with three-jjerson" non-zero-sum games it was possible to jjredict the fre- two rats" agreed well and also yielded good fits to data for four other quency of cooperative resjjonses for all exjjerimental conditions. rats in the same tyjje of six-choice learning exjjeriment. (Flood, Whether a whole groujj would coojjerate or defect is jjredictable Breed; 1964) only when subjects do not know the jjayoff matrix. (Anatol Rapo- Chronic injection of the drug U-9189 (tricyanoaminojjrojjene) port, Chammah, Dwyer, Gyr; 1961) into"one rat jjroduced no significant change in the jjarameter values In two-jjerson non-zero-sum games with the degree to which measured in a series of six-choice learning experiments, but some- subjects" were tempted to defect ranging from mild to severe, the times did and sometimes did not yield a change in the values for over-all frequency of defection is directly related to the severity of another rat. (Flood, Breed; 1964) the game. The maximum average frequency of defection observed Human subjects did not yield reliable estimates or adequate was 80 per cent in 300 jjlays. (Anatol Rapoport, Chammah, Dwyer, goodness-of-fit" for the Symmetry Model, in extensive three-choice I Gyr, 1962) learning exjjeriments with monetary jjayments used for jjositiverein- The minimum average frequency of defection in such games forcement. (Flood, Goyer; 1963) j is about" 20 jjer cent in games with no temptation to defect. This of reveals the purely Extensive exjjeriments with two rats, drugged with tricyano- corroborates results previous investigators and in of is aminojjrojjene" and undrugged, yielded highly reliable jjarameter comjjetitive motivation games this sort (i.e., the partner pre- even when no accrues to oneself). in a learning situation with brain stimulation used for posi- vented from winning advantage values Chammah, 1962) tive reinforcement and over a wide variety of experimental configu- (Anatol Rapoport, Dwyer, Gyr, rations. (Flood, Breed; 1965) The extension of the number of plays beyond 50 (the usual " a Chronic injection of the drug tricyanoaminopropene pro- maximum runs examined by previous investigators) shows decrease games duces" no very significant change in the parameter values after many of which is rapid in mild and gradual in medium 139 138

defect,

Shearer;

first,

Orwant;

Shearer,

Orwant;

defections,

r "W

in, weak, and the games. In mild games an average of 80 per cent of CC (both players longer. Eventually some recovery sets but it is cooperate) responses is achieved after 100 plays; in medium games, initial cooperation level is not reached. The curve of the mixed females, but over 50 per cent. In severe games, the initial increase in coopera- pairs starts at a level above those of both males and two, defection returns to eventually comes between the two latter curves. (Anatol Rapoport, !; tion is reversed in the latter part of the and initial very high value. In all cases, "locking in" effects are ob- Chammah, Dale, Mowshoxuitz; 1964) 'i its served, i.e., CC or DD (both players defect) responses predominate Conditional probabilities of cooperative response in men are (the former more strongly in mild games) at the expense of unilater- higher" than in women after three of the four categories of response al (CD) responses. The latter progressively decrease in all cases. pairs, and equal to that in women following unreciprocated cooper- Additional evidence for "locking in" is provided in the plot of ation (the "martyr's" response). (Anatol Rapoport, Chammah, Dale, I probability of CC as a function of the number of previous consecu- Mowshowitz; 1964) monotonically to almost tive CC responses. This curve increases About 70 jjer cent of the male pairs end the sessions "locked not 1.00 at ten consecutive CC responses. When the payoff matrix is in." Of" these about three quarters are locked in on the double coop- shown to the subjects (the resulting payoffs to both after each play erativeresponse. About 50 per cent of the female pairs lock in. Of being nevertheless announced) the results are much the same except these only about one-third lock in on the double cooperative re- that the tendency to cooperate is considerably reduced, more so in sponse. pairs 60 per cent lock in, and of those, the Of the mixed about the milder games, very slightly in the severe games so that in on cooperative response. (Anatol the two-thirds lock the double regression line has a smaller slojje. The other results are, for Rapoport, Chammah, Dale, Mowshowitz; 1964) in condition. (AnatolRapoport, Chammah, most part, replicated this In male jjairs unilateral cooperation fails toelicit cooperation 1962) Dwyer, Gyr, about" two and one half times more frequently than it succeeds. In The average magnitudes of the propensities to cooperate of female pairs unilateral cooperation fails about five times more fre- players" under various experimental conditions indicate that the quently than it succeeds. (Anatol Rapoport, Chammah, Dale, Mow- subject population in this research is characterized by very high showitz; 1964) "trustworthiness," lower "forgiveness," rather low "repentance," Comparison of male and female populations in performance Chammah, and very low "trust." (Anatol Rapoport, Boyd, in a "Prisoner's Dilemma game reveals that males over-all cooperate 1963) much more frequently than females. This result cannot be ascribed A simplified stochastic learning model sujjerimposed on a to an inherent greater tendency to cooperate on the part of men, Markov" process, where the parameters are the transition probabili- however, but rather to the character of the interactions in repeated ties, describes the gross behavior patterns adequately. (Anatol Rapo- plays. This conjecture is corroborated by the fact that when men port, Boyd, 1963) play against women, the differences between the sexes practically disappear. (Anatol Rapoport, Chammah, Dale, Mowshowitz; 1964) The over-all frequency of cooperative responses is about twice" as great among men playing against men than among women " A detailed analysis shows that men tend more to play tit-for- playing against women (based on 84,000 responses). Among men tat than women. In view of the fact that tit-for-tat strategy has been is be the most effective in eliciting cooperation, this prob- I playing against women, the frequency of cooperative responses shown to lower than in male pairs and higher than in female pairs. In mixed ably explains the over-all larger cooperation scores of men. (Anatol pairs, the frequencies of cooperative responses by male and female Rapoport, Chammah, Dale, Mowshowitz; 1964) pair members are almost equal. (Anatol Rapoport, Chammah, Dale, Several mathematical models were developed with a view of Mowshowitz; 1964) (1) ascertaining" which, if any, gives the closest approximations to of different Over time, the frequencies of cooperative responses charac- the statistics of the data and (2) comparing performances The models teristically" go down at the beginning of a series of games (as if the populations in terms of the parameters of the models. a Markov players at first learned to distrust each other). This initial phase is examined were: a four-state Markov chain (Model 1); states (Model 2); a Markov chain with one of the same in men and women. After about 50 plays, the curves begin chain with absorbing to "learning" (Model 3); a composite of to diverge. men "recover," eventually rising above the initial the parameters subject The of cooperative level. The women's curve continues to decline much Markov chains with a distribution parameter values (Model 4); 141 140

Orwant;

Chammah, Orwant;

; through their channels almost correctly as the rate of injjut increases and a stochastic learning model (Model 5). Models 1 and 4 gave to a certain input speed. Then at higher input rates the output poor agreements with the time courses of the principal variable, up out at a capacity cannot be exceeded, after namely the frequency of cooperative responses. Models 2, 3, and levels channel which which it diminishes toward zero. (Miller; 1960) 5 gave good agreements with this time course. Models 2 and 5 also gave good agreements with the variances, but Model 3 jjredicted At the cell level the variations in the latent jjeriodsof isolated variances which were too low. Thus Models 2 and 5 gave the axons" are remarkably small, as little as two microseconds. Conse- closest agreements with the statistics chosen for the dependent vari- quently, they may be able to convey information with time-based ables. (Anatol Rapoport, Chammah, Dale, Mowshowitz; 1965) coding as fast as about 4000 bits per second. (Miller, Halick, W. Assuming Model 2, the comparison of performances of men Horvath; 1960) and women" leads to the conclusions that: (1) women are less respon- At the organ level, there is considerably more variation in the are less sive to their partner's cooperative response; (2) they prone latency" of the cat's cortical resjjonse to ojJtical stimulation (about to make an irreversible decision to cooperate unconditionally; (3) one millisecond) than in the single cells, presumably because of loss they are more prone to make an irreversible decision to compete of precision at cell boundaries of multiple comjjonents, so that the unconditionally. Assuming Model 5, the only significant difference maximal channel capacity of this visual system with time-based between men and women turns put to be in the tendency to re- coding is about 55 bits per second. (Miller, Halick, W. Horvath; spond cooperatively to the other's cooperative response (following 1960) resjjonse by self). This tendency is smaller in a noncooperative At the organism level, maximal channel capacity as deter- (Anatol Rapoport, Chammah, Dale, Mowshowitz; 1965) women. mined" on the lOTA (Injjut Overload Testing Aid) apparatus is about six bits of information jjer second. (Miller, W. Horvath, Fos- SOCIAL SYSTEMS ter, Horowitz, K. Marquis, L. Kelly, M. Jackson, Cabot, Moss, Generally, a code, model, or language used by two or more Pollack; 1960) uniform if intergroup communications groups" will tend to remain At the group level, maximal channel capacity as determined important than communications within are more frequent and more on the" lOTA apparatus is about three bits of information per within-group communications become predominant, each group. If second. (Miller, W. Horvath, Foster, Horowitz, K. Marquis, L. Kelly, code, language, or will tend to split up into different the model M. Jackson, Moss,Pollack; I960) versions for each of the internally communicating subgroups. (Deutsch; 1965) At the level of the organization, maximal channel cajjacity is " Hor- and importance of mutual communication about two to four bits of information per second. (Miller, W. The frequency vath,L. Kelly, Evans, Moss, Pollack; I960) over"the entire group tend to decline as the group size increases, of because of distance and information overload, and the amount In general, the more components there are in the informa- information jjrocessing within smaller subgroups tends to increase. tion-jjrocessing" channel of a living system, the lower is its channel (Deutsch; 1965) capacity. channels in large systems usually transmit in- slowly than in small systems. (Miller; I960) It therefore follows that a "Tower of Babel" effect should be I formation more expected" for a group or system whose size increases faster than do Living systems may emjjloy the following jjrocesses of adjust- any countervailing imjjrovements in communication technologies; ment"to the stress of informationoverload: omission, error, queuing, a and that there are limits to the size of any group within which filtering, approximation, multijjle channels, escape, and "chunking" common communication code can be maintained. (Deutsch; 1965) of symbols into larger units such as words. (Miller, Meier, W. Hor- vath, Foster; 1960) PROCESSING SYSTEMS INFORMATION When the interval of time between two signals is very short, Information Injjut Overload systems" at all levels delay responses to the first signal until after the one apjjeared. Then they make a double resjjonse to living systems (cells, organs, organisms, groups, and multi- second has In both signals as a single unit. (Miller, Foster, Moss; 1961) echelon" organizations) which transmit information, it is conveyed 143 142

Cabot,

Therefore,

143 ly, were located in the system information channel jjrior to the sys- In order to maintain performance under information input tem output member. The structure of the "decider" system was overload" conditions, living systems employ adjustment processes. In such that two parallel but redundant input series were channeled general these are employed more as information input rates reach through the system to the output member, who had to decide how and exceed a system's channel capacity. Finally the adjustment proc- to respond to the two series when discrepancies appeared between esses are exhausted and the system's performance falls. (Miller, W. them. Both the dispatcher and node groups are superior to the Horvath,Foster, Peretz, Cabot, Moss, Pollack; 1961) decider group in information transmitted; the dispatcher group omits less than the other two groups; there is a tendency for the Individuals free to select adjustment jjrocesses as they wish dispatcher groujj to filter more than the decider group and to information overload situation, use few or none at in the" lOTA abstract more than the node group; there is a tendency for the rates, all that are possible at moderate input slow input attempt group to abstract more than the node (Miller, Cabot, omission at higher rates. decider group. rates, but jjrefer filtering and especially House; 1965) W. Horvath, Foster, Peretz, Cabot, Moss, Pollack; 1961) (Miller, In the experiments where ease of abstracting is comparable two at the individual, three In a series of seven experiments, across" levels, individuals abstract more than either the node group " organization level, the average rank at the group, and two at the or the node organization and selectively omit less than the node seven sets of six input rate means was order correlation among the group. No differences were found between the node group and node among the exjjeriments on the 0.80, indicating a good agreement organization. (Miller, Cabot, House; 1965) nature of the relationship between input and output as measured in The node system, either group or organization, transmits information transmitted in bits jjer second. For all experimental " increased input up to the rate of maximum more information and abstracts less than the decider system. The systems, output with make more errors and filter transmission, but subsequent increases in input led to latter tends to more. (Miller, information House; 1965) decreases i.e., the information input overload curve. in output, at high levels of organizational complexity House; 1965) Systems have (Miller, more" adjustment processes and more complicated combinations of considered for the Of the several mathematical statements them than systems at low levels. (Miller, W. Horvath, Foster, purpose" of describing the input-output relationship, F. for all seven Peretz; 1961) best combines the criteria of fit and inter- - " studies, the following one In social institutions each of the various adjustment proc- F(x) l(x) N(x) D(x); where x equals input rate in bits pretation: = esses"is applied according to several policies. (Meier; 1961) per second and the multiplicative functions I, N, and D are inter- input stress on a in- preted, respectively, as related to experimental instructions, system When information social institution " so that its performance falls, stress noise, and the use of immediate memory as a queue for signals. For creases much the is transmitted decrementresulting to individuals in it, and responses in them like poor morale and this set of exjjeriments, most of the performance Cabot, House; escape appear. (Meier; 1961) from system overload is accounted for by D(x). (Millet; 1965) Two major functions describe the effects of similar distract- in experiments where abstracting (jjrocessing of ing inputs" on performance: (a) monotonic, often linear, and (b) Individuals For example, function disturbance information" with less than complete detail) is made easy for them , curvilinear. (a) describes the ex- of the written transmit less information and abstract more than individuals in caused in writing by delayed visual feedback charac- time varies; describes the disturb- periments where abstracting is more difficult. This finding supports ters, when delay and function (b) behavior, ance in speaking by delayed auditory delay the concept that adjustment jjrocesses, like other are sub- caused feedback when instrumentation, and (Gerard, M. Jackson, Livant, Miller; 1962) ject to control by variables such as payoffs, time varies. instructions. (Miller, House; 1965) Both functions (a) and (b) may appear in different measures " In several where individuals In these experiments, the groups were composed of three in the same experiment. experiments of or judge line lengths in the face of conflicting judg- men "in a face-to-face situation; the organizations were composed two-man groups from the experimenter, function (a) describes the amount of three three-man groups. In the "dispatcher" groups, one member dis- ments tributed the input between two output members. In the "node" yielding on length judgments, but function (b) describes the de- members, groups and node organizations, two and eight respective- 145 144

Cabot,

Cabot, crease in self-rated confidence after judgment. Again in paired asso- daily those representable by linear graphs, are of interest in these ciates learning, transfer of training is described by function (a) for Enumerations have been made of such random graphs, M. applications. input similarity, and function (b) for output similarity. (Gerard, and especially of trees (connected graphs without cycles), when a Jackson,Livant, Miller; 1962) new node is added. The distribution of node-degree of trees of given in the same experiment on the same measure, order is approximately Poisson whereas the distribution becomes function" (a) is obtained for results on two-man groups, function (b) geometric upon addition of a new node. (Flood, Anatol Rapoport, for individual results. In experiments where subjects repeat the Na; 1965) unique syllable in a heard group of three syllables, the behavior of Biparty graphs, rejjresenting interaction between two (social) (b). groups is described by function (a), and that of individuals by groups," are less seldom trees than are uniparty graphs when the (Gerard, M. Jackson, Livant, Miller; 1962) number of nodes exceeds 12. (Flood, Anatol Rapoport, Na; 1965) Some experiments are completely negative, producing neither There is a linear relationship between the size of the group function" (a) nor function (b). Absolute judgment of color in the "which junior high school students draw their friends and the M. from presence of a surrounding color falls into this category. (Gerard, number of friends who are chosen. This allows sociograms to be Jackson, Livant, Miller; 1962) jjlotted using a measure which depends on the sum of choice rank. Thus if student A chooses student B as his ith and student B Information Processing Systems chooses student A as his /th friend, these two individuals should The major problems in concrete information systems and the appear in the sociogram i + ; units apart. The fact that friendship greatest" potentialities of solution are in the direction of aiding in rank decreases linearly as groujj size increases gives indication that I the process of generating of introducing special logic- "social space" is locally unidimensional. (Foster, W. Horvath, Miller, like languages resembling natural language rather than attempting Anatol Rapoport; 1961) to analyze the content of unconstrained natural language itself. In a study of sociograms from two junior high schools, a (Kochen; l96s) mathematical" model was constructed by which the entire tracing of } The amount of "intellectual effort" expended by an infor- a friendshijJ net is jjredicted on the basis of an estimate of two mation" retrieval system, plus that expended by the user in prepa- diquishness bias parameters, which can be obtained from a sample ration, is a constant which depends on the difficulty of the query. of the data. Agreement between predicted and observed data is (Kochen; l96s) very good throughout. (Foster, W. Horvath, Anatol Rapoport, The extent to which relevant and only relevant references 1962) are retrieved" can be controlled through use of a thesaurus to in- A large samjjle of responses to the Kent-Rosanoff Word-Asso- crease the rate of finding relevant and use of syntactic ciation" Test carried out at the University of Minnesota follows a bonds between descriptors in index terms and in queries to reduce Yule distribution. This applicability to word-association tests pre- the thus increased rate of finding irrelevant information. (Kochen; sents psychologists with a jjowerful quantitative tool for making 1965) comparisons between different populations and between different The use of a time-shared information retrieval system based stimulus words. (W. Horvath; 1962) on " system indexing is advantageous only if its use for process mathematical model describes such di- 1 coordinate The Polya information retrieval is a small, but highest-priority, fraction of the verse"ljhenomena as the distribution of jjopularity in a social insti- total computer load. An enormous read-write memory must be per- tution and the fluctuating demands on a blood bank in a hospital. manently tied up with such a system. (Kochen; 1965) (W. Horvath; 1962) A quantitative method for evaluating bias in medical diag- BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS MODELS BEHAVIORAL AND nosis" has been developed for certain screening procedures. (W. Network graphs have been used in studies of many biological Horvath; 1964) and sociological" systems and subsystems. Examples include neuronal A study of readmissions to mental hospitals in Great Britain nets, acquaintanceship nets, word-association nets, and information- " that the frequency of rehospitalization can be represented ■I time, indicates retrieval nets. Nets that develop stochastically over and espe- by a stochastic population model known as the compound Poisson

146 147

Sometimes,

friend,

information,

Orwant;

information, observed distribution is aconsequence "l process. This suggests that the of population heterogeneity rather than a contagious process where- v in the occurrence of one episode of hospitalization makes another onemore likely. (W. Horvath; 1964) A simple probabilistic process has been derived to explain the o observed" distribution of participation in experimental group dis- explanation makes use of the known homogeneity of on cussions. The a the observed groups, so that each member has the same constant probability of initiating the next statement in a discussion. However, an unconscious hierarchy is quickly formed, based on individual differences in the rapidity of taking thefloor. These two assumptions can be shown to lead to the observed geometric decrease in frequency of participation found in a number of studies of this interaction process. (W. Horvath; 1964) A new type of distribution function involving a convolution of an" exponential with a logarithmic normal distribution of time constants has been proposed for explaining the observed uniformity of durations of labor strikes. (W. Horvath; 1964) A transportation code, written in FORTRAN II for the IBM"704 with 32 X memory, solves a randomly generated problem of 58 x in about 15 minutes; the code utilized Kuhn's Hun- size 145 Schizophrenic Subgroup Subgroup I—Paranoid garian Method, and is based upon a new proof of Konig's Theorem Profile: plus preparation theorems (reduction, recompression, isolation). \ (Flood; 1960) Standard but important problems in numerical analysis were solved" by transforming them into "peak-finding problems" (i.e., finding the location of the largest value of a given function of a of and using the IBM 7090 computer to solve the set variables) o problems by means of jjeak-finding search programs. They can obtain maximum likelihood estimates for the parameters of various stochastic learning models. The search programs were used successfully to analyze sets of experimental data that could not previously be analyzed. These search programs should have a wide application to a large variety of important problems that have not been sus- ceptible to analysis by traditional mathematical methods. (Flood, t Le0n; 1962) FINDINGS FROM THE SCHIZOPHRENIA AND PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY PROJECT FINDINGS FROM THE OVERALL PROJECT Schizojjhrenic and nonschizojjhrenic subjects differ significantly" on 166 out of 382 variables included in the test battery developed for this study. Among other schizophrenics Subgroup Subgroup 2—Nonparanoid have greater difficulties in childhood, particularly in relationships Schizophrenic Profile: 148

I A

differences,

149 STUDIES IN THE adults, are more disorganized, have more anxiety, FINDINGS FROM INDIVIDUAL with peers; as they SCHIZOPHRENIA PROJECT a different pattern of body temjjerature distribution, more respira- time, tory irregularity, jjoorer night vision, altered reaction im- Injection of the hallucinogenic drug d-lysergic acid diethyla- jjaired reasoning ability, and poorer social understanding. They mide"(LSD) increases the optic response of cats by as much as one- have a smaller chest girth, and different patterns of urine volume third, an effect that is not altered by the injection of nonschizo- and salts and serum phosphorus. (1964) phrenic human blood serum but is abolished by serum from schizo- schizophrenics differ significantly jjhrenics. This ajjjjears to offer some jjromise as a test for schizo- Paranoid and nonjjaranoid drug chlorpromazine simulated the effects of "each other. In childhood the jjaranoids are more alert, better jjhrenia, although the from serum. (Fox,Altman, 1961) adjusted with their peers, and come from a higher social class. In schizophrenic adulthood they continue to differ both behaviorally and biologically. Two active substances, as yet appear in much " in nonschizo- I (1964) higher concentrations in schizojjhrenic urine than phrenic urine. When acetone extracts of nonschizophrenic urine are in the subject population of the Schizojjhrenia There into mice, only slight behavioral changes result. When " significant relationships between behavioral and bio- are injected Project many urine extracts are injected, the mice show either over- measures, including such variables as: urine creatinine and schizophrenic logical activity— jumjjing, crying, and in some cases convulsions and death; levels, social class, androgyny score, intellectual func- blood uric acid even to coma. (Ging, Ezman, Fox, Fujita, Hodges; tioning, withdrawal, and physiological reactions to stress. Higher or depression, 1961) creatinine excretion, for example, is associated with better psycho- serum logical, psychiatric, and sociological jjerformance. (1964) Tests of effects of schizophrenic and nonschizophrenic on glucose" jjenetration through the blood-brain barrier in mice A factorial screening test of profiles of schizophre- i " successive show no difference in mean values for schizophrenics and nonschizo- nics shows a fairly clear breakdown into three essentially jjaranoid The effects of the schizophrenic sera, however, vary with The three jjhrenics. and four essentially nonparanoid clusters. jjaranoid age of the donor. This may be related to differences in liver or in their jjsychological the groups are all above the schizojjhrenic average other organ function. (Holmberg, Grieg; 1961) and four nonparanoid groujjs in general below aver- i functioning, the inconsistent evidence that liver function tends group shows distinctive biological characteristics, includ- There is some age. Each " schizojjhrenics. Chlorjjromazine, which can pro- differences in temjjerature, heart rate, and volume and salt con- to be imjjaired in ing enduring biological and psychological changes, may induce tent of excreted urine. These seven groujjs also show clear and co- duce changes. Urinary excretion of this drug seems to occur for herent differences in psychiatric and social history attributes, al- such liver a considerable time after the drug is discontinued. Chlorpromazine though these data are not involved in the initial groupings. The markedly increases indican excretion (imipramine decreases it), shifts finding of seven subgroujjs thus seems to be a valid nosological sepa- response from the normal to the schizophrenic type, ration. (1964) the cat optic sharply increases the rise of blood pressure and the anxiety state The following characteristics differentiated the indicated sub- produced by the autonomic drug, yohimbine. Chlorpromazine also group" of schizophrenics from all others: Group 1, paranoid: uni- potentiates the effects of piperoxan. (Yuwiler, Fox, Holmberg, formly good psychological functioning, low serum phosphorus, and i poor Ingram; 1961) .! variable blood jjressure. Group 2, nonparanoid: uniformly 2V- creatinine The drug Ditran (a mixture of N-ethyl-3-piperidyl and jjsychological functioning. Group 3, nonparanoid: high phenylcyclopentyl glycolate) produces a volume, low low sodium. Group ethyl-2-pyrrolidylmethyl" blood /urine, low urine potassium, state resembling psychosis. Tetrahydroaminacrin but only average psycho- temporary mental 4, paranoid: good intellectual functioning, antidote for Ditran. Ditran and chlorpromazine alter functioning, low urine volume. Group 5, paranoid: fast dot- is a specific motor test behavior and psychiatric ratings, sometimes acting high urine volume, high sodium, high potassium, low jjsychological ting speed, in opposite directions. (Gershon, Broder, Holmberg; 1961) serum phosphorus, high reactivity to stress. Group 6, nonparanoid: biochemical measures, such as protein-bound lowreactivity to stress, high parasympathetic index. Group 7, non- A number of " excretion, discriminate some classical paranoid: low skin temperature, impaired symbolic thinking and iodine and diurnal sodium a set of biochemical measures reasoning, high serum phosphorus. (1964) psychiatric clinical groups, and larger 151 150

O'Brien; unidentified, a There is a statistically significant difference between the schizo- 1 highly with variables in other areas; for example, cross-correlate and the control group. (Ingram; correlation was found between uric acid levels and IQ test results. phrenic patient group American (Yuwiler, N. Mattsson; 1961) 1964) hospitalized schizophre- Diurnal variations in body temperature, eye movements, and Of 29 biochemical variables tested in nic " nonschizophrenic patients, hospital personnel, and inmates general" motor activity seem to differ for schizojjhrenics and non- and State Prison of Southern Michigan, two (bromsulfonphthalein schizojjhrenics. (Budson) at the and sulfuric acid chromogens) statistically differentiate schizophrenic A measure for rating anxiety levels of patients undergoing and nonschizophrenic groups, though these differences may be a " testing was develojjed. Ratings \ jjsychological and physiological byproduct of the experimental procedures. (Yuwiler; 1960) made independently by members of the psychology staff and ward consistency, correlating highly with test re- Chlorpromazine lowers the amounts of the nucleotides adeno- jjersonnel show good " and guanosine trijjhosphate in the blood of schizo- sults. (Holmberg; 1961) sine triphosphate phrenics, and increases the amounts of these substances in the blood a member The Olariu Psychiatric Rating developed by of nonschizophrenics. (Ling, Friberg, Krasteff; 1961) I " staff, parallels other such scales but differentiates of the jjroject There is no significant difference between the effects of blood among clinical groups better. This scale makes it possible to observe sera of" schizophrenics and nonschizojjhrenics on the glucose uptake differences in a patient's jjathology over time and to determine shifts of isolated rat diaphragms. (Ling, Friberg, Krasteff; 1960) in his behavior when drugs are used. Psychiatric findings in this research coincide well with objective psychological test measures, Guanosine triphosphate ajjjjears in significantly higher which fact offers jjromise thatclinical evaluations can be objectified. quantities" in the red blood cells of schizophrenic patients than in Eighty per cent of the psychological test variables discriminate signi- those of nonschizophrenic patients. (Ling, Friberg, Krasteff; 1960) ficantly among diagnostic subgroujjs and correlate highly and consistently with jjsychiatric ratings. (Olariu; 1961) Social jjerception and understanding by schizojjhrenics is selectively" impaired, as is shown by clear-cut differences in test scores between schizojjhrenics and other patients on tests esjjecially designed to measure these abilities. Such findings do not tell whether the social isolation of schizophrenics is the cause or the result of the illness. (Vandenberg; 1960) Schizophrenic subjects have little more jjathology in their family" backgrounds than normals. Major differences between schizophrenics and controls are in their peer relationships and general >i: social adequacy from early childhood. Levels of general functioning as well as patterns of childhood aggression differ little between the two groups. (Fritz, E. Mattsson, Anderson, Styler, Stansell; 1964) - Psychological differences between schizophrenics and normals appear," from preliminary data, to be more subtle. The best discrimi- nators so far discovered are spontaneous feeling response, performance on tasks relating to social understanding, and over-all behavior in the actual testing situation. (Fritz, E. Mattsson, Anderson, Styler, Stansell; 1964) When American and British normal subjects are compared, the mean" score for the American control group is slightly higher than the British normal subjects' mean on Tanner's androgyny score. 153 152

A J

Scale,

.;! Leavitt, Fred, fO2, 118 Reich, Peter A., 118 INDEX TO THE TEN-YEAR SUMMARY OF FINDINGS Leon, Alberto, 137, 139, 148 Reiselbach, Leroy N., 135 Lickey, Marvin, 107, 108, 109 Robinson, Howard, 137 Agranoff, Bernard W., 103, 104, 106 Friberg, Roberta, 153 Liebeskind, John C, 108, 109 Roosen-Runge, Peter H., 115, 116, 137 Allen, GeorgeD„ 117,118 Friede, Reinhard L., 112, 113, 1 14 Ling, Nan-Sing, 107, 153 Rothschild, Gerard FL, 101, 110 Altman, Fred, 151 Fritz, Helen 152 William P., 114, 115, 144 Anderson, Mary Lou, 152 Fujita, Shigeo, 151 145 Salive, Harold, 102 Loomis, James C, 138 Santen, Richard, 106 Bakker, Cornells 8., 124, 128, 129 Gerard, Ralph W„ 101, 123, 124, 144, Louttit, Richard, 106 Seiffert, Ulrich, 106 Benkard, J. Philip, 117, 118 145 Shearer, Marshall, 138 Blum, Jacob J., 107 Gershon, Samuel, 151 Magee, Kenneth 112 Shelby, Jessie M., 101, 102 Blumenthal, MonicaD., 102, 103 Ging, Nelson S., 151 Neville, 106 Shigehisa, Tsuyoshi, 102 Boyd, John P., 115, 116, 140 Gohlman, William E., 117, 118 Marquis, Donald G., 123 Paul, 102 Breed, Larkin 138, 139 Gollender, Morton, 110 Marquis, 143 Singer, J. David, 133, 134, 136, 137 Broder, Elsa, 151 Goyer,Robert, 138 Nils 152 Small, Melvin, 124, 136, 137 S., 118 Graham, Robert M., 124 McConnell, James V., 102 Srivastva, Suresh, 124, 127 John Richard 131, Buckley, Scott T„ 101 Gyr, John W., 118, 119, 139, 140 Meier, L., 132, 143, 144 Stansell, William, 152 Budson, Richard D., 152 Miller, James G., 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, Styler, Harold, 152 Burns, John 125, 126, 127 Haas, Wilbur 134 127, 143, 144, 145, 147 Suomi, William D., 104 Butcher, Lawrence L., 107 Hajra, Amiya X., 104, 105, 106 Morningstar, Gershom 125, 126, 127 Halick, Paul, 101, 143 Moss, Stanley M., 122, 143, 144 Tagliacozzo, Renata, 131 Richard, 143, 144, 145 Hansen, Wayne, 117, 118 Mowshowitz, Abbee, 140, 141, 142 Takagi, Sadayuki, 110 Cafagna, Albert, 118 Hayden, Thomas, 132 Tikofsky, Ronald S., 120 Carson, Daniel H., 119, 121 Hendershott, Phillip, 128 Charles, 118 120 Hodges, 151 Uhr, Leonard, 114, 117, 123 Chamberlain, Thomas J., 101 Hoffman, Fredric 138 O'Brien, James H., 107, 109, 151 124, 128, 129 Chammah, Albert M., 139, 140, 141, 142 Holmberg, K. Gttnnar, 152 Olarin, John, 152 Uleman, James, 117 Chapman, Reuben, 134 Horowitz, Arnold E., 143 Carol J„ 139, 140, 147 Uttal, William, 129 Clay, Margaret 102, 123, 131 Fred 137 Robert L, 131, 132 Horvath, William J., 110, 143, 147, 148 Surendra, 104 Vandenberg, Steven G., 152 Robert 144, 145 110, 144 Vossler, Albert E., 112 Dale, Philip, 110, 1 11, 142 Petzold, Gary, 103 William F... 105 Ingram, Charles, 153 Pilisuk, 132, 133, 134 Wajda, Martha, 106 Davis, Roger F... 103 Isaac, Paul, 118 123, 124 Winkelman, Eugene L, 124 Davis, Roy, 122 Pollack, Irwin, 116, 121, 122, ISO, 131, Winter, J. Alan, 134 Hearing, Joanne, 107 Jackson,C. Wesley, 128 143, 144 Wyse, Gordon, 110 Deutsch, 142 Jackson, Merrill, 131, 132, 143, 144, 145 Pollard, John C, 123, 124, 128, 129, 130 Dingle, Hugh, 109 Janowitcz, Thomas, 127 Kenneth P. 134 Yerian, 126, 127 Duddles, Ronald, 126, 127 John, Erwin R., 1 19 Yuwiler, Arthur, 106, 151, 152, 153 Dwyer, John M., 139, 140 Radin, Norman S., 104, 105, 106 Kelly, E. Lowell, 123 Rapoport, 116 Zegans, Leonard, 129, 130 F.ckerman, William, 124 Kelly, Lillian, 143 Rapoport, Anatol, 114, 115, 116, Evans, Richard, 143 Kimble, Daniel P., 107 119, 123, 133, 134, 139, 140, Ezman, Leon, 151 Kiplinger, Linda, 128 147 Kishimoio, 104, 105 Feingold, Marcia, 137 Knoller, Mechthilde, 114 Feuerfile, David, 124, 128, 13 Kochen, Manfred, 146 Fitts, Paul M., 122 Kopaczyk, Krystyna, 105 Flacks, Miriam, 103 Kohnblum, Sylvan, 119, 122 Fleming, La Dona M., 1 12, 1 14 Korst, Donald R., 124 Flood, Marrill M., 137, 138, 139, 147, 14.! Kramer, Fred, 115 Foote, J. Lindsley, 106 Krasteff, Tudor, 153 Foster, Caxton C, 143, 144, 147 Kristofferson, Alfred 123 Fox, Stephen S., 107, 108, 109, 112, 123, 151 Law, O. Thomas, 110 155 154

8., Livant, 116, ;

R., Marks, Shinkman, 8., Kent, Mattsson, 8., Blown,

T., X., 103, C,

Cabot,

115, 120, Neuman, Carson, Florence, Robert, 118, 119, X., 151, Orwant, L., 124, Horvath, E., Crane, Parmar, House, R., 125, 126, Peretz, Bertram,

Davies, 101, 151, Marc, Platz, Arthur,

Karl, 126, Potter, Cameron,

Amnon, 110, 141, 142, Yasuo,

8., f

i I

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