Sustainable management of Stone forest ecosystems in Mediterranean Europe in the context of Global Change

Dr. Sven MUTKE INIA-CIFOR, Forest Research Centre (Madrid, Spain)

iuFOR - Sustainable Forest Management Research Institute UVa-INIA

FAO/CIHEAM Inter-regional Research Network on Nuts IUFRO RG1.08.00 - Silviculture for production of edible fruits

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 1. Sustainable Forest Management in Europe

Europe is forested (21st c.)

, , 2015

SoEF

Roundwood

FAOSTAT, 2012 FAOSTAT, removals 18 G€/yr

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 2. NWFP from European Forests European forests = wood supply only?

FAO FRA, 2010: regional differences in (marketed) Value NWFP removals Value wood removals

FAO SoEF, 2015: Non Wood Forest Products 2.3 G€/yr (12.6% Wood) 12.6%

Cork 0.4 G€/yr

Edibles (nuts/berries/mushrooms) Christmas 0.5 G€/yr 0.8 G€/yr Berry/mushroom collection = no revenue for forest owner Self-consumption or local/informal trade = no trade statistics

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 3. Spain and its forests 5050 millionmillion hectarehectare total land surface Spain (cf. 45 Mha Heilongjiang Shěng, 黑龙江) 25 Mha legally “forest land”

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 3. Spain and its forests 50 million hectare total land surface 25 Mha legally “forest land” (forests, woodlands, pasture, heaths,…) 12 Mha forests (1970) → 18 Mha (2010) +50% due to afforestation + encroachment (!) after rural flight s. 1950

4% forests with presence of Pinus pinea 0.76 Mha with presence or by-mixture,

0.49 Mha P. pinea dominated (on sands, rocky slopes)

de Miguel et al, et 2011Miguelde International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 4. Mediterranean (and other) Pine Nuts The most traded pine nuts in the European market • P. pinea – Mediterranean pine nuts – 33-38% Proteins – 5-6% Carbohydrates – 46-51% Fat

• P. gerardiana – Chilgoza or Pakistani pine nuts (soft hull, perfectly cylindric, dark dry tip) – 12-14% Proteins – 4% Carbohydrates – 51-61% Fat

• P. koraiensis – Chinese pine nuts (broad triangular, brown cap around the tip) – 17-18% Proteins – 12% Carbohydrates – 65-67% Fatty acids – 12% Pinolenic acid (appetite suppressant)

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 4. Mediterranean (and other) Pine Nuts Pine nuts in the world (a tentative overview) Species Countries Area (million ha) State Pinus pinea P, E, F, I, TR, RL etc. MEDITERRANEAN <1 Mha expanding, planted (+0.7 Mha) Pinus gerardiana Pakistan, Afghanistan, India WHITE endangered, overcropped China (Heilongjiang), Korea, Russia, Japan 3 Mha (PRC 0.2/30) overcropped (clear-cuts XX c.) Pinus sibirica E Russia, Mongolia, China, Kazakhstan 29 Mha/36.7 10.7 Mha cone harvesting Pinus pumila E Russia, China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan 32.6 Mha/38.3 Pinus armandii China (Shaanxi and Sichuan) China Asiatic FIVE-NEEDLE stone pines Pinus yunnanensis China (Yunnan) Pinus massoniana China (Yunnan) Asiatic HARD pines 12 Mha USA 1.9 Mha -1.3 Mha (chaining 1950-73) USA 19 Mha PJW -0.3 Mha. (charcoal XIX. c) , USA (TX, NM, AZ) (pinyon- widespread Mexico, USA (TX) woodlands) local endemic Pinus nelsonii Mexico, USA (AZ, NM) " Pinus discolor Mexico, USA (AZ, NM) " Mexico, USA () " P. culminicola, johannis, maximartinezii, orizabensis, pinceana... " Mexico American PINYON pines Pinus sabiniana USA (CAL) sparsely scattered endemic over 1.2 Mha BOW (blue oak woodland) Pinus torreyana USA (CAL) American BIG CONE pines local endemic International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 Biol. production? Harvested? 4. Mediterranean (and other) Pine Nuts Processed? Traded? Estimates of production [metric tons kernel] Exported? DECLARED? pinenut.com Other Species (2001)1 Sources2 China P. koraiensis, sibirica & al. 4,750 12,000 Korea P. koraiensis 8,360 3,833 Russia P. sibirica, koraiensis, pumila 1,500 90,000 ? Pak./Afgh. P. gerardiana 2,000 4,000 USA P. edulis - 500 Mediterr. P. pinea 2,900 4,250 Spain 700 800 Italy 900 319 Portugal 750 880 Turkey 550 1,224 Lebanon - 1,032

Major UNCERTAINTIES

1 http://pinenut.com/growing-pine-nuts/global-pine-nut-value-data.shtml 2 INC 2012, 2016; FAO, 2010, 2017; efloras.org; kosis.kr; Iroshnikov&Politov,2001; Simonov&Dahmer 2008; mapama.gob.es; istat.it; ine.pt; Kilci, 2014, OGM, 2015; Sattout, 2017, etc. International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 5. Stone pine, Pinus pinea The Mediterranean stone pine (aka umbrella pine)

JRC, 2016 Yields (“100-2,000 kg/ha/yr cones”) Fresh weight 250-350(-600) g/cone 18% pine nuts in shell per kg cone (1:6) 0.6 g/unit 25% kg kernel per kg pine nuts (1:4) 0.1-0.15 g/unit 4% kg kernel per kg cone (1:25)

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 5. Stone pine, Pinus pinea

Pan-Mediterranean distribution Area (ha) ...mostly plantations since 19th c. Spain 490,000 (one-layer  naturalisation) Turkey 195,000 Portugal 175,000 Italy 46,000 Tunisia 21,000 France 13,000

Lebanon 12,000

Syria 5,500 Maroc 3,000 Israel 2,000 Greece 1,500

Total 964,000 Adapted from Blanco al, et 1997Blanco from Adapted

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 5. Stone pine, Pinus pinea Genetics Quantitative Genetics (phenotyping) International Provenance trial FAO Silva Mediterranea 1994 (Mutke et al., 2010, 2013)

… reduced adaptative variation (growth, phenology)

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 5. Stone pine, Pinus pinea Genetics Molecular genetics Isoenzymes: only 1 polymorphism (2 alleles) our of 32 loci (1997) cpDNA: only 3 polymorphisms (2 alleles) out of 13 loci (2008) "1 sole chloroplast survived“ …nearly complete absence of neutral variation

“Genetically depauperate but widespread: (Fallour et al., 1997) the case of an emblematic mediterranean pine” (Vendramin et al., 2008) nuSSRs: 6 polymorphisms (several alleles each) (Pinzauti et al., 2012) …low, but significant variation International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 5. Stone pine, Pinus pinea

Hypothesis: glacial population bottleneck in SW Iberia Gibraltar to Malaga

The last few Neanderthals (150-28 kyr BP),

living retired at the Costa del Sol, , 2013 ,

eating pine nuts, sea food and snails Broodbank SW Iberia (Lisbon to Malaga) Megalithic Copper Age, Tartessos, Phoenicians (5-0.5 kyr BCE)

Copper Age ivory vessel ~2.5 kyr BCE

(García Sanjuan et al., 2013)

, 2013 , Broodbank Archaeological findings "50,000-50 BCE" Whole western Mediterranean since Iron Age (1 kyr BCE) (Rubiales et al., 2011) International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 5. Stone pine, Pinus pinea The Mediterranean stone pine: dynamics

• Wind-pollinated, zoochorous pine.

• Self-fertil, capable to establish from a few kins.

• Natural stand dynamics: open, irregular woodland

• In regular pine groves Ne<< Ntotal (few reproducers)

• Local dispersion by birds >1.5 km /100 yrs e.g. bridgehead from 1 founder (Central Chile)

evenaged stands from plantation 14 or directed regeneration over holm oak coppice + 100 years

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change 14 Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 5. Stone pine, Pinus pinea

Spain 175,000 ha (1857)  490,000 ha (x3 since 1900)

Old forests

Forestation

http://www.genfored.es/sig_esp_forest.html

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 5. Stone pine, Pinus pinea Spain Silviculture - Mostly even-aged stands, shelterwood system (rotation 80-150 yrs) - Also: in un-evenaged, irregular, mixed woodlands (P. pinaster, Q. ilex, Q. faginea, Juniperus sp.)

- Drought-prone low densities (150/ha, FCC < 20%, BA < 20m2/ha and less)

et al., 2015 al., et

- Low-value timber (8-18 €/m3, MAI 0.5-3 m3/ha/yr) - Regeneration success difficult due to harsh soils and climate (droughts) Pasalodos

Relevant NWFP: 100-2,000 kg/ha/yr cones (+ mushrooms, resin from P. pinaster,...) - Auction for cone yielding right (0.25 €/kg on the tree), harvest by the licensee - “10 years cone yield can will equal the timber value of the tree – so, let’s wait” Forestry paradigm changes: not “the earlier the better”, but “the later, the better” “the branchier the crown, the better” NB: Not to be neglected, the paramount ecological, protective and social ESS: - (Peri)urban forestry (landscape, amenity, recreation); wildlife, soil and water protection - The only forest islands in the “empty” Castilian rain-fed cereal pseudo-steppe International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017

5. Stone pine, Pinus pinea

UNAC.pt Portugal Formerly, 50,000 ha in open/mixed forests  175,000 ha (6% forest area.pt) (x3.5 since 1980),

Increasingly orchards & agroforestry, increasingly grafted http://www.unac.pt/eventos/2012.html

Turkey (42,000 ha stone pine in state forests) “28,000 ha forest in good shape + 15,000 ha degraded (0.3% total forest area TR)” http://www.ogm.gov.tr/lang/en/Documents/Forest Atlas.pdf But actually, 195,000 ha stone pine (x4 since 1980) 133,000 ha private plantations with local economic relevance of pine value chains [Kilci et al., 2014]

Lebanon (12.000 ha) Afforestation (Ottoman Empire, after 1860)  (over-)aged stands, no regeneration Western Mount Lebanon, at 600 to 1,000 (1,600) m a.s.l., on steep slopes, poor soil

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 5. Stone pine, Pinus pinea Mediterranean pine cone production is irregular in time: masting, typical for a wild-collected product in harsh conditions (water deficits!) e.g. Portugal 2010/11 125,000 t cones (> 20,000 t pine nuts in shell) 2011/12 25,000 t cones (average), 3 very poor yields since and space: Portugal (0.15 million ha) harvests a mean cone yield (20-25,000 t) similar to Spain (0.50 million ha), or to Lebanon (less than 12,000 ha)!  No sound statistics (often based on industry/trade declaration/TARIC code: unclear if nuts in shell, kernel,... even closed cones are exported, and species are not differed)

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 5. Stone pine, Pinus pinea

Commercial cone yield depends on - Biological yield (masting by weather clues) as well as on -Technological innovation Only recently, tree shakers (3s/tree) have substituted Palaeolithic manual climbing-for-collection

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 GLOBAL CHANGE

Forestry is facing at present times challenges from various environmental, social, economic and political factors

• Climate change • Loss of biodiversity • Emerging and invasive forest pests and diseases • Land erosion and loss of soils • Illegal logging and trade of wood • LULUC - Land use changes • etc. [ERA-NET Sumforest conference “Sustainable forestry: Fact or Fiction?” Skopje, 2017]

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 GLOBAL CHANGE Africanisation of the Mediterranean climate zone CC - Climate Change ( Global Change)

- Weather-triggered phenology / productivity (Mutke et al., 2003, 2005; Calama et al., 2011, 2016) - Natural disturbances, extreme events (crown diebacks) - Forest fire risks, drought-prone pest outbreaks,... - Exotic pests range expansion (+ diseases) Impacts - Species range - Adaptation / Genetic resources - Forest production / productivity (Pardos et al., 2015) Adaptation & Mitigation - Adaptative management, stand density reduction (del Río et al., 2014)

Climate scenarios (21st c. central Spain) MAT Baseline 11-13 ºC CC +4 to +8 ºC MAR Baseline 350-500 mm/yr CC. up to -20 %

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 GLOBAL CHANGE Africanisation of the Mediterranean climate zone Impact of 4 climate scenarios (process-based modelling) in comparison with baseline climate 1973-2010 (Pardos et al., 2015)

(MAT +1/+4 ºC, MAR -10/-30%, i.e. conservative CC predictions for 21st c. in central Spain)

current et et al., 2015)

predicted

Pardos ( - Under the harshest scenario, stone pine forests will vanish from deep sands (ST3/4) (and P. pinea is the “last possible” tree species on those fossil dunes) - Cone yield production is predicted to be widely lost if rainfall decreased 30%, except on most favourable Site Type ST1 (river terraces, access to groundwater) ”Riparian pine” forests? International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 GLOBAL CHANGE Pests (some of them favoured by global warming and stress) Endemic needle and shoot pests (pine processionary moth, Thaumetopoea pityocampa, pine shoot moth, Rhyacionia buoliana) Endemic cone and pests (cone weevil, Pissodes validirostris, cone moth, Dioryctria mendacella) Recently introduced exotic seed bug Leptoglossus occidentalis causing the massive Dry Cone Syndrome • conelet abortion • empty • drop in kernel yield

%pine nut/cone weight

4%

2.5%

Leptoglossus occidentalis Mutke et al., 2016al., et Mutke %kernel/cone weight International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 6. Domestication Pine orchards or agroforestry (increasingly grafted, watered) combined with , annual crops, cork oak, fruit tree underplanting

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 6. Domestication (Genetic) improvement programmes of Pinus pinea

• Spain s. 1989 (Ministry, Regional Gov., INIA, UPM, IRTA, CTFC)

• Portugal (INIAV + private land owners associations UNAC, ANSUB)

• Tunisia (INGREF, collab. with IRTA/INIA Spain), Turkey (EFRI), Chile (INFOR)

 FAO-CIHEAM Inter-regional Research Network on Nuts, Stone Pine Group

AgroPine meetings 2011, 2016 http://networks.iamz.ciheam.org/agropine2011/

http://agropine2016.iniav.pt/

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 6. Domestication Clonal selection for pine orchard plantation “What for?” – “For grafted orchards”

- Increased per-hectare cone yield and easier harvest from lower trees (from all trees).

- Propagation of superior clones in cone/pine nut production (quantity and size).

- Skip of juvenile phase (i.e. 15-20 years) of strong growth without cones.

- Limited stem growth of grafted trees that spend important part of resources in fructification resulting in low, open crowns ("umbrellas, but without handle").

- Allows for optimised horticultural orchard practises, integrated pest management, etc.

non grafted

grafted Guadaño & Mutke,Guadaño2016

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 6. Domestication

Clonal Selection in Spain

1.- Plus tree prospection in main regions (80/90ies)

3-7 year individual cone yield series, seed extraction

100,0

10,0

1,0

0,1

Producción obs. versus predicha Producción media observada [kg] media Producción Arboles plus 0,0 0,0 0,1 1,0 10,0 100,0 Predicción de producción anual del árbol [kg]

(Gordo et al., 2001) International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 6. Domestication

Clonal Selection in Spain

1.- Plus tree prospection (80/90ies)

2.- Propagation by tip-cleft grafting (green bud grafting before spring flush)

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 6. Domestication

Clonal Selection in Spain

1.- Plus tree prospection

2.- Propagation by tip-cleft grafting

3.- Grafted orchards as comparative trials (replicates, randomisation. etc.) – 10-20 yrs. individual yield series – Evaluation weighted by covariates (tree size...) – Genetic gains +20-40% selecting best 10% [Mutke et al., 2005, 2007] 0,200 kg

60% Banco 1 0,190 kg Banco 2 Banco 3 Banco 4

40% 0,180 kg Peso ajustado medio piña de 0,170 kg

20% 1 Cataluña 2 Tiétar 0,160 kg 3 La Mancha 4 Meseta Norte 'piña pequeña' Ganancia genética esperada (% la sobre media)esperada genética Ganancia Valor de mejora clonal de producción de piña 0% 0,150 kg 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% -1,5 -1,0 -0,5 0,0 0,5 1,0 Proporción de clones superiores seleccionados (%)

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 6. Domestication Virtually impossible to distinguish stone pine cultivars or even varieties by morphological or phenological descriptors D.U.S., mandatory for their register (“Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability”) under standards UPOV. “Once you have seen an umbrella pine all the other ones are the same” Nor by molecular markers with isoenzymes or cpDNA, either

Positively distinct by molecular markers nucNSSRs (Pinzauti et al., 2012)  Register as Forest Basic Materials (sensu EU Regulation) for producing “tested” Forest Reproductive Materials (scions

Superiority in cone yield for 5 “tested” clones [% trial mean]

Clone Commercial name Trial site 1 Site 2 Site 3 1011 Portillo-11 27% - 25% 1012 Portillo-12 20% 12% 29% 1073 La Vega 12% - 17% 1123 Íscar - 20 % 11% 1201 Valdegalindo - 15% 18%

(+10 “qualified” clones) &Mutke, 2016 Guadaño

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017 6. Domestication

Clonal Selection in Spain

1.- Plus tree prospection in 5 main growing regions (80/90ies)

2.- Propagation by tip-cleft grafting (green bud grafting)

3.- Grafted orchards as comparative trials

4.- Outlook: Genotype x Environment interactions (agroclimate zone)

 Broaden the network of reciprocal test sites

International Symposium Sustainable Forest Management in the Context of global Change Harbin, August 1-4, 2017

Thank you for your attention

非常感謝

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