24 in the Americas

Rodney, W., Oliver, R., & Fage, J. D. (1975). The Cambridge history of Brasio, A. O. (1944). Os Pretos em Portugal. Lisbon: Agencia General Africa, Yol. IV. Cambridge: Oxford University Press. das Colonias. Rogers, J. A. (1996'). World's great men of color, Vols. I-II. New York: Cohen, W B. (1981). Frangais et Africains: Les Noirs dans le regard Touchstone des Blancs: 1530-lBB0. Paris: Gallimard. Sancho, I. (1998). Letters of the late Ignatius Sancho, an African. Davidson, A. (1966). La Russie et I'Afrique. Moscow: Editions Nauka. New York: Penguin Books. De Costa, M. (1974). The portrayal of Blacks in a Spanish medieval Shepperson G. (1966). The African abroad or the African diaspora. manuscript. Nag ro H is t o ry B ulle tin, 3 7 (l), 193-19 6. African Forum: A Quarterly Journal of Contemporary Affairs, 2, Devisse, J., & Mollat, M. (19'79). L'image duNoir dans I'art occidental, 76-93. 2. Des premiers siicles chrltiens aux grandes d4couvertes, 2. Shyllon, F. (1974). Black slaves in Britain. London: Oxford University Lausanne, Switzerland: Office du Livre. Press. Firla, M. (2001). Afrikaner in Wurtemberg. Katalog zur Ausstellung. Shyllon, F. (1993). Blacks in Britain: Historical and analytical overview Stuttgart: Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart. In J. E. Harris (Ed.), Global dimensions of the African diaspora Gr6goire, H. (1996). On the cultural achievements of Negroes.Trans. (pp. 223-248). Washington, DC: Howard University Press. T. Cassirer & J.F Bridre. Amherst: University of Massachussetts Snowden, F. M., Jr. (1983). Before color prejudice. The ancient view of Press. Blacks. Cambidge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kilson, M., & Rotberg, R. I. (1976). The African diaspora: Interpretive Tinhorao, J. R. (1988). Os Negros em Portugal. Lisbon: Caminho. essays. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

IJNESCO. (1992). General history of Africa, Vol. V. Paris: Heinemanr/ Rogers, J. A. (1940). Britain's Black background,. Crisis, 1940,47 . UNESCO. Saunders A. C., de C. M. (7982). A social history of Black slaves andfreed- Verlinden, C. (1977). L esclavage dans l'Europe medievale, Vol. 2, Italie - men in Porngal 1441-1555. Carnbridge: Cambridge University Press. Colonies italiennes du Levant -Levant latin - Empire byzantin. Scobie, E. (1972). Black Britannia: A history of Blacks in Britain. Ghent. Chicago: Johnson Publishing House. Thompson, L. A. (1989). Romans and Blacks: Social perceptions of somatic distance in the Aethiops in Roman antiquity. London: AoomoruAL LITERATURE Routledge. Walvin, J. (1973). Black and white: The Negro and English society, 1555-1945. London: Penguin Press. Baba Kak6, L (1978). Les Noirs de Ia diaspora. Libreviile, Gabon: Walvin, J. (1982). and British society 1776-1846.Baton Rouge: Editions Lion. Louisiana State University Press.

African Diaspora in the Americas

Kevin A.Yelvington

Tne ETsLAVEMENT oF AFRIcANS AND pursuits nor the striving for existential meanings in what, by now, in the postcolonial, postmodern era, is a multina- THE OruGINS oF THE AFRICAN tional, transnational, and heterogeneous social formation. Dnsponn rN THE Amenlcls Enslaved Africans previously resident in the Iberian Peninsula were probably brought to the Caribbean as The history of the Atlantic slave trade and the enslave- early as 1493 on Columbus's second voyage to the New ment of Africans and their descendants can serve as a World. Columbus also brought sugar cane on that voyage, convenient point of origin in tracing the history of the and by 1516 sugar grown on the island of Hispaflola was African diaspora in the Americas, but this history does shipped back to Europe. Concomitant with the founding not experientially exhaust the practical politics and social of what would become known as the Sugar Revolution, Afri< The Enslavement of Africans and the orrgrnc of thc laro", and smd

g*fiiil#gff6 ffi*ffimr rH* *ffi ::::::: : 1n*:;x*,*:$.:1, fmportins 't4s1- 1601- JJ,., "^ region 1600 1700 <.."rrur"on" BririshNorthAmerica o\ru,o\u, i:ry^;r,5T^ ,;i;; spanishAmericaSpanishAmerica ; t;:,;; Ti;; 1t;urtit;T; 25,00025.000 ,nr,ooo2s2,000 ;;i; -r*-r"o 's,B1z it;rlj" ,;;,;1-, f;iil 1 BritishcaribbeanBritish Caribbean ;:!::;: t,4r-, -**ry2 Jamaica - irftr,lrrt ,#i Barbados85,100662iLel-resoiBle^3456031,650},"?,.;51,410 t:;:;:' Leewardrsrands 134'500 ;;;' liti-t1q i'ry: ?;; 1];i1t l"UA St. Vincent, St. Lucia, ?0'r robago,Dominica T[;:;;t 'Ju'i,}^ rrinidad ), ,.tgo-rrrg ?Tr.-rr,ry ':;!:9 *;?*t ',xlr.n ^ ;r"-r. ?;llt .?1,11x, 160,400 3il::i1,,,' westrndies ;;:il, i;li3t ,siroo French Caribbean f,""';3 {:;x i.r"t'?l:H St.-Domingue Martinique 66,500 zii,loo rrsO-@ ii,ooo^ "ipoo sspin Guaderoupe n,:,00 ;;;,1;:; tqgg-1l:r. ir:oo- ,[* +ap00 60,600 Louisiana z8,io0 1*1yl8.lt^ +s,+oo ;pr. '70,s00 eeJ00 French Guiana 2,000 :s,ooo tlfit;". zz:to} 4,900 3?J00, rr900 Dutch caribbean 40,000 +oo'ooo 1821-r6'Zr zeJ00 1,100 s0300 -u,ooo+0,e00 DanishBrazi, caribbean OldWorld ,,,31,T,3 i!",.'^-'ffi Ttl'fi '1Tq t',':^H :;tt Mg,g00'ull "l:3332J,IOO 4'400 Europe 48,000 1,200 fg+r-181,^ r+J00 300 to,ooi Sdo Tom6 76,100 n',g00 194G185u 1o,roO 1oO 2,600 ; Atlantic lslands 25,000 Total 274,900 1,341,100 6,051,700 185G186u zJ00 0 . orn 620 1'658'1,658,15i Annuat average "' 0 1'8'?0'620 1,800 rs,+oo !i,6|i iret-119 "::l .,,u,,noo ?1ops1 .- #"T:ruv'_ sonrce:curtin(196g;p.26g,Table71). ,W'599,864 The Enslavement of Africans and the Origins of the African Diaspora in the Americas 27 reproduction of the slave labor force. What they all shared plantation slavery Africans and their descendants were was the fact that they were in the New World to meet "racializedl'and a kind of ethnicity known 4s "14ss"- the European colonizers' labor needs, replacing early both a folk taxonomy that varied somewhat from place to European indentured servants and Amerindians in various place and the result of an international discourse of domi- agricultural and early industrial undertakings. Moreover, nation-at least partially defrned them legally, politically, unlike those other laborers, they were to be made to suffer and socially. The system of "racial slavery" (Blackbum, permanent and inheritable slave status. They brought with 1997) ensured that slave status would be inherited, so that themselves practical and esoteric knowledge; their foods all those known as "Negro" or "black" would be slaves or ilre now part of several "national" cuisines (Hall, 1991), potentially slaves. At the same time, other ethnic identi- while their work produced untold riches. Rather than ties were fixed, and a calculus of "mixing" was estab- being peripheral to nascent European political economies, lished to absurd ends with elaborate nomenclatures and the Atlantic slave trade and plantation system were cen- fanciful imagery (see Tables 3 and 4).It has been sug- tral, shaping modernity and determining the industrial rev- gested that slave systems exhibited differing degrees of olution and enabling further colonial aggrandizement racism and out-and-out exploitation and cruelty accord- ( I nikori, 2002; William s, 19 44). ing to differing cultural traditions of the colonizing power The enslaved were drawn from a number of African (e.g., Hoetink, 1973; Tannenbaum,1946). However. in othnic groups. In Africa these groups were not necessarily reality, treatment of slaves had to do with the integration tunitary or culturally uniform, nor did their members of the colony into the world economic system, the degree always attach importance to group boundary symbolism. of control between the colony and the metropolitan coun- ln the course of the African slave trade ethnonyms were try, and the intensity of exploitation of labor and land rrttached to individuals on various bases by the slave traders (Mintz, 1974). These factors affected manumission rates and colonizers, including names derived from the ports of as well as the entry of persons into "" and other crnbarkation. Often the term "nation" was attached to statuses seen as intermediate, and these varied across groupings of enslaved Africans and many began to think slaveholding regions. The free people of "color" became ol'themselves in these terms in the New World. The idea of important political players, perhaps nowhere else more so nution became important in Afro-Christian religious prac- than in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, where tices and in the formation of mutual aid societies and still "mulattoes" and "free blacks" (Affranchis) numbered lrls currency in some cultural-religious contexts in Latin 30,000 in i789 (compared to 40,000 "whites") and held Arnerica and the Caribbean. property and slaves (Maingot, 1992, p.230). They cast Yet despite their diverse ethnic and cultural origins, their lot with different factions at different times durins rrr the New World under the enslavement process and the Haitian Revolution of 179I to 1804.

Table 3' some Terms used in the French caribbean for "Race" Mixtures and Degrees of "Blackness" and "Whiteness"

Reputed English degree Putative ancestry Term equivalent of "whiteness"

Offspring of "white" and "black' Mulhtre "Mulatto" l/2 "wtnte" Offspring of "white" and muldtre Quarteron "Quadroon" 3/4"wtnte" Offspring of "white" and quarteron MAtis ot Octdvon "Octoroon" 7/8 "white" Offspring of "white" and octavon Mamelouque "Mustee" 15/16 "white" Offspring of "white" and mamelouque Sang-Mdld "Mustefino" 31/32"white" Offspring of "black" and mul1tre Griff" "Sambo" ll4 "wbtte" Offspring of"black" and grffi Sacatra "Sambo" 1/8 "white" Offspring of "black" utd sacatra Marabou "Sambo" 1/16 "white"

Sonrce: Adapred from Robens 1 1942, p. | 34t. ;as References 33

)ed worldwide. Still, there is a danger that as popular culture likewise defined as of African descent (e.g., Greenbaum, nal is seen as "black" and cultural production by blacks is rel- 2002; Pamphile, 2001; Waters, 1999). In the postmodern ve- egated to the realm of the popular, important achieve- world, with increasing and speeded-up travel across bor- via ments are diminished. This is evident in the fads for ders and newer forms of communication. it seems that the illv "black" popular culture, such as Haitian paintings and African diaspora in theAmericas will continue to be char- ito Afro-Latin music; sports has the potential to reinforce acterized by movement as it responds to the challenges- Iist racism (Hoberman, 1997), and "black" music defined by some new, some very old-of the age. "infectious rhythm" reproduces notions of black culture as contagion (Browning, 1998). RereRrruces

nsl- A DnspoRA DEFTNED BY Moveuerur Alleyne, M. C. (1985). A linguistic perspective on the Caribbean. In tual S. W. Mintz, & S. Price (F,ds.), Caribbean contours (pp. 155-79). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. lad, The African diaspora in the Americas has always been Andrews, G. R. (1992). Racial inequality in Brazil and the United tals, tlcfined by movement and intradiasporal dialogue States: A statistical comparison. Journal of Social History,26(2), lud- (Yelvington, forthcoming), even if paradoxically this 229:263. oric movement and dialogue remains little known in popular Anstey, R. (1976). The British slave trade 1751-i807: A comrnenr. rcep c:ircles while being documented by academics (too exten- Journal of African History, 17(4),606407 . Blackbum, R. (1997). The making of New World slavery: From the the sive to list here). African-Americans founded the African baroque to the modern, 1492-1800. London: Verso. slate of Liberia. set lois Some tried to up a colony in inde- Browning, B. Infectious rhythm: Metaphors of contagion and the ther pcndent , and others wanted to move to Brazil. spre ad of Afric an c ul t u re. New York: Routledge. 65), Marcus Garvey (1887-1940) and the Universal Negro Burdick, I. (1992a). The myth of racial democracy. Report on the The Improvement Association in the first third of the twenti- Americas, 25(4),4044. Burdick, I. (1992b). Brazil's black consciousness movement. Report on onal clh century advocated "back to Africa," drawing on a the Ame ric as, 2 5 (4), 23-:27 . nfn- slfong current r^" that had existed ever since the first slave Camey, J. A. (2007). Black rice: The African origins of rice cultivation iom ships reached American shores. Edward Wylmot Blyden in the Americas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. obb, (1832-1912), born in the Virgin Islands in the early nine- Cobb, M. (1979). Harlem, Haiti, and Havana: A comparative critical rn in lcrcnth century, moved to West Africa, and his works call- study of Inngston Hughes, Jacques Roumain, Nicolds Guillin. Washington, DC: Three Continents Press. s the irtg tbr "black liberation" are still read today. "" Coppin, A., & Olsen, R. N. (1998). Earnings and ethnicity in Trinidad Jamaica Prix lirrrr went to establish a settlement in Sierra and Tobago. Journal of Development Studies, 34(3), 116-134. ,ntly, | ,cone in the late eighteenth century. Even before the abo- Costa, E. V. da. (1994). Crowns of glory, tears of blood: The Demerara 1992 lilion of slavery in Brazil, Afro-Brazilian traders were slave rebellion of 1823. New York: Oxford University Press. 931) trtoving back and forth between West Africa and Brazil, Craton, M. (1982). Testing the chains: Resistance to slavery in the BritishWest Indies. Ithaca, NY Cornell University Press. ican- wilh rnany Afro-Brazilians staying in West Africa, where Crook, L., & Johnson, R. (Eds.). (1999). Black Brazil: Culture, identity, llrry and their descendants won have changed the political and and social mobilization. Los Angeles: Latin American Center The social landscape. French West Indians took government Publications, University of California at Los Angeles. poet ptists in French West Africa starting at the end of the nine- Curtin, P. D. (1969). The Atlantic slave trade: A census. Madison: and lfL'nth century. African-Americans went to South Africa University of Wisconsin Press. Curtin, P. D. (1976). Measuring the Atlantic slave trade once again: ritish tts rttissionaries. Some Rastafarians from Jamaica went to A comment. Joumal of African History, l7(4),595-605. (b. as il lillrropia colonists in the late 1950s. In the post-World Curto, J. C., & Lovejoy, P. E. (Eds.) (2004). Enslaving connections: rlong Wur'2 era, Caribbean people have migrated in large num- changing cultures of Africa and Brazil during the era of slavery. inter- Itrrs to the and Europe. Some of these Amherst, NY: Humanity Books. U.S. Ittiglutions might be called "secondary diasporas" when Davis, F. J. (1991). Who is black?: One nation's definition. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. rlayer ctlrnicity and nationalism play important roles in modify- de la Fuente, A. (2001). A nationfor all: Race, inequality, and politics in star blackness I itt;l and in relationships with not only "host ht,entieth-century Cuba. ChapelHill: University of North Carolina rlacks ruruicly" dominant groups but also with those local groups Press. 34 African Diaspora in the Americas

Dubois, L. (2004). Avengers of the New World: The story of the Haitian Holt, T. C. (7992). The problem offreedom: Race, labor, and politics in Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Jamaica and Britain, 1832-1938. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. University Press. Du Bois, W E. B . (1939). Blackfolk: Then and now; An essay in the his- Inikori, J. E. (1976a). Measuring the Atlantic slave trade: An assess- tory and sociology of the Negro race. New York: Henry Holt and ment of Curtin and Ansrey. Journal of African History, U(2), Company. 197-223. Edwards, B. H. (2003). The practice of diaspora: Literature, trdnsla' Inikori, J. E. (1976b). Measuring the Atlantic slave kade: A rejoinder. tion, and. the rise of Black internationalism. Cambidge, MA: Journal of African History, 17(4),607427 . Harvard University Press. Inikori, J. E. (2002). Afncans and the Industrial Revolution in England: Eltis, D. (2001) The volume and structure of the Transatlantic Slave A study in international trade and economic development. Trade: A reassessment. William and Mary Quarterly, 58(1), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1746. Klein, H. S. (1999). The Atlantic slave trade. Cambridge: Cambridge Femdndez Olmos, M., & Paravisini-Gebert, L. (Eds.) (2007)' Healing University Press. cultures: Art and religion as curative practices in the Caribbean Littlefield, D. C. (1981). Rice and slaves: Ethnicity and the slave trade and its diaspora. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2001. in colonial South Carolina. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Fick, C. E. (7990).The making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue revolution University Press. i,, (L992). color, and class in the Caribbean. In i'al from below. Knoxville: University ofTennessee Press. Maingot, A. P. Race, ii Frazier, E. F. (1939). The Negro family in the United States. Chicago: A. Stepan (Ed.), The Americas: Interpretive essays (pp. 22W247). ir,l l: University of Chicago Press. NewYork: Oxford University Press. Geggus, D. P. (Ed.). (2001). The impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Mann, K., & Bay, E. G. (Eds.). (2001). Rethinking the African diaspora: Atlantic world. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. The making of a black Atlantic world in the Bight of Benin and Geggus, D. P. (2002). Haitian Revolutionary Studies. Bloomington, IN: B razil. London: Frank Cass. Indiana University Press. Matory, J. L. (1999). Afro-Atlantic culture: On the live dialogue Gilroy, P. (1993) The black Atlantic: Modernity and double conscious- between Africa and the Americas. In K. A. Appiah, & H. L. ness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gates, Jr. (Eds.), Africana: The encyclopedia of the African and Gomez, M. A. (1998). Exchanging our country marks: The transforma- African American experience (pp. 36a4. New York: Basic tion of African identities in the colonial and antebellum South. Civitas Books. Chapel Hiil, NC.: University of North Carolina Press. McWhorter, J. H. (2000). The missing Spanish Creoles: Recovering the Greenbaum, S. D. (2002). More than Black: Afro-Cubans in Tampa birth ofplantation contact languages. Berkeley, CA: University of Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. California Press. Gutrnan, H. G. (1976). The Black family in slavery and freedom, Mintz, S. W. (79'l4). Caribbean transformations. Chicago: Aldine. I 7 5U I 92 5. New York: Pantheon Books. Mintz, S. W. (1985). Sweetness and power: The place of sugar in Hall, R. L. (1991). Savoring Africa in the New World. In H. J. Viola, & modern history. NewYork: Viking. C. Margolis (Eds.), Seeds of change (pp. 160-171). Washington, Mintz, S.W., & Price, R. (1992). The birth of African-American culture: DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. An anthropological perspective. Boston: Beacon Press. Hanchard, M. G. (1994). Orpheus and power: The Movimento Negro of Monge Oviedo, R. (1992). Are we or aten't we? Report on the Rio de Janeiro and Sdo Paulo, Brazil, 1945-1988. Princeton, NJ: Americas,25(4), 19. Princeton University Press. Moreau de Saint-M6ry M. L. E. (1958). Description topographique, Hanchard, M. (Ed.) (1999). Racial politics in contemporary BraTil. physique, civile, politique et historique de la partie Frangaise Durham; NC: Duke University Press. de I'isle de Saint-Domingue. Paris: Soci6t6 de L'Historie des Harewood, J., & Henry, R. (1985). Inequality in a post-colonial society: Colonies Frangaises and Librarie LaRose. [Original work pub- Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain: Institute of Social and lished 1797-1798.1 Economic Research, University of the West Indies. Morgan, M. H. (2002). Language, discourse and power in African Henry, R. (1988). The state and income distribution in an independent Arnerican culture. New York: Cambridge University Press. Trinidad and Tobago. In S. Ryan (Ed.), Trinidad and Tobago: The Mufwene, S. S. (Ed.). (1993). Africanisms in Afro-Ameican language independence experience 1962-1 987 (pp. 4'1 1493). Port of Spain: varieties. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of the West Oostindie, G. (Ed.). (2007). Facing up to the past: Perspectives on the Indies. commemoration of slavery from Africa, the Americas and Europe. Herskovits, M. J. (1941). The myth of the Negro pasl. New York: Harper Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle. and Brothers. Pamphile, L. D. (2001). and : A heritage of Hoberman, J. (1997). Darwin's athletes: How sport has damaged Black tragedy and hope. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. America and preserved the myth of race. Boston: Houghton Price, R. (Ed.). (1973). Maroon societies: Rebel slave communities in Mifflin. the Americas. Garden City, NY Anchor Press. Hoetink, H. (1973). Slavery and race relations in the Americas: An Raboteau,A. J. (1978). Slave religion: The "invisible institution" in the inquiry into their nature and neras. New York: Harper and Row. Antebellum Soutfr. New York: Oxford University Press. 35 Definitional lssues The maintenance of Twine,- F.W. (7998) Racism in a racial democracy: llainwater,L.,&Yancey,W'L'(i967)'TheMoynihanreportandthe Brazil' New Brunswick' NJ: Rutgers Press' white ,upr"*ory in politics of controversy' Cambridge' MA: M'I'T' UniversitY Press. in contemporary Brazil: Fromin'differ' neiciman, R.iE d.). (1999). Race (2001)' Current population survey' Annual social State University U.S. Census Bureau. to inequality.University Park: Pennsylvania Author' ence and economic supplement'Washington' DC: Press. (2002)' Current population survey' Annual social g 8 3 5 U.S. Census Bureau. in B razil : The Mus lim up ri s in of I neis,l. r. 0g93). Stave re b ellion Washington' DC: Author' The Johns Hopkins and economic supplement' in Bahia. Trans. Arthur Brakel Baltimore: syrvey' Annual social U.S. Census Bureau. (2003)' Current population UniversitY Press' DC: Author' NewYork: Bobbs- and eco,nomic supplement'Washington' W. A' (1 942).The French intheWest Indies' Hill: University of l{oberts, Wiiliams, E. (7944). Capitalism and slavery' Chapel Merrill. Press' Constructmg race tn North Carolina L. (2003). Blackness without ethnicity: The dynamics of racial Sansone, Wade, P. (1993). Blackness and race mixture: London: Palgrave Macmillan' Hopkins University Brazil. i,arniity in Colombia' Baltimore: The Johns (1970). Akan slave revolts in the British Caribbean' Schuler, M. hess. Sovacou, 1,8-31' identities: West Indian immigrant dreams labourers for Waters, M. C. (1999) . Black M. (1986). Recrurtment of African indentured Harvard University Schuler,,' '-nuropr* (Ed')' and American realities. Cambridge, MA: in the nineteenth century' In P' C' Emmer "olonies and afier Press. and migration: Indentured labour before Colonialism Whitten,N.E.,Jr.,&Torres,A(Eds')'(1998)'BlacknessinLatin Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff' slavery (pp. L25-t6l)' and the Caribbean: Social dynamics and cultural equality: Colo\ race' racism in America Stieriff, R. E. i200I)' Dreaming .and 2 Vols' Bloomington' IN: Indiana Universrty University Press' transformotion,. urban Brazil.New Brunswick' NJ: Rutgers planning in the West Indies' Oxford: Press. Simey, f. S. (1946). Welfure and Negroes in colonial So.uth Carolina Wood, P. H. (7974). Blackmaiority: - Alfred A' Clarendon Press. ti70 through the Stono rebellion' New York: : A social ltistory of indentured fro^ Schuler, M' (1980).' Alas, alas, Kongo" Baltimore: The Kropf. African immigration mto Jamaica' 1841-1865' ethnicity' class' and Yelvington, K. A. (2001a)' Patterns of "race"' HoPkins UniversitY Press' contemporary s Johns In R.S. Hillman (Ed')' understanding gSl. Ame ric an ethni c and r ac i al nJtionalism. t S D i ctiinary of I'atin Lynne S t cphens, T. fr'i. t ed' (pp' 229-26t)' Boulder' CO: Florida Press' kttin America,2nd' terminolo gy.Gainesvilie: University of in Rienner Publications' (2003). Recreating Africa: Culture' ktnship' and religion Swcet, J. H. K. A' (2001b). The Anthropology of Afro-Latin Amenca LE Chapel Hill' NC: Yelvington, the African-Portuguese world' 1441-1770' Annual Review of un'O ,t" Caribbean: Diasporic dimensions' :f University of North Carolina Press' olo gY, 3 0, 22'7 -260' The Negro in the Arnericas' AnthroP 'f i. S+O). Slave and citizen: dialogues: irnnenbaum, tf Yelvington, K.-A. (Ed.) (forthcoming)' lftolflyti3 A' KnoPf' - - New York: Alfred in the diaspora santa Fe' NM: School of American ans in the makin g.of the Atlantic i1rtn-potogy ' l'lrt rlnton, J. K. (1992)' Afnc aind Afric University Press' Research Press' world, 1400-1 680' Cambridge: Cambridge

he

Ne, ise Ies rb- Armenian Diaspora

:an KhachigTololYan

the the cause' size' organization' )pe' lssuES dispersed people, whatever DErluloNAL oiio*tion oi dispersion' By this definition' even the tof contingents of young 'l'hi: applied to Aflnenians or other small, ever-renewed .Armeman Ierm diaspora, whether and science in Athens' has scholars who studied Greek art sln formations that do not live in their homeland' Fr)r:ial Antioch, and Caesarea from the fourth to the and applications throughout its his- Alexandria, Irld rnany definitions a diaspora' At various times' the t the to all sixth centuries c.E. were ;;,,t nt iis simplest and least precise, it has referred