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Intangible Cultural Property and Commodification of The THE CUSTODIANS OF THE GIFT: INTANGIBLE CULTURAL PROPERTY AND COMMODIFICATION OF THE FIJIAN FIREWALKING CEREMONY A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ANTHROPOLOGY AUGUST 2007 By Guido Carlo Pigliasco Dissertation Committee: Andrew Arno, Chairperson Cristina Bacchilega Nicholas H. Barker Geoffrey M. White Christine R. Yano i ii © Copyright 2007 by Guido Carlo Pigliasco iii A kedra ivakananumi na bete ni yavusa o Sawau, Beqa. Dedicated to the bete of the Sawau people of Beqa. iv AKNOWLEDGMENTS The vilavilairevo ceremony performed by the Sawau people in a way represents an instantiation of Fijian epistemology: the accomplishments of the individuals are rooted in the contributions of those who have gone before and of those who comprise the current social networks. From this perspective, this study is the joint product of a collaborative ethnographic practice which would not have been completed without the contributions of several people and institutions. The Sawau people of Beqa, were very generous to me. The privilege of staying in the village of Dakuibeqa was accorded to me by the chief, Tui Sawau Ratu Timoci Matanitobua, who not only approved my research but also acted as a liaison with government officials in Suva. I owe a special debt of gratitude to his sister Bulou Ro Mereani Tuimatanisiga, who provided ideas, support and invaluable ethnographic data. I am equally indebted to the Naivilaqata priestly clan members of the Sawau people, who actively participated in the process of remapping their culture and knowledge. In particular, I am indebted to the late bete levu Sevanaia Waqasaqa, who shared with me his centenarian knowledge. There are no words to thank Samu Vakuruivalu, his wife Merewai, his son Waisea and his daughter Anareta. His hospitality and fatherly guidance made my stay in Dakuibeqa an unforgettably pleasant experience. I also express my gratitude to his sister Salaneita Davutu and to his brothers Lote Raikabula in Yanuca and Jutasa Tikina in Lepanoni, who sadly passed away before the completion of this study. I am also foremost indebted to Sipiriano Nemani, now acting director of the Tabana Ni Vosa kei iTovo Vakaviti (Institute of Fijian Language and Culture) and Adi Meretui Ratunabuabua with the Department of Culture and Heritage for their support and v friendship. For helping with the transcription of many hours of taped interviews, I thank Adi Kelera Kakua Ralulu and all the staff of the Tabana Ni Vosa kei iTovo Vakaviti. For helping me in the field, I thank “Small” Marika Tivitivi, my first consultant in 2002, and more recently my student assistant Laisiasa Cavakiqali, Ulaiasi Davuke of the Tabana Ni Vosa kei iTovo Vakaviti, and my field consultant Mika Tubanavau for his lifetime commitment to the vakadidike me baleta na vilavilairevo (research on Fijian firewalking). My gratitude goes also to his daughter Elenoa and her family in Hawai‘i for their support and friendship. I thank my colleagues John Bigay, Amelia Ravuvu and His Excellency the Ambassador Jesoni Vitusagavulu who preceded me in the field more than two decades ago. I thank Andrew Crosby for the invaluable archaeological and historical information he provided me, and Leah Burns for her helpful information on the genesis of tourism on the island of Beqa. At the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, several faculty members have enthusiastically assisted me in framing the research project and achieving my research goals. I could not imagine a better, supportive and encouraging Dissertation Advisor and mentor than Andrew Arno. I value his kindness and support throughout my fieldwork in Fiji and in the archives of half the world. I thank Geoffrey White for his keen guidance and consideration which helped me sharpening my methodological tools and improving my work tremendously. I thank Nicholas Barker who has shared with me his knowledge and his theoretical approach to the firewalking practice. I want to express my gratitude to Vilsoni Hereniko and to my other Committee members, Christine Yano, Cristina Bacchilega, and most recently Ty Tengan, for their critical comments and precious advice. I also would like to thank Ben Finney and Terry Hunt. Since I started showing an vi interest in the discipline of anthropology, they encouraged me providing precious insights and contacts throughout my research. In particular, I am indebted to Tom and Teretia Terooatea Cummings of the Bishop Museum, who shared with me their experience and Raiatean knowledge. At the University of the South Pacific in Suva, I must specially thank Susanne Pohler for introducing me one of her most brilliant students, Laisiasa, and providing me a working space. Among the other faculty members who shared their time and advice with me I would like to thank Kifle Kahsai, Paul Geraghty, Epeli Hau‘ofa, Konai Helu- Thaman, Larry Thomas, Gennady Gienko, Pio Manoa (now Director of the Catholic Education Office) and his son Pio Manoa. Also in Fiji, I owe a special thanks to Asenaca Talova Bainivualiku of the Ministry of Education, Research and Development for expediting my research permit and liaising with the leaders of the Methodist Church, in particular Reverend Ame Tugaue and Reverend Manasa Lasaro to whom I am mostly grateful. At the National Archives, I thank secretary general Salesia Ikaniwai and government archivist Tupou Senigasau for accommodating my research. At the Fiji Museum, I thank Ratu Jone Naucabalavu for his personal support and librarian Sela Rayawa for his keen assistance. I thank Ratu Viliame Tagivetaua, Chairman of the Native Land and Fisheries Commission for the granting me access to their records and Ilaitia Kurucake Caqinavanua of the Native Land Trust Board for granting me access to the government maps. I thank Ratu Alipate Mataitoga and Lunia Bogi of the Film and TV Unit, Ministry of Information, Communication and Media Relations for granting me access and usage of excerpts of their audiovisual collection. I thank Mere Falemaka, James Gosselin and Gail Olsson of the Pacific Island Forum Secretariat, and Luigi vii Guarino of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community for their time and advice. I thank the Roko Tui Saravanua Joape Nalatu and Josefa Tuamoto of the Fiji Islands Visitors Bureau for their kindness and cooperation. I thank Manoa Rasigatale, formerly manager of the Arts Village Cultural Centre and the hotel and event managers of the hotels of Viti Levu for their patience and collaboration. In particular, Andrea Mastellone, then resident manager of the Shangri-La’s Fijian Resort, Elenoa Takayawa of the Warwick Fiji, Wayne Robinson of the Outrigger Reef Fiji, and the staff of the Naviti Resort, Hideaway Resort, Royal Davui Resort, and Beqa Lagoon Resort, formerly known as Marlin Bay Hotel. In addition, in Fiji I am thankful to Savaira Tuberi, my Fijian tutor in Suva. I am indebted to Peter Kim and Angela Narayan of Air Pacific for assisting me with the shipment of my luggage and my equipment. I am also very grateful to William De Bruce for introducing me to his fellow members at the Fiji Defence Club and to his colleagues at the Fiji Sun. For their ‘philanthropic’ generosity, sharing their home in the Government Quarters during my stay in Suva, I owe a special debt of thanks to then JICA volunteers Takashige Isoyama and to Sumitada Kimura. Many other scholars have helped me in many ways, reading sections of this dissertation, discussing or hearing portions as conference presentations. Especially, Matt Tomlinson, Sally Engle Merry, Alice Dewey, Adrienne Kaeppler, Alan Howard, Albert Schütz, Mark Mosko, Toon Van Meijl, Lamont Lindstrom, Mark Busse, Jo Recht, Danielle Conway-Jones, Jay Ruby, Thomas Blakely, Peter Biella, Kate Hennessy, Jonathan Marion, Caroline Yacoe, Serge Dunis of the Université de la Polynésie Française, Ralph Regenvanu, former Director of Vanuatu National Cultural Council and Riccardo Pozzo of the University of Verona. I am also indebted to Lynn Ann Davis who viii a decade ago pointed me to a path I might have overlooked, and Terence Knapp who taught me the significance of performance straight from the stage. A special thanks to Jaida Samudra for her invaluable editorial assistance and for playing the devil’s advocate. I also thank Elaine Nakahashi, Christopher King and Toru Yamada for the departmental and technical support, and the staff of HI-5 Productions for the printing aid. Among the several lawyer colleagues with whom I shared my thoughts and legal analysis, I would like to express my gratitude to Rupeni Nawaqakuta, Clark Peteru, Maui Solomon, Paul McDonnell and Peter Knight, whom I especially thank for the al fresco luncheons at his Rotary Club Suva North. For the assistance with my research at UNESCO, I thank Jim Maragos, Michael Graves, Mali Voi, Emily Waterman, Hans Thulstrup, Guido Carducci and the librarians of the UNESCO Library at Place de Fontenoy in Paris. I also thank Misako Ohnuki of the Misako Takimoto of the Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO in Tokyo for keeping me informed on their cultural heritage workshops. I owe special thanks to Marina Sabellico of the New York University Law Library for granting me multiple accesses to their collections. In addition, I express my gratitude to Linda Duckworth and Ray Allen of the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa International Student Services for facilitating my travels. In addition, The Sawau Project has been generously supported by a grant from the Tabana Ni Vosa kei iTovo Vakaviti (Institute of Fijian Language and Culture, Ministry of Fijian Affairs, Culture and Heritage). I express my vakavinavinaka, my deepest gratitude, to Nanise Nagasuca, former Assistant Minister for Culture and Heritage, Misiwaini Qereqeretabua, Peni Cavuilagi and to all those who contributed to the achievement of such important goal.
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