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Stephen King | 449 pages | 21 Nov 2006 | SIMON & SCHUSTER | 9781416524519 | English | New York, NY, United States The cell: Types, functions, and organelles

The Cell are made up of trillions of cells — the basic unit of life on earth. In this article, we explain some of the structures found in cells and describe a few of the many types of cell found in our bodies. The Cell can be thought of as tiny packages that contain minute factories, warehouses, transport systems, and power plants. They function on their own, The Cell their own energy and self-replicating — the cell is the smallest The Cell of life that can replicate. However, cells also communicate with each other The Cell connect to create a solid, well stuck-together animal. Cells build tissues, which form organs; and organs work together to keep the organism alive. Robert Hook first discovered cells in Different cell types can look wildly different, and carry out very different roles The Cell the body. For instance, a sperm cell resembles a tadpole, a female egg cell is spherical, and nerve cells are essentially thin The Cell. Despite their differences, they often share certain structures; these are referred to as organelles mini-organs. Below are some of the most important:. There is normally one nucleus per cell, but this is not always The Cell case, skeletal muscle cells, for instance, have two. The nucleus sends out messages to tell the cell to grow, divide, or die. The nucleus is separated from the rest of the cell by a membrane called the nuclear envelope; nuclear pores within the membrane allow through small molecules and ions, while larger molecules need transport proteins to help them through. To ensure each cell remains separate from its neighbor, it is enveloped in a special The Cell known as the plasma membrane. This membrane is predominantly made of phospholipids, which prevent water-based substances from entering the cell. The plasma membrane contains a range The Cell receptors, which carry out a number of tasks, including being:. The cytoplasm is the interior of the cell that surrounds the nucleus and is around 80 percent water; it includes The Cell organelles and a jelly-like The Cell called the cytosol. Many of the important reactions that The Cell place in the cell occur in the cytoplasm. Both lysosomes and peroxisomes are essentially bags of enzymes. Lysosomes contain enzymes that break down large molecules, including old parts of the cells and foreign material. Peroxisomes contain enzymes that destroy toxic materials, including peroxide. The cytoskeleton can be considered the scaffolding of the cell. It helps it maintain the correct shape. However, unlike The Cell scaffolding, the The Cell is flexible; it plays a role in cell division and cell motility — the ability of some cells to move, such as sperm cells, for instance. The cytoskeleton also helps in cell signaling through The Cell involvement in the uptake of material from outside the cell endocytosis and is involved in moving materials around within the cell. The endoplasmic reticulum ER processes molecules within the cell and helps transport them to their final destinations. In particular, it synthesizes, folds, modifies, and transports proteins. The ER is The Cell up of The Cell sacs, called cisternae, held together by the cytoskeleton. There are two types: rough ER and smooth ER. Once molecules have been processed by the ER, they travel to the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is sometimes considered the post office of the cell, where items are packaged and labeled. Once materials leave, they may be used within the cell or taken outside of the cell for use elsewhere. Often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell, mitochondria The Cell turn energy from the food that we eat into energy that the cell can use — The Cell triphosphate ATP. However, mitochondria have a number of other jobs, including calcium storage and a role in cell death apoptosis. Ribosomes read the RNA and translate it into protein by sticking together amino acids in the order defined by the RNA. Our body is constantly replacing cells. Cells need to divide for a number of reasons, including the growth of an The Cell and to fill gaps left by dead and destroyed cells after an injury, for instance. Mitosis is how most of the cells in the body divide. Both daughter cells have the same chromosomes as each other and the parent. They are referred to as diploid because they have two complete copies of the chromosomes. Meiosis creates sex cells, such as the male sperm and female egg cells. In meiosis, a small portion of The Cell chromosome breaks off and sticks to another chromosome; this is called genetic recombination. This means that each of the new cells has a unique set of genetic information. It is this process that allows genetic diversity to occur. When you consider the complexity of the human body, it is no surprise that there are hundreds of different types of cell. Below is a small selection of human cell types:. Stem cells are cells that are yet to choose what they are going to become. Some differentiate to become a certain cell type, and others divide to produce more stem cells. They are found in both the embryo and some adult tissues, such as The Cell marrow. Also called myocytes, muscle cells are long, tubular cells. Muscle cells are important for a huge range of functions, including movement, support, and internal functions, such as peristalsis — the movement of food along the gut. They are motile, meaning that they can move. They achieve this movement by using their tail flagellumwhich is packed with energy-giving mitochondria. Sperm cells cannot divide; they only carry one copy of each chromosome haploidunlike the majority of cells, which carry two copies The Cell. Compared with the sperm cell, the female egg The Cell is a giant; it is the largest human cell. The egg cell is also haploid so that the DNA from the sperm and egg can The Cell to create a diploid cell. Fat cells are also called adipocytes and are the main constituent in adipose tissue. They contain stored fats called triglycerides that can be used as energy when needed. Once the triglycerides are used up, the fat cells shrink. Adipocytes also produce some hormones. Nerves cells are the communication system of the body. Also called neurons, they consist of two major parts — the cell body and nerve processes. The central body contains the nucleus and other organelles, and the nerve processes axons or dendrites run like long fingers, carrying messages far and wide. Some of these axons can be over 1 meter long. Cells are as fascinating as they are varied. In one sense they are autonomous cities that function alone, producing their own energy and proteins; in another sense, they are part of the huge network of cells that creates tissues, organs, and us. Many men and women worry about whether sperm cells survive for long periods outside of the body and if they can cause pregnancy long after ejaculation. An introduction to The Cell. We discuss their function, the different types of bones in the human body, and the cells that are involved. Bacteria are single-celled organisms that exist in their millions, in every environment, inside or outside other organisms. Some are harmful, but…. Blood is a mixture of plasma and cells. As it circulates throughout the body, blood transports substances essential to life, such as sugars, oxygen…. In this article, we The Cell the most The Cell cell type in the human body. We explain what a neuron looks like, what it does, and how it works. What is a cell? Medically reviewed by Alana Biggers, M. Inside the cell Cell division Types Humans are made up of trillions of cells — the basic unit of life on earth. Inside the cell. A simplified diagram of a human cell. Cell division. Share on Pinterest Cell division is ongoing for our entire life. Cell Types. Share on Pinterest Sperm are the smallest type of human cell. In a nutshell. Diabetes: Coffee and green The Cell might reduce death risk. Virtual reality nature boosts positive mood. Spiraling healthcare costs of wildfire smoke in California. Related Coverage. Facts about sperm health and lifespan. Medically reviewed by Judith Marcin, M. Bones: All you need to know. Medically reviewed by William Morrison, M. What are bacteria and what do they do? The Cell reviewed by Jill Seladi-Schulman, Ph. The Cell does blood work, and what problems occur? Medically reviewed by Debra Rose Wilson, Ph. All you need to know about neurons. cell | Definition, Types, & Functions | Britannica

The cell from Latin cellameaning "small room" [1] is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are The Cell called the "building blocks of life". The study of cells is called cell biologycellular biology, or cytology. Cells consist of The Cell enclosed within a membranewhich contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. The Cell were discovered by Robert Hooke inwho named them for The Cell resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cells are of two types: The Cellwhich contain a nucleusand prokaryoticwhich do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organismswhile eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular. Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaeatwo of the three domains of life. Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterized by having vital biological processes including cell signaling. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack a nucleusand other membrane-bound organelles. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single circular chromosome that is in The Cell contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid. Most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0. Plantsanimalsfungislime mouldsprotozoaand algae are all eukaryotic. These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be The Cell much as a thousand times greater in volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization : the presence of membrane-bound organelles compartments in which specific activities take place. Most important among these is a cell nucleus[4] an organelle that houses the cell's DNA. The Cell nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true kernel nucleus ". Other differences include:. All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotichave a membrane that envelops the cell, regulates what moves in and out selectively permeable The Cell, and maintains The Cell electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, the cytoplasm takes up most The Cell the cell's volume. All cells except red blood cells which lack a cell nucleus and most organelles to accommodate maximum space for hemoglobin possess DNAthe hereditary material of genesand RNAcontaining the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymesthe cell's The Cell machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells. This article lists these primary cellular componentsthen briefly describes their function. The cell membraneThe Cell plasma membrane, is a biological membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. In animals, The Cell plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell, while in plants and prokaryotes it is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double layer of phospholipidswhich are amphiphilic partly hydrophobic and partly hydrophilic. Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayeror sometimes a fluid mosaic membrane. Embedded within this membrane is a macromolecular structure called the porosome the universal secretory portal in cells and a variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps that move The Cell molecules into The Cell out of the cell. Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones. The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place; The Cell during endocytosisthe uptake of The Cell materials by a cell, and cytokinesisthe separation of daughter cells after cell division ; and moves parts of The Cell cell in processes of growth and mobility. The eukaryotic The Cell is composed of microfilamentsintermediate filaments and microtubules. There are a great The Cell of proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments. The subunit of microtubules is a dimeric molecule called tubulin. Intermediate filaments are heteropolymers whose subunits vary among the cell types in different tissues. But some of The Cell subunit protein of intermediate filaments include vimentindesminlamin lamins A, B and Ckeratin multiple acidic The Cell basic keratinsneurofilament proteins NF—L, NF—M. The Cell use DNA for their long-term information storage. The biological The Cell contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA sequence. Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular bacterial chromosome in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, [4] linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts see endosymbiotic theory. A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell nucleus the nuclear genome and in the mitochondria the mitochondrial genome. In humans the nuclear genome is divided into 46 linear DNA molecules called chromosomesincluding 22 The Cell chromosome pairs and a pair of sex chromosomes. Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small compared to nuclear chromosomes, [4] it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy production and specific tRNAs. Foreign genetic material most commonly DNA can also The Cell artificially introduced into the cell by a process called transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's genomeor stable, if it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome. There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some such as the nucleus and golgi apparatus are typically solitary, while others such as mitochondriachloroplastsperoxisomes and lysosomes can be numerous hundreds to thousands. The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell The Cell surrounds the organelles. Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially The Cell the cell membrane. These structures are notable because they are not protected from the external environment by the semipermeable cell membrane. In order to assemble these The Cell, their components must be carried across the cell membrane by export processes. Many types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a cell wall. The cell wall acts to protect the cell mechanically and chemically from its environment, and is an additional layer of protection to The Cell cell membrane. Different types of cell have cell walls made up of different materials; plant cell walls are primarily made up of cellulosefungi cell The Cell are made up of chitin and bacteria cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan. A gelatinous capsule is The Cell in some bacteria outside the cell membrane and cell wall. The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci The Cell, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci. Capsules are not marked by normal staining protocols and can be detected The Cell India ink or methyl blue ; which allows for higher contrast between the cells for observation. Flagella are organelles for cellular mobility. The bacterial flagellum stretches from cytoplasm through the cell membrane s and extrudes through the cell wall. They are long The Cell thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature. A different type of flagellum is found in archaea and a different The Cell is found in The Cell. A fimbria plural The Cell also known as a pilusplural pili is a short, thin, hair-like filament found on The Cell surface of bacteria. Fimbriae are formed of a protein called pilin antigenic and are responsible for the attachment of bacteria to specific receptors on human cells cell adhesion. There are special types of pili involved in bacterial conjugation. Cell division involves a single The Cell called a mother cell dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to growth in multicellular organisms the growth of tissue and to procreation vegetative reproduction in unicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fissionwhile eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called mitosisfollowed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A diploid cell may also undergo The Cell to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells. DNA replicationor the process of duplicating a cell's genome, [4] always happens when a cell divides through mitosis or binary fission. This occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle. In meiosis, the DNA is replicated only once, while the cell divides twice. DNA replication only occurs before The Cell I. DNA replication does not occur when the cells divide the second time, in meiosis II. In general, cells of all organisms contain enzyme The Cell that scan their DNA for damages and carry out repair processes when damages are detected. The widespread prevalence of these repair processes indicates the importance of maintaining cellular DNA in an undamaged state in order to avoid cell death or errors of replication due to damages that could lead to mutation. These include: 1 nucleotide excision repair2 The Cell mismatch repair3 non-homologous end joining The Cell double-strand breaks, 4 recombinational repair and 5 light-dependent repair photoreactivation. Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism. Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolismin which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing powerand anabolismin which the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions. Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down into simpler sugar molecules called monosaccharides such as glucose. Once inside the cell, glucose is The Cell down to make adenosine triphosphate ATP[4] a molecule that possesses readily available energy, through two different pathways. Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities. The Cell synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation. The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the mRNA sequence. The new polypeptide then folds into a functional three-dimensional protein molecule. Unicellular organisms can move in order to find food or escape predators. Common mechanisms of motion include flagella and cilia. In multicellular organisms, cells can move during processes such as wound healing, the immune response and cancer metastasis. For example, The Cell wound healing in animals, white blood cells move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection. Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking, bundling, binding, adhesion, motor The Cell other proteins. Each step is driven by physical forces generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton. In August scientists described one way cells — in particular cells of a slime mold and mouse pancreatic cancer—derived cells — are able to navigate efficiently through a body and identify the best routes through complex mazes: generating gradients after The Cell down diffused chemoattractants which enable them to sense upcoming maze junctions before reaching them, including around corners. Multicellular organisms are organisms that consist of more than one cell, in contrast to single-celled organisms. In complex multicellular organisms, cells The Cell into different cell types that are adapted to particular functions. In mammals, major cell types include skin cellsmuscle cellsneuronsblood cellsfibroblastsstem cellsand others. Cell types differ The Cell in appearance and function, yet are genetically identical. Home - Counterterrorism Education Learning Lab | CELLCounterterrorism Education Learning Lab | CELL

The film follows scientists as they use experimental technology to enter the mind of a comatose serial killer in order to locate where he has hidden his latest kidnap victim. The film received mixed reviews upon its release, with critics praising its visuals, direction, make-up, costumes and D'Onofrio's performance, while criticizing its Silence of the Lambs -inspired plot, an emphasis on style rather than substance, and masochistic imagery. Child psychologist Catherine Deane Jennifer Lopez is hired to conduct an experimental virtual reality treatment for coma patients: a "Neurological Cartography and Synaptic The Cell System" device managed by doctors Henry West and Miriam Kent Dylan Baker and Marianne Jean-Baptiste that allows her to enter a comatose mind and attempt to coax them into consciousness. The The Cell is funded by the parents of her patient, Edward Baines Colton Jamesa young boy left comatose by a viral infection that causes an unusual The Cell of schizophrenia. Despite Deane's lack of progress, West and Kent reject Deane's suggestion to reverse the feed to bring Baines into her mind, fearing the consequences of him experiencing an unfamiliar world. Serial killer Carl Rudolph Stargher Vincent D'Onofrio traps his victims in a cell in the form of a glass enclosure that slowly fills with water by means of an automatic timer, then uses a hoist in his basement to suspend himself The Cell their bodies while watching the recorded video of their deaths. He succumbs to the same schizophrenic illness and falls into a coma just as the FBI identifies him, leaving them without any leads as to the location of his latest victim, Julia Hickson Tara Subkoff. After learning of this experimental technology, Agent Peter Novak Vince Vaughn persuades Deane to enter Stargher's mind and discover Hickson's location. Deane enters The Cell dark dreamscape of Stargher's twisted psyche, filled with doll-like versions of his victims. Stargher's innocent side manifests as Young Stargher Jake Thomas and leads Deane through The Cell memories of abuse he suffered at the hands of his sadistic father Gareth Williams. Deane nurtures Young Stargher in hopes of getting Hickson's location but she is thwarted by another manifestation: King Stargher, a demonic idealization of his The Cell side that dominates the dreamscape. King Stargher torments Deane until she forgets the world is not real. West discovers this while monitoring Deane's vitals. He warns that what happens to The Cell while she is integrated into Stargher's mindscape will inflict neurological damage on her real body. Novak volunteers The Cell enter Stargher's mind to make Deane remember herself. Inside Stargher's mind, Novak is The Cell and subjected to King Stargher's torture while Deane looks on as Stargher's The Cell. Novak reminds Deane of a painful memory to reawaken her awareness that she is in Stargher's mind. Deane breaks free of Stargher's hold and stabs King Stargher to free Novak. During their escape, Novak sees a version of the glass enclosure with the same insignia as the hoist in Stargher's basement. Novak's team discovers that after the hoist's previous owner went bankrupt, the government hired Stargher to seal up his property. Novak races to the property and finds Hickson treading water in the enclosure and breathing through a pipe. Novak breaks the glass wall and rescues Hickson. Deane, now sympathetic to Young The Cell, locks her colleagues out and reverses the feed of the device to pull Stargher's mind into her own. She presents a comforting paradise to Young Stargher but he knows The Cell is only a temporary reprieve from King Stargher. He shifts to Adult Stargher to relate a childhood story of when he drowned an injured bird as The Cell mercy killing to prevent its torture at his father's hands. King Stargher intrudes as a scaly The Cell but this time, Deane is in control and she beats him to a bloody pulp before impaling him with The Cell sword. However, Young Stargher exhibits the same injuries as King Stargher, and killing either manifestation kills Stargher. Adult Stargher reminds her of the story of the bird and implores her to "save" him. Deane carries Young Stargher into a pool, putting him out of The Cell misery The Cell Stargher dies in the real world. In the The Cell, Deane and Novak meet outside of Stargher's house. The FBI has officially excluded the mind technology from their inquiry and Deane has gotten approval to use the reverse feed on Edward Baines. The final scene is of Baines walking to embrace Deane inside the paradise of Deane's mindscape. Director Tarsem Singh asked Tara Subkoff, during her interview, if she could swim, to which she responded that she could and that she had been a lifeguard. It turned out that she could The Cell go underwater without holding her nose. Singh would have switched her role with Catherine Sutherland, but it was too late and there was not enough money or time to re-shoot. The scene The Cell the Special Agents are trying to convince Dr. Catherine Deane to enter the killer's mind was recorded The Cell the Barcelona Pavilion in Barcelona, Spain. Some of the scenes in The Cell are inspired by works of art. A scene in which a horse is split into sections by falling glass The Cell was inspired by the works of British artist Damien Hirst. The film also includes scenes based on the work of other late 20th century artists, including Odd NerdrumH. Giger and the Brothers Quay. During a scene, Jennifer Lopez falls asleep watching a film; the film is Fantastic Planet. In the scene where Catherine talks with Carl while he is "cleaning" his first The Cell, the scenery resembles the music video "Losing My Religion" by R. The scene where Peter Novak first enters the mind of Carl Stargher, and is confronted by three women with open mouths to the sky is based on the painting Dawn by Norwegian painter Odd Nerdrum. The scene when Catherine Deane is chasing Carl through The Cell stone hallway, right before she enters the room with the horse, is based on a painting by H. Giger called "Schacht". A psychiatrist entering the dreams of an insane patient in order to take control of the dreams and so to cure the patient's mind this being a very risky attempt, because the insanity may prevail during such "neuro-participatory therapy" was described in the novella He Who Shapes by Roger Zelaznybut the film Dreamscapesubsequently developed from Zelazny's basic idea, had a completely different plot. One The Cell the most positive reviews came from Roger Ebertwho awarded the film four stars out of four, writing: "For all of its visual pyrotechnicsit's also a story where we care about the characters; there's a lot at stake at the end, and we're involved. I know people who hate it, finding it pretentious or unrestrained; I think it's one of the best films of the year. Not only does it defy formulaic expectations, but it challenges the viewer to think and consider the horrors that can turn an ordinary The Cell into an inhuman monster. There are no easy answers, The Cell The Cell doesn't pretend to offer any. Instead, Singh presents audiences with the opportunity to go on a harrowing journey. For those who are up to the challenge, it's worth spending time in The Cell. Conversely, Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post The Cell it "contrived", "arbitrary", and "overdrawn". I want to see him shot, stabbed, impaled, eviscerated, and The Cell engulfed—shrieking—in flames. The Cell serves up some of the most gruesomely misogynistic imagery in years, then ends with a bid for understanding. The film received a nomination for the Academy Award The Cell Best Makeup. A sequel was released The Cell to DVD on June 16, The The Cell centers on The Cusp, a serial killer who murders his victims, and then brings them back to life, over and over again until they beg to die. Maya Tessie Santiago is a psychic investigator and surviving victim of The Cusp, whose abilities developed after spending a year in The Cell coma. Maya must use her powers to travel into The Cell mind of the killer unprotected, in order to save his latest victim. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For the film, see Cell film. For other uses, see The Cell disambiguation. This article needs additional citations for verification. The Cell help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Theatrical release poster. Robert Duffy Paul Rubell The Cell. Release date. Running time. United States [1] Germany [1]. Jennifer Lopez as Dr. Hickson Pruitt Taylor Vince as Dr. Main The Cell The Cell 2. American Film Institute. Retrieved May 25, Box Office Mojo. Retrieved February 14, The New York Times. Retrieved Archived from the original on 4 March Archived from the original on Retrieved February 26, Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 13, Slate Magazine. Chicago Reader. Films directed by Tarsem Singh. 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