CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION

IN THIS ISSUE SPATIAL DATA INFRASTRUCTURE: Spatial Data Infrastructure: IMPLICATIONS Implications for Sovereignty FOR SOVEREIGNTY in the Canadian Arctic 1 IN THE CANADIAN ARCTIC Peter L. Pulsifer and D.R.F. Taylor

SPRING/SUMMER 2007 Using Lake Sediments to Reconstruct Environmental Changes in the Arctic 6 INTRODUCTION and specifically the United Nations Conven- There are many definitions of the word sov- tion on the Law of the Sea (UN, 2007); the Arctic Aquatic Ecosystem Research: ereignty, however a common usage pertains Canadian claim derives from historical use Present and Future 9 to a government possessing full control over and effective occupation of the archipelagic its own affairs within a territory or geo- seas. Canadian Boreal Forest Dynamics graphical area. Resolution of this issue is seen as in- in a Time of Global Change 15 The question of sovereignty in Cana- creasingly important and urgent. An in- da’s North is increasingly being discussed in crease in ship traffic through the Northwest Adapting to Change in Canada’s North: national political discourse and the popular Passage (see fig. 1) is expected as a result of Voices from Fort Resolution, NWT 19 media. The Arctic sovereignty issue centres the lighter ice seasons predicted by global around access to the seas surrounding the climate models. Moreover, changes in the Kluane National Park Management Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Many coun- environment could make development of Board Coordinates tries including the United States assert that natural resources economically feasible. In a National Conference: these ocean conduits are part of Canada’s August 2006, Prime Minister Stephen Harper 1 “Learning from Cooperative territorial sea and Canada therefore must stated his government’s view as follows: 2 Management” 25 not prevent innocent passage through these It’s no exaggeration to say that the need to waters by international vessels. Canada assert our sovereignty and take action to Book Review 26 takes the position that the waters of the Arc- protect our territorial integrity in the Arc- tic Archipelago are internal waters, subject tic has never been more urgent. (CBC, New Books 28 to the same control as a river or lake within 2006) the Canadian landmass. The “territorial For Harper the resource development Horizon 28 seas” position is based in international law issue, including possibilities of new oil and gas discoveries in the Arctic Region Basin, 1 The sovereignty of a coastal State extends,beyond its gives the matter urgency. He went on to say: land territory and internal waters and,in the case of The economics and the strategic value of an archipelagic State, its archipelagic waters, to an northern resource development are grow- adjacent belt of sea, described as the territorial sea. ing more attractive and critical to our Every State has the right to establish the breadth of nation. (CBC, 2006) its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles (un.org/Depts/los/convention_ agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm - articles 2,3). In the public debate, some suggest tion by the U.S. and other governments such development of a SDI for the Arctic Circum- that the lack of response by the United States as Denmark, suggest that Canada should polar region. government to these firm statements and a adopt a “hard power” approach that in- related increase in Canadian military activi- cludes deployment of military icebreakers THE ORIGINS AND ty in the North amounts to tacit acceptance and remote sensing systems for surveillance NATURE OF SPATIAL DATA of the Canadian position. If this view is cor- (Huebert, 2006). INFRASTRUCTURE rect then Canadians should focus their ener- It remains to be determined which of Prior to the 1960s, the primary device for gies on stewardship and management of the these approaches will be most effective but storing and portraying geographic informa- area (Griffiths, 2006). Others, less sanguine regardless of the approach adopted, geo- tion was the paper map. Today, the paper about the acceptance of the Canadian posi- graphic information should play a central map is still a very important mechanism for role in any actions taken. conveying geographic information. Howev- Historically, geographic information er, the 1960s brought a revolutionary change 2 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the typically in the form of maps has played a Sea defines Innocent Passage as follows: Passage is in our capacity to store, analyse, and por- central role in geopolitics and the establish- innocent so long as it is not prejudicial to the peace, tray geographic information. In 1964 the ment and management of sovereignty (Hen- good order or security of the coastal State. Such modern Geographic Information System rikson, 1999: 94–96). Maps and charts were passage shall take place in conformity with this (GIS) was invented at the Canadian Depart- Convention and with other rules of international law central to “discovery” related to the territori- ment of Energy, Mines, and Resources (now (un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/ al claims resulting in many of the world’s Natural Resources Canada). GIS supports unclos/closindx.htm - article 19). nation states, including Canada (Morantz, creation, storage, and analysis of geograph- 2.Passage of a foreign ship shall be considered to be 2002). Information recording the definition ic information (e.g., overlay, measurement, prejudicial to the peace, good order or security of of boundaries that define a territory is main- buffers) in digital form. Today, GIS is a stan- the coastal State if in the territorial sea it engages tained in survey records and the resulting in any of the following activities: dard tool used in many applications includ- maps. In addition, geographic information (a) any threat or use of force against the sovereignty, ing land management, scientific research, is used to describe, plan and monitor effec- territorial integrity or political independence of the archaeology, urban planning, sales and tive occupation of a territory. This perspec- coastal State, or in any other manner in violation marketing, and map production. of the principles of international law embodied in tive however is rarely explicitly stated in the The increasing use of GIS throughout the Charter of the United Nations; current debates about Canadian sovereignty the 1970s and 80s produced large stores of (b) any exercise or practice with weapons of any kind; in the North. digital geographic information. Sharing the (c) any act aimed at collecting information to the Ultimately, supporting any particular prejudice of the defence or security of the coastal data between producers, users, and other course of action around sovereignty in the State; stakeholders proved quite difficult, as most North will require adequately precise, accu- (d) any act of propaganda aimed at affecting the GIS data were stored in proprietary formats rate and current geographic information defence or security of the coastal State; that could not be used by other systems. (e) the launching, landing or taking on board of any that goes beyond demarcation of bound- Where data sharing was possible, the lack of aircraft; aries. A modern system will, for example, established networks required that the data (f) the launching, landing or taking on board of any need to include “real-time” monitoring of military device; be copied from one system to another. This ship traffic and provide reporting on the (g) the loading or unloading of any commodity, introduced a number of challenges in main- state of resource development and the envi- currency or person contrary to the customs, fiscal, taining databases including redundancy, ronment. In 2007, this means an extension immigration or sanitary laws and regulations of currency, storage costs, and lack of data the coastal State; of traditional “mapping” programs to the identification and stewardship, as often (h) any act of wilful and serious pollution contrary to development of a “Spatial Data Infrastruc- there was not a single data producer and this Convention; ture”3 (SDI). The following sections define maintainer, as was the case with paper (i) any fishing activities; the concept of an SDI, summarize the Cana- (j) the carrying out of research or survey activities; maps. dian Geospatial Data Infrastructure pro- (k) any act aimed at interfering with any systems of Thus, the 1990s brought about a gram, and discuss the way forward for the communication or any other facilities or movement that focused on coordinating installations of the coastal State; the process of geographic data production (l) any other activity not having a direct bearing on with the goal of improving geographic passage. 3. Also known as a Geospatial Data Infrastructure.

CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION 2 North Pole International Meridian Arctic Ocean

Kalaallit Nunaat Northwest Passage (Grønland), Denmark

Alaska,U.S. SPRING/SUMMER 2007

Figure 1 data and the effectiveness of its use. This The internet, combined with the dev- The Northwest Passage: territorial sea? movement has evolved into the concept of elopment of new technologies and stan- a Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI). An dards, has transformed SDI to its modern early formal definition of SDI came from but still evolving form. Modern SDI pro- data so that it can be used to create applica- the U.S. Government: grams use the internet and browser-based tion-specific information and knowledge. National Spatial Data Infrastructure technology to discover datasets, visualize the When considering the information require- [NSDI] means the technology, policies, data online and, if appropriate, access the ments related to good government and sov- standards, and human resources neces- data either through download or by direct ereignty in the Canadian North, an SDI has sary to acquire, process, store, distribute, connection using an internet data service. the potential to provide a valuable frame- and improve utilisation of geospatial This model supports the real-time combina- work for fulfilling these requirements. The data. (USA, 1994) tion of data from many different sources. SDI can facilitate the institutional, technical, The initial focus of SDI programs was Each data resource is published and main- and social networks required to generate to coordinate geographic data production tained “closest to the source”, ideally the and access the following kinds of data rele- efforts, including the effective cataloguing of original creators. The model includes both vant to sovereignty including: the data. In the early to mid-nineties, the “top-down” and “bottom-up” approaches. – territorial (demarcation of boundaries); internet was being used to discover data Larger government bodies produce what are – operational (ship traffic, sea ice extent); using these new catalogues, however the known as framework layers, such as topo- – effective occupation (hunting and fishing data was typically distributed on CD-ROM or graphic data, while individuals or commu- areas, sea ice usage); other similar media. This approach started nities can publish data about more local – state of the environment (pollutants, to address the inefficiencies, data identifica- phenomena such as wildlife sightings and species distribution); tion, and stewardship, but not the issues of the current state of the environment. – predictive models (climate, operational, incompatible formats, redundancy, curren- While all of these data resources may economic). cy, storage costs, etc. have existed prior to the conceptualization or implementation of SDIs, the SDI provides an innovative framework for integrating

3 It is important to note that an SDI as THE WAY described here is not limited to a particular Application Domain FORWARD: geographic scale, nor is it driven solely by a SOVEREIGNTY IN THE CANADIAN particular level or department of govern- Communications network (internet) ARCTIC AND GDI ment. The concept centres around the es- At present, there exists no clear, long-term tablishment of a multi-participant human Discovery (catalogues) strategy for addressing sovereignty concerns network that can create and sustain a multi- Framework Community Sensor in the Canadian Arctic – although the cur- scale information network. In this concept, data data data rent government appears to be adopting a a local contribution such as a geographical- “hard power” approach that would com- ly referenced entry in a personal “blog”4 can Figure 2 prise a strong military presence combined be as important as inclusion of a region- A conceptual model of a Spatial Data Infrastructure with effective occupation. As an alternative, wide predictive model. Both contribute to (SDI). The SDI supports discovery of data used in there have been suggestions that the Antarc- characterizing and understanding the phys- applications. Framework data is typically produced by government. Increasingly,data from communities tic Treaty System could be used as a model ical-social environment. (including communities of practice) and environmental for dealing with territorial claims as well as Canada has been a leader in the de- sensors are contributing to SDIs. resource and environmental management velopment of SDI theory and practice. This in the Arctic (Ibbitson, 2006; Nowlan, 2001). activity has resulted in the formation of a In this model, territorial claims are set aside National SDI called the Canadian Geospatial satellite images) and related services and – they are neither recognized nor denied. Data Infrastructure. applications in support of sound decision Integrated resource management and envi- making. The CGDI’s four key components ronmental protection fall under a policy and DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANADIAN national framework data, common data legal regime established under an environ- GEOSPATIAL DATA policies, technical standards, and enabling mental protocol to the Antarctic Treaty and INFRASTRUCTURE technologies interoperate to support this other treaty instruments. Just as Canada is internationally known as goal. These mechanisms are proving effec- the implementer of the world’s first GIS as The first phase of the program tive in managing various facets of Antarctic discussed above, it is also recognized as one (1999–2005) focused on establishing frame- geopolitics and environmental stewardship. of the first countries to implement a Spatial work components such as discovery ser- The system recognizes the value of a well- Data Infrastructure. Discussions about es- vices and technology. The current pro- developed data infrastructure supporting of tablishing a national SDI for Canada began gram, which runs from 2005 to 2010, con- the treaty system and scientific research. In in the early 1990s and the concept pro- centrates on enabling the CGDI to meet user the Antarctic region, the development of gressed to the point that a federal program needs by developing applications that use data infrastructure (including Spatial Data to develop a national SDI received funding in the infrastructure rather than the infra- Infrastructure) is carried out by a number of 1999. The GeoConnections program is a structure itself. For more information about organizations and programs including the national partnership program established to the GeoConnections progam and the CGDI, Antarctic Treaty Secretariat (www.ats.aq), evolve and expand the Canadian Geospatial please refer to the following website: www. the Joint Committee on Antarctic Data Man- Data Infrastructure (CGDI). The goal of CGDI geoconnections.org. agement (www.jcadm.scar.org) and the is to provide Canadians with on-demand ac- The CGDI stands to play an important Antarctic Spatial Data Infrastructure (www. cess to geographic information (e.g., maps, role in the establishment of an SDI for the antsdi.scar.org). Increasingly, these organi- Canadian North. zations are cooperating to develop a com- prehensive and integrated data infrastruc- ture for the Antarctic region. 4. Blog is short for weblog. A weblog is a journal (or newsletter) that is frequently updated and intended A similar infrastructure could provide for general public consumption. Blogs generally great benefit to the Arctic region. Regional represent the personality of the author or the Web projects are already being developed. As part site. A blog entry can be geographically ‘tagged’ of the GIT Barents Project, Russia, Finland, (referenced) using a protocol call GeoRSS (see Sweden and Norway have cooperated to georss.org).

CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION 4 establish a joint geographic infrastructure in level or for the region as a whole. Many of References the Barents Region (www.gitbarents.fi). the elements required already exist, but Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. “Har- From existing national databases, this pro- effective coordination is missing. Here gov- per promises to defend arctic sovereign- ject has created a homogenous geographic ernments at the federal, provincial, territori- ty”. CBC News, August 12, 2006, 9:20 pm, database covering the entire Barents Region al, and local levels can all participate in cre- GMT. at the scales of 1:1, 1:3 and 1:12 million. The ating the infrastructure, as can individual Griffiths, F., November 8, 2006. “Our artic results are distributed using an internet- communities and citizens. International sovereignty is well in hand”. The Globe based infrastructure that allows for easy organizations such as the Arctic Council can and Mail, p. A25. access and use of the information. At the also play an important role. With the Inter- Henrikson, A. K., 1999. “The power and pol- same time the system allows for efficient national Polar Year now under way the col- itics of maps”, in G.J. Demko and W.B. updating and maintenance of databases laborative aspects of SDI development may Wood (eds.), Reordering the world: close to their source, i.e., from within each well be facilitated by ongoing activities such Geopolitical perspectives on the 21st of the cooperating countries. The chosen as the IPY GeoNorth 2007 conference (ess. century (pp. 94-96). Boulder, CO: West-

SPRING/SUMMER 2007 technology allows the user to view a combi- nrcan.gc.ca/ipygeonorth/index_e.php). This view Press. nation of geographic and thematic data, conference aims to bring the key national Huebert, R., August 17, 2006. “Arctic sover- satellite imagery with added geographic fea- players for the Arctic Basin round the table eignty’s packed in policy ice jam”. The tures such as roads, railways, settlements, to discuss potential joint action. The logic of Globe and Mail, p. A15. and hydrography etc. The approach used is ensuring that an infrastructure created by Ibbitson, J., December 20, 2006. “Let’s defuse similar to the INSPIRE project recently ap- Canada is at least interoperable with the one northwest passage row”. The Globe and proved by the European Union to create a created by the northern nations of Europe is Mail. seamless SDI for all of Europe (www.ec-gis. very strong. Canadian leadership in this Morantz, A., 2002. Where is here? Cana- org/inspire). respect would be an important symbol in da’s maps and the stories they tell. Similarly, the Canadian government terms of our assertion of sovereignty. Toronto: Penguin Books. has developed many arctic geospatial data Like the Antarctic, the Arctic is a re- Nowlan, L., 2001. Arctic legal regime for infrastructure elements through Natural gion where sovereignty issues are a concern, environmental protection. Gland, Resources Canada’s GeoConnections pro- scientific research activity is high, and pres- Switzerland, Cambridge, U.K. and ICEL, gram and the Canadian Geospatial Data sure is increasing to develop resources. Bonn, Germany: IUCN The World Con- Infrastructure as well as priority programs Unlike the Antarctic, the Arctic region is servation Union. such Geomatics for Northern Development home to many tens of thousands of perma- UN, 2007. Oceans and law of the sea. Re- (www.ess.nrcan.gc.ca/2002_2006/gnd/index_ nent residents. The way we manage sover- trieved January 5, 2007, from www. e.php). Local stakeholders are also develop- eignty concerns and environmental stew- un.org/Depts/los/index.htm. ing resources. The Government of Yukon ardship will therefore significantly affect the U.S.A., 1994. Executive order 12906 – coor- has a well-developed Geomatics program lives of many. An effective Geospatial Data dinating geographic data acquisition and (www.geomaticsyukon.ca). Planning Organi- Infrastructure can contribute to successful access: The national spatial data infra- zations like the Yukon Land Use Planning stewardship by helping to establish con- structure. Federal Register, 59(71). Council have developed an on-line atlas that structive solutions for sovereignty issues and Wilson, K.J., J. Falkingham, H. Melling and includes geospatial analysis tools (www. for sound management of resources and the R. De Abreu, 20–24 September, 2004. planyukon.ca). These initiatives, along with environment. “Shipping in the Canadian arctic: Other community-based projects, can contribute to possible climate change scenarios”. Paper an SDI that can be used to develop informa- Peter L. Pulsifer (Ph.D. candidate) and presented at the Geosciences and Remote tion and knowledge in support of good gov- D.R.F. Taylor (Distinguished Research Pro- Sensing Symposium, IGARSS ’04, An- ernment and good management of Cana- fessor) are both with the Geomatics and Car- chorage, Alaska. da’s North – and will also assist Canada in tographic Research Centre, at the Depart- dealing with sovereignty issues. ment of Geography, Carleton University. Acknowledgements Currently, there is no coordinated Geo- The authors wish to acknowledge Dr. Olav spatial Data Infrastructure program focused Loken for directing them to several articles on the North and the Arctic at a national referenced in this paper.

5 USING LAKE SEDIMENTS TO RECONSTRUCT ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES IN THE ARCTIC Marianne S.V Douglas and John P. Smol

Arctic latitudes are showing clear evidence and impact of warming and related envi- environmental change can be difficult, as of rapid environmental change. In Novem- ronmental changes in the Canadian Arctic. the degree of change is often a relative mea- ber 2004, the Arctic Climate Impact Assess- The ACIA documented numerous sure. Given the range of natural variability ment (ACIA, 2004) was released by the Arc- changes in the Arctic environment, such as within ecosystems, it is necessary to put the tic Council. Made up of the eight circum- melting glaciers, thinning and receding sea observed changes in the correct temporal Arctic nations, the Arctic Council was partly ice, longer summer seasons, melting per- and spatial contexts with baseline data. For responding to the observations voiced by mafrost, rising sea levels, expansion (and example, in order to assess whether average concerned citizens that high latitude envi- some subsequent contraction) of bio- temperatures are rising (or cooling) it is ronments were changing rapidly and with geographical ranges for animal and plant necessary to have a long time-series of tem- often detrimental effects for the people and species, increased exposure to ultraviolet perature measurements (or some other wildlife whose survival is so tightly tied to radiation as a result of stratospheric ozone proxy of climate). In the Arctic, where the the land. These changes are clearly being depletion, as well as the transport of pollu- instrumental temperature record is short, observed by people living in the Arctic; how- tants such as persistent organic pollutants mostly less than 50 years, it is difficult to ever long-term trends on environmental (POPs) and metals (e.g., mercury) from obtain this information solely from instru- changes are difficult to document due to the more southern latitudes to the Arctic via mental measurements. Fortunately there are lack of historical records for many polar rivers, ocean currents, and winds. The many ways to obtain proxy (i.e., substitute) regions. Fortunately, a variety of paleoenvi- cumulative impacts of these numerous records for these missing data which can be ronmental records are available to extend changing factors are likely synergistic (i.e., used to determine the timing and magni- the period of instrumental data. This article additive) and, although difficult to measure tudes of past environmental changes. A vari- summarizes some of the paleolimnological directly on long time frames, are known to ety of natural environmental archives can research focused on describing the extent have negative impacts on ecosystems. be used for tracking long-term environmen- Assessing the extent and nature of tal changes, although ice sheets and ocean and lake sediments are the most commonly used sources in Arctic regions. For example, ice cores drilled from polar ice sheets pro- vide a wide spectrum of paleoenvironmental information, including trapped air bubbles

Figure 1 Circum-Arctic projection showing the degree of recent change in diatom assemblages in lake sediments since Degree of the early 1800s. Site locations A–H represent locations B change where paleolimnological analyses were conducted. D F H A: Ellesmere Island; G High B: Ellef Ringnes Island; C: Baffin Island; A D: Northwest Territories; C Medium E: Northern Quebec; F: Spitzbergen; Low/none G: Finnish Lapland; E H: Polar Urals. For further details refer to figure 1,Smol et al., 2005. Modified from Smol et al. (2005).

CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION 6 from which measurements of past atmos- only were diatom assemblages across the pheric conditions can be measured, as well Arctic showing similar trends, but similar as records of past pollutants and climatic concomitant shifts were being recorded in changes. In addition, sediment cores re- indicators higher up the food chain, such as trieved from ocean and lake basins provide by chironomid insects (Quinlan et al., 2005) additional archives of past environments, as and other zooplankton, such as Cladocera. microfossils and other indicators preserved A meta-analysis of over 40 sediment profiles within the mud matrix contain information from across the circumpolar Arctic showed regarding the environment at the time of striking trends in many lakes and ponds deposition. The study of lake sediments, also (Smol et al., 2005). Although the timing and known as paleolimnology, has proved to be magnitude of the environmental shifts var- a valuable and powerful tool in reconstruct- ied according to geographic location (as ing past environmental conditions in polar expected from such a heterogeneous envi-

SPRING/SUMMER 2007 regions (Pienitz et al., 2004). In fact, readers ronment), several noticeable trends were of Meridian can refer back to the article by observed. In general, the greatest shifts in Wolfe et al. (2006) who used similar tech- species turn over were observed at the high- niques to reconstruct past aquatic environ- est latitudes in the most sensitive (shallow- Figure 2 mental conditions in the Peace-Athabasca est) sites, whereas less striking shifts were A short gravity core taken from a Cape Herschel pond,on delta ecosystem. observed at lower latitudes (fig. 1). Regions Ellesmere Island. Photo: M.S.V. Douglas. Dramatic environmental changes in which had not experienced similar magni- lake sediments that could be linked to recent tudes of warming (at the time of these stud- climatic warming were first reported from ty and with species indicative of warmer ies), such as northern Quebec and Labrador, the east-central coast of Ellesmere Island in environments. Using radiometric dating did not record significant shifts in diatom the mid-1990s (Douglas et al., 1994). By techniques, such as 210Pb, it was possible to assemblages (fig. 1). Paleolimnological studying algal microfossils called diatoms determine the approximate timing of the analyses provided a powerful and reliable from the sediments of shallow ponds, it was change. Surprisingly, the assemblage change means by which to track environmental shown that the freshwater ponds at Cape had occurred very quickly, likely in the peri- changes. Herschel experienced unprecedented shifts od of less than a decade. An ecological Many of the environmental changes in algal community structure, and that these threshold had been passed. Arguments that observed in the Arctic will likely be magni- were likely the result of warming. Diatoms these species changes might have been fied as a result of cumulative impacts. For are excellent microfossils to use in paleolim- caused by pollution, ozone depletion, poor instance, the deposition of pollutants in the nological analyses as their cell walls are microfossil preservation or coring artifacts north may be accelerated and their effects made of glass and so they preserve well in could be discounted (Douglas et al., 1994). exacerbated as a result of warming condi- the sediments. Different species, which can Subsequent study of the present-day fresh- tions. A large spectrum of persistent organic be identified based upon the ornamentation water diatoms living in the Canadian Arc- pollutants, for example, is transported to of their sculpted glass cell walls, are char- tic revealed that the species inhabiting the polar regions via air and water currents. acterized by different ecological optima. ponds before the more recent changes took However, once again, it is difficult to deter- Hence, when identified in sediments, the place were taxa characteristic of colder, mine the history of deposition patterns of environmental conditions at the time of more ice-covered environments. The timing these pollutants without turning to the sedi- deposition can be inferred based upon the and magnitude of the change indicated that mentary record (Blais and Muir, 2001). One diatom species present. a warming Arctic was likely related to these new area of research is the biotransport of On Ellesmere Island, the diatom as- marked assemblage shifts (Douglas et al., contaminants via biological vectors (Blais et semblages revealed surprising results: for 1994). al., 2007; Evenset et al., 2004), such as sea over several thousands of years, only a Over the course of the decade follow- birds. To use a recent Canadian example, handful of species had thrived. However, ing the initial 1994 study, numerous re- Blais et al. (2005) examined the surficial beginning in the 1800s, that assemblage had searchers reported similar paleolimnological sediments from several ponds on Devon been replaced by one with higher diversi- findings throughout the circum-Arctic. Not

7 marine-derived contaminants. Science 309: 445. Blais, J.M., R.W. Macdonald, D. Mackay, E. Webster, C. Harvey and J.P. Smol, 2007. Biologically mediated transport of conta- minants to aquatic ecosystems. Environ- mental Science & Technology 41, 1075– 1084. Douglas, M.S.V., J.P. Smol and W. Blake Jr., 1994. Marked post-18th century environ- mental change in high-arctic ecosys- tems. Science 266: 416–419. Evenset, A., G.N. Christensen, T. Skotvold, E. Fjeld, M. Schlabach, E. Wartena and D. Gregor, 2004. A comparison of organic contaminants in two high Arctic lake ecosystems, Bjørnøya (Bear Island), Nor- way. Science of the Total Environment 318: 125–141. Pienitz, R., M.S.V. Douglas and J.P. Smol Figure 3 (eds.), 2004. Long-Term Environmen- A diatom belonging to the genus Cymbella. Photo: Island affected by different degrees of nest- tal Change in Arctic and Antarctic Dermot Antoniades. ing bird influences. They showed that sedi- Lakes. Springer, Dordrecht. ments sampled closest to the source of the Quinlan, R., M.S.V. Douglas and J.P. Smol, nesting birds had the highest levels of conta- Atmospheric Sciences at the University of 2005. Food web changes in Arctic ecosys- minants. In order to determine the timing Alberta. John P. Smol is Professor in the tems related to climate warming. Global and rates of contaminant deposition in Department of Biology at Queen’s Universi- Change Biology 11: 1381–186. this area, sediment cores are now being ty and a Fellow of the Royal Society of Smol, J.P., A.P. Wolfe, H.J.B Birks, M.S.V. examined to provide a temporal perspective Canada. He holds a Canada Research Douglas, V.J. Jones, A. Korhola, R. for these contaminant studies (study in Chair in Environmental Change. Pienitz, K. Ruhland, S. Sorvari, D. Anto- progress). niades, S.J. Brooks, M-A. Fallu, M. Hugh- Although many environmental References es, B.E. Keatley, T.E. Laing, N. Michelutti, changes have been noted by people living ACIA, 2004. Impacts of a warming Arctic: L. Nazarova, M. Nyman, A.M. Paterson, in the North, these indicators are largely Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Cam- B. Perren, R. Quinlan, M. Rautio, E. macroscopic, i.e., the conclusion is based bridge University Press. www.acia.uaf. Saulnier-Talbot, S. Siitonen, N. Solovieva upon changes that can be readily observed, edu. and J. Weckström, 2005. Climate-driven such as the range extension of various birds Blais, J.M., and D.C.G. Muir, 2001. Paleolim- regime shifts in the biological communi- and insects, the reduction in sea ice thick- nological methods and applications for ties of arctic lakes. Proceedings of the ness and extent and so forth. In order to persistent organic pollutants. In W.M. National Academy of Sciences 102: extend the monitoring window back in Last and J.P. Smol (eds.), Tracking Envi- 4397–4402. time, however, we have to dovetail these ronmental Change Using Lake Sedi- Wolfe, B.B., R.I. Hall and T.W.D. Edwards, observations with proxy data preserved in ments. Volume 2: Physical and Geo- 2006. Assessing the status of the Peace- geological records, such as paleolimnology. chemical Methods. Kluwer Academic Athabasca delta ecosystem: challenging Publishers, Dordrecht, 271–298. the paradigm from a paleoenvironmen- Marianne S.V. Douglas is Director of the Blais, J.M., L.E. Kimpe, D. McMahon, B.E. tal perspective. Meridian Fall/Winter Canadian Circumpolar Institute and Pro- Keatley, M.L. Mallory, M.S.V. Douglas and 2006, pp. 7–12. fessor in the Department of Earth and J.P. Smol, 2005. Arctic seabirds transport

CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION 8 ARCTIC AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM RESEARCH: PRESENT AND FUTURE Terry A. Dick and Colin P. Gallagher

INTRODUCTION physical oceanic variables can be correlated INSHORE AND Global warming and resource extraction with fish species distribution (Jorgensen et ESTUARY FISH will both have major impacts on arctic al., 2005; Chambers and Dick, 2006); and COMMUNITIES aquatic ecosystems, and substantial baseline the traditional guild approach to describe The inshore and estuary arctic char subsis- data is still needed on most of these systems. trophic structure of fish communities does tence fisheries are important to many arctic Much of our research deals with freshwater not appear to adequately describe arctic communities (Dick and Chambers, 2005). and marine ecosystems, particularly food marine systems (Chambers and Dick, 2006). While there is some information on the sta- webs and trophic feeding of fish. As we dis- This report deals with the results of tus of the fish stocks in these areas there is cussed the importance of arctic marine fish research in arctic estuaries, freshwater much less on the inshore fish community food webs in a previous Meridian article lakes, and streams, from the viewpoint of with respect to habitat use, competition – SPRING/SUMMER 2007 (Dick and Chambers, 2005) it will not be energy sources and habitat use by fish. It both intraspecific (between fish of the same presented in detail here. However, based on also discusses our collaborations with Nuna- species) and interspecific (between fish our research to date, some general conclu- vut Arctic College. species) – and on fish/environment interac- sions can be made: arctic marine food webs tions. We have completed a series of studies appear to be a continuum with loss of species on two of the most important fish species in Figure 1 northward (Chambers and Dick, 2006); the the inshore area of Frobisher Bay near Iqa- Percent frequency of food items in Arctic char from the luit. These have evaluated the biology, growth, A) Sylvia Grinnell River and B) shorthorn sculpin from food habits, parasites and stable isotopes of Peterhead Inlet and Sylvia Grinnell River. arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) and short- horn sculpin (Myoxocephalus scorpius) to A establish baseline information prior to the Mysis oculata anticipated influences of global warming. Anadromous arctic char obtain most Mysis mixta of their energy during the short arctic sum- mer while feeding in the ocean in the pe- Mysis mixta or oculata lagic (open water) zone. Shorthorn sculpin Small mysids remain in the ocean year-round and obtain their food mostly in the benthic (ocean bot- Fish tom) zone. Our data so far shows that over- lap in energy requirements and interspeci- Thermisto libellula fic competition is low between char and Onesimus littoralls shorthorn sculpin (fig. 1) but we predict that B alien species invasions will lead to more Gammarus setosus competition for food and space. A predictive energy model for fish in Other amphipods changing arctic marine systems requires Thysanoessa sp. assessment of the energy costs for basic metabolic needs and growth, as well as Calanus sp. methods to determine linkages between physical changes in the marine environ- Polychaete ment and biota, including fish behaviour Gastropod and feeding patterns. We are building on our current data on growth, energy inputs, and

9 temperature. Other acoustic technologies are used to map lake depth and the substrate types on the lake bottom (fig. 2). Figure 3 shows the diurnal movements of lake trout under the ice in Chitty Lake (Dick et al., 2005). This movement is related to photope- Figure 2 riod and feeding. Substrate map of Iqalugaajuruluit Lake using data collected with the QTV View FRESH WATER Series V equipment to create a map in SYSTEMS Arcmap. Small arctic lakes are generally considered to be nutrient-poor environments with sim- ple fish communities, and the most widely distributed species is arctic char, regardless of lake size. Moreover, most arctic lakes are small with high volume-to-area ratios and are less likely to be dominated by one habi- Substrates tat type (see map of substrate in Iqalugaaju- Pure clumped organic materials ruluit Lake, fig. 2). Although lake systems Vegetation 0 100 metres are often studied as separate entities – the Boulder/rock pelagic, benthic and riparian (shoreline) Pebble/gravel habitats – there are strong linkages among them (Schindler and Scheuerell, 2002). We hypothesize that these small arctic lakes are coupled by physical, chemical, and biologi- food quality, where we have determined the rity. We also hypothesize that while there is cal processes and that fishes reveal connec- total energy content of food and completed little competition for food today, when alien tions across habitat types. proximate analysis (chemical analysis of the species arrive they will compete for food and We have studied trophic structure main constituents of food) on key food space with arctic char – which is a poor (the pattern of eating in an ecosystem) in items. competitor and will likely lose out. Food is small arctic lakes by describing the interac- The energy model will apply to in- important to optimal growth, but char’s tions of arctic char and ninespine stickle- shore estuarine fisheries throughout the Arc- interactions with the physical environment back to determine the sources of the energy tic. It should eventually be able to evaluate will also be crucial to assuring its future suc- going into the lake and the flow of that food (energy availability), competition cess in the marine environment. energy through the fish community. These (invasion by alien species) and impact of New research tools – long-lived acous- studies include the type of food consumed, changes in abiotic variables (temperature, tic tags and long-lived remotely downloaded parasites (indicators of food consumption salinity, oxygen, currents) on fish move- receivers – have been developed to aid stud- since some parasites are transmitted through ments. We hypothesize that the way fish ies of fish movements. These, combined food and, as pathogens, may be population respond at the local scale to changing envi- with the ability to record the habits of an regulators) stable isotopes as indicators of ronments such as tides – where salinity and individual fish, will allow major advances in food consumed, and the interaction and temperature can change by the hour – will understanding how a fish interacts with its movements of arctic char with its physical have direct relevance to the open ocean, environment, in real time. We have tested environment. where physical changes from global warm- these tools in freshwater systems, for arctic Despite a substantial published litera- ing will occur more slowly. Furthermore, char in Iqalugaajuruluit Lake on Baffin ture on the use of stable isotopes to describe the preferred temperature and salinity is Island, and with lake trout (Salvelinus trophic structure of fish communities, inter- directly relevant to our energy models for namaycush) in Chitty Lake, NWT, using pretation is problematic: more controlled fish growth and time to reach sexual matu- acoustically tagged fish with sensors that can measure location, depth, and water experiments are needed to determine the

CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION 10 factors affecting stable isotopes ratios of car- 0 bon and nitrogen (Hesslein et al., 1993). A series of laboratory experiments were de- 1 signed to determine the time to reach a new 2 half-life for a stable isotope and a new equi- 3 librium after a diet switch, using young-of- 4 the-year arctic char. Stable isotope ratios for 5 δ13 δ15 C and N reached equilibrium as early 6

as the 56th day after the first feed. The half- Depth (metres) 7 life of δ15N isotopes were calculated at 43.4 8 and 32.3, and for δ13C half-life at 24.6 and 9

29.0 days for char fed diets of blood worm 10/20/04 10/21/04 10/22/04 10/23/04 10/24/04 10/25/04 10/26/4 and frozen adult brine shrimp, respective-

SPRING/SUMMER 2007 ly. The time to reach the half-life and new stable isotope equilibrium was related to Time (days) growth, with the young fast-growing char Figure 3 having the shortest half-life. Young-of-the- tope, and growth data from diet-switching Diurnal movements of lake trout fitted with a Vemco year char that did not grow but maintained experiments suggests that the absolute pressure tag and data collected under the ice with a their initial body weight throughout the amount of fat and the relative amount of fat Vemco VR2 receiver. growth trial had calculated half-lives for to protein may be important in predicting δ13C and δ15N at over 700 days (Isinguzo et the time it takes to shift to new stable isotope plankton is generally considered of minimal al., 2006). We agree with Hesslein et al. equilibrium, especially for cold water spe- importance as an energy source. Our data (1993) that old slow-growing fish may take cies. Caution is clearly required when using indicates that zooplankton is an important several years to reach new stable isotope stable isotope to describe trophic structure food source for ninespine stickleback, which equilibrium if the diet is switched, but the and natural food webs in aquatic systems is in turn consumed by char – indicating nutritional state of an individual wild fish is where little other biological data is collected. habitat coupling. Furthermore, our data and equally important to its trophic status. Fur- As char eat mostly benthic inverte- that of Karlsson and Bystrom (2005) indi- thermore, proximate analysis, stable iso- brates when in freshwater arctic lakes, zoo- cate that the littoral zone is a key source of

Figure 4 Students from Nunavut Arctic College preparing data logger to monitor temperature and pressure (depth) over a tidal cycle. A) enlargement of a data logger. Photo: T. Dick.

11 placed VR2 receivers (VEMCO). To increase the resolution of the acoustic tagging, we carried out system multivariate analysis (CCA) to show that the detection of char by different acoustic receivers was aggregated and therefore localized in the lake (Dick et al., 2006). In Iqalugaajuruluit Lake the distribu- tion of tagged char depended on the size of the fish and was related to abiotic factors such as substrate type, depth, and water temperature. Large char (over 400 mm) may be limited to areas colder than 6°C during the open water period in small arctic lakes. The char distributions appear to be related to feeding types: large piscivorous char are found most often in the deepest water over soft substrates while smaller char, which feed on invertebrates and fish, Figure 5 are most common over boulders, pebbles energy input to these small lakes and this Students from Nunavut Arctic College using a portable and gravel. inshore habitat is coupled with the pelagic acoustic flow meter to measure current across a stream bed so that total stream flow can be calculated. Photo: habitat through fish movements and feed- T. Dick. EDUCATION ing. Piscivory (eating other fish species) and We work closely with the Nunavut Arctic cannibalism by large char is an important Figure 6 College, incorporating our research findings use of energy in the lake. Our data on char Students from Nunavut Arctic College using ice auger to into the teaching program to cover such movements and habitat mapping studies prepare opening for zooplankton collections and in situ topics as fisheries management, marine indicate that large char make extensive use physical readings during the Environmental Technology of a small portion of the lake correlated with Program winter field course. Photo: T. Dick. temperature and depth. We speculate that this unique area – 3.3% of total lake volume – may become limiting habitat for arctic char if warmer summers reduce the extent of cooler water with adequate oxygen in these small lakes (Dick et al., 2006). The way in which landlocked char interact with their lacustrine habitat is not well known. To document arctic char move- ment we collected acoustic data from the lake bottom using sonar-based hydrograph- ic survey (QTCVIEW Series V) to determine substrate types and to map these substrates in a Geographic Information System (GIS). We gathered data on char movements dur- ing the open water period by underwater acoustic telemetry, collecting data from acoustically tagged fish with strategically

CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION 12 High tide

Low tide

Low tide level SPRING/SUMMER 2007

Figure 7 high. The mobile dive glider simultaneously collects data biology, stream ecology and limnology. Stu- Future studies on fish/environmental interactions. The on physical variables in the ocean and on the location of collection of data using passive receivers is time- tagged fish. The dive glider is programmable,allowing dents during the fall field camp at Peterhead consuming,and since large numbers of receivers are repeated passes over an extended area,under the ice,at Inlet collect physical data from the ocean required,due to the limited detection range,costs are the floe edge,and in remote areas where data can be using data loggers (fig. 4) and assess and transferred to satellites. The airship allows access to monitor stream ecology as it relates to sub- remote locations year round enabling deployment of the glider to polynyas in the winter,to any location during strate, stream flow (fig. 5) and identification temperatures. In lectures we discuss our data of stream biota. Methods have been stan- ice breakup,and at the ice floe edge at any time of year. from the small lakes on fish community A: Airship deploying a dive glider. dardized so that each class collects the same structure, trophic feeding, char movements B: Transferring data from dive glider to satellite and data. The objective is to combine our re- (fig. 3), substrate mapping (fig. 2) and ener- correction of dive glider position by GPS. search interests in juvenile fish habitat and gy flow. C: Sensors in the dive glider record temperature, food availability in streams with the estab- pressure,salinity and oxygen as it moves through a lishment of long-term arctic stream refer- FUTURE RESEARCH programmed path in the ocean. D: Downloading data on pressure,temperature and ence data sets that reside at Nunavut Arctic One aspect of our future research deals with location from acoustic tags implanted in a fish. College and the Nunavut Research Institute. fish/environmental interactions. Initial stud- E: Detection of fish by direction and distance from dive Through the winter field teaching ies will be done in the Iqaluit area as it is glider. program at Nunavut College (fig. 6) we readily accessible, college students are avail- F: Passive detection system to verify accuracy of fish have developed ways to keep equipment able, and knowledge can be transferred detected by the dive glider. operational and collect data at very low quickly to the college and the community as

13 a whole. We will use passive acoustic receiv- This data on fish movements will fish communities: implications for food ers as well as mobile dive gliders (fig. 7). Ini- provide information on areas of highest fish web construction. Arctic Antarctic and tially, acoustic receivers will be set up in a activity by both species. Research will then Alpine Research, 39: 1–7. grid to detect small-scale fish movements focus on fine-scale interactions of the fish Dick, Terry A., Colin Gallagher and Auihui (5–10 km) and record local hydrographic with their environment in these areas, in- Yang, 2005. Lake Trout Movements and data. Focusing on arctic char and shorthorn cluding movements of male and female Habitat Use in a Small Northern Lake. sculpin, we aim to determine how fish shorthorn sculpin around the brooding Second North American Lake Trout Sym- respond to tidal movements, where they areas (nests), the vertical movements of posium. Yellowknife (in press). feed in the water column, their location rel- Arctic char in the water column as tides Dick, Terry A., and Chandra Chambers, ative to temperature and salinity gradients change, and the questions of what the two 2005. Fishing in Canadian Arctic marine as tides rise and fall; and whether fish fish species feed on during the tidal cycle, waters: a need for national policies and movements are largely passive or whether when, and where. priorities. Meridian, Spring-Summer there is an energy cost associated with tidal This research will of course enable us 2005, pp 1–5. movements. to field-test equipment, but it will also add to Dick, Terry A., Colin P. Gallagher and Aihui This research will take place in the our understanding of energy budgets for fish Yamg, 2006. Movements of acoustically marine environment at depths between 5 to movements during daily and seasonal tidal tagged Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) 30 m. The initial studies will evaluate fish shifts, energy costs to protect offspring by in a small Arctic lake (Iqalugaajuruluit), movements on a coarse scale within a 100 sculpins, and energy costs associated with Baffin Island. Hydrobiologia (submitted). km2 area. This will then be reduced to 1 km2 predator avoidance. It will also reveal how Hesslein, R.H., K.A. Hallard and P.Ramlal, areas as key activity sites are located, espe- fish respond to changing physical variables 1993. Replacement of sulfur, carbon, and cially for the shorthorn sculpin. Substrates in the ocean. The data, when combined nitrogen in tissue of growing broad will be mapped using the QTCVIEW series V with information on the total energy of the whitefish (Coregonus nasus) in response (fig. 2). food consumed and food item quality (prox- to a change in diet traced by δ34S, δ13C Data will be collected simultaneously imate analysis), will form the basis of new and δ15N. Canadian Journal of Fish- from passive receivers and a dive glider (fig. energy models to predict the responses of eries and Aquatic Sciences, 50: 2071– 7). Two hydrophone ports will be placed marine fishes to large-scale environmental 2076. into the dive glider, which is a mobile unit changes. Karlsson, J., and P. Bystrom, 2005. Littoral capable of moving to specific locations and energy mobilization dominates energy depths occupying controlled spatial and Terry Dick is Professor in the Department supply for top consumers in subarctic temporal grids. Powered by alkaline batter- of Zoology, University of Manitoba, and lakes. Limnology and Oceanography, ies and programmable, this versatile and Natural Sciences and Engineering Re- 50: 538–543. manoeuverable device can carry customized search Council Northern Chair. Colin Gal- Isinguzo, Ike, Colin P. Gallagher and Terry sensors and operate for 15 to 30 days at a lagher is a senior research technician with A. Dick, 2006. Food particle size, growth time (fig. 7). It positions itself by dead reck- extensive Arctic experience. and stable isotope signatures of young- oning, periodically surfacing to correct its of-the-year Arctic char under experi- location by global positioning system (GPS). References mental conditions. Environmental Biol- Individual char movements will be Chambers, Chandra, and Terry A. Dick, ogy Fish (submitted). measured in the estuary at Iqaluit and at 2005. Trophic structure of one Deep-Sea Jorgensen, O.A., C. Hvingel, P.R. Moller and the same time physical data will be collected Benthic Fish community in the Eastern M.A. Treble, 2005. Identification and from the environment. The glider will Canadian Arctic: application of food, mapping of bottom fish assemblages in record temperature, conductivity, depth, parasites and multivariate analysis. En- Davis Strait and southern Baffin Bay. oxygen, and current, both vertically and vironmental Biology Fish, 74: 365–378. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and horizontally, with high resolution. The dive Chambers, Chandra, and Terry A. Dick, Aquatic Sciences, 62: 1833–1852. glider will initially operate during 12–24 2006. Using environmental variables to Schindler, Daniel and Mark D. Scheuerel, hour intervals to coincide with the tide predict the structure of deep-sea Arctic 2002. Habitat coupling in lake ecosys- cycle, after which data will be downloaded tems. Oikos., 98: 177–189. and the batteries changed.

CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION 14 CANADIAN BOREAL FOREST DYNAMICS IN A TIME OF GLOBAL CHANGE Serge Payette

The Northern Research Chair on the Ecology The Kativik Regional Government, coming all at once, that the characteristic of Forest Disturbances (www.chairenordique based in Kuujjuaq, has contributed part of boreal forest stands develop, thrive, alter, crsng.ulaval.ca) was created in 2003 with the the funding for another major multi-year and disappear. support of the Natural Sciences and Engi- project: an illustrated Flora for Quebec and Across Canada from east to west – neering Research Council (NSERC), and in Labrador north of the 54th parallel. This from Newfoundland to the Yukon – the bo- cooperation with the Kativik Regional Gov- work will include the botanic and biogeo- real forest forms a vast biome composed of ernment, the Cree Regional Authority, the graphic descriptions of the approximately three main vegetation zones: the closed- Ouranos Consortium on Climate Change, 800 vascular taxa of the region. Distribution crown forest zone, the open-crown forest and Hydro-Quebec. The Chair focuses on the maps for each have been developed using zone (lichen woodland), and the tundra for- evolution of northern terrestrial ecosystem northern Quebec-Labrador specimens from est zone (fig. 1). The southernmost part of SPRING/SUMMER 2007 stability as it relates to natural and human- the main herbaria of Eastern Canada and the boreal forest is in contact with the east- induced disturbances, in the context of past, from the Gray Herbarium in Boston. The ern deciduous forest, the central part bor- current, and future climate changes. Activi- many botanists on our team have properly ders on the Prairies, and the western edge ties so far have enabled the mentoring and identified all specimens and are participat- touches the cordilleran vegetation of the training of master’s and doctoral students in ing in the development of identification keys Rockies. Its northernmost boundary, stretch- the group’s two main areas of interest: the and descriptions for each taxon. Label infor- ing from Labrador to the Yukon, is the arctic dynamics of natural and human-induced mation has been incorporated into a data- tundra. disturbances in the northern forest, and the base of over 90,000 specimens. The Flora Our research involves mainly eastern restoration of disturbed sites in Quebec’s will have many uses in natural science in- Canada, from Hudson Bay to the Labrador mid-north and Nunavik. cluding the creation of a database on the coast. Focusing on the origins of today’s A cooperation agreement on dis- state of biodiversity, the status of vulnerable boreal forest, we are testing the hypothesis turbed site restoration with the Cree Region- or threatened species in the region, climate that fire was the agent of change over the al Authority and the east Hudson Bay Cree change impacts, the distribution of native last few millennia, during which climate village of Whapmagoostui has enabled species, invading species, and the range changes also likely occurred. Fire affects the development of a plan for stabilizing and dynamics of taxa sensitive to change. This structure, botanic composition, and func- restoring damaged areas. Leading this work project works closely with the Louis-Marie tioning of the boreal forest, as several is Stéphane Boudreau, who was recently Herbarium at Université Laval. researchers have demonstrated (Johnson, recruited to the Chair’s academic program. Through the Chair we have created a 1992; Payette, 1992; Stocks et al., 1998; He supervises Ian Boucher and Alexis diversified research program in spatiotem- Arsenault, 2001; Bergeron et al., 2004). We Deshaies, master’s students who spend a poral dynamics of the boreal forest, one of are looking at the origin and dynamics of considerable amount of time in Whapma- the planet’s principal forests and certainly the three principle zones of the boreal forest goostui. Cree students from the village are the most important in North America. The in eastern Canada through a number of receiving technical and scientific training as research is based on the hypothesis that nat- basic and practical research projects. Most research assistants as part of the program in ural disturbances – climatic changes and deal with ecological and paleoecological restoration research. fire – have influenced the fundamental analysis of the forest tundra, the most north- Other Chair restoration projects near nature of the boreal forest over both time erly and coldest zone, where we have Kuujjuaq have been led by Yves Bégin, direc- and space since the time of deglaciation. It is observed that the forest has been retreating tor of Laval’s Centre d’études nordiques. We ultimately through disturbances, sometimes for several millennia, especially over the last expect to become even more involved in site occurring in isolation and at other times 1000 years. restoration through the study of natural eco- Master’s student Sarah Auger is ex- logical succession in sites disturbed decades amining the structure of millennial forests ago by mining activity or hydro construction. on the treeline. Here we can speak of ‘geron- toecology’, for these lichen woodlands –

15 which are virtually ignored in the scientific This, noted in a recent study (Payette et al., tern. Open-crown forest distribution over literature – are ancient and stable ecosys- 2001), led us to undertake a series of projects the entire boreal forest biome shows a bell tems. They are also vulnerable to the deadly on the latitudinal distribution and origin of curve, suggesting post-fire forest regenera- mix of fire and climatic cooling, which the main forests of the biome, in order to tion success. If this is correct, the gains of the together can destroy a thousand-year-old improve our understanding of the dynamics open-crown forest at the expense of the forest in a single blow. A catastrophic fire of the three principal boreal forest zones. closed-crown forest within the closed-forest does not change the position of the treeline; Together, these projects represent a detailed zone illustrate the vulnerability of the what occurs, rather, is the systematic defor- spatiotemporal analysis of the distribution closed-crown forest to fire, the most com- estation of the northern part of the forest and abundance of the open-crown forest. mon disturbance in the boreal forest. zone. Using open-crown forest distribution The origin and dynamics of the Our work on forest regeneration po- data for the forest tundra zone (Payette et closed-crown forest is being analyzed by tential has revealed a 7% loss in boreal forest al., 2001) we analysed the southern section master’s student Stefanie Pollock. Her study, area in northern Quebec-Labrador. When of the lichen woodland range inside the twinned with François Girard’s project, con- depicted on a graph, loss of forest cover (for- closed-crown forest zone, which consists of firms that the closed-crown forest is shrink- est in this case means lichen woodland) in feathermoss spruce forests. This research, ing. Fires in the boreal forest consume very the forest tundra zone from its southern part of François Girard’s doctoral thesis (co- little of the surface organic layer, which is limit (which is also the northern limit of the supervised with Réjean Gagnon of the Uni- an unfavourable environment for seed ger- open-crown forest zone) to its northern versité du Québec à Chicoutimi), defines the mination of black spruce (Picea mariana). boundary (the treeline) shows a logarithmic distribution and abundance of the open for- Here again, closed-crown forest distribution pattern: the rate of deforestation of forest est from its southern limit to the open-crown and latitude follow a logarithmic relation- tundra zone as a function of latitude is high- forest zone proper. ship in the northern area, suggesting greater er in the southern than the northern area. In the closed-crown forest zone, forest loss there. abundance and distribution from south to north is the reverse of the forest-tundra pat-

Figure 1

U.S.A. Forest-tundra CANADA Lichen woodland Closed-crown Hudson forest Bay Pacific Ocean

Atlantic CANADA Ocean U.S.A.

CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION 16 We are now developing a spatiotem- changes. A post-doctoral project by Marco ry. Fine stratigraphic analysis of peat de- poral dynamic model for vegetation zones in Caccianiga, now professor of ecology at the posits and dendroecological analysis of liv- the boreal forest biome, based on the bell- University of Milan, focuses on white spruce ing trees and subfossils are used to test this curve distribution of each zone and of its expansion along the Hudson Bay coast over hypothesis. Maria Dissanka (co-supervised dominant stands. This model is the basis for the last 400 years. Ann-Catherine Laliberté’s by Monique Bernier of the Institut national other Northern Chair projects on the white master’s work examined primary succession de la recherche scientifique, secteur Eau, birch (Betula papyrifera) – balsam fir along the Hudson Bay coast. That coast has Terre & Environnement [INRS-ETE]) is using (Abies balsamea) forest which is the south- been emerging at the rate of 1.2 m per cen- Quickbird satellite images to evaluate quan- ernmost boreal stand, found in the wet areas tury; Ann-Catherine’s research revealed a titative changes over the past 50 years in the of the closed-crown forest zone in eastern 400-year long formation period for the pri- aquatic component of patterned fens. The North America, and on its main companion mary forest, which consists essentially of increase in area occupied by pools is driven species, white spruce (Picea glauca). white spruce (lichen woodland). Trees in by aqualysis, a neologism that refers to the A good deal of advancing and retreat- the maritime forest are generally no more process of fen vegetation cover destruction

SPRING/SUMMER 2007 ing went on in the boreal forest during the than 50 years old. We are also interested in by submersion from an exposed water table. Holocene, as fire played havoc with the dis- white spruce ecology on the high plateaus of Peatland aqualysis is particularly wide- tribution of tree species. The boreal fir stand Quebec-Labrador and in the Torngat-Kau- spread in the fens of the James Bay region. probably retreated in much the same way it majet-Kiglapait mountain ranges along the Our study on the aqualysis of minerotrophic does now in the closed-crown forest, its dis- Labrador coast. Our most recent data reveal peatlands is an original contribution of the appearance and replacement in situ mark- the surprising fact that white spruce is still Northern Chair; the conclusions reached ed by white birch groves and white spruce undergoing post-glacial migration in this will be useful in the study of similar peat- forests. This Holocene transition from fir region: the rugged terrain around the im- lands throughout North America and Eura- stand to white spruce forest, especially in the mense Labrador fiords has slowed the spe- sia in the global context of climate changes subalpine region, is the subject of Guillaume cies’ northward progression. White spruce is and their links to precipitation regimes. de Lafontaine’s doctoral research. His pro- expanding in the alpine tundra of Napaktok We are studying several climatic as- ject includes a phylogeographic analysis of Bay, site of Labrador’s most northerly forest, pects of ombotrophic peatlands, which are at white spruce stands to test the hypothesis of while on the high interior plateaus the tree- their northern limit in the James Bay region. the creation of the sub-alpine spruce forest line has retreated about 15 metres since the These Sphagnum bogs contain eastern from genetic stock originating in a source 19th century. Canada’s most northerly permafrost islets, boreal fir stand. The inability of balsam fir to Peatlands occupy about 15% of the which Simon Thibault is studying for his regenerate in the subarctic and subalpine boreal forest, the same proportion they oc- master’s research. We have shown that the conditions that emerged during the upper cupy over the entire biome in North America permafrost in these wetlands has deteriorat- Holocene would have favoured the hardier and Eurasia. The Northern Chair program is ed considerably, apparently because of 20th- white spruce, which, like balsam fir, repro- studying these through several projects century climatic warming – particularly in duces sexually. The only white spruce forests financed by NSERC, the Ouranos Consor- the last 15 years when the average annual in the Quebec-Labrador interior live under tium, and Hydro-Québec. Two doctoral stu- temperature has risen at least 2°C and pre- subalpine conditions, and as a function of dents are working exclusively on structured cipitation has been above the 30-year aver- altitude they are found in both the closed- minerotrophic peatlands, studying the ecol- age. Detailed measurements of permafrost crown and open-crown forest zones. Other- ogy of the aquatic component – pools of thickness taken in mid-October 2004 and wise, these forests inhabit the maritime varying size and shape – in the context of 2005 indicate the presence of marginal per- coasts: James Bay, Hudson Bay, Ungava Bay, climate change. Yann Arlen-Pouliot is look- mafrost no more than 50 cm thick. Mapping and the Labrador Sea. ing at the origin and long-term dynamics of permafrost and permafrost evidence We have other projects looking at these pools, starting from the hypothesis (thermokarst depressions) shows that the white spruce migration and expansion over that they form in a linear pattern as part of permafrost limit has retreated 130 km over the last few centuries in response to climatic the natural cycle of microtopographic devel- recent decades in the James Bay area. Added opment, but that their number and size are to this are the recurrent effects of fire on bog linked closely to climatic changes, especially increased precipitation since the 19th centu-

17 vegetation in this region, which is one of the monitoring network on the evolution of al- Serge Payette is Professor in the Department most fire-prone in eastern Canada. A strati- pine tundra on selected high summits rang- of Biology and Member of the Centre d’études graphic study of fires recorded in peat de- ing from the southern limit of the closed- nordiques, Université Laval. He holds the posits in bogs by master’s student Gabriel crown forest up to the edge of the forest tun- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Magnan (co-supervised by Martin Lavioe, dra. Detailed analysis of floral diversity (vas- Council (NSERC) Northern Research Chair professor of geography at Laval and a North- cular and cryptogram) at the alpine sites, as in the ecology of forest disturbances. ern Chair collaborator) is working on dem- well as of vegetation and soils, will aim to onstrating the synergistic effect on fire prop- identify ecological changes directly relevant References agation of vegetation type and climate. to the anticipated impact of climate changes Arseneault, D., 2001. Impact of fire behavior Subarctic permafrost dynamics are in the boreal forest. Particular attention will on post-fire forest development in a also being studied, especially in the Boniface be given to the dynamics of alpine tundra homogeneous boreal landscape. Cana- region where the Chair team has a perma- colonization by boreal species – trees and dian Journal of Forest Research, 31: nent research camp providing proper logis- others – and to the correlative reaction of 1367–1374. tics for student work. Several permafrost arctic-alpine species. Bergeron, Y., et al., 2004. Fire regimes at the projects are under way in this area. Master’s Although the Northern Chair on the transition between mixed wood and student Sheila Vallée studied the evolution of ecology of forest disturbances is a recent cre- coniferous boreal forest in northwestern riparian permafrost (which is scattered ation it has already proved its worth. It has Québec. Ecology, 85: 1916–1932. along the riverbed and banks of the Boni- developed many high quality research pro- Johnson, E.A., 1992. Fire and vegetation face) over the past 50 years, and recorded a jects and spawned numerous successful dynamics. Studies from the North Ameri- 23% reduction in the area occupied by min- master’s and doctoral theses that would not can boreal forest. Cambridge University eral palsas (mounds of perennially frozen have been completed otherwise, given the Press, Cambridge, U.K. peat and mineral soil). The area has the high cost of northern research. Payette, S., 1992. Fire as a controlling pro- highest palsas in the circumboreal world – Without NSERC support it would have cess in the North American boreal for- over seven metres high and several hundred been impossible to undertake so many est. In A Systems analysis of the global square metres in area. They are being stud- worthwhile projects, especially given that boreal forest. Under the direction of H.H. ied in detail by master’s student Sébastien logistical support from Polar Continental Shugart, R. Leemans and G.B. Bonan. Cyr who has determined that they are over Shelf – despite its mandate to support north- Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1000 years old and are slowly but progres- ern research – is not currently available in U. K. pp. 144–165. sively breaking down because of 20th-cen- Nunavik. We are hopeful that one day that Payette, S., et al., 2001. The subarctic forest- tury climate warming. organization’s management will abandon tundra: The structure of a biome in a Several structuring research projects its narrow perspective and embrace a more changing climate. BioScience, 51: 709– will be launched this year dealing with equitable distribution of Canada’s northern 718. boreal forest stability in the face of natural logistical resources. The absence of support Stocks, B. J., et al., 1998. Climate change disturbances (climate and fire) and man- from Polar Continental Shelf places consid- and forest fire potential in Russian and made disturbances (logging), in light of the erable strain on research logistics capacity Canadian boreal forests. Climatic march northward of the forest industry. The in Nunavik, hampering research efforts in Change, 38: 1–13. Northern Chair is interested in collaborating areas of national importance. with Nunavik residents to evaluate the Thankfully, some organizations with impact of forestry practices on tree regener- clearer and more comprehensive vision, ation. Research on northern ecosystem bio- such as our current partners, are supporting diversity in relation to disturbance type and the many activities of the Chair in our two regime is planned for this year; by summer main areas of research. We expect that our we will establish a long-term ecological involvement in ecosystem restoration, and in the analysis of northern ecosystem dy- namics for the benefit of science and of northern residents, will continue to increase.

CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION 18 ADAPTING TO CHANGE IN CANADA’S NORTH: VOICES FROM FORT RESOLUTION, NWT Sonia Wesche

Since the summer of 2004 I have been hopes that sharing these perspectives will STUDY SITE: involved in environmental change research help generate understanding, within the FORT RESOLUTION, with the community of Fort Resolution, research community and among others NWT NWT. Building on a community research involved in the North, about the many fac- Fort Resolution is the oldest documented set- partnership with physical science colleagues tors that influence how aboriginal northern- tlement in the Northwest Territories, having undertaking paleohydrology studies, my ers respond to a rapidly changing environ- originated in the early 1800s as a central fur work examines the capacity of local people ment. The narratives and ideas presented trading post along the northern river travel to adapt to environmental and socio-cultural here are based on field experience and inter- route. The small community of about 550 mostly Dene and Métis lies within the Aka- SPRING/SUMMER 2007 change. views conducted in 2005 and 2006 in the A particularly productive facet of my Dene-Métis community of Fort Resolution, itcho Traditional Territory (currently under research involves understanding how people NWT.* Treaty negotiations), and is now accessible interpret and experience change. A recur- by road from Hay River. ring theme emerges: local people seek to People in Fort Resolution have en- balance traditional and western culture (in dured a long history of change caused by the way they relate to the world, and in * All individuals mentioned here consented to public outside influences. These include the early terms of their own identities) to adapt to release of their statements and to being identified by influx of fur traders and southern trappers, name. their changing environmental context. devastating new diseases like influenza and Effective northern research and de- velopment projects require cross-cultural collaboration with aboriginal partners (Wolfe et al., 2007). Understanding the his- torical socio-cultural context within which individuals and communities function is essential. Yet, in the academic literature on adaptation to environmental change, the Great Bear Lake voices of the people who live these changes are often sidelined. I attempt here to bring some northern voices to the fore, in the

Location of the research study site. The community of Fort Resolution lies on the south shore of Great Slave Lake,N.W.T. within Akaitcho Traditional Territory.

N’Dilo/Yellowknife Dettah

Great Slave Lake Lutselk’e Akaitcho Territory Hay River Fort Resolution Dene First Nations (proposed settlement area) Wood Buffalo Fort Smith National Park 0 150 300 Study area

19 Fred Mandeville Jr. tests the ice before crossing by snowmobile in early spring,2006. Knowledge of water tuberculosis, a mission school and hospital attempts to revive cultural traditions and currents and ice quality is essential for safe travel on that operated during the early to mid-20th knowledge tied to the land. Great Slave Lake. Photo: S. Wesche. century, government policies on aboriginal assimilation, settlement, and heritage, the RESEARCH dynamics. The fact that most people in Fort PROCESS introduction of new land use and livelihood Resolution speak English enabled me to My collaborative research project aims to technologies, increased access to the wage engage in informal discussions, participate understand how the natural ecosystem economy and western ideologies; and more in community meetings, and read planning functions and responds to various environ- recently, rapidly changing environmental and policy documents, environmental meet- mental stressors, and to enhance the stew- conditions. ing minutes, scientific and traditional ardship of natural resources and the ca- Fort Resolution’s residents have long knowledge reports available there. pacity of local residents to respond to depended on the ecological resources of the Working with local assistants, I con- change. Since June 2004 I have spent a nearby Slave River Delta for food and fur. ducted 33 semi-structured interviews with total of ten months in Fort Resolution, vis- Despite a recent marked reduction in tradi- elders and land users, concentrating on their tional land use, they continue to hunt, fish, iting repeatedly during different seasons, knowledge of environmental changes (e.g., living with a local family, and being taken and trap for both recreation and income. weather, water, ice, animals, plants), the into the bush to learn about the traditional The integrity of the surrounding ecosystem effects on people over time, and how people territory and land use practices. As a result I is also essential for newer economic en- have adapted in the past. Another nine have been able to gain invaluable experi- deavours like tourism, and to support local interviews with individuals involved in ence and understanding of community

CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION 20 resource management policy and practice at municates their views only, and is not meant chewed on the shoots. […] The rat popu- local, territorial and national levels focused to represent those of the Dene or Métis peo- lation will go down … and after a flood it on the capacity of existing institutions to col- ple as a whole, nor of the entire community will rebound. […] Where they held the laborate effectively and support local adap- of Fort Resolution. water back, the land dried out and tation strategies. For both sets of interviews I willows started to grow. There weren’t followed a general framework of questions, CHANGING enough rats to keep them down, so … the but left room for interviewees to elaborate, ENVIRONMENTAL slough will never go back to being good CONDITIONS especially in their own areas of interest and rat habitat. (Angus Beaulieu, 2005) Environmental change is a common topic of expertise. This made the interview more sat- The whole country, the whole land, discussion in Fort Resolution. However, isfying for the interviewees and expanded the whole environment is changing while most residents recognize that it is the breadth and practical relevance of my because of low water level. I can see the occurring and affecting people, they believe research. changes in the trees, in the ways plants they can do little to influence it or mitigate I also held five different focus groups are growing. Some of the food is drying its effects. SPRING/SUMMER 2007 where we discussed possible future scenarios out, some traditional pathways are over- Changes in the climatic regime are of change, involving climate and resource grown because of lack of water. Back in causing concern as they become more fre- development. These sessions aimed to stimu- the old days, in the winter they had a lot quent and more pronounced. Locals note late discussion around the areas where resi- of caribou that was migrating through that winter temperatures used to drop con- dents feel vulnerable to change, and what the area … then it dwindled to the point sistently to –50°C, whereas winters now they could do individually or as a communi- where there are none today […]. Not only tend to be warmer and shorter, generally ty in order to cope. With the help of local the population is down … the forest fires with less snow. Furthermore, conditions are research assistants, I also implemented a have depleted all the lichen that the cari- noticeably more variable, with temperatures survey of 104 heads of household. We used a bou had depended on to winter in this fluctuating from one day to the next. Resi- structured questionnaire to understand key area. (Gabe Yelle, 2005) dents have experienced several cold springs features of social relationships and networks Other changes in animal health have recently, and an extremely varied snow and how these relate to people’s ability to also been noted; of particular concern is an pack during the last few winters. Often such adapt to change. increase in fish deformities. Populations of variability limits access to the land. For I was fortunate to participate in some several primary food and fur species have example, a heavy snowfall in early fall 2005 15 guided trips on the land where I engaged decreased (e.g., beaver and muskrat). Other slowed freeze-up and caused a layer of melt in hunting, trapping, and fishing activities locally-identified impacts include increased water to develop under the snow, making it during different seasons. Learning about the difficulty in planning travel on the land, unsafe to travel on the ice until temperatures practicalities of life on the land and seeing travel safety concerns, limited access to dropped. and discussing landscape features first hand land-based activities, and decreased pelt val- Despite these noted shifts the general is essential to understand northern life, how ues (fur does not reach prime in warmer consensus is that climate change is only part locals assign value to environmental features, conditions). of the problem. Locals have noticed other and the interplay between social and ecologi- Most affected by change are those environmental variations, which they at- cal elements within the broader system. who use the land or its resources directly – tribute largely to industrial development in This article seeks to provide insight harvesters, elders and the many others who the provinces – including hydrological about how people in Fort Resolution, indi- rely on the food and furs they obtain. In changes influenced by the W.A.C. Bennett vidually and collectively, are dealing with recent years, people have tended to make Dam on the Peace River in northern B.C., change. Drawing directly on the knowledge individual adaptations, including: increased and contamination from oilsands and other and views of participants in my research use of communications technology (e.g., developments in Alberta: project, it provides a cross-section of voices satellite phones), employing different equip- In 1967 they built the Bennett Dam and of people coping with change on emotional, ment (e.g., ATVs) for land access, diversify- held water back for three years to fill the mental, physical and spiritual levels. It com- ing economic activities, and altering land reservoir. In the [Slave] delta, the prai- use patterns. However, as they now face ries and sloughs used to be full of [musk] rats, so they kept the willows down. They

21 unprecedented extremes and rates of envi- If you take the spiritual part away from BALANCING ronmental change, northerners will have the human being, then everything else TRADITIONAL AND to prepare more systematically for future goes with it. (Kevin Boucher, 2005) WESTERN WAYS OF BEING conditions. Over the past four decades technolo- Occurring simultaneously with changing gy and shifting livelihood priorities have livelihoods and land use is the loss of tradi- CHANGING SOCIAL drastically altered land use patterns. tional knowledge, which limits possibilities AND ECONOMIC Now land use is almost spontaneous. We SYSTEMS for the younger and future generations to can go out and do things within a cer- Despite recent media focus, climate change incorporate traditional ways into their lives. tain weather frame. […] You wake up is only the most recent phenomenon to Parents and elders worry that while young and it’s this beautiful day and you’re cause major upheaval to northern peoples. people may be learning some of the skills going to go all the way across to Simpson Socio-cultural conditions have also changed needed on the land or water like driving a Islands and you can be back before that rapidly in recent decades, and the resulting boat, using a shotgun, or cleaning fish, they evening storm comes in. That’s so untra- cumulative effects make it more difficult for lack the value system attached to traditional ditional. […] Now that we can do things people to adapt. ways of living. The result is a commodifica- so much quicker, it pulls you so much The community is new to us because tion of attitudes towards the land; younger away from some of the more traditional we’re nomadic people. We’re used to generations are more willing to allocate sec- ways of doing things. We’re no longer in hunting and gathering and travelling tions of their traditional territory for re- these 2.5 kickers, we’re in 9 horse kickers, and being part of the land, but then the source development. Any potential econom- and you don’t even feel the waves be- people start going to the communities, ic benefits are however severely mitigated cause you’re planing on top of the waves. and the government kind of tried to by inadequate individual and community Whereas in the 2.5 you felt every wave, assimilate us, and brought us to board- preparation. People lack awareness, experi- [and] you couldn’t go by a berry patch; ing schools and that took our identity ence, and education, leaving them vulnera- even if you didn’t see it you couldn’t go by away. […] Before ... the people that gave ble to exclusion from decision-making, it because you’d smell it. (Bernadette [the] most of themselves had the highest inequitable compensation agreements, and Unka, 2005) stature in the group. […] But, when they other forms of exploitation by outsiders. Life is too instant now. (Henry King, moved to the communities and adopted Some interviewees are aware of the 2005) the community system, it wasn’t how need to build local capacity. When asked One of the perceived consequences of much they gave that gave them status, their opinions on the best way for aboriginal shifting away from the land and its values is but how much we accumulated that gave people and communities to move forward, an increased focus on individual status and a status. So it went against our value sys- many identified the need to combine tradi- reduced spirit of cooperation among commu- tem and eroded our way of looking at tional and western knowledge and ways of nity members. The resulting strains on social working together. (Maurice Boucher, being to create a healthy and prosperous bonds make communities less able to respond 2005) society. to the many pressures they are facing. Several interviewees note that their I think there’s a need to … find a bal- I think in the past … people worked really identities as aboriginal people are inherently ance. That’s what it is. It’s to find a com- close together in family units for the pur- tied to the land and to the traditional way of fortable balance between those two [tra- pose of surviving, etcetera. And, now … doing things. In the one generation it took to ditional and western] worlds. And, if when people go into private business, it’s move from paddling a canoe to using speed- you can do that, then basically those peo- more for themselves. […] Collectively, as boats, televisions, telephones, microwaves, ple will be empowered because they’ll a First Nation, it’s becoming more diffi- and planes, people have become increasing- have the traditional knowledge and feel cult to get the whole community to buy ly disconnected from the land, losing their comfortable in that area, and have also into concepts and work collectively on a focus on what is out there and who they are. in the new world the educational tools to vision, so to speak, to move forward. It’s People are searching for their own identities. help them. Then you’ve got the best of both getting more difficult because of so much A connection with the land and one’s ances- worlds, so to speak. (Don Balsillie, 2006) outside influences. (Don Balsillie, 2006) tors provides a grounding that has in large Achieving this balance presents many part been lost over recent decades. challenges. In addition to the need for

CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION 22 spiritual healing and access to financial You have to be connected to the land; inal societies for at least half a century, a resources, the lack of human capacity in that’s where you get your identity from. recent trend in cultural revival seems to be northern aboriginal communities presents a That’s where you realize what you are. emerging. Several individuals echoed Don major obstacle to effective engagement with You become humble when you know that Balsillie’s comment: the modern world. Interviewees said many the water could take your life, like that, in I think that a lot of people are going back times that better and more comprehensive one instant. You always have respect for to try to understand their roots, their lan- education is essential. Improving local edu- the land because it’s unforgiving. If you guage, and who they are. I think it’s cation means confronting such issues as lack fall through the ice in the wintertime the important for them to do that. (Don Balsil- of support from parents (who tend to have chances of surviving are pretty slim if lie, 2006) little education themselves), integrating tra- you’re alone. (Maurice Boucher, 2005) One of the expected outcomes of this ditional and western teachings in the class- “The land speaks to you”, says Kevin revival is increased community cohesion, room, raising the education levels of deci- Boucher (2005). He sees Mother Earth as the which can improve the capacity of local sion-makers, and providing incentives for mother of all people, and the respect he people to work together to adapt to change.

SPRING/SUMMER 2007 community members who have gained pro- shows in return for her nurturing and abun- The problem is that people don’t know fessional skills elsewhere to return to their dance is deeply rooted in his cultural be- their own history. They don’t realize we communities of origin. liefs. Traditional ceremonies such as putting all come from the same place and are all Included in traditional teachings is tobacco down into the water when travel- one people. Learning joint history may the question of aboriginal identity. A num- ling by boat, and following specific proto- help to bring people together. (Lena ber of interviewees mentioned this, and all cols of thanksgiving when harvesting ani- McKay, 2006) linked their sense of self to their cultural mals such as moose, bear or bison, keep roots and relationship to the land. Although people connected to the land. LOOKING many community members do not them- Although traditional knowledge has FORWARD: BUILDING selves go out on the land, all rely at least in been declining throughout northern aborig- CAPACITY part on the products generated by those who FOR THE FUTURE do. Furthermore, there is general consensus The author waiting for geese at a blind on Great Slave Most local people in Fort Resolution view cli- that maintaining the health and integrity of Lake in May,2006. Learning about traditional land use mate change as a threat to their way of life, their traditional territory is fundamental to and dynamics of the ecological system is best done by yet it remains secondary to more immediate maintaining a healthy community. travelling on the land and participating in activities with problems, as in most communities. As men- knowledgeable locals. Photo: F. Mandeville Jr. tioned earlier, people are well aware that change is occurring, but they do not fully recognize the consequences, nor do they believe that their own actions can help miti- gate the impacts. For those who expressed themselves on this issue, reconnecting with cultural roots predominates as the primary mechanism for dealing with a changing landscape, and for improving cohesiveness and wellbeing in the community. Now I think what people need to do is to take back their responsibility, and their responsibility is to take care of Mother Earth. We were given the responsibility of stewardship, and that stewardship meant that we have to take care of the land and the environment, and every organism had to be in balance. And

23 somehow man is lately unbalanced. We In recognition of the importance of have much to say about how these chang- are not monitoring regularly – revisiting, both education and locally-relevant re- ing conditions should be approached. To reviewing the detrimental impacts that search, community leaders have also men- support them effectively in building their we are having. (Bernadette Unka, 2005) tioned their wish to continue developing a adaptive capacity, it is imperative to take Potential exists for building on com- long-term partnership with southern re- into account both the challenges and oppor- munity identity and history at the grassroots searchers. In the case of Wilfrid Laurier Uni- tunities – whether social, economic, politi- level in order to instill collective steward- versity for example, the research relation- cal, or environmental – facing northern ship values and encourage people to work ship with Fort Resolution goes back to the communities. An essential ingredient in this together. Despite inter-familial and inter- 1970s. While such partnerships can provide process involves listening to the voices of cultural divisions created in large part by a framework for addressing local concerns northerners and their personal experiences historical social upheaval, people do feel and building capacity through local involve- with change. connected and provide support to one an- ment, leaders also mentioned benefits in other in tragedy or crisis. engaging researchers as mentors for young Sonia Wesche is a Ph.D. candidate in geog- When someone is in need, when some- students. raphy at Wilfrid Laurier University. She one is hurting, whether there’s a death or Residents recognize that local capa- was awarded the 2006 Polar Commission something in the community, I can’t tell city-building must be supported by govern- Scholarship. you how much love you feel. […] We ment policy and practice to be effective. Yet, come together like one huge family, and to date, little has been done to develop poli- Interviewees all those differences all fall to the way- cies to mitigate and adapt to change. The The following are some of the individuals side; none of those are important. (Ber- lack of congruency between current north- who discussed with me their perspectives on nadette Unka, 2005) ern research and environmental decision- their changing northern environment and Beyond the necessary rebuilding of making prompts organization of events such its impact on their lives and community. social networks and cultural ties, locals also as the recent N.W.T. Climate Change Leader- Their comments formed the basis of this see the need for capacity-building in such ship Summit, to “help leaders from across article. areas as access to financial and human the N.W.T. learn more about climate change, Don Balsillie (land user, local government), resources, expertise in governance and as well as adaptive measures that N.W.T. April 3, 2006; resource management, and sustainable communities can take in the face of climate Angus Beaulieu (elder), July 5, 2005; employment opportunities. The local Treaty change” (Ecology North, 2007). Summit Kevin Boucher (land user), July 8, 2005; Negotiator Paul Boucher (2006) maintains organizer Doug Ritchie notes that it is essen- Maurice Boucher (land user), August 31, that local leaders must be dedicated and tial for government bodies at all levels to 2005; well-meaning for the community to move engage actively in climate change adapta- Paul Boucher (land user, local government), forward. Preparing the leaders of tomorrow tion planning and implementation, as they April 3, 2006; requires incorporating traditional values hold the necessary sway and staying power Kenneth Delorme (land user), June 26, 2005; within the education system, and the re- to carry out a long-term program. Henry King (elder), September 1, 2005; empowerment of family units. The focus on Lena McKay (land user), May 3, 2006; education and training is uppermost in CONCLUSIONS Ronald McKay (land user), July 7, 2005; many local leaders’ minds. Northern communities are facing multiple Bernadette Unka (elder, local government), You see a lot of kids that are finishing pressures which will continue to impact Aug 23, 2005; high school, which is a good thing. Hope- natural and human systems well into the Gabe Yelle (elder), June 20, 2005; fully with our [ongoing Treaty] negotia- future. Coping with change requires target- Doug Ritchie (Ecology North, Yellowknife), tions we get more help from the govern- ed capacity-building at the local level, with April 27, 2006. ment, and people in place and jobs in sustained support from higher levels of gov- place and … we could govern ourselves ernment, to improve the adaptability and Works Cited […]. Maybe not my generation, maybe resilience of these systems. Ecology North, 2007. “The NWT Climate my kids’ generation or my grandkids’ The people of the North hold a wealth Change Leadership Summit”. Accessed generation –- we might be able to do that. of knowledge about their environment and January 30, 2007: www.ecologynorth.ca. (Maurice Boucher, 2005)

CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION 24 Wolfe, B., D. Armitage, S. Wesche, B. Brock, Acknowledgements arships. Grants from the Oceans Manage- M. Sokal, K. Clogg-Wright, C. Mongeon, I would like to extend my appreciation to the ment Research Network (OMRN), the North- M. Adam, R. Hall and T. Edwards. “From residents of Fort Resolution, NWT, who have ern Scientific Training Program, SSHRC, and Isotopes to TK Interviews: Towards Inter- participated in my research and provided Natural Resources Canada’s Climate Change disciplinary Research in Fort Resolution friendship and support during my field visits. Impacts and Adaptations Program have pro- and the Slave River Delta, NWT.” Arctic, This research is generously funded by a vided necessary funding for extensive field vol. 60, no. 1, March 2007. Social Sciences and Humanities Research work. I would also like to acknowledge the Council of Canada (SSHRC) Doctoral Fellow- continued support of my two supervisors Dr. ship, a Canadian Polar Commission Schol- Derek Armitage and Dr. Scott Slocombe, and arship, and Wilfrid Laurier University Schol- research collaborator Dr. Brent Wolfe.

SPRING/SUMMER 2007 KLUANE NATIONAL PARK MANAGEMENT BOARD COORDINATES A NATIONAL CONFERENCE: “LEARNING FROM COOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT” Shawn Allen Aboriginal groups face a variety of chal- ing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples nal boards and Parks Canada staff to work lenges in their role to implement cooperative makes similar conclusions. They acknowl- together on a national level to collectively management agreements that pertain to edge that aboriginal people recognize the explore cooperative management issues.” Canadian National Parks. This is widely land set aside as National Parks in their tra- Parks Canada relations with aborigi- accepted nationally and documented in stud- ditional territories as special and sacred nal peoples have been solidified through ies worldwide. The 1995 Circumpolar Abo- places. constitutionally protected comprehensive riginal People and Cooperative Management Caroline Hayes, Chair of the Kluane land claim agreements and modern day Workshop clearly recognized that coopera- National Park Management Board notes, treaties, as well as through national park tive management does work. It was also rec- “The timing for the conference is appropri- establishment agreements, memorandums ognized that improved communication, ate. Nationally there has been a movement of understanding and cost sharing arrange- trust, respect, common goals and a way of within Parks Canada to develop cooperative ments. The variety of agreements poses integrating land based knowledge with sci- management agreements. This project will entific studies would support more effective provide a first time opportunity for aborigi- Entrance to Auriol Trail,Kluane National Park. Photo: practices of cooperative management. Shawn Allen. In 1997 a worldwide report by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Inter-commission Task Force on Indigenous Peoples concluded that in con- servation management, there is still the ten- dency to ignore or give low priority to the rights of indigenous peoples from national parks and other protected areas. The 2001 report “Northern Parks – A New Way” presented by the Subcommittee on Aboriginal Economic Development in Relation to Northern National Parks, Stand-

25 BOOK REVIEW Kenn Harper

Apostle to the Inuit: The Journals and Ethnographic Notes of Edmund James Peck, The Baffin Years, 1894– 1905, edited by Frédéric Laugrand, Jarich Oosten and François Trudel. Toronto: Uni- versity of Toronto Press, 2006. ISBN 0-8020- 9042-7.

For too long the Reverend Edmund James Peck has been an enigmatic figure in Arctic mission history and in the history of Baffin Island. Known as the “Apostle to the Inuit” Kathleen Lake,Kluane National Park. Photo: Shawn Allen. knowledge of aboriginal people to preserve the Anglican missionary brought formal the the land’s ecological integrity and res- Christianity to the Inuit of Arctic Quebec and pect the aspirations of aboriginal people. then to the Baffin region – yet the details of challenges and creates successes, of which The outcome will be a printed text presented his life and work and his contribution to our not all are commonly aware. In Canada as a tool of best practices for the manage- knowledge of the historical Inuit went there are 28 National Parks, National Park ment of Park lands and resources. undocumented. The only book-length biog- Reserves and National Historic Sites that The conference will be held in Haines raphy, The Life and Work of E.J. Peck have formal consultation cooperative Junction, Yukon on April 24–26, 2007. A among the Eskimos, by Arthur Lewis, was management agreements with aboriginal conference website at www.kpmb.org has published over a century ago, before his groups. Of these, approximately half were been set up for delegates to register. Regis- work at Blacklead Island had ended. Like established through the provisions of com- tration priority will be for aboriginal boards many missionary biographies it was heavy prehensive land claim settlement agree- and committees that work with National on hallelujahs and light on substance. ments, with the other half through require- Parks and Parks Canada employees. The Now three respected academics known ments of park establishment agreements, conference may be open to academics and for their studies of Inuit history and beliefs Memoranda of Understanding with aborigi- other interested parties based on availability have collaborated on a work of almost 500 nal communities, or through local stake- of seats. pages dealing exclusively with Peck’s Baffin holders and aboriginal community repre- The Kluane National Park Manage- years, the four two-year terms he spent at sentatives invited to participate. One was ment Board is initiating this project with Blacklead Island (interspersed with one-year established through a treaty land entitle- their co-hosts, Champagne & Aishihik First furloughs to England) between 1894 and ment (specific claim) agreement. Nations, Kluane First Nation, and the Kluane 1905. Parks Canada recognizes the social, National Park & Reserve. The Board grate- The facts of Peck’s career can be cultural and economic importance of link- fully acknowledges our sponsors, the Walter recounted easily enough. He was born in ing aboriginal people to Parks policies & Duncan Gordon Foundation, Indian & England in 1850 but raised from the age of through cooperative management initia- Northern Affairs Canada, Parks Canada, seven in Ireland. Orphaned at thirteen, he tives. Aboriginal board representatives Government of Yukon, and appreciates as- spent eight years in the British Navy before working together with Parks Canada staff sistance from the Yukon Convention Bureau answering a plea that Rev. John Horden, will strengthen relationships sensitive to and the Village of Haines Junction. Bishop of Moosonee, had made to the aboriginal perspectives. The goal of the con- Church Missionary Society for a man who ference “Learning from Cooperative Man- could devote his time almost exclusively to Shawn Allen is with the Secretariat for the agement” is to establish true and equitable the Inuit on the Quebec Hudson Bay coast. Kluane National Park Management Board. partnerships that combine existing tech- Between 1876 and 1892, Peck served two nologies with the extensive traditional terms as missionary at Little Whale River

CANADIAN POLAR COMMISSION 26 and Fort George, resuming the interrupt- struck a chord in Peck and he took up the half a century before Peck’s arrival. Indeed ed work begun in the 1850s by Rev. E.A. challenge with his customary energy. The whaling was in serious decline well before Watkins. In 1894, leaving his wife and resulting contribution to Inuit ethnography 1894. While Boas’s own major account of daughter behind in England, Peck establish- has sat largely untouched and unrecognized Inuit life and beliefs scarcely mentions the ed a new mission to the Inuit at the whaling for over a century in the General Synod white presence, giving the reader an inaccu- station of Blacklead Island in Cumberland Archives of the Anglican Church of Canada. rate picture of Inuit living a traditional life Sound, the main centre of commercial activ- It is this remarkable collection of unsullied by foreign influences, Peck does ity north of Hudson Strait. After leaving information that the authors present. An not gloss over the presence of the whalers Blacklead Island in 1905, Peck moved with introductory chapter, “The Ethnography of and the vices and diseases they had brought his family to Ottawa where he became Peck”, is followed by four chapters of Peck’s to the people he had come to save. Superintendent of Arctic Missions, travelling own documentation of Inuit customs. Chap- A few quibbles with fact and interpre- north occasionally on supply vessels in the ter titles give the flavour of the work: “The tation: William Penny reached Cumberland summer. He died in Ottawa in 1924. Eskimos, Their Beliefs, Characteristics, and Sound in 1840, not 1839 (page 12). Mr.

SPRING/SUMMER 2007 Apostle to the Inuit begins with a Needs”, “Describing ‘Heathen Customs’”, Noble (Crawford Noble) was not the agent lengthy introduction describing the found- “The Tuurngait” [helping spirits], and “List at the whaling station at Kikkerton in the ing of the mission on Blacklead Island and of Spirits by the Missionary E.J. Peck”. Of 1880s; rather, he was the owner, resident in the way in which Christianity was intro- especial interest are three chapters of stories Scotland, who employed the agents who duced to the Inuit. This background, aug- recorded verbatim from Inuit themselves: lived on the island (page 14). A photo cap- mented by a very helpful chronology of the Eve Nooeyout, Oosotapik, and Qoojessie. tion on page 25 purports to identify the first significant events in the eleven years under three Inuit converts on Blacklead Island, but, study, puts in context the main body of the if conversion is marked by baptism, it is in work which follows in two major sections. error; the first Inuk to be baptised on the The authors devote over 200 pages to island was Annie Atungaujaq, who died in Peck’s journals of his eleven-year residence June 1901, little more than a month after her in Cumberland Sound. These are presented baptism on May 7 of that year. primarily as extracts, with very little com- The spellings of Inuit names and mentary. This works – the extracts speak for Inuktitut place-names in the text generally themselves. follow Peck’s own renditions. But in the But it is “Part Two: The Ethnographic authors’ own descriptive text, where they Documents,” which is the more interesting. introduce names not used by Peck, they gen- Missionaries are not usually ethnographers. erally attempt to use the modern official Most feel their task is to eradicate, rather Inuit orthography. In this they are deficient. than record, the “heathen” beliefs of pre- In particular, Peck’s own Inuktitut name Christian times. Peck might very well have was Uqammak (the one who speaks well), fallen into this camp too – there is certainly not Uqammaq (page 10 and elsewhere). (A nothing in Peck’s earlier writings of his time small “mea culpa” is required here. In citing The authors might have provided on the Hudson Bay coast, or even in his my short unpublished biography of Peck that more background on the history of Black- notes from his first few years at Blacklead is on file at the General Synod Archives, they lead Island prior to Peck’s arrival. Discov- Island, that indicates any interest in these accurately quote my own early misspelling ered – and I mean in the classical sense in subjects – had it not been for an invitation of Peck’s Inuktitut name as “Uqarmat.” That which the first white man to enter an area from the pioneer anthropologist Franz Boas. shouldn’t, however, give them the right to inhabited by non-whites is heralded as a Boas, who had spent 1883–84 in Cumber- mis-spell my first name as “Ken” on page 3!) discoverer – by John Davis in 1585 and not land Sound, asked Peck to document for him Joseph Parker was called Luuktakuluk (the rediscovered until 1840 by William Penny the Inuit belief system, including shamanic small doctor), not Luktaakuluk (page 16), with the help of the Inuk Eenoolooapik, rituals and legends. Already unconventional and Greenshield was Ilataaqauk (the new parts of Cumberland Sound had been con- in many of his attitudes to how missionary member of the family), not Ilataaqqau (page tinuously occupied by whalers for almost activity should be conducted, the request 16). Blacklead Island itself, on the map that

27 accompanies the introduction, should be HORIZON Uummannarjuaq, not Uumanarjuaq. But these are small points in a major work. The authors have accomplished very well their objective of placing Edmund Learning from Cooperative First International Circumpolar James Peck firmly among the roster of those Management, Coordinated by the Conference on Geospatial Sciences who have made major contributions to doc- Kluane National Park Management and Applications umenting the pre-Christian beliefs of the Board August 20–24, 2007 Inuit. The Apostle to the Inuit takes his place April 24– 26, 2007 Yellowknife, N.W.T. as an ethnographer who performed the Haines Junction, Yukon ess.nrcan.gc.ca/ipygeonorth/index_e.php unusual task – one might call it an almost www.kpmb.org schizophrenic task – of eliciting and docu- 8th ACUNS International Student menting the very belief system he was so Air, Ocean, Earth and Ice on the Conference on Northern Studies firmly dedicated to extinguishing. Rock, hosted by the Canadian Melting Boundaries: Meteorological and Carrying Out Effective Research Kenn Harper is a historian and linguist Oceanographical Society, the in the Circumpolar World living in Iqaluit, Nunavut. Canadian Geophysical Union and October 19–21, 2007 the American Meteorological University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Society Saskatchewan May 28 – June 1, 2007 www.dbakerproductions.com/acuns/ St. John’s, Newfoundland index.htm www.cmos2007.ca NEW BOOKS Climate Change Impacts on Boreal Forest Disturbance Regimes Names & Nunavut: Culture and May 30 – June2, 2007 Identity in the Inuit Homeland, by University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska, Valerie Alia. Berghahn Books, 2007. ISBN U.S.A. CORRECTION 978-1-84545-165-3. www.icddbf.uaf.edu In the Fall-Winter 2006 edition of Meridian two organizations were incorrectly identi- A Complete Guide to Arctic Wild- fied: NSERC is the Natural Sciences and life, by Richard Sale with photographs by Engineering Research Council of Canada, Per Michelsen and Richard Sale. Firefly and IASC is the International Arctic Science Books Ltd., 2006. ISBN: 1-55407-178-X. Committee.

Canadian Polar Commission The opinions expressed in this newsletter do not is published by the Canadian Polar Commission. Suite 1710,Constitution Square necessarily reflect those of the Canadian Polar 360 Albert Street Commission. ISSN 1492-6245 Ottawa,Ontario © 2007 Canadian Polar Commission K1R 7X7 Tel.: (613) 943-8605 Editor: John Bennett Toll-free: 1-888-765-2701 Translation: Suzanne Rebetez,John Bennett Fax: (613) 943-8607 Design: Eiko Emori Inc. E-mail: [email protected] www.polarcom.gc.ca

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