Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture Volume 27 (2008) No. 4

IN THIS ISSUE Integrated Communication

S. Alyssa Groom Duquesne University

Michael Traber Bibliography Fritz Frei

AQUARTERLY REVIEW OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

ISSN: 0144-4646 Communication Research Trends Table of Contents Volume 27 (2008) Number 4 http://cscc.scu.edu Integrated Marketing Communication: Anticipating the ‘Age of Engage’ ...... 3 Published four times a year by the Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture (CSCC), sponsored by the 1. Introduction ...... 3 California Province of the Society of Jesus. A. Introduction: The issues ...... 4 Copyright 2008. ISSN 0144-4646

2. A Shift in Fundamentals ...... 5 Editor: William E. Biernatzki, S.J. Managing Editor: Paul A. Soukup, S.J. 3. Anticipating “The Age of Engage”: Editorial assistant: Jazminda Ryan Introducing Integration ...... 8 A. Why Integration? ...... 8 Subscription: B. Defining IMC: Revisiting the Sender-Receiver Annual subscription (Vol. 27) US$50 Model of Communication ...... 10 C. Reengineering: Outside-in Integration from Payment by check, MasterCard, Visa or US$ preferred. within the Organization ...... 12 For payments by MasterCard or Visa, send full account number, expiration date, name on account, and signature. 4. IMC: Where Do We Go From Here ...... 13 Checks and/or International Money Orders (drawn on Editor’s Afterword ...... 16 USA banks; for non-USA banks, add $10 for handling) should be made payable to Communication Research References ...... 16 Trends and sent to the managing editor Paul A. Soukup, S.J. Michael Traber, SMB, Bibliography ...... 20 Communication Department A. Introduction by Philip Lee ...... 20 Santa Clara University B. Bibliography by Fritz Frei ...... 22 500 El Camino Real Santa Clara, CA 95053 USA Book Reviews ...... 27 Transfer by wire: Contact the managing editor. Add $10 for handling.

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2— VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Integrated Marketing Communication Anticipating the ‘Age of Engage’

S. Alyssa Groom [email protected]

1. Introduction

Interactivity—wide interactivity—characterizes itself. Most companies have products and services that today’s marketplace. From personal communication look like many other products and services. Therefore, devices (PDAs) to social networks like Facebook, they require consumer research and a sound competi- MySpace, LinkedIn, and Flikr, people and businesses tive strategy to succeed. Second, the pervasiveness of connect with each other at an unprecedented rate. In “engagement” as a way of life elevates the centrality of this interactive world, conceptions of public and pri- communication to human experience in all contexts vate discourse and behavior have become more including the marketplace. It is not enough to gauge ambiguous than ever; so too have the “right ways” to business decisions based on demographic data or reach people. extensive (scientific) . The market- This engaged reality has a significant impact for place demands rhetorical and interpretive practices that the field of marketing—a field traditionally understood yield resonant insights and result in strong common as the means to build a public bridge between an organ- interests between companies and the people they ization, its product(s), and its current and/or prospec- depend on for their existence. And third, marketing can tive audiences through a production (product-based) no longer do it alone. Engagement coupled with a orientation. According to Shiffman (2008), business strong service orientation in today’s marketplace today faces a wholly new marketing reality. necessitates stronger connections across all facets of We can no longer write a marketing plan at the organizational communication. Specifically, it requires beginning of the year and execute against it over an integrated relationship between marketing and mar- the year. The traditional marketing plan can do keting communication in order to establish commu- no more than give us a snapshot of a point in nicative cohesiveness internally and externally. time. It doesn’t help us make the right decisions This essay explores marketing’s approach to as we move forward in a complex and constant- today’s situation of interactivity and engagement as ly changing marketplace. . . . The only market- strategic integrated communication. Specifically ing strategy that will work today is one that is referred to as Integrated Marketing Communication designed to encourage and incorporate change as (IMC), this emergent discipline constitutes a prophetic the product evolves. (Shiffman, 2008, p. 25) response to today’s marketplace, privileging the con- The present emphasis on multiplicity, audience, and sumer as the fulcrum for all marketing planning, strate- conversation calls for a nimbleness and agility within gy, and execution. This outside-in approach aligns mar- marketing not characteristic of its traditional theory keting and marketing communication for the express and practices. To remain relevant, marketing must purpose of navigating change and ambiguity in order to adapt by first recognizing how this moment of engage- build strong communication plans. Agile internal and ment and interactivity changes everything. external communication strategies make up the ideal First, the engaged nature of this historical commitment of IMC. Together these create added value moment has reconstituted the role and function of mar- for a company by enhancing the sense of continuity keting. Most companies do not resemble Apple: They between often disparate entities, as well as by empha- cannot create products and have people come to them sizing the value dimensions of an organization so that based on the quality and uniqueness of the product they can be communicated publicly. While the integra-

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 3 tion of internal and external organizational communica- and others called attention to the excessive Western tion practices has not yet come to full realization in the- focus on “I” and “me” in individualistic terms as a ory or practice, this commitment forms an undercurrent point of attention and opportunity for marketers. in IMC, eagerly pursued by scholars and practitioners The metaphor of “marketing as a multiplex” pro- of the discipline. To this end, this paper will establish vides a helpful overall approach to documenting the the baseline for the fulfillment of this commitment by various challenges to marketing during and after the tracing IMC as an emerging discipline. transition into the 21st century. Brown (1994) uses A. Introduction: The issues films to illustrate the significance of a multiplex metaphor for understanding the contemporary situation Marketers today work within a complex moment of marketing. He builds on conceptions of postmod- to advance a discipline steeped in tradition. Scholars ernism (Berman, 1983; Bell, 1976; Habermas, 1987; and practitioners of marketing realize that postmoder- Kroker, Kroker, & Cook, 1989; Jencks, 1989; Harvey, nity and the philosophical disposition of postmod- 1989; Smart, 1992; Hassan, 1985) to identify the sig- ernism poses unique challenges to the way things have nificant challenges of this historical moment for mar- always been done. Christensen, Torp, & Firat (2005) keting, not the least of which involves gaining an bring to light this reality as they treat today’s increas- understanding of the moment itself. Brown presents ingly fluid environments. The ambient emphasis in postmodernism in the following way: marketing poses new challenges for organizations used to doing business and marketing in more traditional [Postmodernism is] a refusal to accept that there contexts, not the constant change of today’s global is one particular way of doing things and one way marketplace. Ponsonby & Boyle (2004), Vargo & only. No form of knowledge is privileged and, rather than search for non-existent truths, one Lusch (2004), and Peñaloza & Venkatesh (2008) high- should be sensitive to differences and the per- light challenges to marketing through the shift from spectives of marginalized groups, exercise the art production to consumption. They offer insight by of judgment in the absence of rules, emphasize heightening awareness of the increasingly service-ori- the importance of pragmatism, provisionality, ented economy and its relationship to consumption. and local forms of knowledge and recognize that Proctor & Kitchen (2002) set the stage for examining a the objectives of the Enlightenment project are service orientation by questioning whether or not the Utopian and unattainable. (1994, p. 38) consumer focus in marketing actually satisfies con- His multiplex metaphor offers a cost-benefit analysis sumers, or whether marketers simply help them to live of 12 films that illustrate challenges to marketing. For out postmodernism’s notion that consumers only know example, he situates the relationship between postmod- what they do not want. ernism and marketing as parallel to the opening of Exploratory work related to marketing and the Jurassic Park (1993). Like the film, Brown argues that philosophical premises of postmodernism make explic- postmodernism engenders responses ranging from it the critical juncture of consumer, consumption, and accolades to cynical critiques of its technical wonders; service today. Christensen (1997), Brown (1997), Firat the cost-benefit determination varies depending on a and Schultz II (1997), as well as Denison and person’s point within the spectrum of potential McDonald (1995) first sounded a collective warning responses. In another parallel, Brown suggests that concerning the potential for postmodernism to influ- postmodernism offers its own version of The French ence marketing in ways that alter its role and abet Connection (1971). He adduces a strong connection strategic decision making, or at the very least challenge between postmodernism and post-structuralist thought, the scientific underpinnings of the discipline on social established for example in the work of Derrida, and cultural terms. Prior to their contributions, the Lyotard, and Foucault, and examines postmodernism work of Firat, Dholakia, and Venkatesh (1995), Firat for its preoccupation with linguistic instability and the and Venkatesh (1995), Brown (1993), Elliott (1994), inability to ground meaning on anything other than a Rouleau and Clegg (1992), and Ogilvy (1990) estab- “sublimated metaphor” (Brown, 1994, p. 37). Brown lished foundational investigations into postmodernism. offers a final, overarching conclusion that marketing Through their scholarship, each offered careful scruti- has reached a communicative juncture, caught between ny of the broader philosophical implications of post- its epistemological roots and the complex, undefined, modernism for marketing and the marketplace. contradictory world championed as postmodern. Likewise, scholarship from Rapp and Collins (1990)

4— VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS For marketers today, the unavoidable question tion (Section 1), three primary sections develop the is, “where do we go from here?” (Schultz & Schultz, material. Section 2 introduces a shift in the fundamen- 2004). The answer requires a response that addresses tals of marketing theory and practice. This shift culmi- marketing on two levels: (1) the form and processes nates in what Shiffman (2008) calls the “age of of marketing and (2) marketing theory. Form connects engage”—a new era of marketplace and marketing to the everyday usability or the “handiness” communication grounded in a widespread socio-cul- (Heidegger, 1953/1996) of a given approach; it must tural movement characterized by people engaging and communicate the relevance and applicability of the being engaged in more “participative, collaborative, approach in each era. Content, or the “theoretical user-generated, sharing, social, global, open, interac- why,” substantiates the “how to” of form. It provides tive generation” ways (p. 2). Section 3 introduces the the substance that guides the application of a given move to integration and integrated marketing commu- approach. Although most cases do not make the theo- nication as a phenomenological shift in marketing. It ry explicit, the theory still shapes and informs the situates the turn to integration in the broader context of marketer’s framework for application. an increasingly customer-centric marketplace and Responsive marketing, then, requires a reorienta- heightened importance of engagement as a means for tion amidst divergent views on how form and theory reaching, developing, and sustaining long-term rela- work together, and under what paradigm. This review tionships with key audiences. Section 4 offers a con- itself demonstrates that work to this end is well under- cluding overview of insights from past and current way. However, the essay primarily examines more conversations about IMC. This final section ends the carefully the communicative dimension of this reorien- essay with an invitation to continue the work already tation through the most common answer to the “what underway through an ongoing commitment to the next?” question in marketing: integrated marketing question, “where do we go from here?” Thus, this communication (IMC). essay begins and ends in the spirit of Christensen, Given the implicit and explicit communicative Firat, and Torp’s observation that “integration is an nature of integration and IMC as a whole, the scope of outcome of many diverse sources… many different this examination pays particular attention to the com- voices and types of wisdom in the organizational set- municative aspect of integration. After this introduc- ting” (2008, p. 443).

2. A Shift in Fundamentals

The traditional approach to marketing treats it as (, sales, public relations, etc.) aided deci- a “business function” much like finance or production sion-making aimed at producing perceived value for (Calder & Malthouse, 2003, p. 9). Indebted to practices the consumer. In general, the 4Ps elevated the “sci- from an era of industrialism and mass marketing, tra- ence” of orchestration within the marketing mix and all ditional marketing emphasizes “the functional transla- activities according to the STP process, privileging a tion of the planned STP [segmentation, targeting, and sense of tangible and measurable outcomes driven by positioning process] into activities [collectively under- management control of product-based communication stood in terms of the ‘4Ps’—product, price, place, pro- (Brown, 1997). motion]” (p. 9). The 4Ps emerged at a time focused on More recent conceptualizations, however, have communication about physical products; they repre- translated the functional focus of the STP process sent an organization’s ability to control specific aspects beyond textbook definitions that position marketing as of its business. Under the control of the marketing the anticipation, management, and satisfaction of manager, mass marketing’s emphasis on product demand through the exchange process. The shift (physical attributes, development, packaging, moves marketing definitions toward a more compre- etc.), price (strategic decisions, warranties, dis- hensive statement of marketing as an indispensible counts/ pricing, etc.), place ( chan- presence in organizations as well as the global market- nels, market coverage, inventory, etc.), and place (Christensen, Firat, & Torp, 2008; Eagle,

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 5 Kitchen, & Bulmer, 2007). As such, definitions have intangible services; value as perceived and changed to reflect marketing as an organizational asset determined by the consumer in use as benefits of dedicated to a strong sense of purpose, process, and specialized knowledge and skills they label as return-on-investment (Holm, 2006; Kliatchko, 2005). operant resources; the customer as co-creator of Notable among these revisions is the American the service; and wealth as obtained in the form Marketing Association’s 2007 definition of marketing of economic capital from consumers to firms in the application and exchange of operant as “the activity, set of institutions, and processes for resources by consumers and firms. (Peñaloza & creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging Venkatesh, 2008, p. 300) offerings that have value for customers, clients, part- ners, and society at large.” This advances the same Unlike other schools of marketing thought, especially group’s 2004 definition—marketing as “an organiza- the traditional marketing and marketplace worldview, tional function and a set of processes for creating, com- this paradigmatic shift to a service-dominant orienta- municating, and delivering value to customers and for tion is unprecedented. The approach links resources managing customer relationships in ways that benefit such as intangible ideas and knowledge to foundation- the organization and its stakeholders”—foregrounding al marketing processes of value creation, opening up marketing’s long-term value and presence as an organ- possibilities for marketing research and development; ization-wide activity with broader impact, not simply and posing challenges to the systematic and measura- marketing as just another department. ble approach of a product-centered marketing Definitional re-calibration in marketing has approach. S-D logic changes the starting points, coincided with significant theoretical developments. research, and strategic operations of marketing theory Marketing theory has adapted ideas from positivism and practice (Peñaloza & Venkatesh, 2008, p. 301; and interpretivism (Deshpande, 1983), science Gupta, Grant, & Melewar, 2008). Through terms such (Arndt, 1985a; Arndt, 1985b), humanism (Hirschman, as “co-creation,” Vargo and Lusch’s marketing theory 1986), relational constructs (Christopher, Payne, & posits a phenomenological turn in the conception of Ballantyne, 1991; DiMaggio, 1992), cultural studies value from that of “value in exchange to value in use” as related to organizations (Hakansson & Snehota, (2004, p. 302). This refers to the use-value determined 1990), social symbolic understanding of language through interaction between consumers and marketers (Capra, 1997), and critical theory (Alvesson & vis-à-vis a given service; this interplay of consumption Kärreman, 2001). These varied perspectives have and production is not limited to one party or the other. affected marketing practices in different ways to vary- For Peñaloza and Venkatesh, the result could become ing degrees depending on the marketing challenge as significant to marketing thought and practice as did and context. Most, however, affected the way in the major socio-economic shifts in industrialization or which marketing professionals conducted and evalu- urbanization during the 20th century. At the very least, ated basic research. Examples of the impact on mar- it positions marketing activities as “the predominant keting include but are not limited to the eschewal of organizational philosophy” within an organization attitudes and intentions as relevant to understand- (Peñaloza & Venkatesh, 2008, p. 300; cf. Christensen, ing/evaluating buying behavior (positivist); the evalu- Firat, & Torp, 2008). ation of people and their purchasing patterns on their Even with such a definitive move, Peñaloza and own terms in their own environment, also termed Venkatesh (2008) believe that the advancements of marketing ethnography (humanist); and the more Vargo and Lusch (2004) do not take marketing thought careful consideration and evaluation of the way in and practice far enough. To this end, they contend that which people consume symbols and meaning through the more substantive move situates marketing as a their purchases/participation in the marketplace socially constructed phenomenon. (social symbolic). Our view emphasizes value as constituted by More recently, marketing theory has embraced marketers and consumers in their activities and what Vargo & Lusch (2004) call a “service-dominant discourses via an enacted process, a social con- logic” (S-D logic). This paradigm marks a transition in struction that takes place prior to, during, and marketing towards customization, services, and value after the actual exchange and use(s) take place. creation for the consumer in which there is an empha- Further, we do not limit marketers to production sis on the following: or consumers to consumption, as marketers con- sume and consumers produce (Firat &

6— VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Venkatesh, 1995). Over time . . . value may be life and their relationships, social and otherwise seen to be constituted in exchange and use, (Geertz, 1973); “webs of interlocution” that frame a simultaneously and sequentially. (Peñaloza & communicative space out of which one establishes a Venkatesh, 2008, p. 303) personal standpoint as well as one’s relation to others At the heart of this perspective lies a practical com- (Taylor, 1989); and “webs of significant relationships” mitment to value created in exchange and use. This as a metaphor for the intricate dynamics between iden- commitment acknowledges markets in a comprehen- tity formation and the social economy (Lapidis, 2004). sive and practical way as co-created entities between Unless you count the World Wide Web, an explic- marketers and consumers simultaneously. Therefore, it use of a web metaphor in marketing has not occurred. marketing research and practice must attend to the The present time, however, supports a dominant intricacies of this relationship along its social terrain. metaphor that advances the “experience economy” Insight must include the meanings created in given (Pine & Gilmore, 1999) to embody the fundamentally contexts, reflexivity on the part of the marketer, atten- communicative nature of the web metaphor, making tion to consumer subjectivity, consideration regarding overt the importance of realizing human social relation the limits of the marketer, engagement of the con- and representation through the marketplace. That sumer-marketer relationship from within community, metaphor is “engagement.” and attentiveness to cultural differences (local and The idea of engagement has permeated market- international) (Peñaloza & Venkatesh, 2008, p. 301). place discourse to the degree that Shiffman (2008) calls In the end, the approach intends to better understand this historical moment “the age of engage.” She offers how “market valuations become our valuations and the metaphor of engagement as a responsive approach validations” (p. 312). to the complexity and constant change of the market- Consistent with this perspective on a social con- place. Engagement also reinforces the need for a shift struction of marketing, Peñaloza and Venkatesh align in marketing toward meeting individuals on their own beliefs and practices surrounding a given organization terms as well as in terms of how they live in relation to and its consumers with the social context emergent their respective communities, both social and historical from a given time and place. The authors state, “the (Peñaloza & Venkatesh, 2008). Marketing must now market is both a force to be reckoned with and a social recognize a more complex relationship with the mar- terrain that consumers construct in a continuous, ket—one made up of a “semi-autonomous social group dialectical process with marketers towards their life comprised of multiple firms, and of marketers and con- projects and goals” (2008, p. 312). Peñaloza and sumers” (p. 309). Venkatesh provide a context for marketing grounded in Engagement subjugates a traditional product social relation. They envision the future of marketing focus with a hyper-emphasis on the audience (Reid, as one in which markets are not entities to be mined Luxton, & Mavondo, 2005). Being audience-centered down to “ones and zeros”—people deconstructed to coupled with technological advances ushering in fundamental numeric code like those at the core of all unprecedented speed and choice to marketplace inter- computer programs. Instead, a market exists as a force actions forces organizations to address a simultaneous within a larger social web. Therefore, marketing must yet divergent call to communicative action: simplify engage this larger social web in order to elevate social communication to combat an oversaturated market- life and resituate the market within that context. place, and expand communication to intensify connec- A number of different theoretical perspectives tions between current and prospective clients and con- have applied the web metaphor to both the marketplace sumers (especially with so many ways to connect). and to the human condition. The applications range This unresolved tension characterizes not only external from the web metaphor as illuminating the fabric of our communication; it also reflects back on the organiza- social existence to the web metaphor as a means for tion and its , marketing com- validating the human condition through a visible repre- munication, corporate communication, and brand sentation of the narrative connectivity that defines us. development (Holm, 2006). Some examples of this include a web as referring to the Where marketing theory and practice fail to significant relationship between people, God, and work meet this age of engagement, strategic organization- (Weber, 1992/1930); “webs of significance” as the al communication remains underdeveloped or sabo- symbolic interplay that forms and suspends a person’s taged by one of its own. Characterized in broad terms

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 7 as the strategic communicative decision-making by well as any number of internal and external initia- people within a given organization, strategic organi- tives that work together to form a gestalt understand- zational communication aims to situate the organiza- ing of the organization support it in theory and prac- tion in conversation with the industries, communi- tice. While not yet fully developed, the recalibration ties, and cultures it intersects (Conrad & Poole, of marketing through IMC infuses the conversation 2004). The efforts of marketing communication, cor- with an attempt at aiding strategic organizational porate communication, interpersonal communica- communication through integration. And so, we now tion, intercultural communication, philanthropy, as turn our focus to integration.

3. Anticipating “The Age of Engage”: Introducing Integration

Since its inception, marketing has undergone a ented framework in greater detail, bringing added clar- number of transitions. From its more formal introduc- ity to integration’s introduction into the marketplace. tion as a discipline focused on the 4Ps of promotion, The first sub-section offers an answer to the question production, price, and placement of goods (mass mar- “why integration?” It presents the communicative sig- keting) to today’s emphasis on more cerebral concepts nificance of integration as tied to a phenomenological including social construction of consumer communi- shift in orientation to the consumer. The second recalls ties, service industries, and the intangible aspects of IMC’s formative development vis-à-vis key junctures products (), each transition resulted from differ- in its advancing a praxis definition. Finally, I briefly ent answers to the question “where do we go from introduce IMC through the concept of re-engineer- here?” The range of these responses reflects an over- ing—a first-attempt at translating integration into arching shift from one-way communication practices internal agency and corporate contexts. The gestalt of to interactive and engaged “meetings” with current this section focuses on a picture of marketing’s phe- and prospective consumers. Responsiveness and rele- nomenological turn through IMC—a move that vance have replaced the recalcitrant assumptions of a advanced the discipline and “prophetically” anticipat- marketing era that believed if you build it, they will ed the pervasiveness of today’s engagement economy. come. This transition includes adjustments to quanti- A. Why Integration? tative and qualitative research methodologies (Greenyer, 2006; Mriampolski, 2006), inquiries aimed To say that marketing has reached an impasse at expanding marketing theory through concepts such (Brown, 1997; Buttimer & Kavanah, 1996; Hunt, as the “fourth hermeneutic” in marketing—a value 1994) simultaneously acknowledges an opportunity for dimension not yet fully realized by any approach to change and growth. Today, marketing’s longstanding the discipline—and paradigms that have been lost in practices embedded within business models propelled marketing’s maturation process (Lowe, Carr, Thomas, by modern assumptions about a mechanistic, mass- & Watkins-Mathys, 2005; Arias & Acebron, 2001; produced, and a stable market (Arias & Acebron, Firat & Schultz II, 1997; Brown, 1997; Deshpande, 2001) confront the shifting appetites, fragmentation, 1983), arguments about the scientific capacity of mar- paradox, and multiplicity characteristic of the post- keting (Brown, 1995; Anderson, 1983; Kotler, 1972; modern marketplace (Brown, 1997; Firat & Schultz II, Alderson & Cox, 1948; Converse, 1945), and, most 1997). According to Ponsonby and Boyle (2004) in recently, valuations regarding the integration of mar- their literature review of marketing, the intersection of keting, marketing communication, and corporate com- these two paradigms prompts a re-examination of the munication functions (Schultz & Schultz, 2004; relationship between production and people’s lives; Cornelissen & Harris, 2004). and marketing must figure out how to work in this new Until IMC, no response has significantly altered environment (Pettegrew, 2001; Twitchell, 1999). the traditional starting point for doing marketing—the From bartering to early industrialization, produc- product. The next three sub-sections examine key tion and consumption have been “viewed as a single developmental stages in moving from a product orien- operation” (Ponsonby & Boyle, 2004, p. 346). The tation in marketing to an integrative and consumer-ori- service orientation of today’s marketplace gives

8— VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS renewed meaning to this relationship, calling specific ty construct” associated with psychological measure- attention to the dual importance of instrumental value ment, as well as evaluative categories such as “con- (product) as well as personal value (consumption) in sumer value,” for metric adaptation in marketing. establishing a coherent experience for people Additionally, Mick (1986) opens consumer research (Ponsonby & Boyle, 2004). While revisiting market- in another valuable way by connecting it to semiotics. ing’s methodological and paradigmatic associations Mick explores the relationship potential of symbols, regularly address the former, the latter involves a pre- signs, and significance to consumer research, offering occupation with the audience and has, until more recent a textured read of the ways in which visual associa- conceptualizations of marketing, received only periph- tions can inform inquiries into particular audiences. eral treatment (Valentine, 2000). This particularly helps organizations frame who they Business people and researchers now commonly are through words and symbols, creating a visual and identify incorporating the personal into marketing with literate context for association and participation. consumer research and the overall goal of bridging The answer to the question “why integration?” marketing with people’s everyday life. Consumer emerged from the need to address an historical moment research reclaims a valuable part of the communicative influenced by the value of intangible assets—those interchange between marketing and the marketplace— things that cannot be owned but have a direct impact on the relationship perspective (Grönroos, 2004). To date, costs, service, profitability, etc. within an organization evidence supports that consumer research has become (e.g. brand, trademark)—and the consumer’s role in the an increasingly visible aspect of marketing research as marketing process (Ratnatunga & Ewing, 2005). well as marketing management. Several researchers and practitioners introduced IMC Helgeson, Kluge, Mager, and Taylor (1984) as an integrative perspective that united the fundamen- inspired consumer research through their content analy- tals of marketing with the rhetorical sensibilities of sis of trends in consumer behavior early in the develop- communication to better meet and address the needs of ment of consumer research as a necessary aspect of a consumer dominated society. IMC brought to the fore strategic organizational planning and development, knowledge and understanding of the consumer as the especially in the area of marketing. Around this time, means to achieve marketing success (Ponsonby & Hirshman and Holbrook (1982) focused on evaluation Boyle, 2004; Muniz & O’Guinn, 2001; Peppers & methods for hedonic (pleasure-seeking) consumption Rogers, 1995). while Zajonc and Marcus (1982) examined preferences To the end that companies implement this orien- in consumer decision-making processes. These basic tation, IMC scholars and practitioners believe that it building blocks for socio-cultural and behavioral con- marks the promise of a “critical step”—a point of nec- sumer research led to contemporary work by essary advancement for the field—in which marketing Mriampolski (2006, 1999), Arnould and Price (2006), becomes an idea that drives strategy and tactics, and and Goulding (2005) who all seek to shift the intercul- makes the message meaningful and relevant for the tural methodology of ethnography into the world of consumer (Calder & Malthouse, 2003, p. 14). Through advertising and marketing communication. Their integration, this critical step advances marketing research advances efforts at acquiring a deep under- accountability as well as strategic activity used to man- standing of consumers through participatory engage- age the firm (Schultz, 2004). At a functional level, mar- ment, conversation, and observation conducted along- keting and marketing communication integrate to relate side them in the places they live, work, and play. sales to communication efforts and to increase the pos- Consumer research textures not only insights sibility of a more organic process between the organi- into the human condition, but also insights into mar- zation and the consumer (Schultz & Wang, 1994). keting management and strategy through interdisci- But IMC does more. Integration reinvests the plinary means. For example, work by Holbrook whole of marketing with an overt commitment to (1994, 1999) and Endler and Rosenstein (1997) offer “stewardship”—accountability and ethics—not only in frameworks for analyzing consumers that provide terms of finances but also for organizational commu- management with data that can then support more nicative practices (“mission through messaging”) as esoteric initiatives in branding, as well as traditional they touch the lives of people (Schultz & Wang, 1994). product development opportunities. Holbrook and IMC begins to call greater attention to the inter-relation others appropriate constructs, such as the “personali- of marketing, marketing communication, and the mar-

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 9 ketplace as they intersect and impact people’s lives Northwestern University’s Medill School of (Ponsonby & Boyle, 2004). In this capacity, IMC rep- Journalism, surveyed national advertisers to learn how resents a phenomenological shift in marketing whereby industry professionals perceived “integrated market- a product-centered understanding of the world no ing communication” (IMC), the newest and most con- longer advances communication. In IMC, production sistently used term for what was taking place between and consumption are inextricably linked, and the role advertising and its marketing communication counter- of the consumer drives marketing success (Rust, parts (Schultz, 1996a). For the purposes of the study, Lemon, & Zeithaml, 2004). IMC was defined by the American Association of B. Defining IMC: Revisiting the Sender-Receiver Advertising Agencies as: Model of Communication a concept of marketing communications plan- ning that recognizes the added value of a com- The phenomenological shift to a consumer- prehensive plan that evaluates the strategic roles focused model in marketing began during the late of a variety of communications disciplines, e.g., 1970s and continued throughout the 1980s as advertis- general advertising, direct response, sales pro- ing agencies merged and acquired different firms in an motion and public relations—and combines attempt to offer more than just traditional advertising to these disciplines to provide clarity, consistency, their clients (Duncan & Caywood, 1996). According to and maximum communications impact (defini- Novelli, the idea of “one-stop shopping” became pop- tion established in 1989). (Duncan & Everett, ular “because ad dollars [were] flowing to other mar- 1993, p. 33) keting communication disciplines and ad agencies Based on this definition, 67% of the executives sur- needed to do something to respond” (1989, p. 8). As veyed from major U.S. corporations said that their suggested by the phrase, “one-stop shopping” refers to companies were integrated; “nearly half said they had “offering a variety of marketing communications func- been integrated for more than three years, and a little tions with little emphasis on ‘integration’ of the func- over a third said they had become integrated within the tions or the end result of the communication” (Duncan last three years” (Duncan & Everett, 1993, p. 30). & Everett, 1993, p. 30). This definition characterizes Following the initial investigation in 1991, those agencies that initially claimed an integrated Duncan & Caywood (1996) published an historical framework by offering a number of tactical solutions to review of IMC that chronicled the various scholarly the client, not just advertising. and practitioner efforts to develop a more theoretical Unfortunately, with the bottom line as the driving definition. According to Duncan & Caywood, shortly motivation, these mergers and acquisitions failed to after the 1991 study Schultz and his colleagues at provide a more comprehensive and integrated program Northwestern articulated a refined definition directly for clients. In addition, they failed to build respect and centered on eliciting a behavioral response by the cus- a true integrated partnership between advertising and tomer or prospect: “[IMC is] the process of managing its counterparts. As a result, clients could not see the all sources of information about a product/service to benefit of dissolving their current relationships with which a customer or prospect is exposed which different firms (i.e., one for advertising and one for behaviorally moves the consumer toward a sale and public relations) for a one-stop agency whose parts maintains customer loyalty” (Duncan & Caywood, were still functioning as separate, specialized entities. 1996, p. 18). In the late 1980s, agencies adopted the term Then, in 1993 Schultz, Tannenbaum, and “new advertising” in an attempt to move away from a Lauterborn published The New Marketing Paradigm: vendor status toward a more unified and integrated Integrated Marketing Communications. In this land- organization (Duncan & Caywood, 1996; Schultz, mark work, the authors argued that technological Tannen-baum, & Lauterborn, 1993; Caywood & advances had ended the days of mass marketing. They Ewing, 1991). When this term did not work, others advanced an alternative, integrated process—begin- like marketing imperialism, orchestration, seamless ning from the “outside-in”—starting with the customer communication, whole egg, and integrated marketing or prospect and working back toward the organization communication were offered as alternatives (Duncan and brand (Schultz, Tannenbaum, & Lauterborn, 1993; & Everett, 1993). In 1991, the American Association Schultz, 1993). Schultz and his colleagues publicly for- of Advertising Agencies (AAAA) and the Association malized the characterization of this process as of National Advertisers (ANA), together with

10 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS a new way of looking at the whole, where once sumer engage each other in more of a conversation; we only saw parts such as advertising, public however, the consumer now formed the locus of con- relations, , purchasing, employ- trol. No longer a catchy phrase for one-stop-shopping, ee communications. . . . Integrated marketing integration meant engagement over the long-term—a communications means talking to people who systems approach, not a process approach (Schultz, buy or don’t buy based on what they see, hear, 1993). As a result, brand loyalty and relationship man- feel, etc.—and not just about [a] product or agement assumed a privileged position over integra- service. It means eliciting a response, not just conducting a monologue. And it means being tion’s initial emphasis on achieving communicative accountable for results . . . delivering a return impact through a unified message strategy (Duncan & on investment, not just spending a budget. Caywood, 1996). (Schultz, Tannenbaum, & Lauterborn, 1993, p. Revisions to IMC’s definition continued to xvii) evolve conceptions of relationship building, behavioral and attitudinal response, as well as the importance of These definitional refinements had a direct impact on dialogue between both the organization and the con- Northwestern’s conceptualization of integration. As a sumer (Duncan & Moriarty, 1998). For example, in result, they put forth a more comprehensive, refined 1997 Percy expanded the process-orientation of IMC framework for understanding IMC. by stressing a “single ‘positioning’” for all communi- Integrated marketing communications is the cation messages (p. 2). Percy’s definition pronounced process of developing and implementing various the key to integration as a realignment of all communi- forms of persuasive communication programs cation based on the consumer’s perspective. As such, with customers and prospects over time. The he and others considered modern database marketing a goal of IMC is to influence or directly affect the point of communicative engagement with the con- behavior of the selected communications audi- sumer—a means for sending and receiving valuable ence. IMC considers all sources of brand or company contacts that a customer or prospect information. Following Percy and Schultz, Pettegrew has with the product or service as potential (2001) offered his idea as eight necessary conditions delivery channels for future messages. Further, that must be met in order for total and sustained inte- IMC makes use of all forms of communication gration to occur. These ranged from speaking in a con- which are relevant to the customers and sistent voice through all communication and placing prospects, and to which they might be receptive. the consumer at the center of all communication plan- In sum the IMC process starts with the customer ning, to engaging consumers in dialogue and cutting or prospect and then works back to determine through the clutter of the marketplace to do so. All and define the forms and methods through which eight of the conditions were communication-centered; persuasive communication programs should be six, however, related in some way to the various audi- developed. (quoted in Percy, 1997, p. 2) ence(s) addressed by the IMC efforts. Both Percy and Shunning integration at the level of media choice and Pettegrew’s insights reflected the phenomenological execution alone, the group advanced integration as the shift to marketing’s consumer orientation through the embodiment of a new process “lived and demonstrated development IMC. by the top person or persons in an organization” In recent years, definitional refinements have (Schultz, 1993, p. 5). The overarching commitment continued (Kliatchko, 2005). Notable revisions came was to IMC as a discipline supported by communica- from the pioneers and experts of IMC. In their 2003 tion that leads an organization, not communication as collection of published essays on the subject, an exercise in tactical execution. Northwestern’s Kellogg School of Management and At this point in IMC’s development, two trends Medill School of Journalism reaffirmed that market- emerged. First, seeking a return on communication ing “has always meant, and will continue to mean, investment became a matter of “measurability, valua- responding to consumers (or, in the case of intermedi- tion, and evaluation” built into the strategic plan aries, customers) to increase sales” (Calder & (Schultz, 1993, p. 5). The call for communication lead- Malthouse, p. 6; cf. Shultz, 2003). The acknowledg- ership required companies to situate IMC on two cru- ment that marketing as a whole has always been “nat- cial cornerstones—measurability and accountability. urally integrated” is referenced for its banality—a The second trend suggested that the marketer and con- stated but not engaged philosophy actually estab-

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 11 lished in modern marketing theory’s principles of the The promise of IMC is a move towards bridging Industrial Age which privilege integration and these communicative gaps in marketing by inviting a response from the perspective of the marketer (Calder stronger dialogue with consumers. & Malthouse, 2003; Schultz, 2003). As advocates for C. Reengineering: Outside-in Integration from “new” integration in IMC, Calder and Malthouse within the Organization (2003) note that any attempt at advancement must include the strategic creation of strong brand con- As an influencer of behavior, a driver of creating cepts, the invitation to a total consumer experience, and establishing relationships and partnerships, and a and the plan for a mass customization model. tool to solve business problems (Gonring, 2002), IMC Beginning with a “strong connection to corporate by design elicits and engages consumers with the end strategy,” the goal is to “create a consumer, or cus- goal of consumer behavior’s answering the organiza- tomer experience that is as meaningful and relevant as tion’s IMC invitation (Schultz, 1993). Working from possible . . . delivered through contact points both this perspective, we can argue that the greatest com- within and outside the product platform itself” municative value comes through strong links between (Calder, 2003, p. 262, 263, 283). IMC, the bottom line, and organizational goals The point is clear: IMC marks a phenomeno- (Gonring, 2002; Balmer, 2001). Thus, it follows that logical shift in marketing from the marketer as the for IMC to achieve all its claims, a phenomenological locus of control to the consumer as the new locus of shift in external communication practices must have a control. Creating a continuous dialogue (Vargo & parallel in internal communication that reflects an out- Lusch, 2004), representing the voice of the brand to side-in commitment. consumers (Keller, 2001), developing strong brand Reengineering provides one way to adapt an inte- equity (Keller, 2003), harnessing media for the ben- grated approach to agency and corporate settings. This efit of products and services (Naik & Raman, 2003), organization-based integrative process reflects the and bringing an interdisciplinary approach to the “new regime” shaping today’s marketplace—the con- integration process (Kalla, 2005) all rely on an out- sumer (Hammer, 1996). As a process, reengineering side-in orientation for instituting IMC. Schultz and takes place internally but should also create something Schultz (2004) offer a more comprehensive state- of value for the consumer. The proposed value in the ment to this effect in their most recent book, citing process of reengineering delivers on its promise in the the American Productivity and Quality Center’s most comprehensive and complete way possible. The 1997 definition of IMC: “Integrated marketing com- reengineered “soul” puts “loyalty to the customer over munication is a strategic business process used to loyalty to the company—because that is the only way plan, develop, execute, and evaluate coordinated, the company will thrive” (Hammer, 1996, p. 159). measurable, persuasive brand communication pro- Theorists and practitioners developed reengi- grams over time with consumers, customers, neering based on this heightened awareness of the prospects, and other targeted, relevant external and consumer as well as on the recognition that one internal audiences” (pp. 20-21). Though we may organization or agency may have an IMC philosophy lack evidence to support a total shift from mass mar- while maintaining separate, specialized departments keting to IMC (a marketing development that some while others might claim integration through out- might contend as reinforcing a neo- or post-Fordist sourcing, and still others may treat IMC through advocacy for flexible specialization or generalists cross-functional teams. Hammer and Champy intro- that can work in a number of specialized contexts), duced reengineering as a vision for what true organi- even the most ardent skeptics cannot deny that zational integration means, offering a formal defini- today’s postmodern moment demands change in tion as “the fundamental rethinking and radical marketing (Cornelissen, 2003). Without symbolic redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic alignment (Smith, 1996), consistency and clarity improvements in critical, contemporary measures of across communication channels (Percy, 2008; performance, such as cost, quality, service, and Duncan, 2005), and consistency between communi- speed” (1993, p. 32). The foundation of this radical cation messages and associated organizational rethinking and redesign exists in the character of an behaviors (Balmer, 2001), organizations put at risk organization (Hammer, 1996). However, a “process” their long-term presence in the global marketplace. of reengineering—the re-ordering of an organiza- tion—to maximize the communicative impact and

12 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS reach to the consumer follows. This process remains contacts a company has with each customer as specific to an organization, and cannot be reified by a an integrated marketing dialogue. (Yastrow, set technique or approach for making it work. 1999/2000, pp. 1, 3) The central idea in reengineering consists of Being fully integrated means going beyond IMC as an process. Maintaining this focus enables an organization external communication orientation (i.e., integration to “stay attuned to the needs of the changing business within agencies, or integrated marketing communica- environment” (Hammer, 1996, p. 17). Yastrow unites tion in philosophy only) to integration existing the theme of “process” in reengineering with IMC, throughout the entire organization. For Hammer, arguing that “fully integrated marketing” is something Champy, Yastrow and others, reengineering provides a company does. He states the following about this an organizational investment done today that affects action. the marketplace of tomorrow. Reengineering prepares Fully integrated marketing suggests that every an organization to be agile, flexible, and nimble part of the organization that touches a customer amidst an increasingly complex and global market- is involved in managing the brand, with the cus- place. It assumes the spirit of IMC in a broader con- tomer integrating every contact with the brand text, fully aware that integration meets the needs of into an overall impression . . . The challenge, today’s historical moment and adapts to address the then, becomes managing the ongoing stream of demands of tomorrow.

4. IMC: Where do we go from here?

In this age of engagement, IMC marks the inter- the latter part of the 20th century, the questioning of section of modern and postmodern marketing thought modern social science, both in general and in relation as well as a proliferation of divergent approaches to the to marketing, further illuminated issues for clarifica- field (Kliatchko, 2005). As proponents strive to bring tion, especially the overemphasis on quantitative mar- about greater confidence in integration as more than keting communication methods that presupposed just a passing trend, the question of “where do we go “linked assumptions” for studying an organized world from here?” remains at the forefront of conversation. It and did not take seriously the social realities that offer addresses today’s situation and prepares IMC as a “shades of meaning” behind statistical formulations framework for advancing the field of marketing as a (Deshpande, 1983, p. 107). This has resulted in an whole. IMC offers a communication infusion into an implicit conversation over the decades regarding the otherwise business-oriented field, inviting a hermeneu- inherent nature of marketing as a scientific field of tic approach often contrary to conventional marketing study or as an art that employs empirical data to sup- wisdom into the conversation. port humanistic insights. To move forward in IMC, one should look back According to Brown (1997), the art-science in search of issues and opportunities that may open the debate has entered its third wave. The first wave—the future of this young discipline. In 1948, Alderson and “pro- science era”—capitalized on the development of Cox called attention to a major issue that may do just the American Marketing Association (AMA) and the that: the art-science tension in marketing. Although ini- Marketing Science Institute to provide an official point tialized by Converse in 1945, the debate over market- of demarcation for marketing’s aspirations of “scientif- ing’s scientific status developed significantly in the ic status.” This era emphasized positivist and empirical wake of the Alderson-Cox publication which prob- efforts to curtail criticisms that marketing was not sci- lematized marketing because of its reliance on other entific by advancing substantive theoretical and fields to stimulate growth, particularly the field of research-oriented marketing scholarship. Significant social science (cf. Deshpande, 1983). Alderson and among those advancing marketing as a science, Cox (1948) called for integration in marketing through Buzzell (1963) contended that marketing could only clarification regarding the interplay of behavior, sys- attain scientific status if marketing met stringent crite- tem, and organization as these apply to marketing. In ria; it had to become a systematic and classified body

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 13 of knowledge organized around a key theory supported models driven by data collection for the purposes of by quantifiable evidence. directing organizational action. This pro-science phase began in the late 1940s The manifestation of the art-science issues in with Converse’s publication, continued through multi- today’s marketing literature appear subtle; nevertheless, ple iterations, and ended with Anderson’s (1983) chal- they do exist. For example, in spite of the positive tra- lenge to the fundamental philosophical premise of mar- jectory of IMC, views on its definition, terminology, keting science as established in positivist assumptions perception, and actual success still vary due in large part about the world. Marked by a strong relativist position, to issues over measurability and accuracy (Kliatchko, Anderson ushered in the second phase by challenging 2005; Reid, Luxton, & Mavondo, 2005; Ratnatunga & the sensibilities of a discipline long ordained by its Ewing, 2005; Kitchen, Schultz, Kim, Han, & Li, 2004; faith in logic and quantitative outcomes, ultimately Cornelissen, 2003; Cornelissen, 2001; Cornelissen & calling into question modes of knowing and attaining Lock, 2000; Schultz & Kitchen, 2000; Beard, 1997). “truth” through marketing (Hunt, 1990). For Anderson, The art-science tension also appears in emergent themes one could not access external reality “independent of within IMC. As this essay has indicated, these themes human sensations, perceptions, and interpretations. include IMC as more adept at handling the changing Hence, reality was not objective and external to the marketing and organizational landscape (e.g., Nowak & observer but socially constructed and given meaning Phelps, 1994; Duncan & Caywood, 1996; Gronstedt, by human actors” (Brown, 1997, p. 172). Anderson’s 1996; Schultz, 2001); IMC as holistic, integrative think- invitation for marketers to consider social realities ing (e.g., Schultz, Tannenbaum & Lauterborn, 1993; offered the first directive towards a social construc- Percy, 1997); and IMC as solving a significant problem tionist view of marketing. in marketing by providing a means for the unification Today’s “anti-science era” is, broadly speaking, and coordination of all organizational communication, framed by “the postmodern consciousness [and] is administrative and otherwise (e.g., Schultz, Tannen- predicated on a repudiation of Western science. Or, to baum & Lauterborn, 1993; Ducan & Caywood, 1996; be more precise, it is exemplified by its renunciation of Duncan & Moriarty, 1998; Gronstedt, 1996). Both a ‘scientism,’ the long-standing modernist assumption movement toward artful engagement that compels peo- that science is capable of solving all our problems, that ple to respond and a scientific methods of data gather- science is a force for the good, that science is unprob- ing and application ground these themes and the larger lematic” (Brown, 1997, p. 173). The postmodern con- scope of IMC. sciousness expects and even welcomes inconsistency While the marketplace gives evidence for these and ambiguity. It is the fulfillment of a rebellion themes, IMC remains in its infancy—and by all standards against marketing science that came to the foreground in its growth stage (Kim, Han, & Schultz, 2004). No post-World War II. Brown (1997) sums up the critique claim exists about IMC as an art or science. Shultz and of marketing science that led to Anderson’s social con- Schultz (2004) suggest the next step(s) in advancing inte- structionist position as hinging on two issues: first, that gration in general categories as “future challenges for marketing science lacks moral, spiritual, and ethical IMC” (p. 377). Seven identified challenges, or avenues fiber; and second, that marketing science has not for future research include: (1) aligning internal (corpo- achieved anything of worth since the post-war period. rate communication) and external marketing communi- IMC’s development emerges on the crest of this cation (IMC); (2) moving to a behavioral base for mar- third wave amidst the juxtaposition of modern and keting communication outcomes (a humanist, not scien- postmodern thought in the art-science debate concern- tific base for treating communication between organiza- ing marketing (Arias & Acebron, 2001). Under these tions and their related audiences); (3) reversing the flow circumstances, its limitations and the quickly diminish- of marketing communication programs (moving from an ing value of tools such as segmentation typologies inside-out, production orientation to an outside-in, con- become explicit (Peñaloza & Venkatesh, 2006; Cova, sumer orientation); (4) making the brand the key element 1997; Firat & Schultz II, 1997). Additionally, it ques- in the marketing effort (elevating the role of intangible tions the reliance on a scientific paradigm. This results assets in communication strategy and planning); (5) in a complicated relationship between business and developing a global perspective; (6) developing forward- marketing as more subjective, sensory-oriented modes looking systems of forecasting, measurement, and evalu- of engagement call into question traditional business ation (instead of benchmarking and tracking studies that

14 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS focus on past and present moments); and (7) developing can it expect evidence of this paradigm’s success to pass new organizational structures and compensation methods without scrutiny. In response to the question of what’s (retooling organizations to support the shift towards more next in IMC during a time of heightened consumer holistic, integrated communication baseline for strategic engagement, the present postmodern moment invites organizational decision-making) (Schultz & Schultz, marketing to make this hermeneutic investment—to con- 2004). Each challenge references the consumer and tinue re-visioning IMC theory and processes with greater makes explicit the need to overcome distance in order to care for their impact on the human condition. As the age capitalize on the simultaneity of the production-con- of engage and S-D logic suggests, the intersection with sumption process. Each also points to organizational the storied nature of human experience and the knowl- communicative competency through the alignment of edge that “all social experience is founded on a narra- internal and external communication so that every aspect tive—that is, a story constructed by a social group about of the exchange functions well. life, its conditions, and its requirements” must constrain What’s next for IMC may not, however, be as func- IMC processes (Firat & Schultz II, 1997, p. 188). IMC tional (or scientific) as Schultz and Schultz (2004) sug- theory and practice must attend to the reality that people gest. The work of Christensen, Firat, and Torp (2008), do not organize their lives around things; rather they use Lowe, Carr, Thomas, and Watkins-Mathys (2005), things to communicate order and organization in their Schultz and Schultz (2004), and Cornelissen (2003) lives, even if only for the sake of appearances. People imply a call to action for IMC that takes place before inte- ascribe to a way of life, not to products and brands. They gration can fully occur. It has to do with the language, exchange and use products and brands as ways of associ- rhetorical capacity, cultural relevance, and symbolic ating with others, challenging IMC to encounter con- interaction that characterizes the human condition. sumers, not just communicate at or with them. IMC must Specifically, the call to action hints at the significance of recognize that while cost/benefit assessments no longer the values implicit in IMC initiatives. These values come define the consumer, the narrative through which he or from people—from the human community—and repre- she seeks to unify meaning and purpose in his or her life sent a much deeper sense of meaning than any product or do define the consumer. service can ever fully embody. This inspires compelling Working from within a framework that guides not and resonant communication messages. dictates will allow IMC to remain relevant and contin- While this is crucial for IMC success, those val- ue its diffusion in the marketplace (Christensen, Firat, ues represented in and through IMC impact the way & Torp, 2008; Kim, Han, & Schultz, 2004). Against people encounter, interpret, and share their market- any form of technological imperialism, a value-orient- place experiences. In order to engage IMC with con- ed core from which to institute IMC programs calls for viction, the implications of a value-laden approach to greater reflective planning that involves the interplay run deeper than value as constituted in use or exchange of the organization, its product, and the audience in a because they emerge from life together. What’s next in given historical moment. Answering the question, IMC—the prophetic voice of an age conspicuous in its “Where do we go from here?” continues to situate IMC proclivity towards engagement as a consumptive prac- in historical context and conversation with other equal- tice—may involve a flexible, hermeneutic approach ly viable aspects of marketing. The promise of consid- aimed at the purposeful and artful enactment of the ering IMC and its impact on the human condition, in interplay between the consumer, a product and/or serv- particular the way in which people encounter and share ice, and an organization in a given historical moment. their marketplace experiences, rests on an underdevel- In both theory and application, this invites IMC into a oped aspect of marketing. In spite of marketing’s web of relationships. More than a definitive approach prophetic insights leading to IMC as a pre-emptive (e.g., inside-out or outside-in), IMC must remain con- response to the engagement economy, marketing still sumer-informed and idea-led. A proactive engagement lacks a defined body of scholarship that artfully exam- of the consumer through ideas increases the potential ines its relationship to the human condition. Thus, this for a true gestalt engagement of IMC in which the essay begins and ends in the spirit of Christensen, Firat, whole becomes greater than the sum of its parts. and Torp’s (2008) observation that we need multiple Exemplified by responses to IMC in its growth sources informing our marketing efforts. An interpre- stage, marketing cannot shift its locus of control and tive, artful approach, IMC offers one such avenue for expect an uncontested transition to the new paradigm, nor further research.

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 15 Editor’s Afterword

The word “marketing” is distasteful to many peo- must include mechanisms that adapt those plans to the ple who are chiefly concerned with religious evange- ever-changing environment in which they engage their lization, and it is almost as distasteful to those whose audience. This does not mean that the fundamentals of focus is the development of educational institutions the product have to change, but the ways in which they and educational opportunities for otherwise disadvan- are presented to their audience must change to meet the taged students. In fact, most people whose deeply-felt evolving expectations of that audience through succes- motivations are social or political would be at least sive moments of engagement. somewhat uneasy if they were described as “market- —W. E. Biernatzki, S.J. ing” the reforms they envision for accomplishing their General Editor social or political goals. The same reaction could be COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS expected in the fields of medicine and public health. Nevertheless, all these human endeavors have References “products” which must be promoted if the fields are to remain significant. Distasteful or not, their successful Alderson, W., & Cox, R. (1948). Towards a theory of mar- promotion shares many of the requirements of com- keting. The Journal of Marketing, 13(2), 137-152. mercial marketing mentioned in this paper. On the one Alvesson, M., & Kärreman, D. (2000). Taking the linguistic hand, many successful religious evangelists, for exam- turn in organizational research. Journal of Applied ple, have unashamedly adopted some of the worst Behavioral Science, 36(2), 136-158. methods of commercial marketers. On the other hand, Alvesson, M., & Kärreman, D. (2001). Odd couple: Making the use of modern mass media usually requires some sense of the curious concept of knowledge manage- adaptations to fit into the media culture. While respect- ment. Journal of Management Studies, 38(7), 995-1018. ing the non-commercial values of their own field and Alvesson, M., & Skoldberg, K. (2000). Reflexive methodolo- rejecting some of the extreme means that are incom- gy: New vistas for qualitative research. London: Sage. patible with their own values, some ideas of the com- Anderson, P. F. (1983). Marketing, scientific progress, and mercial marketers can be employed safely even by reli- scientific method. Journal of Marketing, 47, 18-31. gious “marketers.” Arias, J. T. G., & Acebron, L. B. (2001). Postmodern approaches in business-to-business marketing and One positive approach of this kind was taken by . The Journal of Business & Industrial Father Pedro Arrupe, S.J., who said, shortly after his elec- Marketing, 16(1), 7-20. tion as Superior General of the Jesuits, in the 1960s that Arndt, J. (1985a). On making marketing science more scien- Christians should promote Christianity with as much tific: The role of observation, paradigms, metaphors vigor as soft drinks are sold by their manufacturers. and puzzle solving. Journal of Marketing, It was in response to Father Arrupe’s initiative that 49(Summer), 11-23. the Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture, Arndt, J. (1985b). The tyranny of paradigms: The case for and its publication, COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS, paradigmatic pluralism in marketing. In Changing the were established in the 1970s to explore ways in which course of marketing: Alternative paradigms for widen- current advances in communication research might be ing marketing theory. Research in Marketing useful to Catholic communication specialists. As Supplement 2. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1-25. Professor Groom’s review essay emphasizes, citing Arnould, E., & Price, L. L. (2006). Marketing-oriented ethnography revisited. Journal of Advertising Shiffman (2008), marketers, including religious “mar- Research, 10, 251-262. keters,” must be aware that the ways they present their Balmer, J. M. T. (2001). Corporate identity, corporate brand- products must change constantly to match changes that ing and corporate marketing—seeing through the fog. occur in their audience’s environment with each moment European Journal of Marketing, 35(3/4), 248-291. of engagement. Change is unavoidable in the modern Beard, F. (1997). IMC use and client-ad agency relation- world, and every “marketing plan,” including the “mar- ships. Journal of Marketing Communications, 3(4), keting plans” designed to “sell” religious “products,” 217- 230.

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18 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Muniz, Jr., A. M., & O’Guinn, T. C. (2001). Brand commu- Rust, R. T., Lemon, K. N., & Zeithaml, V. A. (2004). Return nity. Journal of Consumer Research, 4, 412-432. on marketing: Using customer equity to focus market- Naik, P. A., & Ramen, K. (2003). Understanding the impact ing strategy. Journal of Marketing, 68, 109-127. of synergy in multimedia communications. Journal of Schultz, D. E. (1993). Maybe we should start all over with Marketing Research, 37, 19-26. an IMC organization. Marketing News, 27(22), 8-9. Novelli, W. D. (1989). One-stop shopping: Some thoughts Schultz, D. E. (1995). Four basic rules lay groundwork for on integrated marketing communications. Public integration. Marketing News, 16, 5. Relations Quarterly, 34(4), 7-10. Schultz, D. E. (1996a). Why don’t they understand? Nowak, G. J., & Phelps, J. (1994). 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COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 19 Michael Traber, SMB, Bibliography

[This brief introduction to Michael Traber’s life bilities at WACC was to find a way of using the press and work comes from a longer essay, published as the to support the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa. Introduction of Philip Lee’s edited book, Communica- In the 1970s a number of organizations in that country, ting Peace: Entertaining Angels Unawares (Toronto: and several church-related donor agencies, had been World Association for Christian Communication, considering how to establish a newspaper that would 2008), a tribute to Traber by his colleagues and a col- be truly representative of black peoples. In early 1976 lection of some of his writings.—Ed. Copyright © WACC convened a meeting of representatives of vari- World Association for Christian Communication, ous organizations from South Africa to discuss differ- 2008. Used with permission.] ent possibilities and from that meeting the Black Press Fund (BPF) was born. It was agreed that the BPF Introduction by Philip Lee would be used to support periodicals that most effec- Michael Traber was born in Switzerland on 5 July tively critiqued the apartheid regime and its inhuman 1929 where his secondary education took place during policy of segregation and discrimination. When the the years of the Second World War. In 1956 he was South African Council of Churches (SACC) set up a ordained as a Roman Catholic priest into the newspaper in Johannesburg, called The Voice, for Bethlehem Mission Society from where he went to the which it sought financial aid, the BPF contributed to its USA (1956-60) to study sociology and mass commu- operational costs as well as supporting Grassroots, a nication at Fordham University and New York black community newspaper in Cape Town. Mike University (Ph.D. in Philosophy). His doctoral thesis Traber was a consultant to both newspapers. was called The Treatment of the Little Rock, Arkansas, Communication rights in theory and practice School Integration Incident. It studied the degree and In 1976, in response to the call of many develop- focus of attention given by the daily press of South ing countries for the “decolonization of information,” Africa, West Nigeria, and Ghana to what was one of UNESCO undertook a review of communication in the most dramatic racial conflicts in the USA of the contemporary society against the background of tech- 1950s. Journalism, racism, and Africa defined an intel- nological progress and developments in international lectual territory that Mike vigorously pursued in sub- relations. It established the International Commission sequent years. for the Study of Communication Problems under the The Bethlehem Fathers’ close ties with Southern presidency of Sean MacBride. The outcome, published Africa led Mike to work in Southern Rhodesia (now in 1980, was Many Voices, One World: Communica- Zimbabwe) as Director of Mambo Press and Editor of tion and Society Today and Tomorrow with its slogan the critical weekly newspaper Moto (1962-70). As well “Towards a new more just and more efficient world as producing audiovisuals, Mambo Press published information and communication order.” Under Mike’s books in English and Shona—a language that Mike guidance, WACC became one of the earliest church- took time to learn, especially its proverbs. In 1970 he related and non-governmental organizations to support founded and managed Imba Verlag, a book publishing the New World Information and Communication Order house in Fribourg, Switzerland, before returning to (NWICO). . . . Africa as Senior Lecturer in journalism at the Africa 1988 Media Development . . . devoted the first of Literature Centre, Kitwe, Zambia (1973-76). During several issues to the theme “Communication is a those years he also did research in Ethiopia, Ghana, human right.” Its editorial identified the still evolving Malawi, Uganda, Tanzania, and Zambia. third generation of human rights as “solidarity rights,” Mike Traber joined the staff of the World calling for international cooperation to implement Association for Christian Communication (WACC) in them and for human interests to be placed above 1976 as Director of its fledgling Periodicals national interests. The editorial reaffirmed the need for Development Programme and Editor of its quarterly a more just and more efficient world information and journal Media Development. One of his first responsi- communication order:

20 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS As yet there is no definition of the right to com- eight propositions on communication for discussion by municate. But the majority of thinkers want it to its Central Committee. He argued that although infor- stress the equality of all partners in the commu- mation and communication were drastically changing nication process. It should embrace a multi-cul- the world, instead of establishing commonality and sol- tural, multi-way flow of information, including a idarity, they were tending to reinforce divisions, widen passive as well as an active right to communi- the gap between rich and poor, consolidate oppression, cate, while promoting the highest possible and distort reality. The effect was to maintain systems degree of feedback, participation, and access. (Traber, 1988, p. 1) of domination and to subject the silenced masses to media manipulation. In 1989 Mike Traber became a founding member of the Formally adopted in 1986, WACC’s Christian MacBride Round Table on Communication, which met Principles of Communication affirmed that genuine for the first time in Harare, Zimbabwe, continuing what communication liberates, creates community, is partic- was to become a lifetime’s unwavering support for the ipatory, supports and develops cultures, and is prophet- values inherent in the MacBride Report and, later, the ic. This landmark in the political development of communication rights movement. WACC provided the theological basis and rationale for Similarly, he put his intellectual weight behind its first international Congress (1989). It also laid the the growing call for a systematic study of the connec- foundations for WACC’s study and action programs, in tions between theology and communication, a WACC which Mike took the lead in elaborating six thematic program that began in the early part of 1983. Six years areas: “communication ethics”; “the right to communi- later some 48 working papers, 59 course outlines for cate”; “communication and religion”; “communica- teaching communication in seminaries, and 12 com- tion, culture, and social change”; “communication edu- plete syllabi had been produced. A book on theology cation”; and “women’s perspectives.” and communication was published in Latin America Mike Traber retired from WACC—but not from and an extensive study of courses in every major theo- communications—in 1995. A book on The Democra- logical seminary in North America was carried out. tization of Communication was published in his honor, This pioneering work stood Mike in good stead when containing contributions from colleagues working in he later joined the staff of United Theological College, the field of mass communications. As the introduction Bangalore, to teach doctoral students. emphasized, Michael Traber stood for: “. . . the univer- Mike Traber also worked closely with Dr. Robert sal values of humanism, above all peace, democracy, A. White, at that time director of research at the Centre human rights, social progress, and national liberation, for the Study of Communication and Culture (London) while respecting the distinctive character, value, and [the publisher of COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS], dignity of each culture, as well as the right of each peo- to edit a series of monographs on “Communication and ple freely to choose and develop its political, social, Human Values.” The aim of the series was to contribute economic and cultural systems.” to the development of social philosophies of communi- Until 2004 Mike continued to teach for one cation based on a general conception of human rights month each year at the Gregorian University, Rome, and appropriate to particular cultural contexts. The but his principal activity was to spend six months of American publisher Longman brought out the first every year in India, working with colleagues to build book in 1983, Cultural Autonomy in Global up a master’s and later a doctoral degree course at Communications by Cees J. Hamelink. However, for United Theological College, Bangalore, where he com- reasons unconnected with the series, Longman with- bined his passions for journalism, theology, and com- drew and a second contract was signed with Sage. munication rights. . . . From 1986 to the end of the series in 1997, some 30 Mike Traber died on 25 March 2006. titles had appeared, including the first English transla- tion of Jesus Martín Barbero’s Communication, In recognition of his many years of writing, edit- Culture, and Hegemony (1993), and culminating in ing, and scholarship on behalf of Christian communi- Communication Ethics and Universal Values (1997), cation, COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS publishes edited by Clifford G. Christians and Michael Traber. this yearly bibliography of his work, prepared by Dr. WACC’s Christian Principles of Communication Fritz Frei, Missionsgesellschaft Bethlehem, Immensee, In 1984 at the suggestion of Dr. Hans W. Florin, Swtizerland.—Ed. then WACC’s General Secretary, Mike Traber drafted

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 21 Bibliography Michael Traber SMB 1959 Immensee (1929–2006) Traber, M. (1959). Amerikanische Selbstkritik im Fritz Frei Schulwesen. Schweizer Schule, 45, 654-659. 1953 Traber, M. (1959). Recent trends in American-African rela- Traber, M. (1953). China in aller Welt: Missionsgebetsmei- tions: The viewpoint of a missionary. Ursuline nung für den Oktober. Bethlehem, 58, 431-434. Alumnae Quarterly, November, 9-11. Traber, M. (1953). Die Entscheidungsstunde für Traber, M. (1959). Zwei Schulzeugnisse amerikanischer Südostasien: damit dem Kommunismus in Südostasien Primarschulen. Schweizer Schule, 45, 668-672. Einhalt geboten werde. Bethlehem, 58, 126-129. 1960 Traber, M. (1953). Gott oder Vaterland: damit Chinas Volk Traber, M. (1960). Dr. John M. Chang, der kath. und Klerus im Glabuen standhaft bleiben. Bethlehem, Premierminister von Korea. Neue Zürcher 58, 70-73. Nachrichten, 2(9). Traber, M. (1953). Japan heute: Missionsmeinung im Traber, M, (1960). Ein japanischer Katholik wird Richter am Dezember. Bethlehem, 58, 544-548. Internationalen Gerichtshof. Vaterland, 26(11). Traber, M. (1953). Kinder helfen Kindern: wir beten für die Traber, M. (1960). Der kath. Studentenverein Indonesiens. Anliegen der Weltmission. Bethlehem, 58, 18-20 Die Ostschweiz, 18(11). Traber, M. (1953). Von zerstampften, steinigen und ver- Traber, M. (1960). Die Kirche Südvietnams. Vaterland, 23(11). schlossenen Äckern am Fusse des Himalaya: Missions- Traber, M. (1960). Macao, Muttermission des Fernen gebetsmeinung für den Mai. Bethlehem, 58, 218-221. Ostens. Vaterland, 29(9). 1954 Traber, M. (1960). Eine Schweizerin als Missionspionierin. Traber, M. (1954). Damit sich die kath. Welt ihrer Hochwacht, 9(12). Gemeinschaft mit der verfolgten Kirche Chinas mehr Traber, Ml. (1960). The treatment of the Little Rock, bewusst werde. Bethlehem, 59, 288-291. Arkansas, school integration incident in the daily press Traber, M. (1954). Damit sich die Mohammedaner zum Gott of the Union of South Africa, West Nigeria and Ghana der Liebe bekehren: das missionarische Anliegen des from September 1 to October 31, 1957. (Doctoral dis- Monats. Bethlehem, 59, 225-228. sertation, New York University, 1960). Dissertation Traber, M. (1954). Frieden und Freiheit der Kirche in Asien: Abstracts International, 21, 1182. das missionarische Anliegen des Monats. Bethlehem, 1961 59, 28-32. Traber, M. (1961). Bundesgelder für “Entwicklungshilfe.” Traber, M.. (1954). Indiens höhere Kasten für Christus: das Echo SMB, 25(2, April), 72-75. missionarische Anliegen des Monats. Bethlehem, 59, Traber, M. (1961). Ende des Kolonialismus–Anfang der 542-544. Mission. Civitas, 16, 493-506. Traber, M. (1954). Die Kirche in Angola und Mozambique: Traber, M. (1961). Five weeks in Formosa. Bethlehem das missionarische Anliegen des Monats. Bethlehem, (Engl.), (3), 78–80. 59, 334-337. Traber, M. (1961). Nets and boats for Formosa’s fishermen. Traber, M. (1954). Die politischen und sozialen Probleme Bethlehem, (7), 205. Afrikas: das missionarische Anliegen des Monats. Traber, M. (1961). Umbrellas and artificial flowers: Bethlehem, 59, 74-77. Bethlehem’s employment agency of Ichinoseki. 1955 Bethlehem (Engl), (5), 140–141. Traber, M. (1955). Malabar: Hoffnung der Kirche Indiens: Traber, M. (1961). “Changing the guard” in Taitung, Das missionarische Anliegen des Monats. Bethlehem, Formosa. Bethlehem (Engl.), (7), 201–204. 60, 21-25. 1962 Traber, M. (1955). Japans Studenten im Dunkel: Von den Traber, M. (1962). Afrikaner ehren ihren ersten Missionar Sorgen der Weltmission. Bethlehem, 60, 533-537. und Märtyrer. Bethlehem, 67, 9-15. 1956 Traber, M. (1962). Missionar als Kirchenmusiker: Traber, M. (1956). Die menschlichen Vorbilder: Warum ich “Biblische Gesänge” komponiert von Georg Sturm den Missionsberuf wählte. Bethlehem-Kalender, 35, Bethlehem- Kalender, 41, 61-65 104-106. Traber, M. (1962). Missionarische Umschau: Kirchenväter Traber, M. (1956). [Book review: Plattner F. A.: Christliches predigen afrikanischen Neuchristen. Schweiz. Indien, 1955]. Neue Zeitschrift für Missionswissen- Kirchenzeitung, 130, 8. schaft, 12, 155–156. Traber, M. (1962). The Silveira congress: August 25th to 1958 27th, 1961. Bethlehem (Engl), (1), 22–27. Traber, M. (1958). Kardinal Samuel Stritch: Propräfekt der Traber, M. (1962). “Whosoever shall drink from this water Propaganda-Kongregation. Bethlehem, 63, 214-217. shall thirst no more” (John 4:13). Bethlehem (Engl), (6), 183.

22 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS 1963 Traber, M. (1970). Priester–Arzt? Afrika hat eigene Traber, M. (1963). Cardinal Montini’s visit to Southern Vorstellungen. Bethlehem, 75, 122-123. Rhodesia. Bethlehem (Engl), (12), 361–363. Traber, M. (1970). Are our missionaries safe [South 1964 Rhodesia]? Bethlehem (Engl), 383. Traber, M. (1964). The apostolate of the press in Southern Traber, M. (1970). Who rules—who obeys: Race—the great Rhodesia. Bethlehem (Engl), (4), 121–125. problem of the 21st century. Bethlehem (Engl), 1966 333–335. Traber, M. (1966). Journalists’ training centre in Rhodesia. Traber, M. (1970). Zwischen Happy-End und Bludbad: die Bethlehem (Engl), (2), 63. Welt gegen Rhodesien. Schweizer Spiegel, (June), 16-22. Traber, M.. (1966). Report of the study group on “Catholics Traber, M. (1970). With whom I shook hands in Zambia. and Higher Education,” D. Morgan (chairman). In Pakati pedu [Missionary Periodical Diocese of Catholic Education in the Service of Africa: Report of Gwelo], 19 (8), 107–109. the Pan-African Catholic Education Conference, 1971 Leopoldville, 16-23 August 1965 (pp. 372-375; 386). Traber, M. (1971). Die katholische Kirche Rhodesiens im Bruxelles: Catholic International Education Office. Widerstand. In J. Baumgartner (Ed.), Vermittlung zwis- Traber, M. (1966). “The Father’s Fame,” a priest film. chenkirchlicher Gemeinschaft: 50 Jahre Missions- Bethlehem, 71 (English ed.), 236-239. [Original film gesellschaft Immensee: Festschrift (pp. 211-231). title, “Mbiri Yababa”] Schöneck-Beckenried: Neue Zeitschrift für Missions- 1967 wissenschaft. Traber, M. (1967). Afrikanische Liturgie in Rhodesien. Traber, M. (1971). Kirche im Bundeshaus: ein Rückblick auf Bethlehem, 72, 263-265. die Interkonfessionelle Konferenz Schweiz und Dritte 1968 Welt. Schweizer Rundschau, 70, 133-136. Traber, M. (1968). Press and development. Bethlehem Traber, M. (1971). Kirche und Staat in Rhodesien. Evang. (Engl), (July), 228–236. Missions-Magazin, 115(2), 64ff. 1969 Traber, M. (1971). Politische Diakonie der Kirche. Traber, M. (1969). Afrikaner Rhodesiens zum Schweigen Missionsjahrbuch der Schweiz, 38, 32-41. verurteilt: die katholische Presse gewährt ihnen eine Traber, M. (1971). Rasse, Rassismus und weisse Stimme in der Öffentlichkeit. Bethlehem, 74, 412. Vorherrschaft. Wort und Wahrheit: Zeitschrift für Traber, M. (1969). Die Bibel der Analphabeten. Bethlehem, Religion und Kultur, 26, 428-447. 74, 562-563. Traber, M. (1971). Rassismus und weisse Vorherrschaft. Traber, M. (1969). Die Presse im Umbruch der Gesellschaft. Fribourg: Imba-Verlag; Stein: Laetare Verlag. In K. Wilhelm-Kraemer, ed. Welt, Kirche, Presse: Traber, M. et al. (Eds). (1971). Schweiz–Dritte Welt: Dokumentation n. 8. Weltkongresses d. kath. internat. Berichte und Dokumente der Interkonfessionellen Union d. Presse v. 2.-6. Juli 1968 in Berlin. Konferenz in Bern. Zürich: Theol. Verlag; Freiburg: Osnabrück: Fromm. (Fromms Taschenbücher Imba Verlag. “Zeitnahes Christentum” Vol. 57.) Traber, M. (1971). Soll die Kirche politisieren? Treffpunkt, Traber, M. (1969). Die Presse-Mutter des Fortschritts. 3(25), 1, 4, and 6. Bethlehem, 74, 288-292. Traber, M. (1971). Unerwarteter Kompromiss der Bischöfe: Traber, M. (1969). Rhodesien braucht eine kath. Illustrierte. Unsicherheit und Verwirrung in der katholische Presse Bethlehem, 74, 355-356. Rhodesiens. Katholische Nachrichten KNA; Traber, M. (1969). Sprechendes Papier. Bethlehem, 74, 504- Korrespondentenbericht, 43, 19(5), 3. 507. Traber, M. (1971). Die Welt als Ganzes begreifen: Was Traber, M. (1969). Another young missionary dies in erwartet die Dritte Welt von einer Schweizer Zeitung? Rhodesia [J. Suter]. Bethlehem (Engl), 209–212. Neue Zürcher Nachrichten, 19(11). 1970 Traber, M. (1971). Zahlen zur schweizerischen Traber, M. (1970). Die afrikanische Kirche und wir. Civitas, Entwicklungshilfe: der Schweizer und die Entwick- 26, 279290. lungshilfe: zwei Berichte. [Fribourg: Missio]. Traber, M. (1970). Das Alibi des Gesetzes: Regierungschef Traber, M. (1971). Zum Rückzug der Weissen Väter aus Ian Douglas Smith, Rhodesien. Bethlehem, 75, 492- Moçambique. Orientierung, 35, 137-139. 493. Traber, M. (1971). The law as an alibi: Prime Minister Ian Traber, M. (1970). Entwicklungshilfe—was geht das die Douglas Smith, Rhodesia. Bethlehem (Engl), Kirche an? Bethlehem, 75, 421-423. (Aug./Sept.), 214–215. Traber, M. (1970). Ich lebte mit den Schwarzen Rhodesiens. Traber, M. (1971). Priest-doctor? Africa has its own ideas. Tages-Anzeiger-Magazin, 25(4), 8-13. Bethlehem (Engl), (1), 28–29.

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 23 Traber, M. (1971). Principles in percentages: Withdrawal Traber, M. (1976). Korruption: eine weltweite Krankheit. and compromise of the Rhodesian bishops. Bethlehem Wendekreis: Monatszeitschrift, 81(10), 12-13. (Engl), (8/9), 204–205. Traber, M. (1976). Likuni Press-Monfort Press: 1972 Development through co-operation: A survey of the Traber, M. (1972). Die afrikanische Elite. Civitas, 28, 2941. Catholic print media in Malawi, 1975. Limbe: [no Traber, M. (1972). A dispute is ended: The Rhodesian publisher listed]. church-state relations have taken a new turn. Traber, M. (1976). Neun Thesen zum Brefreiungskampf in Bethlehem (Engl), (3), 26–27. Zimabwe. Informationsdienst Südliches Afrika, Traber, M. (1972). Hunger des Geistes: Verpasst die Kirche 4(July- August), 43-47. Afrikas die Chance der Massenmedien? Wendekreis/ 1977 Bethlehem, 77(October), 5-7. Traber, M. (1977). The African Church and African social- Traber, M. (1972). Kirchen fordern Gerechtigkeit. ism: The Tanzanian model. In J. B. Metz, & J. P. Missionsjahrbuch der Schweiz, 39, 62-63. Jossua, eds. Christianity and socialism. New York: Furger, F. with Traber, M. (1972). Politische Theologie erst Seabury Press (Concilium, 105). [Also published in heute: über Kirche u. Gesellschaft. Freiburg French, German, Portuguese, and Spanish editions.] (Switzerland): Imba Verlag. Traber, M. (1977). Die Lehrer schwärmen aus . . .: Traber, M. (1972). Das revolutionäre Afrika. Freiburg: Imba Erwachsenenbildung in Tansania. Wendekreis: Verlag; Stein/Nürnberg: Laetare Verlag. Monatszeitschrift, 82(2), 16-17. Traber, M. (1972). Development aid. Bethlehem (Engl), (7), Traber, M. (1977). Rhodesiens Kirche zwischen den 5–7. Fronten. Herder Korrespondenz, 31, 5860. 1973 Traber, M. (1977). Rhodesien ohne Friedenschance. Herder Traber, M. (1973). Politisches Engagement der Kirche im Korrespondenz, 31, 171174. Rassenkonflikt. Concilium, 9, 282-285. Traber, M. (1977). Schwarzafrika: Tribalismus und Traber, M. (1973). The Church’s political commitment in the Ideologiemonopol. Herder Korrespondenz, 31, 241-245. racial conflict. In A. Muller & N. Greinacher (Eds.), Traber, M. (1977). Honest work underpaid: Corruption Political Commitment and the Christian Community inescapable. Bethlehem (Engl), (1/2), 24. (pp. 102-109). New York: Herder & Herder. Traber, M. (1977). New literacy program in Tanzania: Work (Concilium, 84) oriented schooling. Bethlehem (Engl), (5/6), 24. Traber, M. (1973). Tenzae Zegubae: From a printing press to 1978 a publishing house of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Traber, M. (1978). Das Anliegen der Befreiung in der Literatur Geneva: World Council of Churches. Simbabwes. Missionsjahrbuch der Schweiz, 45, 27-30. Traber, M. (1973). The great audience: Will African church- Traber, M. (1979). Mosambik: eine bedrängte Kirche unter es use the mass media opportunity? Bethlehem (Engl), dem “afrikanischen” Marxismus. Herder Korrespon- (10), 5–7. denz, 33, 421-427 [Pseudonym: Peter Faber]. 1974 Traber, M. (1979). Rhodesien: die “interne Lösung” und die Traber, M. (1974). Politik. Dritte Welt im Jahr 2000 (pp. Guerilla: Stellungnahme zur Zuschrift von. L. Clerici. 176ff). Al Imfeld u.a. - Zürich [etc.]: Benziger, s.a. Herder Korrespondenz, 33, 480-481. 1975 Traber, M. (1979). Trotz Wahlen keine Lösung: Zur Lage in Traber, M. (1975). Some principles of Christian publishing: Simbabwe-Rhodesien. Herder Korrespondenz, 33, The function of a publishing house; Getting and 319-325. assessing manuscript. In J. Mukwaya & N. Hart (Eds.), 1980 The Lively Word: Christian Publishing and Broad- Traber, M. (1980). Christentum—sozialismus—Kirche: zur casting in East Africa (pp. 25-40). Limbe (Malawi): Situation in Simbabwe-Rhodesien. Herder Korrespon- Popular Publications. denz, 34, 232-237. Traber, M. (1975). [Book review: Kaufmann, W.: Kath. Traber, M. (1980). Christliche Vorreiter: Beitrag der Kirchen Medienarbeit in der Schweiz, 1974]. Communicatio an der Entwicklung des Verlagswesens. Börsenblatt socialis, 8, 190–193. für den Deutschen Buchhandel, 36(22), 2048-2050. 1976 Traber, M. (1980). Ende der 90jährigen weissen Traber, M. (1976). Elite im Exil: Rhodesiens Führungskräfte Vorherrschaft: Zimbabwe - die schwierigste Geburt leben im Ausland. Wendekreis: Monatszeitschrift, eines afrikanischen Staates. Berner Zeitung, (17 81(10), 36-37. April), Sonderseite. Traber, M. (1976). Rhodesian native exiles–An elite: Will a Traber, M. (1980). Die Geburt Simbabwes: ein Bericht von majority rule Zimbabwe (Rhodesia) use them? Michael Traber. [no city: no publisher]. Bethlehem (Engl), (9/10), 22–23. Traber, M. (1980). Hilfe für Zimbabwe. Akuelle Gespräche Evang. Akademie Bad Boll, 3, 19-23.

24 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Traber, M. (1980). Nicht die Lehre, sondern die Praxis ist 1984 entscheidend: Afrikanisches Christentum in der Traber, M. (1984). Communication for peace and justice. In Bewährung. In A. Buchholz & M. Geiling (Eds.), J. Bluck (Ed.), Beyond technology: Contexts for Afrika den Afrikanern: vorkoloniales Erbe und Christian communication. Geneva: World Council of nachkoloniale Entwicklung (pp. 137-152). Frankfurt: Churches. Ullstein. Traber, M. (1984). Communication for peace and justice. Traber, M. (1980). Robert Mugabe—Christ und Sozialist: Ecumenical Review, 36, 64-70. ein Porträt des Premierministers von Zimbabwe. Epd 1985 Ausgabe für kirchliche Press, 17(March 23), 20-21. Traber, M. (1985). Alternative journalism, alternative media. Traber, M. (1980). Das unabhängige Simbabwe und die Communication Resource, 7(October), 14. Kirche. Orientierung, 44, 123-125. Traber, M. (1985). Aus der Sicht von unten: Michael Traber Traber, M. (1980). [Book review: Barton, F.: The Press of über alternative Medien in der Dritten Welt. In M. Africa, 1979]. Communicatio socialis, 13, 381–384. Jäggi (Ed.), Ein Chaos wollen wir nicht: 18 Gespräche Traber, M. (1980). [Book review: Chimutengwende, C.: im Klartext zur Schweizer Medienpolitik (pp. 212- South Africa. The Press and the Politics of Liberation, 222). Basel: Lenos Verlag. 1978]. Communicatio socialis, 13, 381–384. Traber, M. (1985). Zwischen Abhängigkeit und 1981 Blockfreiheit: kommunistischer Einfluss in Afrika. Traber, M. (1981). Das Beispiel Zimbabwe: aus der Sicht Wendekreis: Monatszeitschrift, 90(4), 16-17. eines Kirchenvertreters. Materialdienst Evang. 1986 Akademie Bad Boll, 2, 48-55. Traber, M. (1986). Foreword. In P. Lee (Ed.), Communica- Traber, M. (1981). Die Informationsbedürfnisse afrikanisch- tion for all: New world information and communica- er Länder. Genève-Afrique, 19(1), 125-139 + tion order (pp. ix-xiii). Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. Appendix. [translated: Traber, M. (1981). Les besoins Traber, M. (1986) The myth of the information revolution: des pays africains dans le domaine de l’information. Social and ethical implications of communication Geneva-Africa, 125- 139.] technology. Beverly Hills: Sage. Traber, M. (1981). Christian book publishing in the Third 1987 World: Some principles, criteria, and proposals. Traber, M. (1987). The Illusion of “Mission as Marketing.” Communicatio socialis, 14, 310-318. [reprinted, 1982, The Ecumenical Review, 39(3), 318326. Communicatio socialis Yearbook 1981-1982, 142- Traber, M. (1987). Towards the democratization of public 150.] communication: A critique of the current criteria of Traber, M. (1981). Media context, performance, and priori- news. Africa Media Review, 2(1), 66-75. ties of Christian communication in Africa: Mass media 1988 in Black Africa. Pro Mundi Vita Dossiers, April-July Traber, M. (1988). The stories people tell: Are they part of the (Africa Dossier 18-19), 26-40. democratic process? Africa Media Review, 2, 115-124. Traber, M. (1981). La presse catholique au Sud et au Nord: 1989 propositions. In Pour une société de communication Traber, M. (1989). African communication: Problems and [12e Congrès de l’Union catholique internationale de prospects. Africa Media Review, 3(3), 86-97. la presse, Rome, 1980] (pp. 93-97). Paris: Éditions Traber, M. (1989). Alternativer Journalismus. In W. Wunden Cana. (Ed.), Medien zwischen Markt und Moral: Beiträge Traber, M. (1981). Robert Mugabe - Mensch und Politiker: zur Medienethik (pp. 111-122). Stuttgart: Steinkipf. der Immenseer Missionar Mike Traber über seinen Traber, M. (1989). Theological reflections on communica- Freund. Bethlehem Jahrbuch, 60, 2326. tion, participation, and transformation. Group Media 1982 Journal, June, 12-14. Traber, M. (1982). Media context, performance, and priori- 1990 ties of Christian communication in Africa. Pro Mundi Traber, M. (1990). “Die Entwicklung findet auf dem Land Vita, 1. statt”: Michael Traber über die Stimmung in 1983 Zimbabwe (Interview Markus Mugglin). Mosquito Traber, M. (1983). Südafrika: grassroots–eine Zeitung macht (Bern), 2 (March), 10-13. Schule. Wendekreis: Monatszeitschrift, 88(4), 16-17. Traber, M. (1990). “Das Weltbild unserer Medienkultur” und Traber, M. (1983) Kommunikation. In H. Krüger et al. “Das Recht auf Kommunikation.” Bessere Bilder von (Eds.), Ökumene-Lexikon: Kirchen—Religionen— der Dritten Welt (pp. 191-206). Rehburg-Loccum: Bewegungen (pp. 682-685). Frankfurt: Lembeck. Evang. Akademie. (Loccumer Protokolle, 9). Traber, M. (1983). Radio Enriquillo: Ausbruch aus dem Traber, M. (1990). The Holy Spirit and communication. The Ghetto des Schweigens. Wendekreis: Monatszeit- Ecumenical Review, 42(34), 207215. schrift, 88(4), 26-27.

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 25 1991 Traber, M. (1995). Communication as a basic human need Traber, M. (1991). Brief aus London: Christliche Medien im and human right. Crossroads (Harare), 148, 1416. Weltdorf. Wendekreis: Monatszeitschrift, 96(11), 36-37. Traber, M. (1995). The challenge of rural civil society: Traber, M. (1991). The Churches’ challenge in global com- Response to the paper by Lloyd M. Sachikonye. munication. Idoc international, 2, 39-43. Innovation: The European Journal of Social Sciences, Traber, M., & Davies, A. (1991). Ethics of war reporting. 8(4), 413-417. Media Development (Special issue), 7-10 . Traber, M. (1995). Democracy, the mass media, and the Traber, M. (1991). Narrativity and community: A cultural information superhighway. The IAJ Journal for studies approach. In M. Casey (Ed.), Narrativity and Journalists in Southern Africa, 1 (1), 18-26. Community (pp. 112-141). Malibu, CA: RSCA. Traber, M. (1995). Krise der Kommunikation des Heiles Traber, M. (1991). Das Weltbild in unserer Medienkultur. In Gottes? Fokus Fundamentalismus: Jahrbuch Mission F. E. Anhelm (Ed.), 1992 - Fünfhundert Jahre danach: 1995 (pp. 70-83). Hamburg: Missionshilfe Verlag. vom kolonialen Blick zum interkulturellen Dialog? 1996 (Pp. 65-71). Bielefeld: Bertelsmann. Traber, M. (1996).Some principles of Christian publishing— 1992 What is joint publishing. In R. Boisvert & T. Traber, M. (1992). Communication as a human need and Marcazzan (Eds.), Publishing at the service of human right. Religion and Society, 39(1), 311. Evangelization: Proceedings of the Seminar of the Traber, M. (1992). Death and the media: An introduction. Catholic Publishers in Africa, Nairobi, 12-24 Media Development, 4, 3-5. February 1996 (pp. 131-150). Nairobi: Paulines Traber, M., et al. (Eds.). (1992) Promotion of educational Publications. materials for communication studies: Report of phase Traber, M. (1996). [Review of Galtung, J., Peace by I of UNESCO/IPDC interregional project by IAMCR/ Peaceful Means, 1996]. Media Development, 4/1996, AIERI. Tampere: Department of Journalism and Mass 44-46. Communication, University of Tampere. 1997 Traber, M., & Nordenstreng, K. (Eds.). (1992). Few voices, Traber, M., et al. (1997). Communication ethics and univer- many worlds: Towards a media reform movement . sal values. Thousand Oaks, CA; London: Sage London: WACC. Publications. 1993 Traber, M. (1997). Die neuen Medien oder Die Angst der Traber, M. (1993). Changes of communication: Needs and Dritten Welt vor einer neuen Kolonialisierungswelle / rights in social revolutions. In S. Splichal & J. Wasko Gespräch mit Michael Traber (Beat Baumgartner). (Eds.), Communication and Democracy (pp. 19-31). Neue Wege, 91, 350353. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Traber, M. (1997). The press and people’s quest for freedom. Traber, M. (1993). Communication ethics. In G. Gerbner, H. Religion and Society, 44(1), 5-18. Mowlana, & K. Nordenstreng (Eds.), The global media 1998 debate: Its rise, fall and renewal. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Traber, M. (1998). Mutter Teresa–eine Heilige oder 1994 Medienikone. Wendekreis: Monatszeitschrift, 103(1), Traber, M. (1994). Dialog und Verkündigung: Thesen zum 18-19. Verhältnis von Theologie und Kommunikation in einer Traber, M. (1998). Tagebuch aus der Millionenstadt Bangalore. pluralistischen Welt. Communicatio Socialis, 27(3), Wendekreis: Monatszeitschrfit, 103(1), 22-23. 241260. 1999 Traber, M. (1994). Ethical principles of communication: A Traber, M. (1999). Foreword. In D. Emmanuel, Challenges Christian perspective. In R. L. Shayon, & N. Cox of Christian communication and broadcasting: (Eds.), Religion, television, and the information super- Monologue or dialogue? Basingstoke: Macmillan. highway: A search for a middle way, conference report Traber, M. (1999). Communication is inscribed in human (pp. 90-93). Philadelphia: Waymark Press. nature: A philosophical enquiry into the right to com- Traber, M. (1994). The marginalisation of Africa by the inter- municate. Idoc Internazionale, 30(1 & 2), 2-9. national media. Information Bulletin Cameco, 4, 58. Traber, M. (1999). Communication transforming conflict. Traber, M. (1994). The right to communicate and its impli- [no city, no publisher]. cations for Christian communication. Catalyst : Social Traber, M. (1999). Globalisierung: Zerstören globale Pastoral Magazine for Melanesia, 24(2), 65-73. Medien kulturelle Werte? Wendekreis: Monats- 1995 zeitschrift, 104(9), 12-13. Traber, M. (1995). Beyond patriotism: Escaping from an ide- Traber, M., et al. (1999). Towards equity in global communi- ological prison. Javnost / The Public (Ljubljana), 2(2), cation; MacBride update. Cresshill, N.J: Hampton 1926. Press.

26 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Traber, M. (1999). Tribüne: Vatikanische Attacke gegen Tony unusual for somebody who all his life was a member of de Mello. Wendekreis: Monatszeitschrift, 104(1), 31. the New Zealand Churches of Christ. Traber, M. (1999). What is at stake in the globalisation of the Sir Garfield spent his entire career trying to get mass media. Bangalore Theological Forum, 31(1), 1- 13. people with similar ideas to coalesce into groups. His Traber, M. (1999). Lob der Obern. Austausch: für religious group was particularly ecumenically minded Mitglieder, Assoziierte und Mitarbeitende der Region and was interested in education and “reasonable” (p. 2) Heimat (Immensee), (6), 90–92. Christianity. He worked to bring to fruition his notion 2000 Traber, M., & Christians, C. (Eds.). (2000). Communication of Zimbabwe, to which he had moved with his wife in ethics and universal values. Thousand Oaks, CA Sage 1934, as a multiracial society. His religious training (he Publications. trained in Dunedin, New Zealand) gave his speeches 2001 and rhetoric (with which this book particularly deals) Traber, M. (2001). Medien und Macht: Von der schwinden- what Casey describes as “its distinctive theology, style, den Macht der indischen Grossmütter. Wendekreis: and ways of thinking” (ibid.). He was an extraordinar- Monatszeitschrift, 106(10), 8-9. ily capable and skillful speaker and it was this that 2003 helped to develop his career in the public eye, which Traber, M. (Ed.). (2003). Globalisation, mass media and gave a platform for his support of human rights issues. Indian cultural values. Delhi: ISPCK. His brilliance as a speaker is frequently mentioned by Traber, M. (2003). Hallo Welt—hier Indien! Brief aud friend and foe alike. Indien. Wendekreis: Monatszeitschrift, 108(9), 38-39. Todd is described variously as “highly intelligent, Traber, M. (2003). [Book review: Becker, J.: Flimmerndes Asien, 2002]. Media Development, 3/2003. instantaneous, and humorous” (p. 3); “down to earth 2004 and appropriate for politics” (ibid.); as having a “sure, Traber, M. (2004). Asian “communication theology” and broad, well-informed humanitarian outlook and his pastoral communications. Media Development, 51(2), way of address is attractive” (ibid.); and as having a 45-48. “fine mind and cultured heart . . . he is a really great 2005 preacher” (ibid.). Traber, M. (Ed.). (2005). Communication in theological edu- For those of us who are British and old enough to cation: New directions. Delhi: ISPCK. remember the birth of Zimbabwe, one of the names that is remembered is Todd’s. He spoke extensively against Book Reviews the racist establishment and for majority black rule. Casey, Michael W. (2007). The Rhetoric of Sir This, of course, did not sit well with many of the other Garfield Todd: Christian Imagination and the Dream white people in the country. Amongst other things, he of African Democracy. (No. 2 in the Studies in Rhetoric took considerable risks which endangered his own safe- and Religion). Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, ty. In 1978, after arriving back from chairing an 2007. Pp. 436. ISBN: 1-932792-86-4 / 978-1-932792- Amnesty International Conference in Stockholm, he 86-7 (hbk.) $54.95. was arrested for “treason for helping the guerillas” (p. 4). When Zimbabwe became independent in 1980 he Since Zimbabwe has been in the headlines so became a senator in Robert Mugabe’s government, a much recently, this is a timely book, dealing as it does job he continued until his retirement in 1985. However, with Sir Garfield Todd (1909-2002), who was awarded after his retirement he became a critic of Mugabe’s a Knight Bachelor of the Empire (KBE) by Queen repressive regime. He became involved in the ZCC Elizabeth II in 1986, began his life as a missionary in (Zimbabwe Christian Council), an ecumenical human Africa in 1934, becoming, according to this book, the rights organization, writing many documents for them. first missionary to become a head of state when he For Casey, it was his his influence that moved other reli- became Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia (as gious leaders and assisted the churches to have a politi- Zimbabwe was then known) in 1953. Outspoken in his cal voice in the nascent country (p. 5). All did not end criticism of racist policies in the 1960s and ’70s, he well, however, despite his remaining optimistic of was later put in prison under the government of Ian reversing racism and fighting Mugabe’s oppression. Smith, eventually suffering detention for five and a half Days after he and his wife, Grace, were called “white years. In 1973, during his detention, he was awarded a heroes of Zimbabwe” (p. 121), the Mugabe govern- papal medal and sent a blessing by Pope Paul VI, ment, perhaps fearing his symbolic power as Casey sug-

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 27 gests (ibid.), stripped Todd and his wife (Todd was then Domke, David and Coe, Kevin. The God Strategy: 93) of their citizenship and he was unable to vote in the How Religion Became a Political Weapon in America. 2002 elections. Notwithstanding this slight to Todd, he New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. Pp. 231. continued his campaigning to the end of his life. ISBN 978-0-19-532641-3 (hbk.) $30.00. While the book up to page 123 discusses the life and times of Garfield Todd, the second section (pp. Grounded in political communication studies, this 127-346) reprints some of his sermons and speeches, work aims less to explain “how religion became a which had never previously been collected together. political weapon in America,” as its subtitle has it, than These are divided into three sections: sermon texts, to document or chart the rise of political religion, man- political texts, and prophetic texts. ifest in the political rhetoric and communication of the Dealing as the book does with a man who was in last 25-30 years. The basic explanation, not surprising- effect an incomer to Rhodesia, who could perhaps have ly, lies in gaining political advantage. The documenta- been looked upon as a colonizer of the country, this tion makes clear the steps and strategies the political book may be seen to be contentious by some. However, parties took. Either way, the book provides a valuable it does show that not all of those who went to the service and highlights an important change in U.S. pol- colonies were racist and only keen to take what they itics. Examining what they call the “God strategy,” the could from the country to which they went. authors contend that the strategy rests on communica- In the final speech of the book, a sermon that tion: “Central to this approach is a series of carefully reflected on 54 years of service to Rhodesia/Zimbabwe crafted public communications employed by politi- (pp. 343-346), the man’s belief and ability to forgive cians to connect with religiously inclined voters” (p. 7). those who had treated him so badly comes through. This forms the subject of the book—the political com- One paragraph I found particularly sad given the prob- munication allied with injecting religion more firmly lems that Zimbabwe has experienced, problems which into public life in the United States. it is to be hoped will soon be obviated. Todd said: Only in the last chapter—and probably appropri- The civil war was long and brutal and cost ately so, after the reader can weigh all the evidence— 40,000 lives. Dadaya Mission and Hokonui do the authors make clear their opposition to the “God Ranch were at times a center of warfare. But in strategy.” They argue that it results in “too intimate a 1979 peace was negotiated successfully at relationship between religion and politics” (p. 140), Lancaster House in London. Robert Mugabe something that runs against the spirit if not the fact of announced a policy of reconciliation, not a the U.S. Constitution’s separation of church and state Nuremberg trial, and we have experienced eight and something that can all too easily lead to religious years of healing instead of a period of strife, discrimination, and enthusiasm for ideological vengeance. (p. 346) positions. They fault the strategy not only for pushing With more men like Todd, the world would be a better against the First Amendment but also against Article place. One hopes that the healing, mentioned above, VI, section 3 of the Constitution, which bans any reli- will return to Zimbabwe and her people very soon. gious test as a qualification for public office (p. 141). This is a very well-researched book, with exten- In their reading, the religious rhetoric of the past 25 sive notes and bibliographical references. It would years has imposed a de facto religious test on the pres- appeal to students of African studies, of history, of the idency. What do they mean? colonial and the post-colonial eras, and of politics. The four main chapters of the book each examine Most of all it would be useful for anyone studying rhet- a religious move, particularly manifest in presidential oric from a truly Christian missionary who lived his rhetoric and communication: the role of the president faith even to the point of risking the lives of himself as head of a changing civil religion, the religious con- and his family. sciousness of the country, the practice of a kind of reli- —Maria Way gious “communion,” and morality politics. Each has its Communication and Media Research Institute specification in political communication. School of Media, Art and Design The authors lay out the general theme in Chapter University of Westminster, London 1, where they track voting statistics and voting blocs, particularly among religious groups, from 1972 to 2004. The period shows a shift in political identifica-

28 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS tion between the two main parties (Democrats and abortion, research on stem cells, the Equal Rights Republicans) and various religious groups. The most Amendment, and gay and lesbian relationships” (pp. dramatic lies in the ascendency of evangelical 101-102). Each of these functions as a kind of signal to Protestant voters. religious voters. The increased discussion of such Chapter 2, “Political Priests,” examines how issues begins, again, in 1980; of course, only at that presidents invoked God in presidential addresses time did many of them enter the national conscious- from Roosevelt (1932) through G. W. Bush (2004). ness, with Supreme Court decisions in the 1970s rais- The rate moves from 40-50% in the earlier years to ing their profiles. Here the authors include a discussion almost 100% of national addresses invoking God, of failed morality politics, when the Republican-domi- from President Reagan on. In addition to direct invo- nated Congress overreached itself to take over an “end- cations of God, presidential addresses also used faith of-life” issue: whether a family could allow a patient in language (similarly increasing) and religious terms a permanent vegetive state to die by removing artificial like “crusade’ and “mission.” The key turning point, supports to life. they find, came with the speeches of Ronald Reagan. As they survey the shifting of presidential rhetor- The use of religion, embraced more by Republicans, ical and communicative actions, Domke and Coe, iden- also benefits Democrats, as seen in the rhetoric of Bill tify what they call the “golden rule” of religion and Clinton. The authors find that those who hesitate to politics: speak in the tongues of religion do less well in the The God strategy requires walking a fine line. halls of power. Politicians must signal to devout religious In Chapter 3 the authors examine the linking of believers that they share and appreciate these cit- God and country. This goes back to a myth of America izens’ faith, but do so without pushing away reli- as a “city on a hill,” in the language of the 17th century gious moderates or secular-minded voters, the Puritan settlers. Presidents weave a political narrative of latter of whom are particularly important for a mythic and religious America and in recent years Democrats. Hence the golden rule of today’s almost never end a speech without inviting God to bless U.S. politics: exhibit faith, but don’t be too stri- America. Their religious imagery includes a very dent or nakedly partisan in doing so. (p. 130) American emphasis on liberty and freedom and has Tracing how that strategy has worked, they also warn tinges of Biblical language. Each recent president has— against it, as noted above. While religiosity may attract especially in times of crisis—taken on a prophetic man- voters, it should not become the sole measure of a can- tle and recalled America to its foundational images. didate. They claim that good political and religious But presidents do more than talk. Domke and Coe leaders avoid that and they appeal to three institutional argue that they also perform political communication groups in the United States to take the lead in preserv- that has religious overtones. Chapter 4 introduces some ing the separation of church and state: the news media, of these “acts of communion.” These include “symbol- the public education system, and clergy and religious ic pilgrimages to places of religious significance”—a organizations. church, a religious university, a shrine (p. 73); the per- In examining the “God strategy,” the authors formance of “foundational religious practices” like illustrate how it can fail, as the Republicans found out prayer and thanksgiving (p. 74); and the celebration of following their end-of-life intervention and their subse- religious rituals, most notably Christmas (p. 74). The quent losses in the 2006 mid-term elections. Too much chapter reviews each of these performances carefully, religious identification puts voters off, particularly tracking how presidential political communication has when the religious rhetoric fails in the face of practical changed over the years, to the point where any serious political problems or overreaches. candidate must engage such “communion rites” in The book ends with a look forward, from the order to have the electorate take him or her seriously. beginning of the 2008 presidential election season, at Finally, Chapter 5, the last substantive chapter, the adoption of religious rhetoric for centrist purposes. presents evidence of “morality politics.” By this the In the best sense of rhetoric—adapting the style to the authors mean the extent to which candidates and presi- audience—the young Senator Barack Obama, dents have embraced (or distanced themselves from) addressed an unfriendly audience at the evangelical key moral issues that resonate with the religious elec- Saddleback church (who regarded him as unacceptably torate. They consider five key issues: “school prayer, liberal and Democrat) in these words: “Giving all

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 29 praise and honor to God for bringing me here today, let all of other believers, either outside our own faith me send greetings from my church, Trinity United group or even within it. I have often heard scholars Church of Christ on 95th Street on the South Side of from the West talk at length about the problems that Chicago” (p. 153). The religious signal came across beset “religion” in a supposedly secular world, when clearly and the message that followed it looked for what they are really talking about is the problems in common ground on the less contentious but important their own region and their own faith. FABC called moral issue of treating AIDS. For Domke and Coe, that together a Roundtable of scholars in October, 2005, in speech redefines the political center. Bangkok at the Assumption University, and this vol- The God Strategy provides a fine example of ume holds at least some of the papers given there. The political communication analysis and an interesting Roundtable was a result of the earlier meeting (report- look at the changing landscape of American politics. ed in Interreligious Dialogue as Communication, While the authors report the strategy and follow its Volume 6 of this book series), which dealt with interre- growth, they do not venture to explain why it grew so ligious dialogue as communication. Eilers defines strong so quickly nor do they compare it with earlier, “social communication,” which is the phraseology of religiously-driven moments in American political life. the Roman Catholic Church of which he is a priest, as Clearly, politicians, especially on the right, found the “the communication of and in human society [that] is strategy effective. It certainly resonated with the per- part and parcel of every Religion” (p. 7); the intention sonal beliefs of some individual politicians, who used of the meeting reported in this volume was to consider it to greatest effect. But can’t we know more? Aware how “social communication” is seen and practiced in that this asks the authors to do something they did not Asia’s various religious traditions (ibid.). In addition, set out to do, one could note that this book might ben- the meeting considered communication’s role in a reli- efit from a more explicit contribution from political gion’s origins and in their further development and science and political theory. The examination of politi- looked at the similarities between traditions from vari- cal communication, excellently done here, leaves too ous religions which might aid interreligious under- many questions open to debate. standing. Are there correlations in their uses of com- The book, with detailed statistics on presidential munication and how traditions have reacted to the rhetoric and communication, features extensive end- world in which we live, which is so often seen as being notes, which include references. There is no separate determined by modern technology? bibliography but there is an index. It is interesting that Eilers points to the paucity of —Paul A. Soukup, S.J. scholars who are interested in such matters and who are Santa Clara University qualified to speak about them and he thus explains the lack of papers on certain faiths. In putting together this Eilers, Franz-Josef, SVD. (Ed.). Communication in book he intends to draw the attention of communica- Religious Traditions of Asia. (Volume 7 in the FABC- tion scholars and theologians to communication as part OSC Book Series). Manila: Logos (Divine Word) of bodily and spiritual life, which he considers essen- Publications, Inc, 2006. ISBN: 978-971-510-194-3-9 tial to religious thought and practice (and I would agree [For ordering information, see http://www.logospubli- with him) and not just become fixated on the technolo- cations.com/] gy that is used, as scholars so often are. It is for this rea- son that the group uses the term “social communica- This book comes from the Federation of Asian tion” which covers all of humanity’s social and com- Bishops’ Councils, an organization with 14 participat- municative practices. He sees this book as one of the ing Councils who, between them, cover 17 countries “first seeds” (p. 8) which he hopes will enable the and 11 ecclesiastical territories in Asia. The OSC (the growth of a more researched and consolidated field that Office of Social Communication), one of its offices, will serve peace, harmony, and communion in a conti- has major function to co-ordinate and help the planning nent that is portrayed often as being divided. He hopes of communication pursuits that are works of the FABC this book will encourage peace and harmony there. One both inside and outside the organization. would hope that Western scholars would also take on It is often forgotten that all of the major religions board these fine sentiments as religions are often seen come from Asia and, too often, as believers we think as the tools of division, rather than as agents for social only of OUR church or religious group, not thinking at cohesion. I am glad to see that here the emphasis is on

30 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS similarity rather than difference—something that is should underline the commonalities, rather than sorely needed in today’s world. the differences in religious experience. This volume has sections on Buddhism, • More work should be directed to research and Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and communication education (by which I suppose Confucianism and a final statement or round-up of the they mean media and interpersonal education) in thoughts expressed in these papers. I was particularly the Asian institutes of academia (and elsewhere struck by Edwin Ariyadasa’s comment that we, as com- too, I would suggest) so that there is a greater municators, must have “an adequate awareness of the awareness of the pitfalls and benefits of the “new ‘background of reference’ of the target audience.” This cultures, new languages, and new psychology” is such a simple idea and, seemingly, so obvious, but is (Redemptoris Mission, 37c) of the new culture of one that is so often forgotten by those who try to get a communication. religious message across to an audience. • Governments and NGOs in Asia (and, again, else- The conclusions of the group were that social where) should facilitate efforts for peace “in and communication has been part of all religions from their among Asian religions” (p. 191) to demonstrate beginning and communication stands at the start of the values of social communication, such as accu- religious experience. In their understanding, social racy and impartiality, and to encourage harmony communication is not only mass media in all of their and tolerance and an understanding between reli- forms, but also in communication between people(s). gious groups. All major religions in Asia, amongst other tradi- • The group intends to request the UN Secretary tions of social communication General to set up an “Interreligious Council” at the • have an oral tradition, story-telling, teaching, and United Nations to promote harmony between reli- preaching; gions. This Council should have national groups • use symbols and icons in addition to artistic in Asia to assist in this interreligious dialogue. expression such as art, music, dance, drama, and • They remind the communicators in religions of their theater; and responsibilities in fostering understanding and dia- • use languages as important vehicles for religious logue between religions and request the training of message—by which I am supposing they intend media professionals in the effective reporting of specifically religious languages, Hebrew for the news and events. They are particularly concerned Jewish faith, Sanskrit for the Indian faiths, per- with the media’s role as a peace builder. haps even Latin in Christianity. As I mentioned earlier in this review, we too often Religious communication needs equality between look at religious phenomena only from our own view- communicator and audience; the message is, or should point. This book has also done this, even if its viewpoint be, shared rather than “sold.” The message should be is the vast continent of Asia. Many of the recommenda- about participation and sharing rather than about infor- tions and thoughts expressed here apply equally to coun- mation spreading. Religious communication is based tries outside that continent. It is sad that we can talk on spirituality which grows from the experience and about the dialogues between religions, yet there are so inspiration of the holy in silence. It should have a lib- often arguments even within confessions: between erating function in people’s lives and experiences. Shiites and Sunni, between Protestant and Catholic, for Communication in religion should not only rely instance. As well as looking outside to other faiths, we on technical means, but also on reflection and action. It might also consider the problems within our own faiths. should, however, use the modern means at its disposal. —Maria Way Communication in religion works on two levels: Communication and Media Research Institute internal (to those within a belief system) and external School of Media, Art and Design (to those outside the belief and to the greater world) University of Westminster, London (pp. 189-190). The authors recommend (pp. 190-191) that: Hansen, Kathleen A. and Nora Paul. Behind the • Religious leaders, activists, scholars, and artists Message: Information Strategies for Communicators. should be involved in inclusive dialogues that will Boston: Allyn & Bacon [Pearson], 2004. Pp. 322. lead to greater interreligious understanding. These ISBN: 0-205-38680-6 (pb.) $73.20.

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 31 This is a book that follows from earlier books by skills so necessary for journalists today. Major areas the same team (here Jean Ward is replaced by Nora covered are evaluation of statistical claims and survey Paul) and continues to develop material on the means data, and strategies for evaluating information from and methods of information gathering. Having tried online sources. How to synthesize and make clear sense these exercises for students in the University of out of all the chaos that news is, is the focus of the next Minnesota, the authors make their suggestions, quite chapter. The final chapter reviews the concept of social confidently to the journalism fraternity in the world. responsibility that needs to be the major criteria in news This new title reflects a subtle but important shift in gathering and analysis. approach, as it contains not just search strategies, but There is also a very valuable appendix—a case places the overall model into an information strategy study of an information strategy process from begin- framework and introduces along with various methods of ning to end. This reproduces the entire text of a major information gathering, the processes of message analysis page-one news story, identifies the sources of informa- and information selection, evaluation, and synthesis. tion that contributed to every paragraph, and suggests The book argues in a quite subtle manner that stu- several access points a reporter might use to locate dents and professional communicators in various those sources. media industries may use this material in many ways, The book also offers a “Topical Tool Index” and but a common information strategy process allows all a “General Index” which allow communicators to use of them to proceed securely in developing an informa- the book as a reference guide There are also extensive tion gathering and evaluation strategy. side bars and examples throughout each chapter, all For example, the authors argue that news reporters, useful tools for journalists . advertising copy writers, and public relations specialists To conclude, the areas covered in the book are the may require the same census figures on the percentage results of the authors’ experiments with students of of American population over 50 years of age. The sub- journalism. As these are suggestions made after having sequent use of this information by these media profes- been tried with students, as we say in all honesty that sionals will vary, but the process for getting the infor- “there is many a slip between the cup and the lip,” the mation is the same. This same model applies to the vision and ideals presented here are not much put into search process for academic and scholarly work. practice in the world of journalism. Somewhere down These books have affected the quality of curricu- the line, journalists living in a world which seems lum and teaching methods employed by schools of increasingly obsessed with instant gratification, the journalism worldwide. Hence these books are valuable lure of gain, the pursuit of profit and the overriding in the areas of curriculum innovation. importance of possessions, either ignore or do not have The book begins by introducing the new informa- the capacity or the political will, to put into action these tion universe that communicators face today, and tries ideals presented in this book. to help readers understand the types of messages and —Jacob Srampickal S.J., message delivery formats that affect information strate- Gregorian University, Rome gies. Chapter 2 covers the information strategy model that forms the conceptual framework for the book as a Hill, John and Pamela Church Gibson (Eds.). whole. This model reflects the new focus on informa- American Cinema and Hollywood: Critical tion strategies rather than simply on the search process. Approaches Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Pp The third chapter speaks of the importance of analyzing vii, 160. ISBN 0-19-874281-9 (pb.) $32.95. both the context and content of the messages. Chapter 4 analyzes four sources of information for communica- John Hill and Pamela Church Gibson have suc- tors: informal, institutional, scholarly, and journalistic. ceeded in compiling a series of critical essays by various In the next chapter we have three major methods of film scholars regarding the historical, social, and eco- gathering information: monitoring, searching, and inter- nomic structure of the mainstream American Hollywood viewing. The library as a crucial source of information film industry. The text is a thorough study that empha- gathering gets coverage in the Chapter 6. Chapters 7 to sizes past and present critical views of the evolution of 10 study in depth the four sources of information with American cinema. As long as the reader has an advanced suitable case studies. Chapter 11 introduces the impor- understanding of the historical, social, and theoretical tance of critical thinking and information education factors taking place in society, from the beginnings of

32 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS the industry to the present day, the text is a rich and downfall of the Hollywood studio system. Gomery also informative one that reveals how the critical looks at the goes into Hollywood’s efforts to challenge television’s industry throughout the years have come about. via the blockbuster films of the mid- and Chapters 1–4 center upon the historical, techno- late-1970s to the present day, coupled with increased logical, structural, and storytelling elements of the use of computer technology for special effects. mainstream Hollywood film industry. John Belton Tom Gunning explores what film historian Noel begins with a thorough explanation of the American Burch terms the “exteriority” of early American film. film industry from its beginnings in the late 1880s and He explains how Burch explains this exteriority of early 1890s. He points to the fact that the first histori- early cinema being a “primitive mode of representa- cal accounts were written by and for the film industry. tion” that addressed visual material identified by the He then goes on to state that this trend of industry par- working class, to an institutional mode of representa- ticipants writing these histories would continue up until tion that emphasized bourgeois values once the the 1970s. Belton’s indicating that the differences of Hollywood studio system became firmly entrenched. opinions between revisionist and ‘scientific’ scholars For example, he, like Belton, discuses the historians’ regarding issues (such as the social classes of movie- differences of opinion as to whether working class or goers in the development of the early film industry) middle-class patronage was more responsible for the makes this chapter come alive. growth of the film industry. Gunning also stresses the In his discussion of history and cinema technolo- fact that only one study has looked into African- gy, Duncan Petrie immediately references French film American patronage of the early film industry, indicat- theorist Andre Bazin. Petrie emphasizes how Bazin ing that not enough has been done to look at issues of wrote about “the myth of total cinema” in which film- race and ethnicity in patronage, as well as class makers use technology to reconstruct reality as they Chapters 5–8 concentrate on classical Hollywood know it. Petrie emphasizes how film technologies such film and issues of genre and authorship. E. Ann as CinemaScope, sound, and lens technology (dis- Kaplan’s look at classical Hollywood film and melo- played by the use of deep focus) were technologies drama first traces the genre’s developmental roots from designed to forward this striving towards this re-creat- ancient Greece, to its late-18th century written form. ing of individual reality. Petrie emphasizes, through Kaplan then goes from the revelation of this founda- historians such as Douglas Gomery and Jean-Louis tional element to the theorizing of classical cinema in Comolli, the belief that cinema technology is preceded the 1950s by Andre Bazin and Christian Metz. Kaplan by a social motive: the desire to communicate a partic- also explains how Metz emphasized a “film language” ular ideology. Occurrences such as the development of that spoke to audiences psychologically though the telephone technology by AT&T, and radio technology visual and aural signs and sign systems. At the same by RCA, as well as the coming of sound systems such time, Kaplan shows how Bordwell, Staiger, and as Vitaphone, were merely technological tools for Thompson see the melodrama as a more cognitive social construction. event in which the characters are involved in problem Douglas Gomery focuses on evolution of the solving, with the result of their success, or lack there- mainstream Hollywood film industry from its begin- of. Further, Kaplan states how Laura Mulvey’s key ning to its modern state. Gomery breaks down the key look into Hollywood melodrama from a feminist per- foundational structural elements that forged the success spective indicates that the melodrama in this environ- of Hollywood. He begins with the explanation of how ment is one in which men, and not women, construct Hollywood came to be, followed by the popular meaning through storytelling. demand by audiences resulting in the industry’s con- Richard Maltby and Rick Altman explore narra- version to sound in the late 1920’s. What makes his tive structure in Michael Curtiz’ Casablanca (1942). study so effective is the emphasis on how this period of Here, Maltby and Altman state how the construction of time results in Hollywood’s apex of power via vertical the film’s characters, the pacing of the story, the scene- integration; the control of production, distribution, and to-scene transitions, as well as the suspense and audi- exhibition of their films. In addition, the dismantling of ence expectations propel the story, regarding its effec- this system via the Paramount Decrees anti-trust pro- tiveness as a melodrama. Maltby and Altman are in ceedings by the U.S. government in 1948, coupled with agreement that the audience’s caring about and being what would be television’s popularity, shows the concerned with the characters in the film, primarily

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 33 Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman, coupled with “untamed” and place them in an environment where the surrounding topical elements such as the dramatic they make a decision to become “responsible and civi- tension of war, the act of human beings finding them- lized.” Wollen refers to his film My Darling selves in a stressful environment, and the constant ele- Clementine as a key example, focusing on Henry ment of danger and distrust are all key melodramatic Fonda’s portrayal of Wyatt Earp, as he “puts down elements that successfully drove the narrative from one roots” and becomes a responsible, married law- point to another, resulting in a still constant fascination enforcer in Tombstone, Arizona. with the film’s structure. Tom Ryall’s exploration of genre and Hollywood Peter Kramer’s look at Post-classical Hollywood explores the beginnings of genre with the popularity of is a fascinating study into the Hollywood film indus- the western film genre in American silent and sound try’s chosen direction after the studio system era that cinema. At the same time, Ryall states that there are crit- ended in the late 1940s. Kramer states how American ics and historians who see all genre films as separate cinema went in a direction of focusing on films such as individual entities: A western is a western, a gangster Gentlemen’s Agreement (1947) and Pinky (1949) that film is a gangster film, and a musical is a musical, for attempted to tackle issues of racism and anti-Semitism. example. At the same time, Ryall states that another Next, Kramer centers upon a key historical point by group of critics and historians see the lines of genre stating the fact the mid-1950s to the late 1960s and blur. He uses the example of Seven Brides for Seven beyond have resulted in a type of Hollywood new wave Brothers (1954) as a look into the western-musical, in which directors with television backgrounds con- while also stating that certain genres can blur due to tributed to American mainstream cinema’s filmic lan- their subject matter and their settings, such as the gang- guage. Films such as Marty (1955) and Bonnie and ster genre occurring in a “western setting” such as the Clyde (1967) are key examples referenced in the chap- film High Sierra (1941). The chapter’s conclusion con- ter. Kramer adds to this emphasis of the shift in centrates on Linda William’s look at “body genre” in American cinema by stating that critics such as Pauline the form of genre films that have recurring themes that Kael noted that American cinema went in a new direc- emphasize issues of gender construction in melodramas tion that was influenced by European new wave cine- with film noir elements such as Mildred Pierce (1945). ma of the 1950s and 1960s. Chapters 9–12 look at Hollywood’s star system, Stephen Crofts’ look at authorship in Hollywood while also observing Hollywood’s impact on society. begins with Bazin’s foundational look at the subject by Jeremy Butler cites actresses such as Sarah Bernhart of stating stages of authorship headed first by early film- the silent era; the “filmed theatre” of the time resulted makers such as D.W. Griffith and Charlie Chaplin, then in this star vehicle that emphasized her presence as the concentrating on filmmakers such as King Vidor and filmic icon that drove the visuals. Butler looks at fem- Orson Welles; a look into authorship from 1920 to the inist theory to emphasizes that from the early 1900s to early 1940s. He then focuses on a post-World War II the present day, the star system has been composed of influential authorship of filmmakers such as Fritz an alluring image that draws in spectators based on Lang, Douglas Sirk, and Nicholas Ray. At the same their perception of what a star is, and what they repre- time, Croft takes the time to analyze Andre Bazin’s sent. Butler then emphasizes the feminist viewpoint of look at authorship in John Ford’s Young Mr. Lincoln this system, pointing to past and present female (1938). He concludes by stating that when looking at actresses and their images’ presentation as an illusion the historical analysis of film authorship, the trend, of what society expects them to be. from the 1970s to the present day, has been just as com- Douglass Kellner, Albert Moran, Robert Ray and mercial as it has been creative. He points to filmmak- Toby Miller focus on the Hollywood system’s effect on ers such as Stephen Spielberg, George Lucas, and the United States and the world. This final critical look Frances Ford Coppola, who have achieved box office at the Hollywood system is a strong finishing statement success through the blockbuster film, and still main- to the work in that it emphasizes how this structure and taining their own individual style of filmmaking that its ideology culturally-produced by American cinema results in their being identified as authors of their work. eventually gains ongoing acceptance in many, if not The discussion of authorship continues with Peter most of the areas where it is placed. Although Kellner Wollen’s look at John Ford’s authorship. Here, Wollen does reference the Cahiers Du Cinema critics (among looks at Ford’s trend to take male characters that are whom Andre Bazin played a major role) in studying

34 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS American cinema, he emphasizes other key critics and theories nearby, that is okay; invest in one, and have it historians who, during and after the 1960s, looked at standing by as you read. American cinema’s role in forwarding dominant ide- —Patrick Stearns ologies and viewpoints of American society of the Morgan State University time. Kellner emphasizes the work of John Howard Lawson, Richard Averson, and Peter Biskind, who, Negus, Keith and Michael Pickering. Creativity, among others, discussed the presence of theory and Communication, and Cultural Value. London and social commentary in American cinema. Kellner states Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2004. Pp. x, 177. the role of genre as a promoter and contesting element ISBN 9780761970750 (hbk.) $125.00; 978076197- of society that has been present in American cinema; an 0767 (pb.) $51.95. element that draws spectatorship from a multiplicity of people in American society, regardless of ideology or This book is a reaction to a sociology of art that has political affiliation. been more sociology and a lot less art over recent In his look at American film policies, Moran decades. It is clear that there is a dialectic at work in the looks at the 1922 establishment of the Hays office to book from the beginning that wishes to argue for a self-police the industry, regarding censorship, as well both/and approach rather than an either/or in assessing as societal and organizational forces outside the the place of artistic creativity in current society. In a Hollywood system that resulted in its policy changes. number of places throughout the book, the authors make Moran points to the fact that little has taken place clear that they are in agreement with a cultural studies regarding the study of the fact that government and approach that looks at the social and economic structures social entities have influenced what the Hollywood that influence the creative product, but they also wish to cinema producers will and will not create. Moran also recognize that the message communicated in each work states that although the Hollywood system has always is an act of creation. They end their brief but dense book been privately owned, it has, especially from the 1930s with this summary statement: “It is one thing to recog- to present day been influenced by historical political nize that the meanings of artistic and cultural products occurrences, and has continued to adapt, when society are related to particular social, political, and historical has expected it to change when needed. conditions and circumstances, but quite another to assert Miller concentrates on looking at cultural imperi- that they are reducible to such conditions and circum- alism, regarding Hollywood’s relation to and influence stances” (p. 160). In short, Negus and Pickering wish to on the world. Miller shows, through examples, a type save the creative message of art from the sometime of accepted ethnocentrism that Hollywood exports to reductive analysis to which various communication the world; accepted, for the most part by foreign coun- studies have subjected the creative arts in recent tries that either admire or tolerate the imagery due to decades. popular demand of the product in their own country. This brief book consists of a survey of the creative Miller states that the self-censorship that was in full process and its meanings for people across historic peri- swing in the 1930s cleaned up and corrected enough ods. It is both conceptual and philosophical in its analy- ethnic stereotypes that it was enough for successful sis of terms like “creativity,” “genre and gender in the overseas marketing of their product. At the same time, arts,” “tradition,” and “genius.” It tackles contested Miller’s emphasis that some countries such as Japan issues of creativity in the culture industries from were threatened with the prevalence of stereotypes if Frankfurt School writers to those of current cultural they did not accept importation of Hollywood cinema studies and political economy approaches. They define into their countries. creativity as the communication of experience in an early In conclusion, American Cinema and Hollywood: chapter, thus tying the book into communication studies Critical Approaches succeeds in being an effective crit- as well as sociology and art theory. They argue the need ical study of the Hollywood motion picture industry. for the emphasis on creativity for three reasons: Yet, in order to full appreciate its historical direction, First, experience only acquires meaning and res- those who are familiar with an understanding of the onance once it has been creatively worked on, theories of authorship, revisionism, feminism, and shared, and exchanged. Second, cultural and semiotics will more fully understand and appreciate its artistic products are regularly valued for what purpose and goals. For those who need a dictionary of they say to people about experience and for the

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 35 creative quality with which they say it. Third, an They make the point early in the chapter that tradition emphasis on experience can help counter the itself is redefined by modern practice. Following this, tendencies to relegate artistic practices to the sta- the chapter on Division takes up the issue of how gen- tus of industrial manufacture, to equate aesthetic der, race, class, and other social divides make it diffi- value and political worth, to advance authorita- cult for certain groups to bridge the gap of achieving tive readings of isolate texts, and to abstract the recognition for their creativity. This chapter seems less affective dimension of creativity into apparently satisfactory in that having made the well known argu- objective sociological structures. (p. 24) ments for how these divisions have hindered creative It is clear, then, early on that this book will be an careers, the authors make the counterargument for the attempt to adjust cultural analysis to include the cre- exception of creative achievement of these groups with ative content of the message within the constraints and few convincing examples. structures of creation. The final chapter on Genius summarizes the main In their chapter on “Industry,” Negus and arguments of the book by asking how exceptionality in Pickering argue for a more nuanced approach to cre- artistic creation can be accounted for. The authors illus- ativity and structure than is typical among current crit- trate by citing Tia DeNora’s book on Beethoven. ical writers (whom they do not quote by name). They DeNora argues that the title of genius given to the com- argue that focusing on creative forces “as constantly poser is not a recognition of some natural hierarchy of endangered or shackled by institutional, bureaucratic, talent but is “an ideological category about fame and and economic monoliths, the resulting picture is crude how it is promoted by social and political forces in soci- and simplistic” (p. 58). This is not to say that these ety” (p. 147). To counter this, they cite a critic of forces do not constrain creativity but that they also in DeNora who argues that “if genius is explained solely some ways promote it. This, too, goes for the important as constructed reputation, anyone can become a genius structure of copyright, which for the authors is both if they’re given the right connections and requisite pub- constraint and reward for authors, a contested area of licity” (p. 149). The authors state flatly, in contrast to production and consumption that is again a both/and their usual nuanced argument (and perhaps revealing kind of argument rather than one that only stresses the their deep frustration with current treatment of cultural limitations of structure on creativity. creativity), that “ . . . DeNora’s denial of the phenome- Chapters on “Convention,” “Tradition,” and non of genius has become orthodox in cultural studies “Division” deal with a continuing analysis of creativi- and the sociology of art and music” (p. 148). The theme ty within structure. Convention seems destined to deal of this book argues for nuance and balance in treating with genre, but typical to the surprises of this book, it the creative work of artists and its communication to rather takes a close look at two sociologists of art, audiences. As a general thesis it seems a bland state- Howard Becker and Pierre Bourdieu. Both had their ment, but it conceals the weight of decades of writing. theories of how artists achieve acclaim, Becker arguing It obviously is not the last word in this discourse. (There for a closed art world that collaborates to promote an is an extensive bibliography and a detailed index.) agreed-upon set of practices that help promote those —Emile McAnany who are a part of this world; Bourdieu arguing more for Santa Clara University competition among those aspiring for power in legiti- Reference mating their place in the world of art. In the end, Negus DeNora, T. (1995). Beethoven and the construction of and Pickering argue that they have deliberately moved genius: Musical politics in Vienna, 1792-1803. away from the question of how much influence the Berkeley: University of California Press. structures of production have on creativity and rather have concentrated on how creativity gains audiences Rockwell, Rick and Noreen Janus. Media Power in through cooperation or competition. The chapter on Central America. Urbana/Chicago: University of Tradition is an argument against the many writers who Illinois Press, 2003. Pp. 276. ISBN 0-252-02802-3. define modernity as the antithesis of tradition. The (hbk.) $34.95. authors disagree and argue that “ . . . we can only be original on the basis of some existing tradition, and that In the scheme of things during the past decade, an abiding value of tradition lies in providing opportu- Latin America has tended to be overlooked by the nities for its extension and transformation” (p. 101). English, and especially American, political speaking world. Central America is even further down the hier-

36 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS archy. The six countries that make up the land bridge the dilemma on state power and the media starkly in between the North and South American continents are Chapter 7: “In fact, the media in Central America pos- forgotten in the communication literature as well. That sess little if any independence from the state” (p. 127). is one of the reasons that this history of media in these The solution is also succinct but somehow left unre- countries is so welcome in English, and the back- solved. Speaking of how media can escape state con- ground of the two authors makes us confident that the trol, they argue that “then they [the media] must find study is grounded in long experience with both the independent power in the marketplace” (p. 127). The media and the cultures. The authors lay out their thesis rest of the chapter and even later chapters do not give a early in the book: “One of our central tenets will be that clear answer to this admonition of finding independ- in the Central American context, lacking strong histor- ence. The problem with this chapter, however, is not ical roots in democracy, media systems tend to support the assertion that the state continues to try to control and reflect a country’s oligarchic tendencies. the media and censor their stories but the manner of Furthermore, the owners of the media systems tend to trying to flesh this out by further examples of this gen- protect their market interests in a nation, which usually eralization. By taking examples from each country, the means providing support for an institutionalized hierar- book falls back into the repetition of names and chy or oligarchy rather than opening the market to instances without being able to draw out a more gener- nation building, democratic forces, or the true market- al conclusion other than the one baldly stated at the place of ideas” (p. 4). Although the field research of the beginning of the chapter. book is a decade old, much in the book still remains Chapter 8 on threats of journalism makes clear the relevant historically and politically. As the tenet above analytical principle that is driving the book. The authors suggests, the more things change, the more they remain say about their methodology: “Because each country is the same. But the book also documents slow progress unique, we examine the trends in each one . . . although for democracy and media in spots and is buoyed by a perhaps limited [these cases] prove illuminating. . . . firm hope for the outcome of such struggles. Trends and commonalities certainly exist, but it would After the brief introductory chapter, the first six be a mistake to lump together all these nations without chapters deal with individual media histories of first examining the specifics of each” (p. 166). This Honduras, El Salvador, Panama, Nicaragua, Costa illustrates the challenge of the book. The six histories Rica, and Guatemala. The histories of all of the six are seen as individual nations with separate histories— countries are both unique but similar as they share both and indeed they are—but to make history understand- a culture and a social-political history that suggests a able, there has to be some overarching scaffolding that strong regional similarity. Indeed, as the authors note at helps the reader make sense of the detail. This chapter the beginning and end of this book, there is a depress- illustrates the dilemma of trying to give six national his- ingly similar story of government suppression, corrup- tories and keeping the storyline clear. Needless to say, tion, and even violence in all of the six national histo- the many stories of threat of violence and intimidation ries. Because six separate accounts are given in some to journalists is well illustrated, but perhaps the chapter depth of detail, the reader may be confused by all of the could have dwelt on a few examples rather than moving names of media owners, presidents, editors/reporters, through all six countries. and military factions that cover the century or more of The penultimate chapter on corruption was less media histories. The good part of these stories is that about government or military corruption and more the patterns are quite similar: frequent direct pressure about the issues of journalists’ poor pay scales and their by political parties and presidents on the media owners; need to supplement their salaries by taking payola for both institutions of politics and media mostly in the placing or not placing stories for clients; in short, act- hands of a limited number of elite families in small ing more as PR functionaries than reporters. The final countries; and occasional small victories by crusading chapter is a kind of summary that still gives more detail journalists. But the details are not the gist of the book. than summary. The reference to the civil wars that The last four chapters of the book try to general- affected El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, and even ize the myriad details into some more general areas of Costa Rica in the 1980s and early 1990s is a historical concern: State Power (Ch. 7), Threats of Journalism framework that prevails in the book, but little explana- (Ch. 8), Corruption and Corporate Censorship (Ch. 9), tion is given to the reader about the conflict itself. Still, and a historical summary (Ch. 10). The authors define the authors do make a stab at summarizing, providing

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 37 10 factors that have affected the media’s development not be separated in such a way as to put on the one side in the last several decades (p. 216), but these are listed theological truth as the contents and on the other the without much follow-up generalizing or concluding. process as method” (p. 145). The book is rich in detail but refuses to give a broader A group discussion method lies at the heart of interpretation. For some readers this may be seen as a this project. Though they come to it only late in the refusal to distort a complex story; for others, it may book (in Chapter 6), their reliance on Cohn’s TCI leave them with too many details to make much sense forms the background and backbone of their work. from the stories of six individual countries. Whatever That chapter narrates how they have come to Cohn’s the individual judgment, readers will find a rich histo- work and provides an introduction to the method ry of news media trying to bring citizens information to (something already described in COMMUNICATION help them build democratic societies in Central RESEARCH TRENDS, in a review of Communicative America. The book is scholarly with detailed notes for Theology: Reflections on the Cultue of our Practice of each chapter, an extensive bibliography (though sur- Theology by the Communicative Theology Research prisingly few works in Spanish), and a detailed index. Group [Vienna: LIT Verlag, 2007], vol. 27, no. 3, pp. —Emile McAnany 27-29). This book devotes less time and space to Santa Clara University method and more to the development of the theology, showing how communicative theology fits into the Scharer, Matthias and Bernd Jochen Hilberath. The ongoing theological project of the church—at every Practice of Communicative Theology: An Introduction level, but especially at that of the professional theolo- to a New Theological Culture (Trans. C. Mocanu, A. K. gian and that of the local parish. Both levels benefit Schaeffer-Dürlinger, & T. Riplinger). New York: The from the group approach. Crossroad Publishing Company, 2008. Pp. vii, 194. After an introduction by Professor Brad Hinze of ISBN-13 978-0-8245-2560-6; ISBN-10 0-8245-2560-4 Fordham University (who has done more than anyone (pb.) $29.95 else to bring the communicative theology approach to the United States), the book develops a communicative With this translation and partial revision of their theology. Chapter 1 situates it by acknowledging theol- Kommunikative Theologie, Scharer and Hilberath ogy as process-oriented. The current theological introduce their work on “communicative theology” to anthropology approaches make communication a valid an English-speaking audience. Fitting into the larger point of entry; the theology (or “speaking of God”) in discussions of communication and theology, this work Christianity always speaks of human beings too (p. 19). presents the systematic ideas emerging from and with a Examining this speaking more closely reveals both methodology grounded in Ruth Cohn’s Theme- God and humanity. This insight also borrows from Centered Interaction (TCI). For them, the object of communication studies (particularly in the media ecol- communicative theology ogy approach) that “form, medium, and content of is a critical reflection on communication against communication must not be separated” (p. 21). Scharer the background of religious and ideological con- and Hilberath develop this dual focused approach in flicts in a knowledge-based society. . . . terms of the dynamics of theology and the hermeneu- Communicative theology is an “anthropological- tics of contemporary thinking. ly oriented theology”: to its object belongs, on Chapter 2 examines human beings as defined by the one hand, the encounter with the communica- communication. The chapter briefly reviews some tive God of revelation in God’s de facto commu- basic communication theories, highlighting the impor- nication in history, that is, the tradition . . . and, tance of dialogue and dialogic communication. This on the other hand, the encounter with unstable chapter, unfortunately, shows real weaknesses in its and broken human experiences of communica- understanding of communication; at the same time, the tion in groups, in parishes, in the church, and in authors write as theologians, not communication schol- society. (p. 139) ars. (One can also note a similar weakness—from a “Communicative” in the title refers to both the content communication studies standpoint—in the TCI of the theological reflection and the method for doing method, as it has its origins in psychology and psycho- such theology. “However much theology and TCI analytic methods. To their credit, Scharer and Hilberath remain unmixed in communicative theology, they must make no claims beyond their method.)

38 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Chapter 3 begins the theological analysis proper, and the church provide an authentication for the method. looking first to contemporary society and its rootedness Finally, Chapter 8 provides a kind of transcript of a TCI in communication. They identify various splits parish group studying the Nicene Creed. between speaking of God and a somewhat godless The overall book presents an important intro- world of communication. duction to this creative approach of communication The image of the global village with its bound- and theology. Because any kind of ongoing reflection less communication takes on particularly reli- on communication and theology shows the marks of gious connotations when the new media and the its youth, Scharer and Hilberath make few connec- global market invade those areas of human life tions to other approaches in this area. Hinze’s intro- where faith and religion traditionally held sway. duction mentions several Congresses and one hopes These are the areas of meaning and orientation, that these will encourage more contact among the of history and the future, of right action and small but growing practitioners who wish to bridge enduring happiness. Stopping to think about communication and theology. This book should prove modern communication and its religious and quite valuable to them. ideological implications makes one aware of the The endnotes to each chapter give bibliographic degree to which the “little gods” of boundless references (mostly to German-language materials); the knowledge, global communicative ability, and volume contains a brief subject index. never-ending consumption are replacing the hope for the coming of the “great God.” (p. 42) —Paul A. Soukup, S.J. Santa Clara University This poses a challenge for theology and for the church, a challenge that both formal theology and pastoral Strate, Lance and Edward Wachtel (Eds.). The (parish-based) theology must address. Scharer and Legacy of McLuhan. Cresskill: Hampton Press, 2005. Hilberath carefully identify this current situation, not Pp. x, 373. ISBN: 1-57273-530-9 (hbk.) $82.50, 1- only in the terms presented here, but also in terms of 57273-531-7 (pb.) $34.50. science, diversity, community, and power. Chapters 4 and 5 develop the theme in terms of In this legendary volume of essays, McLuhan’s revelation and church community. Both take the road of rich and controversial legacy is explored, critiqued, and systematic theology, but approach the same end by dif- assessed by 29 leading experts from areas as diverse as ferent tracks. Chapter 4 examines the God of Christian communication studies, literature, art, philosophy, the- revelation and sees God as a “communicative Being” (p. ology, and computer science. This anthology of essays 64). It reminds the reader of Christian belief about the originates from the “Legacy of McLuhan Symposium” Trinity, about God’s self-communication, about revela- held at Fordham University, New York on March 27- tion, and about tradition. Chapter 5 develops a model of 28, 1998, but not its proceedings. Although the focus of church communication as “communio.” Here they turn most essays is on McLuhan’s content, the discussions to particular models of communication and explore what really highlight his contributions to the future. communion might mean for the church. This collection of essays is organized into six sec- As noted above, in Chapter 6 Scharer and tions. The first section, “McLuhan’s Message” pro- Hilberath give a detailed introduction to and explana- vides a general discussion of his work, while the final tion of the TCI method. This systematic presentation section “Extensions,” applies McLuhanian categories takes the reader through the various axioms and prac- like “hot and cool,” “medium is the message,” “global tices, through common misunderstandings and dangers. village,” to the new media such as the Internet, digital While thorough, the chapter remains a bit frustrating, as media, and hypertext. Section 4 “Letters and Law” the reader gets the impression that one learns TCI better explores the literary, humanistic, and Christian connec- through apprenticeship than through reading. tions of his ideas. Chapter 7 spells out the application of TCI to the- Section 3, “Art and Perception,” has an inspiring ology, showing how it can balance the faith tradition and exploration by E. Wachtel on the role of perception. the “speaking of God” in the local groups practicing Other essays, however, do not reach “the heart of TCI. Each aspect of TCI—the I (subjective concern), the McLuhan” as claimed. Section 5, “Communication and We (the group), the It (the content), and the Globe (the Culture,” “covers the sector of scholarship that context)—finds a place in theology; in turn, theology McLuhan is best known for” (p. 14). One would expect

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 39 to see more in this section than what is offered. Gozzi’s Jeremy Tunstall, in traditional Hollywood fash- article on hot and cool media in the light of metaphor ion, is doing a sequel. His first book published 30 years theory offers something new. ago, The Media are American, with the thesis con- The most interesting part, to my perspective, is tained in the title, struck a popular chord with people Section 2 on “The Media on McLuhan.” Here we find who perceived a superpower in pop culture threatening genuine reactions to the Mcluhanisme in the writings of a culture imperialism. Today, with a perception of per- five media professionals. Neil Hickey and Michael J. haps a declining superpower, this book might well cap- O’Neill try to validate the McLuhanian reflections in ture an interested public. the light of current socio-political and cultural events, Tunstall’s thesis is quite clear: “This book makes while Mark Dery looks for traces of Romanticism in a quite separate (and different [from his 1977 book]) McLuhan; Kitman and Dobbs take a humorous stand. argument—namely, that the U.S. media on the world The essays in this volume definitely highlight the scene peaked in the mid-20th century” (p. xii). He con- legacy of McLuhan and its relevance today. They invite tinues with several other aspects of his thesis: “Most us to go beyond McLuhanism, which idolizes people around the world prefer to be entertained by peo- McLuhan and sanctifies his aphorisms. Among these ple who look the same, talk the same, joke the same, essays, Strate’s discussion on media as the vehicle of behave the same, play the same games, and have the transcendence and Meyrowitz’s exploration of theory same beliefs (and world views) as themselves” (p. xiv): of history based on changes in the media and technolo- A global or world level of media certainly does gy stand out as capturing best the spirit and legacy of exist. But world media, or American media, play McLuhan. a much smaller role than national media. . . . I Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980) is a central fig- argue that Euro-America [both North and South ure in the field of communication studies. He is an America and Europe] possesses a single media intellectual icon and an international celebrity, charac- industry that, at least for some years, will be the terized as “Media Guru” and/or “Oracle of the leading single force in world media. (p. xiv) Electronic age.” His legacy is better appreciated as how The thesis makes some sense in the light of growing he made media a popular subject and how he pro- national production of television by most larger coun- claimed all tools and technologies of the word (a tries with the consequence that U.S. media imports, phrase from his student, Walter J. Ong) as media. although still dominant compared to other exporter His apparent projection of communication media countries, constitute a smaller percentage of daily view- as prime mover is a stepping stone to understanding ing in many countries. He also reiterates a common about the way communication influences society. The argument long promoted by scholars like Joe Straubhaar emerging media ecology approach (H. Innis and oth- (2007) that people prefer their own television programs ers) of this volume leads us evidently beyond techno- when they are available. His final assertion that Euro- logical determinism and aphorisms like “medium is the America constitutes a single media industry is much message.” Today it makes more sense to say “medium harder to support with reasonable evidence. is the milieu.” The book is divided into four major sections: 1. I have no doubt that this volume of essays has suc- American Media in Decline; 2. Big Population ceeded in showing the broad and far-reaching impact of Countries: India and China; 3. World Media Pecking the thoughts, writings, and life of Marshall McLuhan, Order; 4. National Media and World Regional Media, one of the most influential intellectuals of the 20th cen- with each section containing a number of chapters. The tury. With or without his aphorisms, McLuhan’s legacy book length is 454 pages, not unreasonable for the ambi- is accompanying us into the 21st century. tion of covering many of the nations of the world and —Dr. Joseph Palakeel explaining their media growth and change from their IMPACT, India beginning until today. The task is challenging, and in some respects does not achieve the unity of his former Tunstall, Jeremy. The Media Were American: U.S. book since it looks at dozens of countries instead of just Mass Media in Decline. New York: Oxford University one, the U.S. The other challenge for the book is that the Press. 2008. Pp. xiv, 465. ISBN 978-0-518147-0 (pb.) world media are vastly more complex than they were $44.95. more than 30 years ago. Added to this, the cultural impe- rialism thesis itself has been in decline so that arguments

40 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS for a decline in the power and presence of U.S. media that few outside India know about. He argues against may not be news. Still, the argument that the author pro- significant influence of global media presence in India poses goes against the popular perception of the domi- but gives little evidence about those media except for nance of American pop culture on a global scale. Let us Murdoch’s Star TV and its hit, Who Wants to be a look, then, at Tunstall’s arguments in each section. Millionaire (in Hindi). He alludes to its British origin The first section promises to contain the heart of but fails to mention that it was a major hit later on Fox the argument about U.S. media decline. It contains and brought to India with that allure. The China section nine chapters over about 120 pages, but the direction is detailed, with a long background on the politics of and focus of the argument seems to be diffuse and China from 1900 until 2005, and rightly argues that unclear. At the beginning, the author makes a not China has been parsimonious in allowing foreign unreasonable argument based on population, i.e., that media into its television market. we need to look at the 10 largest population countries In the next section on the World Media Pecking and the regions to which they belong to talk about Order, the author admits at the end of the first chapter, dominance of U.S. media. The argument that large somewhat reluctantly, that “The United States remains countries are self-sufficient in media (news, radio, at the top of the pecking order but less unambiguously film, TV, and new media) does not mean that they so than previously . . . [it] has to share the top end . . . import little or no content from elsewhere. How much with leaders of several other regional media blocs, is a lot? Tunstall offers no clear evidences about especially in Europe” (p. 246). His main theme in this imports but argues “Taking these 10 countries togeth- section is that all of the major and minor European er, probably no more than 10% of their entire audi- Union members are cultural nationalists and therefore, ence time is spent with foreign media” (p. 6). Going despite significant imports of U.S. media content forward, the author tackles what has been a central (except news), the American media are kept in their argument in the issue of global media dominance (not place. He ends with a section that illustrates very well cultural imperialism), namely export market rev- his thesis and general tone of the book: “Europe and enues, something he calls “Freakish Media Finance.” America: Who’s Winning?” You have probably Although he spends a chapter on the issue, he fails to guessed the answer already: Europe. He concludes that bring up the argument that the U.S. has been and con- to put it into perspective, we need to consider the tinues to be the dominant power in media content Western Hemisphere and Europe (except Russia) as a export. In later chapters in this section, he argues that single media market. This tends to cover up more prob- the U.S. has lost its moral authority and brings in a lems than solves, but it fits into the author’s notion that variety of examples from Vietnam to CIA-backed the world is made up of large regions: Euro-America, coups, all factual but not clearly related to his thesis. Asia (North and South), Africa, and the Arab cluster. His final chapter here mixes a series of issues on The final section promoted national media (of big satellites and television exports to the belief in the countries especially) and the world regions as the areas U.S. as “sole superpower” after 1990 to the Iraq inva- of particular interest and importance. This emphasis sion in a way that does not convince readers about the certainly counters the popular emphasis on globaliza- central thesis. tion and is a correction that perhaps is overdue. Section 2 covers the four Asian countries with Tunstall never directly challenges globalization theory large populations: China, India, Japan, and Indonesia. nor denies the role of global or world media, which he In each case, the author gives a sometimes lengthy says is the domain primarily of American media (and political and media history (three chapters cover over seemingly contradicting his thesis). He argues that the 100 pages). Detailed footnotes assure the reader that big players in the major world regions will be largely the author has done his homework with current self-sufficient while the smaller ones will continue to research, but it may be too detailed for those who want be dependent on the U.S. The final chapter, “American to follow the media argument without a detour into Media Decline to Continue?” illustrates some of the political history. The India story provides an important problems of the book. It repeats arguments that have contribution that much of the trade references he cites been made frequently in the previous 450 pages argu- do not usually allude to: non-Hindi speaking parts of ing that the U.S. foreign policy mistakes have made it India constitute over half of the one billion plus popu- forfeit the “world news agenda and history” (p. 452). lation and that half has flourishing media industries The rhetoric gets away from the focus of the book,

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 — 41 arguing for instance that “the National Association of were also supposed to stimulate public opinion while Broadcasters (NAB) is a belligerent group that fright- they were telling us what they knew. Eilers continues ens American politicians with lobbying tactics similar to talk about the Christian press and how Communio et to those of the National Rifle Association (NRA)” (p. Progressio asks it to bring balance, correction, and 455). In the end, the author admits that the complexity completion to news and comment on religion and the of the world media is complex enough to make predic- Christian life, while at the same time reflecting the tions of the future—well, unpredictable. world and showing the way (p. 9). This book, Eilers This is a large and rambling book that deserves suggests, is a tool to assist journalists in the way they reading for all of the many scholarly insights and facts follow this instruction. This, Eilers adds, is only a first that are put forward. The thesis is an interesting one, step. There are, he says, more extensive books of this well worth considering as it is a counterweight to the type (here he mentions the Catholic News Service globalization discourse that has marginalized a focus [Washington, DC] Catholic News Service Stylebook on on regional and national concerns. The book is hurt by Religion: A Reference Guide and Usage Manual, 3rd a lack of editing that would have made a much more Edition, 2000, and the Religious Newswriters’ powerful argument in half the number of pages. There Association’s 2007 Reporting on Religion2: A is a detailed index at the end, but no bibliography. Stylebook on Journalism’s Best Beat. A Resource —Emile McAnany Guide from Religion Newswriters, available on the Santa Clara University Internet at [email protected]), but this Reference particular book comes from Welgampola’s 50 years of Straubhaar, J. (2007). World television: From global to local. experience as editor and journalist for the Catholic Los Angeles: Sage. Church in Asia. Few of us now live in a “one religion” state and Welgampola, Hector. Asian Church Glossary and we certainly do not live in a one religion world. Today, Stylebook (Volume 8 in the FABC-OSC Book Series). there is a greater need for journalists, journalism stu- Manila: Logos (Divine Word) Publications Inc., 2008. dents, and broadcasters—as well as those within the ISBN 978-971-510-201-8-9 [For ordering informa- churches (and here I mean all religious faiths)—to have tion, see http://www.logospublications.com/] some understanding of the terminology of other faiths. In London, for instance, I teach in a school where there It is perhaps as a result of Communication in are many who profess no faith, but there are also Religious Traditions of Asia (Volume 7 in the FABC- Hindus and Muslims, Jews and Christians, OSC Book Series) that FABC-OSC have published this Zoroastrians and Buddhists, who exist harmoniously. glossary and stylebook. Now in semi-retirement, This book does not just give us the meanings of words Welgampola has worked as a journalist in Asia since associated with the Christian faith, but also with the 1958 and has worked on a variety of newspapers and in many others with whom those in Asia coexist. It also 1988 joined the Union of Catholic Asia News lists acronyms for many world organizations. I, for one, (UCANews) as Executive Editor. His book is dedicat- will keep this book on my desk and will certainly rec- ed to “Asian Church journalists, the unsung heroes of ommend it to my colleagues and to students in our Church media in Asia, and to Father Robert F.X. School, as well as in those other universities where I Astorino, MM.” Fr. Astorino, whom I met many years have the pleasure to visit and teach from time to time. ago, was one of the founders of UCANews. It will be a valuable addition to the shelves of anyone In his Introduction (pp. 9-10) Franz-Josef Eilers, who might have to report on religion or to write about SVD, introduces the author and notes that Communio it in some other way. et Progressio, the Roman Catholic Church’s pastoral —Maria Way instruction of 1971, which developed from the Second Communication and Media Research Institute Vatican Council and is a follow-up document to Inter School of Media, Art and Design Mirifica (1963), a document which, amongst other University of Westminster, London things, established World Communications Day, asks “Christian Journalists” to bring “a knowledge of the Williams, Kevin. European Media Studies. London: Church to the world and a knowledge of the world to Hodder Arnold, 2005. Pp. vii, 184. ISBN 0-340- the Church” (Inter Mirifica, ¶23). These journalists 71902-8 (pb.) £17.99.

42 — VOLUME 27 (2008) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Intended to fill a gap in general reviews of media brought about by the General Agreement on Tariffs and and media studies, this introductory text presents seven Trade (GATT) in the 1990s. After a brief history of the overview chapters and a general concluding one, all of European film industry, from the early 1900s, he asks which seek to tell the student that the media landscape whether one can argue for a European cinema in an features more than North American and U.S. compa- industry that has moved from individual national cine- nies and products and that Europe extends beyond mas (more or less manifesting the cultures of each Great Britain when it comes to approaches and inter- nation) to a Europe-wide and even international system ests of media studies. As often happens in the case of of co-production. such introductory works, the book’s strengths become Chapter 6, on the media in Eastern Europe, its weaknesses: the desire for breadth and completeness gives an important look at a relatively new area of lead the survey chapters to often include too much, media studies for the West; at the same time, it suf- with not enough detail. Many times, fairly complex fers from its separation of Eastern European media matter receives only one or two sentences. Some chap- from those of the rest of Europe, implying (at least) ters, particularly those on public service broadcasting that one cannot have a European media studies. The and Eastern European media, appear more completely old regional divisions remain too strong. The chapter developed—the author notes that he had prepared both looks at the role of television, in particular, in the fall for earlier publication in journals. of the various Communist governments and the rise An initial chapter (“The European media land- of various post-Communist media systems. The East scape”) provides a look at the media in post-1945 has seen a resurgence of journalism and other media; Europe, the various forces for change beginning in the whether the privatization model will work remains an 1970s, ownership patterns, and the media market. open question. Several sidebars offer particular detail on different In Chapter 7, Williams strikes out into somewhat aspects of the European media world. uncharted territory for U.S. (and perhaps even for Chapter 2 examines the press in Europe, outlin- European) readers: media policy as developed by the ing—as do most reviews of newspapers—the declining European Union. He provides a good guide to the EU readership over the last decades. This has led to a num- and its various policy bodies, admitting the confusion ber of effects: changing economics of the industry, caused by overlapping responsibilities among different changing ownership, depolitization, state subsidies, directorates in the European Commission. Within this and the move to the Internet. model, he notes the struggle between those favoring The next chapter, on the public service model of media competition and those supporting state or EU European broadcasting and deregulation, sketches the subsidies to preserve a distinctively European commu- most distinct aspect of the European media world. nication structure. He concludes the chapter with a Using a case study from Italy, Williams highlights what summary of media policy. has become a crisis in the media—the challenge from The last chapter attempts a summary, a look at the independently owned stations or satellite channels and “Europeanization” of the media. It reviews continent- the rapid shift in audience viewing habits. The chapter wide structures (including the success of sports broad- carefully presents the variations of the public service casting and the innovative market model of MTV), news model in Britain, German, France, and the northern coverage of the EU, what Williams calls “fictional European countries. A North American reader or Europe”—an image of Europe in film and entertainment undergraduate would find this chapter most interesting, television—and a growing European media sphere. but would probably want more detail. European Media Studies works well as an intro- Chapter 4 returns to journalism, comparing dif- duction, but it requires some kind of supplement, ferent models of journalism and news values. But, as whether faculty lecture or explanation or additional with the case of the newspaper, economic and reader- reading. The book sketches the territory, mostly in the ship pressures have transformed the existing models manner of tourist guide. It will take you only so far in and Williams asks whether the European model can understanding the countryside. It does have a fairly survive. The alternatives he sketches do not please: extensive bibliography and an index. “the PR State” and journalism as entertainment. —Paul A. Soukup, S.J. Chapter 5 turns to the film industry. Here the key Santa Clara University issues for Williams develop out of the economic shift

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