·CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

THE USE OF FAIRY TALES IN THEATRE FOR CHILDREN

A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in

Theatre by Maria Fazio Truxaw

May, 1983 The Thesis of Maria Fazio Truxaw is approved:

Professor John S. Furman

Professor ary Jane Evans, Chairperson

California State University, Northridge

-i i rABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ...... iv Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 2. THE SOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT OF FAIRY TALES 4 THE COMMUNAL ROOTS OF FOLK AND FAIRY LORE 4 THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF LITERARY FAIRY TALE ...... 6 3. THE STRUCTURE AND STYLE OF FAIRY TALES . . . . . 9 4. THE COMPONENTS OF FAIRY TALES . . 12 PHYSICAL THINGS IN FAIRY TALES . . . . . 12 ANIMALS IN FAIRY TALES . 14 5. FAIRY TALE CHARACTERS ...... 18 PROTAGONISTS ...... 18 SUPERNATURAL BEINGS . . . . 21 6. FAIRY TALE THEMES ...... 23 7. PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT ...... 25 8. INTERPRETATION OF SPECIFIC FAIRY TALES . . . . . 30 SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS . . . . 30 CINDERELLA ...... 38 HANSEL AND GRETEL ...... 45 JACK AND THE BEANSTALK . 54 9. CONCLUSION ...... 60

10. NOTES ...... 64 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 69

iii ABSTRACT

THE USE OF FAIRY TALES IN THEATRE FOR CHILDREN

b.Y .Maria Fazio Truxaw .Master of Arts in Theatre

Throughout the centuries artists have drawn upon fairy tale plots, characters and motifs as a source of inspiration. The early history of the children's theatre movement within the United States is notable for its use of fairy tales as a major resource for script material. The dramatic adaptation of fairy tales by playwrights for theatre for children is the central focus of this study. In order to review the transition of the narrative form of the original tales into a theatrical format, the fairy tale genre has been investigated in terms of development, structure and style, characters and thematic

iv content. Fairy tales• psychological impact is included to determine their potential effect on the child. Versions of 11 Snow

White, 11 11 Cinderella, 11 11 Jack and the Beanstalk 11 and 11 Hansel and Gretel .. have been analyzed and compared to a sampling of their dramatic adaptations. Conslusions are then drawn as to the scripts• utilization of the original fairy tale.

v Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

11 0nce upon a time ... 11 Few phrases have the power to conjure such complete worlds of magic as this simple introduction. The phrase calls forth images of royalty, witches, enchanted animals, long-suffering heroines and unlikely heroes engaged in impossible struggles that, as a ·matter of course, end happily ever after. Fairy tales are found in virtually every culture throughout the world. 1 They transcend time and place as they reveal the richness of common human experiences, wishes and dreams. Students of folk and fairy lore know that versions of individual stories, springing from a variety of widely diverse cultures, not only resemble one another but actually have specific details in ' 2 common. For example, there are over seven hundred recorded versions of "Cinderella," most of which center around a lost shoe. 3 In recent years, fairy stories have drawn a great deal of atten- tion from psychologists who recognize within them, among other things, an unparralleled guide for the maturation process of children, the inner workings of the human psyche and the spiritual evolution of man•s soul. Whether the simple structure and clarity of the tales can support such claims ultimately depends on individual opinion, for it is impossible to find absolute proof for one•s theories in the unscientific realm of faerie. There is one certainty: fairy tales have endured and remain fascinating to the many people who read and listen to them and come to the theatre to see them enacted.

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Staying power, psychological insights and proven commercial appeal point to the inherent strenqth of the fairy tale, which can be fascinating to playwrights and producers of theatre for children. Throughout the centuries fairy tales have been used by authors, artists and playwrights as a basis for their works. In the United States, the early history of the children's theatre movement is notable for its use of fairy tales as a major source of script material. Many of the older scripts and most contemporary adaptations use the stories as a general outline, filling them with subplots and a variety of theatrical and dramatic evices which may alter the meaning and effect of the original tales. It would seem that directors should feel obliged to acquire knowledge of the structure, components and potential impact of fairy tales before attempting to bri·ng scripted material to life on the stage. One should think that playwrights would feel an even greater obligation to delve into the elements which provide the natural power of a fairy tale when they undertake to adapt it for the stage. The purpose of this study is to examine selected well-known fairy tales with attention to their origins, definitions, structure, themes and potential impact in order to interpret their meanings and then compare those interpretations to a sampling of dramatic adaptations. Conclusions will then be drawn as to the scripts• utilization of the original tales. Because the realm of folk and fairy lore is so vast, the major focus of the study is limited to European sources, from which the most widely-known versions of the stories come. The fairy tale's simple and clear structure follows a very tight rigid pattern, which is believed to be generally human and basic to all men. 4 The typical brief fairy tale plot is characterized by a 3

succession of motifs or episodes focusing on the elimination of some misfortune or lack. The basic structure moves from an initial depriva- tion to resolution through some quest or trial. The final resolution usually takes the form of a union between the tale•s positive male and female characters.5 The story is set in motion by the introduction of some tension-producing event, and all the proceeding action works toward the elimination of this tension and a return to a state of un­ disturbed harmony and happiness. 6 Time and place remain undefined within the fantastic world where magic is an integral part of realty.7 J. R. R. Tolkien describes the elements of the fairy tale as fantasy•s establishment of a secondary world, a recovery from deep despair, an escape from great danger and most importantly the consola­ tion of a happy ending with its denial of final defeat.8 According to Tolkien, fairy tales contain a return to the clear view of childhood, a harmonious integration with nature and the promise of future justice.9 Chapter 2 THE SOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT OF FAIRY TALES

Turning to a general discussion of folk and fairy tales, one must note that many scholars believe the tales are the degeneration of ancient myths which through the ages have lost their cultural overlay • and become simple outlines of once-elaborate stories.10 Another :theory points to an individual's experience of the unconscious which through its retelling becomes exaggerated and takes on familiar motifs. 11 The forming of the tales is also thought to be "an essentially spiritual occupation."12 The spiritual world, the source of man's values and sense of beauty, is named as the fairy tales' basis of inspiration.13 The spark of creation is secondary to the ·evolution of the tales as they were shaped by centuries of human experience reflecting man's basic beliefs and perceptions of the world around him.

THE COMMUNAL ROOTS OF FOLK AND FAIRY LORE The following synthesis of the work of several folklorists reflects their theories regarding the evolution of the fairy tales. Fairy tales, the creation of an anonymous folk peasantry, are a fundamental part of the folkloric tradition of a community, represent­ ing the learning, wisdom and art of its people. 14 "Folklore has a cultural and social base and is a definite realistic, artistic and communicative process."15 Tales, riddles, songs and ballads contain traditional solutions to recurrent communal problems. Folklore helps

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ease 1 ife-threatening situations. through reinforcing the communal 16 sentiment and thereby insuring the continuity of the community. It establishes social and ethical guidelines, providing safety valves for inappropriate behavior and setting up mechanisms to handle the un­ expected.17 The controlling power of folklore lies in a primitive belief in the inherent sameness in situations. The ability to objectify a conflict situation, crystallize it in a symbol or image and give it a name provides the resolution of tension.18 Primitive man believed in the power of the spoken word; what one could name could ·be controlled.19 Folklore directed the action of the community through wit in the form of a storyteller•s performance. The tales had first to provide pleasure through organized and controlled persuasion--a dramatic presentation. Entertainment was merely the first step. The ultimate goal of a folkloric performance was the communal acceptance of and adherence to traditional values and definitions. The presentations conformed to the form, structure and attitudes which were accepted and understood. Folk tales not only provided entertainment for adults and instruction for the youth, but also reinforcement for the integrity of the group as a whole. 20 The performance of the folklore constituted a communal event and was one of the people•s most ••important means of artistic expression. 21 The stories were constantly created and re-created through the dynamic

relationship between the story, audience and narrator. This 11 artisitic action 11 depended on the creativity of the storyteller, the aesthetic response of the listeners and the strength of the tale. 22 The renewal and development of folklore thrived on this active participation. 23 The stories• self-generation was a theory of Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm, the first scientific collectors of fairy tales, who theorized that the tales were not consciously created, but they, so to speak, created themselves. 24

THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF LITERARY FAIRY TALES For a long while, folk tales remained the exclusive property of the folk peasantry, evolving with their communities. Changes within the group•s psychological and environmental make-up were reflected in the content of the stories. 25 With each era the community modified the tales to satisfy the individual needs of the time, but the motifs retained the aesthetic composition and symbolism of the late feudal system. 26 In Europe during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, folktales were discovered by the upper classes, and the oral tradition became literature. The fantastic world of the stories attracted the aristocracy and as emphasis shifted from people to supernatural occurrences, folk tales became fairy tales. 27 The new literaryadaptations reflected the values of the upper classes, as illustrated in Madame Beaumont•s 11 Beauty and the Beast. 11 In 1697, Histoires au Contes du tempo Passe, by Charles Perrault was first published, and with it children•s literature was born. 28 The volume included adaptations of 11 Little Red Riding Hood, 11 11 Sleeping

Beauty in the Woods, 11 11 Puss and Boots .. and 11 Cinderella. 11 The modified folk tales ended with a rhymed moral which reinforced the behavioral mores of the day. Although the stories• focus and characters were altered, the origina 1 themes of wi.sh fulfillment, hope for the future and the victory of the poor remained. 29 Jakob and Wilhem Grimm•s five volume collection of Marchen, little stories, was the first scientific attempt to preserve authenic versions of the stories. Published between 1812 and 1822, the Grimms• work was regarded as the prototypical example of the fairy tale genre. 30 The tales• sources were peasant storytellers, whose names were included in the collections. Although there was no conscious attempt to improve the tales, they were carefully edited and simplified.31 There­ creation process of the fairy tales ceased and the stories became frozen, reflecting the culture of the Romantic era. The English fairy tales were first recorded during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by Andrew Lang in his twelve volume work, The Fairy Tale Books of Many Colors. During the 11 Sturm and Drang 11 period of late eighteenth century Germany, the fairy tales were regarded as a national treasure. Romantic authors used the stories to support their nationalistic themes. With the rise of the middle classes in the mid-nineteenth century, the popularity of the tales took a sharp decline. The stories were regarded as inferior, immoral and vulgar. suitable only for the lower strata of society. Censored and rewritten to support the Victorian value system, fairy tales were banished to the nursery. There they remained until early twentieth-century anthropologists considered the fairy tales a fabulous scientific find from which could be drawn inferences about primitive man•s practices. taboos and rituals. 8

Starting in the 1930's, Walt Disney's animation became a vehicle which reawakened fairy tales mass appeal. His adaptations of "Snow White," "Cinderella" and "Sleeping Beauty" became the established standards. Although these films did arouse renewed interest in the stories, the originals' simplicity and clarity were overlaid with singing animals, dancing godmothers and seven descriptively named dwarfs. Chapter 3 THE STRUCTURE AND STYLE OF FAIRY TALES

The obvious structure of the fairy tales follows a general pattern which proceeds from the establishment of some misfortune which must be resolved by the story's end. This movement toward the resolu­ tion of tension and the re-establishment of a utopian world is based on simple units of action or motifs. Each unit is a self-sufficient whole with a beginning, middle and end, containing individual characters, objects and circumstances. The tales consist of the sequential movement of these units in a logical and predictable manner. With the conclusion of each unit, the next begins until the final event and the tale's ending. The action only moves in direct progression with no jumps forward or backward in time. 32 Any one unit is capable of generating various subsequent actions, for each unit lends itself to questions which move into the tale's past or future. 33 If the tales had remained oral tradition, this self-generative property of the motifs may have continued to create new stories. Action is the central focus of the tales; as action creates action, tension calls for its reduction: the presence of one polarity generates its opposition, and polarities together cause movement toward reconciliation.34 Although each motif can be viewed as an independent whole, a basic feature of fairy tales is the tight interrelationship between its parts.35 Common to all fairy tales is a simple initi a 1 phrase which sets the tale in an undefined time and place. "Once upon a time" introduces

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the magical possibilities that are to follow. This ritualistic invocation simultaneously permits one to enter the fantastic world of the fairy tale while creating that magical realm. 36 Similar to the primitive belief in the ability to call forth mythic time by the recitation of sacred words, the fairy tale's introduction places its listeners in the "timeless imperishable eternal world." 37 Repetition and variation are consistent elements within every tale and help strengthen and tighten its structure. Similar or identical details are repeated and thereby given a greater signifi­ cance. This occurs most often in multiples of threes, and the third of anything has special importance. Variations either overtly or covertly modify a prior action, character, object or theme. These changes redirect the listener's attention and can supply a dramatic effect or surprise by altering one's expectations. These elements can also reflect the story's theme and help in its interpretation. For example, a triad of helpful animals: bee, duck and ant, represent the world of air, water and earth. Repetition is a natural result of oral transmission, as it aids the memory and has a cumulative effect on the audience. One other organic extension of verbal dramatization is rhythm. The tale's rhythm is reinforced through the interplay of contrasting elements, the use of diametric reversals and the movement between contrary or complementary images and characters. 38 Rhythmic alternations also help establish the movement between the worlds of fantasy and reality. The fantastic world of magic and miracles is accepted, even taken for granted, andnever is cause for surprise. The easily-crossed theshold to the supernatural is a source of both life-saving advice and life-threatening situations. The tale's linear movement becomes cyclic as the plot proceeds from reality to fantasy and always back to reality. Inherent in this journey is a basic belief in man's ultimate union with nature and its magic. Fairy tales are distinguished by a definite lack of detailed description and direct quotations. All characters are sharply out­ lined in clear precise language. Action takes precedence over all other elements as the characters' feelings and relationships are externally displayed. The villains and heroes are portrayed as one-dimensional through a series of contrasting and complimentary images. 39 All of the components within the tales work together, giving a simple tight portrayal of a fulfillment of man's wishes for perfect peace and happiness. 40 Chapter 4 THE COMPONENTS OF FAIRY TALES

The three essential components of fairy tales are objects, animals and human and supernatural characters. These elements help create the physical images around which the fairy tale weaves its story. 41

PHYSICAL THINGS IN FAIRY TALES Physical objects provide a link between the two worlds of reality and fantasy. Magic dwells within the mundane, every-day objects that fill the real world. The fantastic powers of these objects are fashioned from their empirical reality and logical uses. 42 An ordinary wooden table can bring forth a miraculous spread of food. The magical attributes of things are an exaggeration of their natural uses, as fantasy depends on the reality it transforms. 43 The function of an object rather than its appearance contains the potential miracle, The object maintains its dual reality, as its ordinary outward appearance and purpose remain throughout the tale. This recognition of the marvels inherent within the ordinary makes magic accessible to the poor. This symbolic wish-fulfillment expressed by fantastic properties within the mundane sprang from the extreme deprivation of the Middle Ages. 44 Physical things are also used to symbolize the relationship between two people. Rarely do characters verbalize their love; it is commonly contained in a gift, such as a ring. 45

12 Objects fulfill three major purposes within the tales. These uses are: props, central focus and thematic counterpoint.46 As a prop, the physical things serve only as a backdrop to the action. The objects help to create a realistic setting for the tale•s exaggreated or fantastic action. The objects are incidental to the story•s plot and can be exchanged with any other thing. The importance of.one specific thing is reflected in the repetition of that object within different versions of the same story.47 Physical things can also be the main focus of a tale. In these stories humans play only a supporting role as focus is given to the fantastic possibilities within the least likely objects. A white stallion or diamond crown is expected to be magical, but in many tales it is an ordinary stick or an old table that holds the marvelous. 48 The most complex use of objects is as a thematic counterpoint. Physical things may or may not have magical properties, but their symbolic function gives them a magical quality. In many tales the inner qualities of characters are reflected in their rewards or punish- ments. Jewels may drop from the mouth of a young girl who speaks kindly to an old woman, while frogs spring from her evil-tongued 49 s1s. t er. Ob"Jec t s can g1ve . strengt h an d co hes1on . t o a t a 1 e I s structure. For example, Cinderella•s glass slipper is the pivot around which the tale•s action revolves as she receives, wears, loses and regains possession of it. One of 11 Cinderella 1 S 11 themes, the fusion of poverty and royalty, can also be interpreted through the image of the poor ash maiden wearing a regal shoe. 50 The symbolic use of the slipper indirectly establishes correspondences and contrasts which need not be stated directly in the tales. 51 14

ANIMALS IN FAIRY TALES The presence of animals within fairy tales has been interpreted as a reflection of man's primitive anthropomorphic images. Animals are man's link to nature and display the human desire to return to Eden, before the Fal1. 52 Fairy tale animals act in accord with man's per­ ception of them and reflect man's subjective experience of nature. 53 Psychologically, animals are believed to be the physical representation of man's id or instincts. 54 Due to their connection to the natural processes of life, animals are often portrayed as superior to man and, , in some cases, are elevated to the supernatural. 55 Fairy tale animals fulfill complex purposes and are difficult to catagorize. In order to understand the animals' function in the tales, the simple labels of fabular, helpful, destructive and supernatural have been delineated. Within fabular stories - fables - animals are the main characters, with men taking only a minor role. Animals display human abilities of speech, thought and feeling, as they react like men within the physical bodies of animals. 57 .Helpful animals remain true to their physical and behavioral natures. They appear regularly in quest tales and are always a boon to the hero. Usually appearing in groups of three, these animals are aided in some way by the hero and then reappear later when they are needed to return the favor. 58 Primarily, these animals seem to be insignificant, unable to be of help to anyone. Bees, ducks and ants, apparently the least likely saviors, provide essential lifesaving services to the hero. The triad of animals symbolically represents the totality of nature responding to the compassion of the hero. Helpful animals function much like magical objects as their natural attributes are exaggerated and fulfill the hero's needs at exactly the right time. Actions toward these seemingly insignificant animals reflect one's perception of the world. If a man can truly see the animals and respond to them properly and without ulterior motive, he will be rewarded for his sensitivity.50 When an individual sees the world only in terms of his own needs and desires and behaves in a cruel or insensitive manner, punishment always follows. 60 The importance of a positive relationship with nature is central to the fairy tale heroes and constitutes the only consistant heroic character­ istic within the stories. 61 This one absolute in fairy tales rein­ forces a belief in the importance of all levels of nature. 62 Destructive animals within fairy tales usually react violently against men who have been cruel or abusive towards a small or old animal. The only exception to this is the wolf who displays wanton destructive behavior. 63 Despite modern misconceptions, dragons and other mythical animals are a rare occurrence in the tales. Fairy tales contain two major kinds of supernatural animals: those with magical powers, and enchanted humans. Magic animals have the powers of prophecy and the ability to grant any wish or desire. A toad heralds the birth of Sleeping Beauty, and Faithful John over­ hears two ravens discuss the death of his prince. An enchanted flounder is able to fulfill the wishes of a poor fisherman's wife until suddenly all is lost due to her excessive greed. These super­ natural beings stand at the threshold between fantasy and reality and only remain in our world long enough to fulfill their purpose. 64 In 16

many versions of 11 Cinderella, 11 the godmother figure takes the form of an animal. Birds and a laurel tree serve Aschenputtel, Grimm•s Cinderella, while human society scorns and abuses her. A clear correspondence is set up between the dead true mother and the bird godmothers. The mother•s spirit is active and functions through her reincarnations on earth. 65 Cinderella•s close relationship with nature reveals her as a worthy being and a pure spirit.66 The enchanted groom, imprisoned in the outward appearance of an animal while retaining the human qualities of thought, speech and feelings, is a common fairy tale motif. Only the commitment of a lasting love relationship can save the animal groom. These tales generally follow a set pattern which begins with an unwilling bride who is repulsed by her suitor•s ugliness, which conceals a loving and sincere heart. The Beast gives the bride one rule which she breaks, thereby separating her from her groom. Realizing her true love, she must prove her commitment through overcoming three tasks, thus freeing him from his curse and securing their lasting happiness. The initial breaking of the groom•s rule is a necessary complication, for then only through the successful completion of the tests can she prove the constancy of her love. 67 The rarer animal bride stories are very different from their male counterparts. The women are not enchanted, but are supernatural beings. Their external appearance is not repulsive, but usually takes the form of a beautiful bird. The pattern of these stories begins with the human groom espying the woman without her animal garment. He then steals it, and, with the garment in his possession, achieves power over 17

the bride. The bride marries him under one condition, which, through forgetfulness or bragging, the groom breaks. This frees the bride to return to animal form, and she leaves the groom forever. Unlike the animal groom tales, the disobedience ends the relationship, for it is the groom•s obedience, not love, which is the test.68 Many enchanted animal stories center on a cursed individual who can only be saved through the commitment of his or her sibling. In the 11 Twelve Swans, 11 twelve princes are turned into swans by an evil witch. Their disenchantment depends on their sister who must silently endure while knitting a garment for each of her brothers. There are several plot complications as a king falls in love with her, then, believing in false rumors, sentences her to death. She takes this silently, as the time limit for her task is drawing near. At the appointed time she helps eleven of her brothers completely return to their human form, but the youngest retains a wing in the place of his arm, for she was unable to complete his garment. Enchanted sister tales parallel the animal bride tales. Obedience is the key to break the curse, and the brother also fails to follow all of the instructions. Unlike the animal bride tales, however, the brother is given a second chance to save his sister. Tales of enchanted humans in animal form generally test the loving commitment of a woman and the obedience of the male. Chapter 5 FAIRY TALE CHARACTERS

Fairy tale character have been described as flat, stereotyped, archetypal and symbolic. They are said to represent human virtues and vices and cosmic forces. The true nature of the character is conveyed through the tale's action. Characters are .clearsighted and go directly toward their goals. 69 Character description is usually limited to general comments on the physical appearance and age of the people. In most cases, a character's inner virtues are reflected in his or her appearance; external beauty reveals a pure soul. The best-known exception to this rule is Snow White's step-mother, whose outward beauty hides great evil.

PROTAGONISTS The most significant fairy tale characters are either good or bad. The good reveal presence of mind, cunning, loyalty, endurance, kind­ ness and a willingness to take advice. The insensitive villians are motivated by greed, jealousy and lust. Evil characters usually desire the death of their foe. Heroes/heroines may actively fight the villian or passively sit while others win his/her reward for him/her. In some tales it is proper to listen; in others, complacent listening brings doom. Kindness to nature is the only absolute necessary heroic quality. Heroes, heroines and some form of opposition are essential ingredients of fairy tales. An individual character's goodness is

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derived through comparing the hero•s actions to the poor behavior of those around him. 70 This emphasis on the difference of the hero isolates him, setting him apart from the mainstream of society. Heroes come from extreme social positions: the very poor and the aristocracy. Being totally alone, the hero is free to establish the essential contact with nature and has a capacity for 11 Universal relationships. 1171 It is this open responsiveness to nature and the supernatural which gives the hero his key to success. A positive relationship with the world is the first step in the hero•s reintegration into society.72 Naming is another isolating device, for only the heroes have names. Labels can be generic, attributive and thematic. Generic names, such as Jack, Hansel and Gretel, make characters more real and tangible, while allowing them to retain an Everyman quality. Self- explanatory, attributive names, such as Cinderella and Simpleton, give a definite physical image and make further descriptions un­ necessaryJ3 The thematic quality of Snow vlhite•s name conveys her connection to inner purity and death. Like magical objects and helpful animals, many heroes initially appear to be the least likely to succeed. Many heroic characters can be viewed as riddles, for beneath their apparent insignificance are individuals of true value. 74 A mythic hero•s physical prowess is useless in a world where survival depends on cunning and a compassion- ate soul. The naive, unsophisticated fairy tale heroes have the ability to recognize the difference between reality and fantasy and find the right solutions to their problem. 75 Might does not make right in the realm of the fairy tale. 20

Fairy tales are often believed to present sexually stereotyped individuals. The characters do indeed represent traditional sexual roles; the heroine is found in the home as a wife, mother or un- married adolescent. The hero is an adventurer, wanderer or unmarried male and activily seeks his fortune in the outside world. Beyond these details the fairy tale characters break traditional expectations. All fairy tale women do not passively await their masculine rescuer, many heroines actively seek their own happy ending. Many fairy tale males react unheroically and cry as helpful animals complete their impossible tasks. According to Joyce Thomas the heroic roles are sexually interchangeable in most tales.76 There are general patterns for male and female stories. The male, rarely described physically, is unfavorably compared to his two elder brothers, whereas the youngest daughter of three is usually the most beautiful. The heroine commonly meets her female antagonist at home in the form of a stepmother or stepsisters. The evil stepmother is the most horrifying fairy tale villain, for she perverts the expected safety and security of home into a hellish nightmare. 77 The hero, on the other hand, is enticed by a contest or forcibly evicted and leaves home to find adventure and his male foe in the outside world. The male is aided in the achievement of his final goals, while the more selfsufficient heroine endures tremendous suffering alone. 78 Generally, male and female protagonists are adolescent, and their tales symbolically parallel the educational process of self-discovery.79 A heroine's story gives the audience a general lesson, while the hero's reveals the internal growth of an individua1.80 Both the male and female protagonist•s ultimate reward is marriage, and, with it, the promise of lasting bliss. Child hero stories, among the most memorable fairy tales, are, in fact, a rare occurrence. The child, like the adolescent, is isolated and considered to be an unlikely hero. Children usually combat a witch who threatens them with cannibalism, the most terrifying fate in fairy tales. The child, representing purity and innocence, is a witch•s inevitable victim, for evil cannot tolerate such goodness. The witch symbolizes an inverted maternalism which perverts the child•s natural right to a secure home. The smallest hero, fairy tales• most independent, frees himself through his own abilities and cunning. 81 Some child heroes fall victim to their predators and die to be born again after supernatural forces defeat their foe.

SUPERNATURAL BEINGS Supernatural beings in fairy tales come in assorted sizes and mental abilities and can be either good or bad. The enormous giant with his insatiable appetite comically exhibits the intellect of a small child, whereas the tiny dwarf has magical knowledge and power. Fairies, ironically not often found in fairy tales, are tricksters, and man is their pawn. The most active supernatural villain is the witch as she reveals the neglected mother goddess in all her jealotisy, greed and anger. 82 The witch and her human counterpart, the step­ mother, are characteristically extreme in their antagonism. 83 Age is a woman•s curse, for only the young and beautiful have worth. Good women usually die in childbirth, only to be replaced by an evil spiteful woman. 22

Supernatural helpers hide behind old age and rags. Their aid is given only to those who show them kindness and listen to their advice. Men who will not share with them or listen to them are defeated and suffer a fate similar to that imposed upon those who abuse nature. Chapter 6 FAIRY TALE THEMES

The predominant fairy tale theme reveals a strict moral code in which justice is rarely merciful; the good are rewarded and the evil are punished. This primitive poetic justice is satisfied in a black and white world where one•s virtue or vice is usually reflected in all external and internal aspects of the individual. The qualities of goodness can vary in each story, but they always stand in clear contrast to the evil. The majority of fairy tales can be interpreted as an illustration of this harsh absolute morality, though each tale can reveal several additional themes. The fairy tales• episodic structure with each episode containing an individual theme makes possible a number of alternate interpretations. Therefore, one story may have several meanings. These themes can be found in the objects, animals and characters within the fairy tales• world. The magic hidden within the ordinary objects of life reveals a clear disparity between appearance and reality and makes magic accessible to all through apparentaly mundane objects.84 The power and dignity of nature•s most ordinary animals are illustrated in the saving actions of bees, ants and ducks. All levels of nature are celebrated as invaluable and respect for all creatures is vital for a hero•s success. The humble virtures of endurance, persistence, kindness and openness are portrayed as heroic qualities and the insignificant hero can defeat an overwhelming

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opponent. Fairy tale themes provide hope to all in their promises that good will ultimately be rewarded, magic is within the grasp of all, and the meek shall be victorious. Several authors have attempted to develop a general thematic statement for all fairy tales. Julius E. Heucher sees the unity of all existence and human evolution within the tales.85 Jack Zipes believes the stories hold the political revolutionary desires of the pre-capitalistic peasantry.86 Max Luthi interprets the tales as ·demonstrating man's capacity for change, illustrated in the hero's deliverance from an inauthentic life to a royal existence through suffering and deprivation.87 Arland Ussher and Carl Von Metzradt believe the tales reveal the superiority of intuition and natural instincts over rational thought. 88 There is no one absolute meaning

for the journey from 11 0nce upon a time 11 to 11 happily ever after, 11 except for the wish that it might be true. Chapter 7 PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACTS

The process from deprivation and loneliness to happiness in a loving relationship seems to be the basis of psychiatric interest in fairy tales. The behavior of heroes and heroines is believed to hold . solutions for the problems of a growing child and the deeper psycho- logical disturbances of adults. Bruno Bettelheim focuses on the tales as an aid to the development of children. The tales' symbols and images are believed to speak to all levels of a child's psyche. 89 The world of the tales seems to parallel a child's perception of reality through the use of exaggeration and the preference for action over 'rational thought. 90 The story of an isolated hero who, through struggles and endurance; triumphs over evil, helps relieve the child's primary fears of desertion and death. Children are given security in the knowledge that help is always available and that a small hero can be victorious over enormous odds. As a Freudian, Bettelheim interprets many tales in terms of the Oedipal complex, which he states is best overcome through listening to fairy tales. Parents in the guise of monsters and wicked stepmothers are defeated, thus allowing a fulfill­ ment of Oedipal desires while retaining a good relationship with one's parents. 91 Imagination is the key to the fairy tale's psychological aid to children. The gentle, indirect, undemanding narrative style invites the child to fantasize about and identify with any of its characters.

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One-dimensional fairy tale characters are believed by Bettelheim to be a crystallization of a child•s emotions. Their personification in the tales helps the child objectify his/her feelings and thereby gives order to his/her inner conflicts. 92 Identification depends on the attractiveness of the characters, not on their goodness. The hero•s isolation; struggles and final triumph appeal to a child and promote identification. The child desires to emulate the action of the hero rather than his morality. However, as a role model, the hero does encourage moral behavior. 93 A child 1 s fantasies are not limited to heroic characters. Indentification with villians encourages the child to objectify his/her darker emotions and thereby understand them. 94 This identification is aided by the polarization of the good and evil characters, making it very easy to discern the difference. Fairy tales give a structure to a child•s daydreams without which they can become very frightening. A child•s dreams are characterized by a sudden emergence of misfortune. Fairy tales parallel this plot structure and provide the resolution of the tension, thus giving the child a secure end to his/her fantasies. 95 Jungian psychology views the fairy tale as 11 the purest and simplest expression of the collective unconscious .. and 11 0f highest value to the scientific investigation of the psyche ... 96 Carl Jung · sees the 11 anatomy of the psyche .. within the simple folk tales. 97 Marie Louise von Franz, a student of Jung, has written several books on her studies of the psychological implications of the fairy tale. The characters are believed to be archetypal in their portrayal of universal human emotions, images and processes. The characters• 27

@ • actions reveal solutions to the psychological problems of adults and are therefore believed to be theraputic. 98 According to von Franz, many of her patients who have heard and contemplated the tales have found solutions to their problems, and, through the tales, have found the path back to reality. The fairy tale hero, as a symbol of the Self, represents the process of individuation, the integration of an individual's psyche. The shadow, that 11 dark repressed side of the ego complex, .. is portrayed in the fairy tale villains. The victory of the hero over his foe is interpreted as the synthesis of a person's shadow into his consciousness. Although von Franz's explanations of the tales tend to be heavy-handed, she does provide a very thorough and convincing description of their meanings and importance. Julius E. Heucher attempts to combine Freudian and Jungian inter­ pretations in his phenomenological approach. He recognizes a child's three stages of development of Oedipal, latency and adolescence in the hero's struggles and final victory. The story of Snow White illus­ trates this process as she progresses from her initial Oedipal desires, symbolized by the hateful stepmother, to latency with the dwarfs and, finally, to adolescence, where she is able to enter into a loving relationship with the prince. Heucher then generalizes this progres­ sion into the spiritual evolution of mankind. This is manifest in· man's initial separation from nature to his over-involvement in the material world to his final reintegration with nature. 99 These psychological interpretations tend to overburden the simplicity of the fairy tales. In many cases the analysis seems to be used to prove or reinforce the established views of an author. 28

Certainly fairy tales do reflect many common human experiences and are of value in the further understanding of a child's development and a person's psyche. Nevertheless, one must first recognize the tales as folklore and literature and only then as a psychological boon. Apart from that, fairy tales are also believed to be of signifi­ cant practical value to children. Listening to the tales helps develop and stimulate the imagination of children who hear them. The lack of description invites the child to fill in details through personal fantasies. Use of heroes as role models promotes risk taking and compassionate behavior toward nature. The consequences of individual actions are clearly displayed in the tales' portrayal of villains and heroes. Finally, the relationship of parents and children is strengthened as time is devoted to sharing story hours in the home. Several authors give guidelines to those who would interpret the meanings of specific fairy tales. Marie von Franz suggests that one should begin with the tale's exposition and its revelation of the "timeless eternity" of the collective unconscious. 100 The number of characters and events is of great interest in Jungian interpretations of the stories. Each tale is believed to begin with a missing person whose lack must be fulfilled by the end of the tale. The movement from three to four is considered to be the growth toward individuation. Jung sees the hero's three tasks as being completed in the event of his marriage. 101 Franz suggests that when studying the meaning of a fairy tale one should also take into consideration the tale's structure and its central image. All other elements of the story should then be compared to this image. Even then, according to Franz, an interpreta- 29

tion ultimately only seems correct; there are no absolutes when dealing with the meaning of the tales. 102 One also finds many warnings against over-interpretation of fairy tales. Roger Sale advises one first to read and reread the story several times, and not to impose one•s limited views on the stories. He believes the ultimate meaning of the tales is the tale itself. 103 Max Luthi believes it is a disservice to the fairy tales to impose a narrow rigid interpretation on the dynamic stories.104 He warns against the desire to interpret every minute detail, many of which he states are 11 mere ornamentation added by whomever told the story last. 11105 Chapter 8 INTERPRETATION OF SPECIFIC FAIRY TALES

The focus of this analysis is on four fairy tales which were selected because of their general popularity and frequent use by play­ wrights as sources of dramatic adaptations: 11 Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, .. 11 Cinderella, 11 11 Hansel and Gretel .. and 11 Jack and the Bean- stalk ... The frequently-dramatized 11 Sleeping Beauty .. and 11 Beauty and the Beast 11 have been rejected because the basic undramatic quality of 11 Sleeping Beauty 11 demands radical restructuring for the stage and the specific authorship of 11 Beauty and the Beast 11 removes it from the purview of this study which does not include art fairy tales, those stories which are the work of an individual author. The version of 11 Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs 11 found in Grimms Fairy Tales was used in this,study. 106 The following interpretations of the four tales are a synthesis of the opinions of Bauno Bettelheim, Julius E. Heucher, Marie Louise von Franz, Roger. Sa 1e, Max Luthi and Joyce Thomas, combined with this author's personal insights into the meanings of the fairy tales. The interpretation of each tale will be followed by a comparison to representative dramatic adaptations of the story. The tale begins with a queen's wish for a child as white as snow, as red as blood and as black as the wood of her embroidery frame. This triad of colors foreshadows Snow White's phys.ical beauty and her connection to the spirituality of the snow from heaven, the life and

30 31

passions of man's blood, and nature's black wood. These three colors, white, red and black, a most strikingly-contrasting combination, reveal the striking quality of Snow vJhite's beauty. Parenthetically, it is interesting to note that dark hair is a rare attribute, since most fairy tale heroines are described as having fair hair. Once Snow White is born, her true loving mother dies. The only image we are given of the mother is of a woman looking through a window, longing for a child. This image is in sharp contrast to the ""proud and overbearing" new queen, who looks into a mirror desiring the supremacy of her own beauty. In only seven years Snow White's beauty surpasses that of her stepmother. This knowledge initiates the stepmother's single-minded vendetta against Snow White. The murder of the beautiful child becomes the queen's only goal. The intensity of her passion is illustrated in her cannibalistic intent to eat Snow

White's heart, which reveals her desire to gain Snow 1~hite's beauty through consuming a part of her. In the woods Snow White crosses into the realm of the supernatural where she finds protection with the dwarfs. Snow vJhite's spirituality is first revealed in her prayers, then in the joy the dwarfs feel in seeing her. Snow White tells the dwarfs of her deathly trouble and becomes an active member of their household. They in turn assume a protective role. When they leave Snow White alone, the dwarfs warn her that her evil stepmother will eventually find her. The queen's hatred of Snow White is multipled when the mirror reveals that her stepdaughter is now one thousand times more beautiful then she. Disguising herself as an old peddler, the queen goes 32

directly to the cottage of the seven dwarfs. The evil stepmother then uses Snow White•s own budding egotism against her. Her three tempta­ tions underscore the child•s desire to enhance her own beauty. With each temptation Snow White reveals her innocence and growth, for even as she attempts to heed the dwarfs• warnings and protect herself, she is no match for the deceptive evil woman. Poisoned by the apple, Snow White retains the appearance of life with her 11 beautiful blooming cheeks. 11 Unable to bury such beauty, the :dwarfs place her in a glass coffin. All levels of reality mourn her death as the supernatural dwarfs, the birds of nature and the human prince lament her demise. Snow White•s beauty inspires the loving commitment of the prince as he declares he cannot live without her. This connection is the source of Snow White•s salvation as the travel dislodges the apple in her throat. The mirror once again informs the · queen of another whose beauty is greater than hers and thereby brings about the death of the queen, for she meets her final punishment at the marriage of Snow White. Each woman within the fairy tale is linked in some way to a glass object. The first queen gazes out a window: the stepmother looks into a mirror; Snow White is contained in a glass coffin. The view from the window inspires the true mother•s wish for a child. The evil .queen looks at herself, a false image, in the mirror and desires the supremacy of her beauty. The glass coffin reveals the beauty of the dead Snow White, whose beauty is spiritual, for physical beauty is doomed to fade. The window serves as an introduction to the tale: the mirror sets the story into action; the coffin brings it to a conclusion. 33

The beauty of the two main characters forms an interesting contrast. Snow White•s beauty is an extension of her mother•s wish for a child and is in harmony with her inner purity. Snow White•s beauty inspires joy in the dwarfs and a loving commitment from the prince. It is interesting to note that both the dwarfs and the prince first view Snow White when she is either asleep or dead. The step­ mother•s appearance is contained in the reflection of a mirror and is primarily for her pleasure alone. It is beauty for its own sake separated from the love and appreciation of others. The stepmother•s identity and total self worth depends on the superiority of her exter­ nal beauty. This beauty becomes grotesque and distorted when she has a rival. The disparity between the queen•s external image and inner evil magnifies her perverted nature and the shallowness of her beauty. The queen•s quest for unsurpassed beauty is one she is destined to lose, for no one can stop time. The hopelessness of her passion makes her a desperately frightening foe who can stop at nothing. Her situation is magnified when the mirror reports that Snow White is one thousand times more beautiful than she. The queen•s vengeance is not lessened by time as she returns to the dwarfs• cottage three times to destroy her foe. This passion for unequaled beauty is the ultimate cause of her death. The story of Snow White also illustrates the growth of an individual from childhood to maturity. At the age of seven, Snow White surpasses her stepmother in beauty, and she is taken away from her home and deserted in the deep forest. Alone and terrified, Snow White stumbles upon the dwarfs• cottage where she makes herself at home, much as Goldilocks does in the story of 11 The Three Bears. •• Her matura­ tion process begins where she accepts responsibility within the house­ hold. At first Snow White cannot distinguish the difference between the evil queen•s disguise and her murderous intent. After the dwarfs• repeated warnings, Snow White does try to protect herself from her stepmother, but in the end she is no match for the wicked woman. Snow White must then suffer the consequence of her guillibility with a deathlike sleep. It is the girl •s inner beauty that sustains her at this time and attracts the prince. Snow White•s development entails overcoming childish self-centeredness and youthful vanity to achieve the wholeness of her beauty in a loving relationship with another. The following playwrights• scripts were used in this comparison of the dramatic adaptations of 11 Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs:

11 Jessie Braham ~~hite (1925) and Marian Jonson (1957). The story of Snow White is the most loosely-adapted of the tales studied. The jealousy of an older woman, a magic mirror, Snow White•s stay with the seven dwarfss the temptations of a peddler woman and Snow White•s final union with the prince are the only commonly-used elements. The Jessie Braham White adaptation has combined the characters of Snow White and Cinderella, as her stepmother, Queen Brangomar, forced the princess to dress in rags, work in the kitchen and sleep in a closet. Snow White•s maids of honor dance and gossip as their mistress bakes bread. When the prince arrives, Snow White, disguised as one of her maids, dances for him. Immediately attracted to her, the prince 35

asks for her in marriage. Angered by Snow White's beautiful appear­ ance~ Queen Brangomar considers a plan to dispose of her stepdaughter secretly. She gives her consent to the marriage in a year and a day~ for she says Snow White must first be educated. It is her scheme to have Snow White killed and then to tell the court that she has died at school. The queen then summons Witch Hex through a magic chant. It is through the witch's power that the queen has maintained her beauty.

Witch Hex is a comical figure~ for she is a sympathetic witch. The queen explains her plan to the witch~ who asks for Snow White's heart, for she needs the heart of a good child as an ingredient in her hair restoring potion. The witch gives Queen Brangomar a hand mirror which reveals her true appearance. If this gift is broken the magic ceases and the queen will no longer be beautiful. The mirror also informs her of the supremacy of Snow White's beauty. Queen Brangomar orders a huntsman to take Snow White into the forest and kill her. To ensure his loyalty, the queen threatens the lives of his six children. Once in the woods, the huntsman confesses his plight to Snow White, who demands that he kill her to save his children. Snow White then convinces the man to leave her there, for she will survive with the help of the animals. The huntsman returns to the queen with the heart of a pig. Snow White is guided to the dwarfs' cottage by a bird. There she eats, cleans the house and falls fast asleep. Snow White's survival is revealed to Witch Hex in a very comical scene. Expecting the beautiful hair of a young girl, the witch is surprised when she dips her head into the magic potion, only to have 36

it become covered with tiny curly pig tails. The magic mirror informs the queen that Snow White resides with the seven dwarfs. Witch Hex transforms the queen into a peddler and arms her with a poison comb and apple. To ensure the permanence of Snow White's death, the queen must count to one hundred while the girl lies untouched. In the forest, Snow White has earned the love of the dwarfs as they line up for her kisses and she bakes them cakes. After the dwarfs have left for work, the queen appears and makes her too generous offer. The queen then gives the princess a bite of the apple. Snow falls dead and the queen begins to count, but the dwarfs return before she is able to finish, and Snow White's death is not complete. After the prescribed year and a day, the prince returns to be informed by Queen Brangomar that his bride is dead. The huntsman enters and reveals the truth, as he has found Snow White in the dwarfs' cottage in a glass coffin. At this time the dwarfs appear with Snow White. When all of the court surround the coffin and it is jarred, the apple is loosened from her throat. Snow White is once again alive. This enrages the queen, who breaks her mirror and becomes ugly. Snow White forgives her and allows her to go where no one can see her ugliness. Miss Hex, who has given up magic, enters and relates the play's thems: to achieve true and lasting beauty one must have inner goodness. Marian Jonson's play is concerned with Snow White and her younger sister Jeanne Marie. The play begins as the court prepares for the entrance of the Dark Queen and Prince Fredrick. The first to arrive is a masked jester who informs them of the evil power of the Dark 37

Queen. All who see her are enslaved by her cold beauty. The only way to defeat her is through her anger, for once she has lost her temper she will no longer have the power of her beauty. The next to arrive is an enchanted mirror who can only tell the truth. When the Dark Queen makes her appearance, the entire court attempts to anger her, but she asserts her power over them. The mirror verifies the queen•s suspicion that Snow White has surpassed her in beauty. The queen then commands the jester to abandon the princess in the woods. Unable totally to disobey the queen, the jester takes Snow White to the cottage of the dwarfs. The mirror reveals Snow White•s survival in the woods. Disguised as a peddler, the queen succeeds in poisoning Snow White with the use of a comb. The dwarfs, mindful of the queen•s guilt, take the fallen Snow White to the castle. As supernatural beings, the dwarfs are able to see beyond the queen•s surface beauty and reveal the ugliness of her black heart. Once this is told, the queen begins to lose control of her temper. When the jester is able to disobey her and take the comb out of Snow White•s hair, the queen completely loses control and becomes ugly. All spells are broken: the jester becomes Snow White•s groom: and the mirror, the jester•s brother, marries Jeanne Marie. Snow White•s complete internal and external beauty, as compared to the surface beauty of the Dark Queen, is the theme of this play. These two adaptations of Snow White center on a comparison between the pure beauty of Snow White and the evil vanity of the queen. The fairy tale themes of the development of Snow White from a child to a 38

mature woman and the dangers of her blossoming egotism play little if any part in these plays. Both scripts contain the dwarfs, magic mirror, poisoned apple and comb. However, the Jonson version deviates markedly from the original, as can be noted from the preceding discussion. More faithful to the original, the White script makes Queen Brangomar dependent upon the powers of Witch Hex to carry out her vengence against her stepchild. She further introduces Cinderella­ like characteristics and situations in delineating Snow White. While the devices employed by both playwrights seem designed to create theatrically viable works, they do tend to alter the essential qualities of the fairy tale.

The versions of 11 Cinderella 11 found in The Classic Fairytale107 and Grimm Fairy Tales108 were used in this study.

The Perrault 11 Cinderella 11 begins with the second marriage of her father. The two wives are sharply contrasted in beauty and disposi­ tion, the first being described as the 11 best creature in all the world 11 and the second as 11 proud and haughty. 11 The daughters of each are extensions of their mothers and reveal both their mothers• natures and outward appearances. From this outset the second wife•s actions display a hatred for Cinderella, which is magnified in the abusive treatment her daughters accord their new stepsister. This hatred may be due to jealousy of the first wife, which the stepmother redirects toward Cinderella, her living representative. Always second best, the stepmother is constantly reminded of the goodness and beauty of her predecessor, who is unreachable. This humiliation, furthered by a comparison between her daughters and Cinderella, motivates the 39

stepmother to isolate her stepdaughter from society and place her in a lowly social position. Renaming the beautiful girl Cinderella, the new family completes their surpremacy over her. Now a servant, Cinderella fulfills all of the whims of her stepfamily without malice. This forgiveness reinforces the heroine's purity. The story follows the common fairy tale pattern of the heroine's separation from human society and her connection with the supernatural, in the presence of her godmother. The invitation to the ball and the rejection of Cinderella brings forth the appearance of her godmother. Turning common things and animals into a grand coach with all the trappings, the godmother fulfills all of the desires of the rejected girl, asking only that she return home by midnight. Dressed in finery, Cinderella goes to the ball and creates quite a commotion as everyone stops to behold her beauty. The prince, immediately attracted to her, dances only with her until she abruptly leaves at 11:45. She returns the next day, more beautifully dressed, and the prince remains at her side until the stroke of midnight, when she barely escapes. Losing one glass slipper, she returns home dress­ ed once again in rags. She retains possession of the other glass slipper. The prince, convinced of his love for the mysterious girl, sends a gentleman to seek out the maiden whose foot can fit the slipper. All ends happily as the shoe fits Cinderella, she returns to the prince in her finery and her two stepsisters marry gentlemen of the court. Nothing is mentioned of the stepmother's fate. The disparity between appearance and reality is a dominant theme 40

of this 11 Cinderella, 11 as illustrated by the princess within the ash-maiden. The tale warns against the presumption that the outward dressing and social position of an individual contain the essence of that person. The physical appearance of Cinderella, revealing her inner beauty, is easily camouflaged by rags and filth. The glass slipper serves as a focal point within the tale's action and imagery. The shoe provides Cinderella's link to the supernatural and the prince, her ultimate reward. Although not obviously magic, the slipper is the only article of clothing which remains after twelve. Without the shoe, the tale would lose its tight structure, and another mode of identification would be needed. The glass slipper also provides an image for another theme, the fusion of royalty and poverty as illustrated by the ash-maiden wearing a royal shoe.

In many versions of 11 Cinderella 11 a golden ring replaces the slipper. Both objects require an individual fit for comfort and retention. Another person can wear one's clothing, but few fit perfectly into one's shoes or rings. Perrault's 11 Cinderella 11 provides a symbol of endurance, fortitude and forgiveness. This forgiveness is missing in the Grimm version of the fairy tale. A comparison between the two tales reveals several distinctive differences. The Perrault tale merely mentions the first wife in the past tense, whereas she is present in the Grimm story, and, before she dies, promises her daughter her continued love and protection. This reinforces the mother's spirit w1thin the animal and vegetable godmothers who take the form of pigeons and a laurel tree. The remarriage of the father and the ensuing reign of terror 41

Q . implicated by the new wife are marked by taking away Cinderella's pretty dresses and reclothing her in rags and wooden shoes. She is then named Cinderella. All of this gives a clear image of Cinderella's transition from the beautiful child of loving parents to the ash-maiden. In the Grimm version, the ball is a vehicle to find the prince a wife, whereas the Perrault ball is merely a party given by the king~ Cinderella's attendance at the Grimm's ball is crucial for her marriage and final reward. Grimm's stepmother cruelly toys with Cinderella by twice promising her that she will be able to go to the ball if she completes two impossible tasks. These are easily overcome by her bird godmothers, making the stepmother go back on her word and leave Cinderella at home. As in the Perrault tale, Grimm's Cinderella is given finery by her supernatural helpers. She goes to the ball three times instead of two, and no time limit is placed on her. The Grimms' Prince actively tries to prevent Cinderella from leaving, forcing her to hide in a pigeon coop and in a laurel tree, both of which he cuts down in an unsuccessful attempt to stop her. These two hiding places restate the supernatural protectors of Cinderella. The third time, the prince places tar in the street, and this is the method by which he gains possession of the gold slipper, which gets stuck in it. Unlike the Perrault tale, the Grimm version has the prince himself in search of his princess. The prince is easily fooled by appearances and accepts each stepsister as his bride as, prompted by their mother, each mutilates a foot to fit the small slipper. Unaware of the deception, the prince is told by the pigeons that these are .42

false brides. It is only after Cinderella fits the slipper and the prince looks into her face, that he recognizes his love. Cinderella is then taken to the palace. The stepsisters follow and are blinded by the pigeons as a final punishment for their abusive behavior toward the heroine. The Grimm ending is too violent for a dramatic presentation for children. Also, the less familiar bird and tree godmothers are not consonant with audience expectations, and, if used, may arouse undue attention to this difference. The tasks given by the stepmother and the attempts to hinder Cinderella's escape do give a dramatic tension. Possibly a synthesis of the two tales could provide a stronger more theatrical basis for their adaptations for the stage than either tale taken individually. The following playwrights' scripts were used in this comparison of selected dramatic adaptations of 11 Cinderella: 11 Frances Homer (1934) and Charlotte Chorpenning (1940). Both of the plays use the fairy tale's pattern of an abused stepchild, who through the aid of her magical godmother, attends a ball and attracts the love of a prince. Leaving the ball in a hurry, Cinderella loses her slipper, which becomes the key to her identity. The prince searches for her and finds her. He marries her and then Cinderella unselfishly provides husbands for her two undeserving stepsisters.

The Homer script's title, 11 Cinderella of Loreland, 11 seems to imply that this play is not meant to follow exactly the fairy tale, although the play is structured around the Perrault story. The premise of the 43

tale is changed as the prince is already engaged to a Princess of Gold, whose beauty is cold and self-centered. As in the tale, Cinderella is abused by her stepmother and stepsisters, though she is not totally isolated, for Cinderella owns a speaking cat named Ashes. Cinderella receives a personal invitation to the birthday ball given for the prince, since she has already met his highness. Cinderella•s stepmother refuses to allow her to attend the ball and leaves her at home. Desolate, Cinderella cries, but then attempts to make the best of her miserable situation. The godmother appears after this, for through her mature decision, Cinderella has proved herself to be an exceptional child. Through the magic of her godmother, Cinderella attends the ball and presents the prince with Ashes as a birthday gift. After her escape, Ashes convinces the king and queen that Cinderella in reality is a wealthy aristocrat. The cat will not tell the prince where Cinderella lives, but does suggest that he use the shoe to identify her and that she lives within ten miles of the castle. The ending of the play parallels that of the Perrault tale. The play•s theme lies in a comparison between the vain cold beauty of the Princess of Gold and Cinderella•s giving, mature beauty. Frances

Homer does place the qualifier of 11 Loreland 11 within her title, probably to excuse her loose adaptation of the fairy tale. This use of the fairy tale with a title which includes a reconizable link to the tale is not an uncommon occurrence. In these types of adaptations the fairy tale characters remain bascially true to their source but are placed in other situations. 44

Charlotte Chorpenning's verions of "Cinderella" is a synthesis of the Grimm and Perrault tales, including as it does Cinderella's tasks and her difficult escape from the ball. It also includes added material. Cinderella overcomes the family abuses through her imagination as she dances with the prince in her daydreams. Cinderella also makes a dress for herself from the discarded clothing of her stepsisters. This dress is destroyed by the stepmother. Roland, the prince's herald, arrives and informs Cinderella that the prince, disguised as a beggar, is searching for a kind and gentle bride. He then personally invites Cinderella to the ball. Roland informs his lord that he has found a raggedly dressed girl who possesses the desired gualities. The prince arrives in disguise at Cinderella's home, where he is mistreated by the stepsisters. Before he leaves, the prince tells the sisters to cuff and trip the prince's cousins, who, unbeknown to the sisters, are attempting to discredit him in front of his mother the queen. The story follows the tale's plot as Cinderella is left at home and is visited by her godmother. The godmother grants all of Cinderella's dreams through magic. Dressed in finery, she goes to the ball. The queen is introduced as a woman whose only concern is money. She wants her son to marry for wealth. However, the prince desires a wife whose riches are herself. He then awaits the entrance of the girl in rags. At the ball, the stepsisters follow the prince's advice as their 45

dance with the cousins becomes a comedy of errors. Cinderella enters, and her inner goodness is exactly what the prince desires. At twelve o•clock midnight, Cinderella•s escape is hindered and she is tied up. Through the assistance of her godmother, Cinderella is able to return home. The play•s conclusion closely adheres to the Perrault tale as Cinderella marries the prince and the stepsisters are paired with the two cousins. The importance of the inner virtues of compassion, gentleness and pluck is stressed in the Chorpenning Cinderella. The Grimm and Perrault versions of Cinderella provide a strong plot outline which is followed by both playwrights. The character of the prince is given more prominence in both plays. The fairy tale•s themes of the disparity between appearance and reality and the fusion of poverty and royalty remain, for they are an integral part of the character of Cinderella. The fairy tale prince•s concern for physical beauty alone is transformed in the plays to a desire for the inner qualities of warmth, compassion and gentleness.

The version of 11 Hansel and Gretel 11 found in Grimm Fairy Tales was used in this study. 104

The story of 11 Hansel and Gretel 11 begins with hunger and the desperate need and concern for food. Unlike 11 Snow White .. and

11 Cinderella, 11 there is no mention of the true mother, and the father has a more dominant role. The stepmother is not driven by vanity or jealousy, but a fear of starvation motivates her destructive actions toward the children. Her solution to their situation is the abandon- ment of the children, which she forces upon the father through constant nagging. Hansel, the dominant figure in the beginning of the tale, 46

successfully marks their return path home with pebbles. Unable to get stones, Hansel uses bread crumbs, his only food, to indicate the way home during their parents• second and successful attempt to rid them­ selves of the two extra mouths to feed. Having been lost for two days, the children follow a white bird into the supernatural realm of the witch. From a lack of food, the children are given an abundance. The witch's use of rhyme establishes her magical powers. The stepmother's over-concern for food is mirrored and exaggerated in the witch's grotesque taste and appetite for human flesh. The death of the children is desired by each woman to satisfy her perverse passion for food. Caged and fattened for the kill, Hansel fools the witch through the use of his intelligence. Having poor eyesight, the witch believes that a bone is Hansel's skinny finger, thus buying more time, for the witch desires a plump boy for dinner. Gretel also takes advantage of the witch's low estimation of her and tricks the witch into the oven and her final punishment. The children leave for home with the witch's jewels, a lasting security against hunger. When they reach a river, Hansel can find no way across. It is Gretel who calls upon a duck to assist them. She then shows the basic heroic concern for nature by refusing to overbur­ den the white duck. A white bird lures them into the supernatural realm and a white bird helps them return to reality. Once across, they find their father and return to a home without the stepmother, who has died. Hansel and Gretel provide a model of the successful child hero. 47

They are self-sufficient and use their native abilities and intelli­ gence in the defeat of their foe. They first foil their human stepmother's original plan to abandon them and then survive for three days after she succeeds. Once captured by the witch, they maintain their composure and defeat their supernatural foe through using her own weaknesses, failing eyesight and impatient greed, against her. Hansel and Gretel remain independent throughout the tale. When outside assistance is needed the children maturely recognize their situation and call upon the duck to help them cross the river. True to the fairy tale heroines, Gretel displays concern for the duck. Survival through rational thought seems to be the central message of Hansel and Gretel. The stepmother and her supernatural counterpart reverse the expected security of home as their stomachs, not the well being of the children, are shown to be their primary concern. This over-consuming desire for daily bread blinds the stepmother to her natural duties, and the near-sighted witch underestimates the children's intelligence. Hansel and Gretel survive through co-opera­ tion, endurance, cunning and clear-sightedness. The following playwrights' scripts were used in this comparison of the dramatic adaptations of "Hansel and Gretel:" Lillian and Robert T. Masters (1949), Madge Miller (1951), Charlotte Chorpenning (1956), Moses Goldberg (1972) and Richard KortKamp (1972). All of the plays begin with poverty and hunger, although the cause of the deprivation differs. Masters, Goldberg and KortKamp all seem to point to the inability of the father to provide for his family during a time of need. The impracticality of the father and 48

his children is the source of need in the Charlotte Chorpenning play. The famine in Madge Miller's script results from the imprisonment of the Forest Fairy, who ensures the land's productivity. Miller's stepmother follows the fairy tale characterization of a woman obsessed with her need for food. Masters• stepmother is a woman who cannot cope with her desperate situation. The children's natural mother is portrayed in the Chorpenning, Goldberg and KortKamp scripts. The Chorpenning mother is driven to desperation through the frivolity of her husband and children. Hunger and anger provoke the mother in Goldberg's and KortKamp's plays. The abandonment of Hansel and Gretel is the premeditated solution of the Masters, Miller and Chorpenning mothers. Goldberg and KortKamp's mothers in a fit of temper send their children out to pick berries. In these plays the children are not deserted; they are sent into the woods to find food for dinner and are expected to return. All of the mother•s, except in the Miller play, relent and go in search of their children. Hansel and Gretel are portrayed differently in each script. Masters presents the children as kind, understanding and obedient. Chorpenning•s Hansel and Gretel share their father•s impracticality and are said to be both good and bad. Miller and Goldberg portray the children as bright and funny. KortKamp's Hansel is hungry and adventurous, and Gretel displays a certain maturity. The original tale's two adventures into the forest are included in the Chorpenning script, whereas Masters begins her work after the first journey. Miller, Goldberg and KortKamp combine the two trips into a single event. Masters, Chorpenning and Miller include the 49

children's use of white stones and bread crumbs as trail markers. The Goldberg and KortKamp stories do not mention the need for a marked path. Once the children are in the woods, the scripts of Chorpenning, Masters, Golqperg and KortKamp give the children a dream through the use of a sandman. Not found in the tale, this episode seems to have originated in the Adelheid Wette and Engelbert Humerdink opera (1893). The dreams given the children differ as Masters• comforts, Goldberg's and KortKamp's warn and Chorpenning's instruct. The five witches are portrayed somewhat comically, and all live in the traditional gingerbread house. In the fairy tale, Hansel and Gretel merely happen upon the witch's home. This is followed by Masters and Goldberg. Miller's and Chorpenning's witches entice the children through music. KortKamp's villain uses Hansel and Gretel •s hunger to lure them to her tasty abode. The placing of Hansel in the cage and the witch's use of Gretel as a servant, found in the tale, are used by all of the p"laywrights. All of the five antagonists exhibit magical powers, whereas the tale's villain never overtly displays her magical abilities. Hansel •s use of the bone and the exploitation of the witch's poor eyesight to gain time are part of all the plays, except the KortKamp work. Gretel •s victory over the witch through tricking her into the oven is the common climax of the dramatic adaptations. Hansel and Gretel are self-sufficient and use their own abilities in their defeat of the witch in the Masters and KortKamp plays. The children are assisted in some way in the other three scripts. The fairy tale 50

concludes with the return of the children alone to their father. This ending is altered in all of the adaptations as the father, and some­ times the mother find the children. All but the Miller play end with the family unit intact. The plays offer several different solutions to the deprivation of Hansel and Gretel's family. Masters follows the tale and has the children take the witch's jewels. In the Miller play, Hansel and Gretel do not need wealth, for the freedom of the Forest Fairy ensures a source of food. Chorpenning gives the children gold through the generosity of hill dwarfs. Goldberg's and KortKamp's fathers are able to sell the brooms and support the family without the assistance of the children. All of the five playwrights add characters to their stories. Other children are found in all but the Goldberg adaptation. The five friends in the Masters play represent different childish vices, such as laziness, cowardice, self-centeredness, greed and clumsiness. These failings make the children susceptible to the powers of the witch, who changes them into gingerbread children. Gretel cannot be enchanted, for "she has always tried to be obedient." Masters also includes a white cat, who is in reality a boy. The stepmother also falls victim to the witch, for her ill treatment of the children made her susceptible to the evil villain. All of the captives of the witch are freed by the final victory of Hansel and Gretel. The goodness and kindness of Hansel and Gretel, as compared to the poorer qualities of their friends, seem to be the central message of Lillian Masters• play. Although Hansel and Gretel do display independence and self-sufficiency, .51

their obedience and good behavior are the more dominant qualities. This adaptation by Masters appears to adhere closest to the original story. Madge Miller's play changes the premise of the tale. Hansel and Gretel do not merely have to survive; they must also save the Forest Fairy. Like Masters, Miller includes other children and an enchanted cat. The witch's poor eyesight is given greater prominence and is used several times as a comic device. Miller's witch is susceptible to both water and fire, but she is only able to protect herself against the threat of water as she meets her doom in the oven. The central theme of this adaptation seems to be the ultimate victory of good over evil. Chorpenning's script is made very complex through her addition of several plot complications and characters. As previously mentioned, the basis for the real mother's desperation is the impracticality of her family. The witch is introduced early, as she has heard of Hansel and Gretel's plight and recognizes them as prime victims. Hansel and Gretel are absent at this time on their first journey in the woods. The witch does, however, spy five of the children's friends. An angel also appears at this time. Dressed in rags, she is abused by the friends. When Hansel and Gretel return, they save the disguised angel and share their meager dinner with her. Then they are rewarded for their kindness with the gifts of a bone and a broom. The five friends are enticed into the forest by the witch and are changed into gingerbread children. Although their mother does temporarily forgive them, Hansel and 52

Gretel are once again sent into the woods. This is not totally cruel, for the mother honestly believes they will be able to care for them­ selves. The bread crumbs used to mark their way are not eaten by birds but by hill dwarfs, who leave them gold in exchange for the human food. At this time, Hansel and Gretel's parents search for their children in vain. Aware of the threat of elves, the parents return to town to ring the church bells, the one solution to the problem of the supernatural beings. Elves do appear and when they are forming their fairy ring, the bells are heard and the children are saved. Also, during the night, Hansel and Gretel are given a dream by the sandman, who is aided by the angel. The next morning Hansel and Gretel are captured, but ultimately defeat the witch through the use of their gifts. The theme of this adaptation appears to be found in the growth of Hansel and Gretel from frivolity to responsibility. Richard KortKamp's play is an adaptation of the Humperdink opera and retains much of the original music. As mentioned above, KortKamp's mother does not abandon her children, but in a fit of temper sends them into the deep woods to pick berries. After the children leave, the father arrives with the security of continued prosperity. As night falls, the children are visited in the woods by the sandman. The sandman protects the children through making them invisible and gives them the security of sweet dreams. While they rest, the children are visited by their parents and the witch, but neither can find them because of the magic of the sandman. In the morning the children disregard the sandman's advice and satisfy their hunger at 53 the gingerbread house. The play follows the tale as Hansel is caged and Gretel pushes the witch into the oven. There is no use of the villain's poor eyesight or Hansel's bone. The play ends as Hansel and Gretel's parents arrive and the previous victims of the witch are freed. This play's most prominent theme appears to be illustrated in Hansel and Gretel's use of intelligence to outwit the evil witch. Moses Goldberg •s adaptation of 11 Hansel and Gretel'' is structured around the premise of a traveling troupe of actors. The script promotes audience participation as a support for the play and as a source of solutions to the problems within the story. A mime character changes the scenery and assists Hansel and Gretel throughout the play. After the extended introduction, the simplified story follows an abbreviated version of the Humperdink opera. This adapta­ tion's audience participation is the central focus of the play. The tale's outward structure is filled with physical comedy and moments which include the viewers. The playwright seems to regard this involve­ ment as more important than the story. In his production notes, Goldberg suggests that an audience solution is preferred over the scripted outcome.

The five adaptations of 11 Hansel and Gretel 11 omit segments. of the original tale, while adding characters and plot complications. Th~ first venture into the woods is never shown on stage, and the character of the selfish stepmother remains intact only in Miller's play. The total independence and self-sufficiency of the fairy tale children are not present in most of the plays, as they are assisted by hill dwarfs, an angel, enchanted cats, a Forest Fairy and the sandman. 54

The morality and behavior of the children, incidental in the fairy tale, becomes the central message of the majority of these dramatic adaptations. Right behavior, obedience, responsibility and the ultimate victory of goodness seem to be the dominant themes of the Masters, Miller and Cborpenning scripts. KortKamp singles out Hansel and Gretel •s intellect in their rational victory over the witch. Moses Goldberg could have used any story in his audience participant-centered play.

11 1 The version of Jack and the Be·anstalk ; found in Red Fairy Book was used in this study. 110 Jack assumes the role of a Simpleton hero who is believed to be unable to achieve anything of worth. When the cow goes dry it is Jack who first suggests a solution: he will go to find work, a very reasonable and solid answer to the family dilemma. His mother rejects his idea, however, for no one will take him. She decides instead to sell their milk cow. Jack accepts the responsibility and takes the cow to market where he meets the strange little man. Jack is not so easily taken in and receives a guarantee before taking the magic beans. It takes a spontaneous and discerning individual to see the fantastic possibilities in five ordinary looking beans. Jack•s first trek up the beanstalk is undertaken out of need.· He succeeds through trust, and his reward of gold is easily taken. His second journey to the ogre•s home is successful because of his confidence, which piques the ogre•s wife•s curiosity. This time he gains the source of unlimited wealth and its promise of freedom from want forever. Jack•s theft of the hen who lays the golden eggs does 55

not entail the danger of waking the sleeping ogre. The third trip, taken purely for adventure, is marked by independence and the threat of death. The magic harp, Jack•s final acquisition from the ogre, demands the ultimate defeat of the giant. This final victory attracts a princess, and Jack earns the ultimate reward due a fairy tale hero, a royal wedding. Jack•s adventures can be interpreted as the growth of an indivi­ dual toward maturity and integration, or as the general development of man from barbaric excesses to civilization. At first Jack is young and open, willing to accept the advice of both the funny looking man and the giant•s wife. Jack•s first reward, easily taken, symbolizes wealth and a connection to the earth. The second quest reveals a Jack who is confident and cockey, but still in need of assistance. The reward for this journey is the magical hen who provides both unlimited wealth and a link to nature. This is not acquired without risk, but Jack•s life is never in real danger. The third and only unnecessary journey is solely for adventure. Jack reveals an independence and cunning not displayed before. He uses his natural intelligence to steal the harp, and his physical strength and endurance to keep it. This last prize is linked to man•s artistic achievements and his spirituality. The process of civilization is illustrated in Jack•s defeat of the primitive excesses of man as symbolized by the giant•s insatiable appetites. Jack•s gradual acquisition of wealth, security and artistic and spiritual achievements parallels the process of mankind•s civilization. 56

The following playwrights' works were used in this comparison study of the 11 Jack and the Beanstalk 11 dramatic adaptations: Charlotte Chorpenning (1935) and Elenore Parker and Harvey Brock (n.d.). Both plays begin by introducing the poverty and hunger of Jack's family, which pressure the mother into a decision to sell their cow. The characterization of the mother differs in each script. Brock and Parker's mother, very much like her fairy tale counterpart, is fed up with her son's foolish impractical behavior. Chorpenning's mother is understanding and never scolds Jack for his behavior. Both plays depict only one of the three adventures up the beanstalk, and during this single quest Jack obtains all three rewards of gold, the hen that lays golden eggs and the magical harp. Both Jacks are threatened by the cannibalism of the giant and are aided by the giant's wife. Each play ends with the giant's death from a fall from the beanstalk. Chorpenning's hero cuts the stalk with the world's sharpest knife, and Brock and Parker's giant is shaken out of the beanstalk. Neither play ends with the ultimate reward of the Grimm fairy tale, Jack's royal wedding. Chorpenning's play begins with a conversation between the Man-in­ the-Moon and a magical being named Frihol. Through their dialogue we are informed that Jack's adventures are a test for him to prove his mental abilities and inner qualities of compassion. Chorpenning introduces an evil and brutal man named Rafe Heywood, to whom Jack's mother sells the cow. When Frihol enters and attempts to buy the cow in exchange for his magic beans, Rafe orders the townspeople, whom he controls, to abuse the magical being. Jack saves Frihol, and in an 57

attempt to save the cow from the brutality of Rafe, Jack sells her to Frihol for the magical beans. This places his family under financial dependence to Rafe Heywood, for the mother has already used the down payment to buy food and cannot pay these pennies back. Rafe then threatens to take ownership of all Jack's lands and possessions in one week. Jack climbs the beanstalk in an attempt to save his mother from absolute poverty. Once in the giant's land, Jack encounters the giant's wife, who has a human grandmother and is subject to feelings of sympathy and concern for others. These human emotions are a constant irritant to the giant, for his wife cannot kill the lambs and boys he desires for his dinner. With the help of this compassionate woman Jack acquires the prizes of gold and the hen. Chorpenning inserts an additional test at this time. Half-way between home and the giant, he is enabled to listen to the fate of his mother and the giant's wife. He solves his mother's poverty by dropp­ ing some gold for her to pick up. The giant's wife is in a terrible position, for the giant believes she aided the thief who stole his gold and hen. Using the power of the harp, the giant forces his wife to dance until she gives him the information he desires. Jack enters, takes possession of the harp and commands it to put the giant to sleep. This completed, Jack returns to earth, followed by the giant•s wife. Home again, Jack generously shares his wealth with his neighbors. The giant's wife is reunited with her grandmother and Jack orders the harp to play. Everyone is dancing when Rafe returns and demands all the gold as payment on Jack's loan. Rafe then tries to take command 58

of the harp, which is Jack's alone. In an attempt to find more wealth, Rafe begins to climb the beanstalk. He encounters the giant and is killed. Jack then cuts down the beanstalk and kills the giant. Charlotte Chorpenning•s script transforms Jack's adventures into the conscious plan of the Man-in-the-Moon and Frihol. Jack is set up to prove his compassion and mental ability, qualities he seems to possess at the beginning of the play. Jack's victory over the human greed of Rafe Heywood and the giant's unnatural appetites seem to illustrate Chorpenning•s moral view that goodness, kindness and in­ telligence will be rewarded, and evil is fated to be defeated and punished.

Harvey Block and Elenore Parker's musical version of 11 Jack and the Beanstalk 11 is much simpler than the Chorpenning script. Jack is portrayed as a fool and dreamer who pretends that his hunger is satisfied. As in the original story, Jack sells the cow for magical beans. The magical quality of the beans is unclear: as the butcher, who sells Jack the beans, believes they are ordinary. A comic relationship between the giant and his wife is revealed through humorous scenes and slapstick comedy. Jack enters into the fun and quickly steals the three rewards. Jack returns home, closely followed by the giant. Unable to cut through the enormous stem, Jack shakes the giant out of the beanstalk and the enormous villain falls to his death. One interpretation of the Brock and Parker script is found in Jack's growth from a childish dreamer to a responsible individual. The original tale's illustration of the gradual growth of an individual 59

and the general civilizing process of mankind cannot be portrayed in one adventure up the beanstalk. This one journey is provoked by poverty, and wealth is its only obvious reward. The acquisition of artistic creativity and spirituality symbolized by the harp is lost in the dramatic adaptations. The fairy tale's final reward of a royal wedding is missing in both plays. Both playwrights have reduced the original tale to a mere plot outline. Chorpenning fills this structure with many characters and the test premise. Block and Parker merely add music to a skeleton of the tale. Chapter 9 CONCLUSION

Fairy tales were formed and refined through the storyteller's performance and possess inherent dramatic qualities. Action, which is the central focus of the fairy tale, also is a fundamental theatrical element. The use of repetition and variation in fairy tales is not unlike its use in the theatre as a comic device and a structure for the development of dramatic tension. Dramatic presentation seems to be the logical and natural extension of fairy tales. The playwrights mentioned in this study utilize the well-known characters, popular images and archetypal symbols of the tales. Each story's structure becomes an outline which is then filled out with a variety of dramatic and theatrical devices. In some cases the plays are not based on the tales, but rather on an adaptation of the orig­ inal and are twice removed from the folk story. For example, the source for Moses Goldberg's Hansel and Gretel is the Wette-Humperdink opera. The scripts studied are adaptations of fairy tales rather than dramatizations, thereby giving the playwrights a greater poetic freedom. For example, the authors feel free to eliminate specific details and condense several occurrences into a single event. One can conclude that usually the tale becomes a springboard for the playwrights' creative problem solving as they appear to utilize the self-generative property of the tales, resolving their own questions

60 about the central characters and their motivations. The well-known heroes and heroines free the playwrights from the burden of exposition and therefore invite a deeper characterization. Several different dramatic devices are employed in the translation of the narrative art of the fairy tale into the visual art of the stage. The addition of characters, a basic dramatic convention, enlarges the commonly small fairy tale population and develops new relationships which can further the play's theme. For example, the five children added to the Masters• Hansel and Gretel help establish and reinforce the good behavior of Hansel and Gretel. Added characters can also magnify the evil of the villain and provide the means through which the antagonist can be defeated. This is illustrated in the re­ lationship between Queen Brangomar and Witch Hex in Jessie Braham White's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, as the comic witch's gift becomes the source of the queen•s downfall. Many authors have given the prince more prominence and depth by introducing him earlier in the plot and by giving him additional and stronger motivation. This is true in both "Cinderella" adaptations as well as in White •s version of "Snow White. •• Certainly, despite their inherent dramatic qualities, many tales need radical structural revisions to be suited for the stage. In addition, fairy tales sometimes need editing. For example, Snow White's stepmother's cannibalism may be viewed as a bit too graphic for a child audience. It is clear that a playwright's taste and judgment must be exercised in the process of adapting fairy tales for the stage; nevertheless, faith in the original stories• strength and E2

validity can be extremely helpful. One fundamental problem in creating theatrical adaptations of fairy tales lies in the tales' narrative form and lack of direct dialogue. The development of dialogue necessitates a fundamental change in the fairy tale style. The clear precise language of the originals is virtually lost in the plays studied. The dramatic convention of a narrator is not present in any of the scripts studied. Rather, all of the characters live entirely in the fairy tale world. This is not to suggest that one should treat the tales as sacred and untouchable, although in recent years, playwrights have found that narration can become a bridge between the fairy tale and its dramatic adaptation, and the integrity of the Paul Sills Story Theatre approach has become a viable alternative to the traditional children's theatre style of fairy tale adaptations. The tales were subject to constant revision through their oral transmission and continue to have flexibility and openness to change. Playwrights would be well advised to begin with a solid knowledge and deep understanding of the stories in order to do them greater justice in dramatic translation. This same knowledge and understanding of the fundamental struc­ ture and components of classical fairy tales should also inform the work of playwrights who wish to develop original stories in the fairy tale tradition. Playwrights wishing to adapt traditional lore should become acquainted with the many fairy tales which are dramatically sound, but which never have been adapted for the stage. Collections of stories from Grimm, Lang, Perrault, as well as the folklore of 63

many different ethnic groups, contain a wealth of promising sources for the creative playwright. Dramatic renditions of fairy tales have the potential to engage children•s imaginations, provide them with a hope for the future and ensure that their daydreams will end

11 happily ever after. 11 .Chapter 10 NOTES

.1 J. R. R. Tolkien~ Tree and Leaf (Boston: Houghton Miffin Co., 1965)' 0. 19. 2Iona and Peter Opie, The Classic Fairytale (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), p. 17.

3Joyce Thomas, 11 The Fairytale: An Analysis of Matter, Rhetoric and Theme, 11 Diss. State University of New York 1978, p. 32. 4Max Luthi, Once U on A Time: ·on the Nature of Fairytales (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976 , p. 26. 5Thomas, p. 50. 6Thomas, p. 212. 7Thomas, p. iii. 8Tolkien, p. 68. 9Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment (New York: Vintage Press, 1977), p. 143. 10Mary Louise von Franz, Introduction to the Inter retation of Fairytales (Irving,Tx.:Spring Publications, 1973 , p. 32. 11von Franz, Introduction, p. 16. 12von Franz, Introduction, p. 11. 13Julius E. Heucher, A Ps chiatric Stud of M th and Fair tales (Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1974 , p. 75.

14oon Ben-Amos, 11 Toward a Definition of Folklore in Context, 11 in Toward New Pers ectives·in Folklore, eds. America Paresdes and Richard Bauman Austin: American Folklore Society, 1972)' p. 4. 15 Ben-Amos, p. 10.

64 65

16Richard D. Abrahams, 11 Personal Power and Social Restraint in the Definition of Folklore, 11 in Toward New Pers ectives in Folklore, eds. America Paredes and Richard Bauman Austin: American Folklore Society, 1972), p. 18. 17Abrahams, p. 16. 18Abrahams, p. 19. 19 Thomas, p. 235. 20 Abrahams, p. 20. 21 Jack Zipes, Breaking the Magic Spell (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979), p. 25. 22Ben-Amos, p. 10. 23zipes, p. 6. 24Luthi, p. 13o. 25 Heucher, p. 20. 26zipes, p. 6. 27 zipes, p. 23. 28Roger Sale, Fairytales and After: From Snow White to E. B. White (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978), p. 46. 29zipes, p. 28. 30 Thomas, p. 2. 31 .. Luthi, p. 28. 32Thomas, p. 207. 33Thomas, p. 205. 34Thomas, p. 234. 35Thomas, p. 215. 36Thomas, p. 225. 37 •. Luthi, p. 57. 38Thomas, p. 232. 39Thomas, p. 231. 66

40 .. Luthi, p. 57.

41Thomas, p. 1. 42Thomas, p. 2. 43Thomas, p. 9. 44Thomas, p. 3. 45 Heucher, p. 72. 46Thomas, p. 4. 47Thomas, p. 5. 48Thomas, p. 18. 49Thomas, p. 27. 50Thomas, p. 30. 51Thomas, p. 231. 52Thomas, p. 386. 53Thomas, p. 49. 54Thomas, p. 45. 55Thomas, p. 382. 56Thomas, p. 47. 57 Thomas, p. 48. 58Thomas, p. 50. 59Thomas, p. 88. 60Thomas, p. 54. 61Marie Louise von Franz, The Ps cholo ical Meanin of Redem tion Motifs in Fairytales Toronto: Inner City Books, 1980 , p. 119. 62Thomas, p. 56. 63Thomas, p. 57. 64Thomas, p. 68. ,67 ,, .

65Thomas, p. 69. 66Thomas, p. 72. 67Thomas, p. 95. 68Thomas, p. 96. 69 .. Luthi, p. 89. 70Thomas, p. 176. 71 Luthi,'" p. 89. 72Thomas, p. 186. 73Thomas, p. 266. 74Luthi, p. 69. 75L'uthi, p. 49. 76Thomas, p. 191. 77Thomas, p. 177. 78Thomas, p. 193. 79Thomas, p. 194. 80Thomas, p. 163. 81 .. Luthi, p. 65. 82Marie Louise von Franz, Problems of the Feminine in Fair tales (New York: Spring Publications, 1972 , p. 43. 83 Sa 1e, p. 43.

84 Thomas, p. 277. 85 Heucher, p. 11. 86zipes, p. 25. 87 L'uthi, p. 62. 88Arland Ussher and Carl Von Metzradt, Enter These Enchanted Woods (Dublin: The Dolmero Press, 1957), p. 43. 89Bettelheim, p. 6. .68 Q .

90Bettelheim, p. 7. 91 Bettelheim, p • .7. 92 Bettelheim, pp. 8-9. 93Bettelheim, p. 10. 94Bettelheim, pp. 8-9. 95 Brian Sutton Smith, "The Expres.s,ive Profile, 11 tn Toward New Pers ectives in Folklore, eds .. America Paredes and Richard Bauman Austin: American Folklore Society-~ 1972), p. 85. 96von Franz, Introduction, p. 1. 97von Franz, Introduction, p. 11. 98von Franz, Feminine, p. 2. 99 Heucher, p. 15. 100von Franz, Introduction, p. 27. 101 carl G. Jung, The Archety es and the Collective Unconscious (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969 , p. 235. 102von Franz, Introduction, p. 31. 103 Sale, p. 30. 104 Ct.ithi, p. 33. 105Luthi, p. 33. 106Lou is and Bryna Untermeyer, eds., Grimm's Fa try Ta 1es (New York; The Limited Editions Club, 1962}, Yol. II, pp. 438-448. 1070pie, pp. 123-127. 108untermeyer, II, pp. 246-254. 109untermeyer, III, pp. 504-512. 110Andrew Lang, The Orange Fairy Book (1904: rpt. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1968), pp. 147·-,155. BIBLIOGRAPHY

FOLK AND FAIRY LORE

Abrahams, Roger D. 11 Personal Power and Social Restraint in the Definition of Folk Lore. 11 In Toward New Perspectives in Folklore. Eds. America Paredes and Richard Bauman. Austin: American Folklore Society, 1972, pp. 16-29.

Bauman, Richard. 11 Differential Identify and the Social Base of Folklore." In Toward New Perspectives in Folklore. Eds. America Paredes and Richard Bauman. Austin: American Folklore Society, 1972, pp. 31-41.

Ben-Amos, Don. 11 Toward a Definition of Folklore in Context. 11 In Toward New Perspectives in Folklore. Eds. Americao Paredes and Richard Bauman. Austin: American Folklore Society, 1972, pp. 3-15. Hartland, Edwin Sidney. The Science of Fairytales. London: Walter Scott, 1891. Kready, Laura F. A Study of Fairy Tales. New York: Houghton Miffin Co., 1916. Lang, Andrew. Red Fairy Book. 1904; rpt. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1968. Morton, Mirian, ed. and trans. Through the Magic Curtain. New Orleans: Anchorage Press, 1979. Opie, lana and Peter. The Classic Fairytale. London: Oxford University Press, 1974.

Smith, Brian Sutton. "The Expressive Profile. 11 In Toward New ~P~er~s~p~e~c~t=i~ve_s__ i_n __ F~ol_k~l~o~r __ e. Eds. Americao Paredes and Richard Bauman. Austin: American Folklore Society, 1972, pp. 80-119.

Tedlock, Dennis. 11 0n the Translation of Style in Oral Narrative. 11 In Toward New Perspectives in Folklore. Eds. Americao Paredes and Richard Bauman. Austin: American Folklore Society, 1972, pp. 120-133.

-69 .70

Untermeyer, Louis' and Bryna, eds. Grimm•s Fairy Tales. Vols. II & III. New York: The Limited Edition Club, 1962.

Yearsley, Percival Maclead. The Folklore of Fairytales. London: Walter Scott, 1891. Zipes, Jack. Breaking the Magic Spell. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979.

INTERPRETATION AND CRITICISM

Bettelheim, Bruno. The Uses of Enchantment. New York: Vintage Books, 1977. von Franz, Marie Louise. Individuation in Fairytales. Zurich: Spring Publications, 1980. Introduction to the Interpretation of Fairytales. Irving, Tx.: Spring Publications, 1973. Problems of the Feminine in Fairytales. New York: Spring Publications, 1972. The Pyschological Meaning of Redemption Motifs in Fairytales. Toronto: Inner City Books, 1980. Shadow and Evil in Fairytales. Zurich: Spring Publications, 1974.

Heucher, Julius E. A Psychiatric Study of Mytp~ and Fairytales. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1974. Jung, Carl G. The Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969. Luthi, Max. Once Upon a Time: On the Nature of Fairytales. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976. Propp, V. Morphology of the Fairytales. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968. Sale, Roger. Fairytales and After: From Snow White to E. B. White. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978. Tolkien, J. R. R. Tree and Leaf. Boston: Houghton Miffin Co., 1965. 71

Thomas, Joyce. "The Fairytale: An Analysis of Matter, Rhetoric and Theme." Diss. State University of New York, 1978. Ussher, Arland and Carl Von Metzradt. Enter These Enchanted Woods. Dublin: The Dolmero Press, 1957. ·

PLAYS

Brock, Harvey and Elenore Parker. Jack and the Beanstalk. Rowayton, Ct.: New Plays for Children, n.d. Chorpenning, Charlotte B. Cinderella. Anchorage: Anchorage Press, 1940. Hansel and Gretel. Chicago: Coach House Press Inc.,1956. Jack and the Beanstalk. Anchorage: Children's Theatre Press, 1935. Goldberg, Moses. Hansel and Gretel. Rowayton, Ct.: New Plays for Children~ 1972. Homer, Frances. Cinderella of Loreland. Chicago: Dramatic Publishing Company, 1933. Jonson, Marian. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Chicago: Dramatic Publishing Company, 1933. KortKamp, Richard. Hansel and Gretel. Elgin, Ill.: Performance Publishing, 1972. Masters, Lillian and Robert. Hansel and Gretel. New York: Samuel French, 1949. Miller, Madge. Hansel and Gretel. Anchorage: Anchorage Press, 1951. White, Jessie Braham. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. New York: Samuel French, 1925.